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Timurids in Transition Timurids in Transition Subtelny_f1_i-xv.indd i 7/13/2007 11:17:53 AM Brill’s Inner Asian Library Editors Nicola Di Cosmo Devin DeWeese Caroline Humphrey VOLUME 19 Subtelny_f1_i-xv.indd ii 7/13/2007 11:17:54 AM Timurids in Transition Turko-Persian Politics and Acculturation in Medieval Iran by Maria E. Subtelny LEIDEN • BOSTON 2007 Subtelny_f1_i-xv.indd iii 7/13/2007 11:17:54 AM On the cover: The Timurid ruler Sul>n-busain Bayqara, depicted holding a rose, at a drinking party at his court in Herat. Painting by Bihzd. From a manuscript of Sad ’s Bstn, copied for Sul>n-busain. Herat, 893/1488. MS, Cairo, General Egyptian Book Organisation, Adab frs 908, fol. 2a. This book is printed on acid-free paper. ISSN 1574-7085 ISBN 978 9004160316 © Copyright 2007 by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, The Netherlands Koninklijke Brill NV incorporates the imprints Brill, Hotei Publishing, IDC Publishers, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers and VSP. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission from the publisher. Authorization to photocopy items for internal or personal use is granted by Koninklijke Brill NV provided that the appropriate fees are paid directly to The Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Suite 910, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. Fees are subject to change. printed in the netherlands Subtelny_f1_i-xv.indd iv 7/13/2007 11:17:54 AM Timurid motto Subtelny_f1_i-xv.indd v 7/13/2007 11:17:55 AM Subtelny_f1_i-xv.indd vi 7/13/2007 11:17:55 AM CONTENTS Acknowledgements ..................................................................... xi Note on Transliteration and Style .............................................. xiii Maps and Illustrations ................................................................ xv Introduction ................................................................................ 1 Chapter One. THE ROUTINIZATION OF CHARISMA: THE TIMURID PATRIMONIAL HOUSEHOLD STATE Temür and the Weberian Concept of Charisma .................. 11 The Limits of the Booty Economy ........................................ 14 Timurid Origins and Chinggisid Custom .............................. 15 The Role of the Imperial Guard Corps (Keshik) .................... 18 Tensions between Islamic Law and the Timurid Törä .......... 24 The Military Ethos ................................................................. 28 The Patrimonial Household State .......................................... 33 Corporate Sovereignty and Its Consequences ....................... 36 The Process of Transition ...................................................... 39 Chapter Two. FROM POLITICAL VAGABOND TO POTENTATE: THE CAREER OF SUL0UN-bUSAIN BAYQARA Lineage, Training, and Patrons .............................................. 43 The Political Situation after the Death of Ab al-Qsim Babur ................................................................................... 49 Marv and the First Period of Qazaqliq ................................... 52 Astarabad and the Second Period of Qazaqliq ...................... 57 The Third Period of Qazaqliq ................................................ 59 The Conquest of Khorasan and Accession to the Throne of Herat .............................................................................. 60 The Timurid Dual Administrative Structure ......................... 67 Chronological Summary of the Career of Sul>n-busain ... 73 Subtelny_f1_i-xv.indd vii 7/13/2007 11:17:55 AM viii contents Chapter Three. THE CHALLENGE OF CHANGE: CENTRALIZING REFORMS AND THEIR OPPONENTS Financial Pressures and Short-term Solutions ....................... 74 Symbolic Measures on Accession to the Throne .................. 76 Professionalization of the Bureaucratic Administration ........ 79 A Persian Bureaucrat Confronts the Turkic Military Elite ... 82 The Centralizing Reforms of Majd al-D n Mu4ammad ...... 89 A Trial by the Yarghu Court in Late Timurid Iran ................ 95 Continuing Problems in the Timurid Fisc ............................. 99 Chapter Four. THE SEARCH FOR LONG-TERM SOLUTIONS: KHORASAN AND THE AGRICULTURAL IMPERATIVE Stating the Case for Agriculture: Timurid Mirrors for Princes ................................................................................. 103 Khorasan and the Agriculture of the Herat Region ............. 114 Agricultural Expansion and Hydraulic Construction ............ 119 Sul>n-busain’s Agricultural Interests: The Timurid Garden ................................................................................ 128 M rak-i Sayyid GhiyL: Agronomist and Landscape Architect .............................................................................. 132 Water Distribution and Record-keeping ................................ 136 A Medieval Management Accountant: Qsim b. Ysuf Ab Nar ............................................................................ 141 Career Opportunities for Accountants in Timurid Herat .... 145 Chapter Five. PIETY AND PRAGMATISM: THE ROLE OF THE ISLAMIC ENDOWMENT Endowment Activity in Khorasan .......................................... 148 Charitable and Family Endowments ...................................... 150 Women as Donors: Establishing a Motive ............................. 154 The Economic Importance of Vaqf: The Debate Continues ............................................................................ 158 A History of Maladministration ............................................ 163 The Timurid Documentary Record ...................................... 166 The Vaq yya of M r Al sh r Nav ........................................ 167 The Vaq yya of Afaq Begim ................................................... 171 Subtelny_f1_i-xv.indd viii 7/13/2007 11:17:55 AM contents ix Financial Management of Endowments in Timurid Khorasan ............................................................................. 189 Chapter Six. OF SAINTS AND SCRIBES: THE TIMURID SHRINE AS A VEHICLE FOR AGROMANAGEMENT The Cult of Saints and the Visitation of Tombs in Medieval Iran ..................................................................... 192 The Legitimating Function of Popular Shrines .................... 195 Timurid Shrines as Vehicles for Agromanagement ............... 198 The Shrines at Herat and Mashhad ...................................... 200 A New Timurid Development Project: The Alid Shrine at Balkh ............................................................................... 208 Legal Issues: The Privatization of State Land by Sul>n-busain ..................................................................... 220 An Agrarian Success Story ..................................................... 227 Conclusion .................................................................................. 229 Appendix One. SURVEY OF ENDOWMENT DEEDS FROM THE TIMURID PERIOD Khorasan ................................................................................. 235 Transoxiana ............................................................................. 240 Appendix Two. A TIMURID DEED OF ENDOWMENT: THE VAQFIYYA OF AFAQ BEGIM, WIFE OF SUL0UN-bUSAIN BAYQARA, FOR HER MAUSOLEUM IN HERAT Description of the Document ................................................ 257 Translation .............................................................................. 261 Facsimile Edition ..................................................................... 316 Appendix Three. AN EDICT OF SUL0UN-ABc SA]D CONCERNING THE GULISTUN DAM AT MASHHAD Translation .............................................................................. 349 Subtelny_f1_i-xv.indd ix 7/13/2007 11:17:55 AM x contents Appendix Four. A DIPLOMA OF APPOINTMENT ISSUED BY SUL0UN-bUSAIN FOR THE SUPERVISOR OF THE ALID SHRINE DEVELOPMENT PROJECT AT BALKH Translation .............................................................................. 351 Appendix Five. BILLS OF PURCHASE AND SALE RELATING TO THE PRIVATIZATION OF STATE LAND IN THE BALKH REGION BY SUL0UN-bUSAIN Translation .............................................................................. 353 Bibliography ................................................................................ 361 Index ........................................................................................... 391 Subtelny_f1_i-xv.indd x 7/13/2007 11:17:55 AM ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study has been supported by generous grants from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada, which enabled me to conduct research at the Institute of Oriental Studies of the Academy of Sciences and the Central State Archive of the Republic of Uzbekistan. I wish to thank Diloram Iu. Iusupova, Galiba A. Dzhuraeva, Asom U. Urunbaev, Irkin A. Abdullaev, and especially the late Roziya G. Mukminova for facilitating my work in the archival and manuscript collections in Tashkent, and for their warm hospitality. My research in the libraries of Iran would not have been possible without the assistance of iva Vesel of the CNRS (Monde Iranien), the Institut Français de Recherche en Iran, Nasrollah Pourjavady who kindly provided letters of introduction in Tehran, and Mohammad-Hosseyn Papoli-Yazdi whose family extended its hospitality to me in Mashhad. A semester spent at the Institute for Advanced Study in Princeton afforded me the opportunity to interact with scholars in a wide range of historical elds
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