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Substance and Behavioral Addictions: Co-Occurrence and Specificity 2012 Steve Sussman (Ed.)

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Substance and Behavioral Addictions: Co-Occurrence and Specificity 2012 Steve Sussman (Ed.) Special Issue Substance and Behavioral Addictions: Co-Occurrence and Specificity 2012 Steve Sussman (Ed.) MDPI OPEN ACCESS External Editors Editorial Office Editor-in-Chief MDPI AG Prof. Dr. Paul B. Tchounwou Kandererstrasse 25 Molecular Toxicology Research Laboratory Basel, Switzerland Jackson State University Phone: +41 61 683 77 34 Jackson, Mississippi 39217, USA Website: http://www.mdpi.com/journal/ijerph/ Phone: +1 601 979 3321 E-Mail: [email protected] Fax: +1 601 979 2349 Website: http://www.jsums.edu/cset/Biology/ Publisher faculty/tchounwou.htm Dr. Shu-Kun Lin E-Mail: [email protected] Production Editor Guest Editor Dr. Brietta Pike Prof. Dr. Steve Sussman Institute for Health Promotion and Disease Managing Editor Prevention Research Ms. Masooma Hassan Division of Health Behavior Research Department of Preventive Medicine, School of Medicine Department of Psychology, School of Liberal Arts and Sciences University of Southern California Soto Street Building 2001 North Soto Street, Room 302A Los Angeles, CA 90032-3628, USA Phone: +1 323 442 8220 Fax: +1 323 442 8201 E-Mail: [email protected] Cover picture: Ihr zu Fußen!¨ Author: Gustav Imlauer In: Uber¨ Land und Meer. Allgemeine illustrirte Zeitung, H. 13, 1883, S. 265 Available online at: simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/ File:Imlauer Ihr zu Fuessen 1883.jpg ISBN 3-906980-32-4 Table of Contents Preface Steve Sussman . I A Framework for the Specificity of Addictions Steve Sussman, Adam Leventhal, Ricky N. Bluthenthal, Marilyn Freimuth, Myriam Forster and Susan L. Ames Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2011, 8, 3399-3415; doi:10.3390/ijerph8083399 . 1 Generational Association Studies of Dopaminergic Genes in Reward Deficiency Syn- drome (RDS) Subjects: Selecting Appropriate Phenotypes for Reward Dependence Be- haviors Kenneth Blum, Amanda L. C. Chen, Marlene Oscar-Berman, Thomas J. H. Chen, Joel Lubar, Nancy White, Judith Lubar, Abdalla Bowirrat, Eric Braverman, John Schoolfield, Roger L. Waite, Bernard W. Downs, Margaret Madigan, David E. Comings, Caroline Davis, Mal- lory M. Kerner, Jennifer Knopf, Tomas Palomo, John J. Giordano, Siobhan A. Morse, Frank Fornari, Debmalya Barh, John Femino and John A. Bailey Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2011, 8, 4425-4459; doi:10.3390/ijerph8124425 . 18 Long-Term Effects of Self-Control on Alcohol Use and Sexual Behavior among Urban Minority Young Women Kenneth W. Griffin, Lawrence M. Scheier, Bianca Acevedo, Jerry L. Grenard and Gilbert J. Botvin Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2012, 9, 1-23; doi:10.3390/ijerph9010001 . 53 Clarifying Exercise Addiction: Differential Diagnosis, Co-occurring Disorders, and Phases of Addiction Marilyn Freimuth, Sandy Moniz and Shari R. Kim Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2011, 8, 4069-4081; doi:10.3390/ijerph8104069 . 76 Extensive Internet Involvement—Addiction or Emerging Lifestyle? Karin Helmersson Bergmark, Anders Bergmark and Olle Findahl Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2011, 8, 4488-4501; doi:10.3390/ijerph8124488 . 89 Concurrent and Predictive Relationships Between Compulsive Internet Use and Sub- stance Use: Findings from Vocational High School Students in China and the USA Ping Sun, Carl Anderson Johnson, Paula Palmer, Thalida E. Arpawong, Jennifer B. Unger, Bin Xie, Louise A. Rohrbach, Donna Spruijt-Metz and Steve Sussman Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2012, 9, 660-673; doi:10.3390/ijerph9030660 . 103 Online Social Networking and Addiction—A Review of the Psychological Literature Daria J. Kuss and Mark D. Griffiths Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2011, 8, 3528-3552; doi:10.3390/ijerph8093528 . 117 High Calorie, Low Nutrient Food/Beverage Intake and Video Gaming in Children as Potential Signals for Addictive Behavior Mary Ann Pentz, Donna Spruijt-Metz, Chih Ping Chou and Nathaniel R. Riggs Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2011, 8, 4406-4424; doi:10.3390/ijerph8124406 . 142 Patterns of and Motivations for Concurrent Use of Video Games and Substances Geoffrey L. Ream, Luther C. Elliott and Eloise Dunlap Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2011, 8, 3999-4012; doi:10.3390/ijerph8103999 . 161 Playing Video Games While Using or Feeling the Effects of Substances: Associations with Substance Use Problems Geoffrey L. Ream, Luther C. Elliott and Eloise Dunlap Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2011, 8, 3979-3998; doi:10.3390/ijerph8103979 . 175 Considering the Definition of Addiction Steve Sussman and Alan N. Sussman Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health 2011, 8, 4025-4038; doi:10.3390/ijerph8104025 . 195 I Preface Researchers and practitioners have discussed the existence of several types of substance and behavioral addictions. That is, in general, they have agreed that individuals may fall victim to maladaptive, repetitive patterns of behavior involving recreational drugs (e.g., tobacco, alcohol, illicit drugs), other substances (e.g., binge eating), and other behaviors (e.g., gambling, the internet, shopping, workaholism, exercise addiction, love, or sex), that reflect attempts at achievement of appetitive physiological outcomes but result eventually in negative outcomes to self or others. Research over the last two decades suggests that a wide range of substance and behavioral addictions may serve similar functions. Overall, 12-month prevalence of one or more of the 11 addictions just listed above among adults in the U.S. has been estimated to be 46% based on an exhaustive review of the literature [1]. As such, it may be useful to think of the addictions in terms of problems of lifestyle as well as of a person. Yet, “co-occurrence” of addictions has been reported among only a minority of sufferers, and is estimated to be approximately 23% [1]. “Addiction specificity” pertains to a phenomenon in which one pattern of addiction may be acquired whereas another is not [2]. Differential patterns of addiction may be a function of such variables as accessibility, intrinsic appetitive effects, differential socialization, and specific outcome expectations. The present Special Issue examines addiction co-occurrence and addiction specificity across several addictive behaviors. The goal of the Issue is to comprehensively describe notable addictive behaviors, and elaborate on what the associational pathways might be of addiction co-occurrence and specificity. A total of 11 papers are included. The first paper by Sussman et al. [2] introduces the topic of the Special Issue and presents a model that might help explain addiction specificity (the “PACE” model). Pragmatics (e.g., access), attraction (e.g., subjective effects), communication (e.g., addictive behavior jargon), and expectation (e.g., number of experiential solutions provided by a given addictive behavior) variables are described, and examples in the development of different addictions are derived from this model. The second paper by Blum et al. [3] presents literature on the Reward Deficiency Syndrome, and how it might apply to various addictions and other problem behaviors as a nonspecific reward phenotype. Further, these authors present results of a genotype analysis which indicates extremely high presence of certain gene alleles (e.g., TacA1) across two families with high prevalence of the phenotype. Their article highlights more an underlying potential mechanism of addiction co-occurrence which might fall mostly within the “A” (attraction) facet of the PACE model. The third paper by Griffin et al. [4] examines the prospective relationships of alcohol use and sexual behavior among urban minority women from the beginning of high school to young adulthood, eight years later. Self-control was found to serve as a protective factor of latent class membership — those who would end up exhibiting low levels on both behaviors, high levels of alcohol use-low levels of risky sexual behavior, or high levels on both behaviors. This paper II highlighted both the operations of addition co-occurrence and specificity and one potential determinant (lack of self-control; also an “A” variable). The fourth paper by Freimuth et al. [5] provides one of the first reviews of exercise addiction, how it might develop, and its developmental specificity (e.g., reliance on exercise for its mood altering effects) and co-occurrence (e.g., with eating disorders, alcohol use). Treatment implications of exercise addiction also are discussed. The next three papers pertain to internet addiction. The fifth paper by Bergmark et al. [6] provides data from a large Swedish survey on internet use (mean age of sample = 45 years). It is observed that while face-to-face contact is decreased due to internet use, total number of social contacts appears to increase. Addiction-type problems pertaining to internet use appear to be a function of engaging in time intensive activities such as online gaming. Internet addiction may be best understood as being a modality in which other types of addictions (e.g., gambling, sex) are expressed. The sixth paper by Sun et al. [7] presents data from Chinese and U.S. adolescents on the bidirectional one-year prospective relationships between compulsive internet use and drug use (cigarette smoking and alcohol binge drinking). Each behavior predicted itself over time. In addition, compulsive internet use positively predicted later smoking or binge drinking among females but not males, in both countries. The authors speculate that females that take on male gender roles, possibly through on-line gaming, are at relatively greater risk for drug use (illustrating both addiction co-occurrence and specificity). The seventh paper by Kuss et al. [8] is the first review paper on social network sites (SNS) addiction. While SNS are used mainly for maintenance of offline pre-established social networks, relatively high levels of use are related to decrease in real life social participation, relationship problems, and academic achievement, suggestive of addiction. There may be co-occurrence of SNS addiction with drug misuse and overeating. The next three papers pertain to playing videogames. The eighth paper by Pentz et al. [9] examines the relations among high calorie, low nutrient (HCLN) intake and videogaming among a large sample of initially 9-to-10 year olds over an 18 month period.
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