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Università Degli Studi Di Padova UNIVERSITÀ DEGLI STUDI DI PADOVA DIPARTIMENTO DI SCIENZE POLITICHE, GIURIDICHE E STUDI INTERNAZIONALI CORSO DI LAUREA MAGISTRALE IN ISTITUZIONI E POLITICHE DEI DIRITTI UMANI E DELLA PACE THE EMERGENCE OF GEN DER JUSTICE IN INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW: TOWARDS THE RECOGNITION OF FGM/C AS CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY? Relatore: Prof. PAOLO DE STEFANI Laureanda: GIULIA BIANCOTTO matricola N. 1060956 A.A. 2013/2014 1 2 ABSTRACT L’obiettivo di questa tesi è cercare di dare una risposta alla seguente domanda di ricerca: è possibile che le mutilazioni genitali femminili (MGF) siano riconosciute come crimini contro l’umanità? A tal fine, nel Primo Capitolo abbiamo rintracciato il percorso che ha portato all’emergere della “giustizia di genere” nel diritto penale internazionale: iniziando l’analisi dai Tribunali Militari di Norimberga e Tokyo, il Capitolo poi termina con l’esame delle misure gender-sensitive riscontrabili negli Articoli dello Statuto della Corte Penale Internazionale (CPI) e intraprese tramite regolamento dall’Ufficio del Procuratore, senza tralasciare gli avanzamenti ottenuti tramite la giurisprudenza. Il Secondo Capitolo si focalizza sulla descrizione delle MGF partendo dalle origini storico-culturali fino alla categorizzazione moderna delle quattro “pratiche” individuate dall’Organizzazione Mondiale della Sanità (WHO) in 1. Clitoridectomia 2. Escissione 3. Infibulazione 4. Tutte le rimanenti operazioni non a fine medico fatte sui genitali femminili (incisioni, raschiature, cauterizzazioni, piercing). In seguito si analizza in quali Paesi si verificano MGF e se esse facciano parte della cultura originaria o siano state importate dai migranti, poi, si riportano due studi sulle MGF che approcciano la materia da un punto di vista alternativo. Il Capitolo si conclude con una panoramica degli strumenti internazionali e regionali in materia di MGF, sottolineando tra di essi, la virtuosità delle linee guida dell’Agenzia delle Nazioni Unite per i Rifugiati (UNHCR). Il terzo ed ultimo Capitolo si concentra sulla domanda di ricerca. Ripercorrendo l’evoluzione del concetto di crimini contro l’umanità dai suoi fondamenti teorico-filosofici, si arriva all’analisi degli elementi contenuti nell’Articolo 7 dello Statuto della CPI. In seguito, si richiamano caratteristiche menzionate nel Capitolo Secondo per verificare se le MGF abbiano tutti i requisiti (gravità, mens rea...) per essere giudicabili dalla CPI secondo l’Articolo 7, paragrafo K (“altri atti inumani”). Dal lavoro di matching emerge che le MGF provocano una sofferenza paragonabile ad altre condotte condannate dall’Articolo 7; la sola procedura infatti, incide severamente sul benessere fisico delle donne. Le MGF sono una pratica irreversibile che viola il diritto delle 3 donne all’integrità fisica e che spesso possono causare danni ai figli al momento del parto Il target della pratica è facilmente individuabile nelle giovani che vivono in quelle comunità dell’Africa e del Sud-Est Asiatico (e sempre più spesso in Europa, Americhe e Oceania) dove le MGF sono sistematicamente praticate e. la loro funzione sociale, sottomettere le donne al volere degli uomini della famiglia, non è discussa, spesso per paura di ripercussioni. Gli autori della pratica sono altrettanto facilmente identificabili: guaritori e anziani della comunità.Infatti con l’evolversi del diritto penale internazionale il gruppo non deve più necessariamente essere di natura statale o para-statale, ma solamente avere un livello di organizzazione minima che ne permetta l’esecuzione. E anche se oggi gli esecutori sono sempre più consapevoli dei pericoli legati alle MGF (anche se e quando eseguite in strutture sanitarie) grazie alla sensibilizzazione delle campagne mondiali contro tale pratica, continuano a praticarle in quanto le ritengono necessarie a contenere una “sovrabbondante” (quindi pericolosa per lo status quo) sessualità, che le donne sono incapaci, o non sono intenzionate, a controllare. L’argomentazione si conclude asserendo che le MGF sono un crimine internazionale, verificabile in particolari circostanze: donne che vivono in villaggi e comunità dove le MGF vengono considerate un passaggio inevitabile nella loro vita, a prescindere dall’appartenenza etnico-religiosa. In quelle circostanze lo stigma contro coloro che rifiutano la pratica e i danni che la stessa provoca, sono la vera causa della sua inevitabilità e pericolosità. Quindi non solo le MGF potrebbero essere qualificate come “altri atti inumani”, ma potrebbero anche essere considerate come atti chiaramente persecutori, in quanto emerge anche un mero intento persecutorio nella volontà di impedire ogni possibile avanzamento dlla condizione di sottomissione in cui vivono le donne. La tesi si chiude lasciando aperta la domanda di ricerca ricordando come molte delle condotte che adesso sono crimini contro l’umanità (sparizioni forzate, schiavitù sessuale, stupro e altre ancora) inizialmente fossero categorizzate come “altri atti inumani”. Il diritto penale internazionale non può essere certamente la panacea contro tutte le condotte contrarie al senso di umanità; quel che è certo è il forte segnale che la criminalizzazione internazionale delle MGF darebbe, ovvero la fine dell’impunità per crimini lesivi dei diritti fondamentali delle donne, dovunque questi vengano commessi. 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................................ 7 Chapter One THE EMERGENCE OF GENDER JUSTICE IN INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL LAW ............. 9 Introduction..................................................................................................................................... 11 1.1. What is gender justice? ............................................................................................................ 14 1.1.1. “Gender” in international criminal law ............................................................ 14 1.1.2. “Gender Justice or Just Gender?” ..................................................................... 17 1.1.3. Judging and gender .......................................................................................... 21 1.2. Women and World War II ....................................................................................................... 24 1.2.1 Nuremberg and Tokyo Tribunals ...................................................................... 25 1.2.2 The case of Japan’s “confort women”: sexual slavery unpunished? ................. 27 1.2.3 The Geneva Conventions .................................................................................. 33 1.3. Ad hoc international trubunals ................................................................................................. 36 1.3.1. ICTY ................................................................................................................ 38 1.3.2. ICTR ................................................................................................................ 45 1.4. The Special Court for Sierra Leone ......................................................................................... 48 1.5. The International Criminal Court ............................................................................................. 55 Article 6 – Genocide .................................................................................................. 58 Article 7 – Crimes against humanity .......................................................................... 59 Article 8 – War crimes ............................................................................................... 60 Case law ..................................................................................................................... 61 Gender-Sensitive Measures and the Office of the Prosecutor (OTP) ......................... 62 Conclusions..................................................................................................................................... 65 Chapter Two FEMALE GENITAL MUTILATION/CUTTING: A GLOBAL CONCERN ................................ 67 2.1. Socio-historical-cultural background ....................................................................................... 71 2.2. What is FGM/C? The pactice today ......................................................................................... 78 5 2.3. Countries where FGM/C has been documented ....................................................................... 88 The case of Somali immigrants in Norway ................................................................ 94 2.4. Male complications due to FGM/C .......................................................................................... 96 2.5. FGM/C versus Male Circumcision .......................................................................................... 99 2.6. International and regional human rights treaties and consensus documents providing protection and containing safeguards against FGM/C .................................................................. 101 UNHCR Guidance Note On Refugee Claims Relating To FGM/C ......................... 109 2.7. Factors contributing to the continuation/discontinuation of FGM/C ..................................... 112 Conclusions................................................................................................................................... 115 Chapter Three FGM/C AS CRIMES AGAINST HUMANITY? ........................................................................
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