Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

1 Chapter - 1 Introduction

Today, the media across the world is abuzz with environmental issues.

The print media (newspapers), particularly, plays a vital role in educating the masses as people worldwide have now realised that they need to protect the environment to improve the quality of life and for a sustainable future.

Newspapers highlight environmental problems and immediately bring them to the notice of their readers. Hence, it is the endeavour of this study to research the coverage of the issue by local dailies.

However, it would be pertinent to explain the concept of the ‘environment’ and the key terms related to it before getting down to the nitty-gritty of the topic.

The study will thoroughly examine where the dailies stand in reporting the issues and their significance in our society.

1.1. The Environment

The term ‘environment’ is commonly used to describe the ‘natural’ environment meaning the sum of all living and non-living things that surround an organism, or a group of organisms. The environment includes all elements, factors, and conditions that have some impact on the growth and development of certain organisms. It includes both biotic and abiotic factors that have influence on these organisms. Abiotic factors such as light, temperature, water, atmospheric gases combine with biotic factors (all surrounding living species) to influence the environment.

‘Environment’ literally means the surrounding that affects an organism during its lifetime. The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 defines the

2 environment ‘that includes water, air and land and the interrelationship which exists among and between water, air and land, human beings, other living creatures, plants, micro-organisms and property’.

Environmental studies provide an approach towards understanding the environment of our planet and the impact of human life upon the environment.

Environmental Science is an interdisciplinary area of study that includes both applied and theoretical aspects of human impact on the world. Thus, the environment is actually global in nature; its study is a multidisciplinary subject that includes physics, geology, geography, history, economics, physiology, biotechnology, remote sensing, geophysics, soil science and hydrology etc.

Environmental science as a field of study is still evolving but its beginnings are rooted in the early history of civilization. Many ancient cultures expressed a reverence for plants, animals and geographic features that provided them with food, water and means of transport, which is appreciated by modern day people too. The thought expressed in the following quote from Henry

David Thoreau (1817-1862) is over a century old but it is still consistent with the current environmental philosophy: "I wish to speak a word for nature for absolute freedom and wildness as contrasted with freedom and culture nearly civil to regard man as an inhabitant or a part and parcel of nature, rather than a member of society." (Wright and Nebel ., 2004, p.11, 12)

Humans are members of this naturally balanced and harmonious system.

Gradually, the human population out of its own greed started changing the environment. The growing human needs have led to overuse or misuse of resources in the ecosystem. Things have come to such an impasse that the system is unable to sustain itself. Overpopulation, overconsumption, exploitation of natural resources, industrialization, and pollution have been adversely affecting

3 the environment. As a result, many problems have arisen and are threatening the whole ecosystem.

The major environmental issues are energy - oil and natural gas, hydroelectricity, nuclear power; agriculture and industry; pollution – air, water, soil, noise, marine, radiation; population explosion and overconsumption; urbanisation; climate change and ozone depletion; biodiversity – loss, conservation, legislation; sustainable development; acid rain; desertification; green house gases and global warming; and eutrophication. These issues are briefly described below.

1.1.1 Energy

There are various forms of energy such as that obtained from oil and natural gas, or hydroelectricity, and nuclear power. Excessive use of fossil fuel has caused many problems. Efforts are being made across the world to tap safe, non-polluting alternatives such as energy from biodiesel or ethanol. There are mainly two types of energy sources : (a) renewable, that is, Sun, biomass, wind etc. and (b) non-renewable, that is, energy generated from coal, oil, gas, petrol

Nuclear energy also included in this category.

Renewable energy

Renewable energy is that which does not get depleted after use.

Solar energy

Solar energy is the most readily available form of energy. It does not belong to anybody and is, therefore, free. It is also the most important of the non-conventional sources of energy because it is non-polluting and,

4 therefore, helps in lessening the greenhouse effect . (Tata Energy Research

Institute,2012,Edugreen)

India has a strong commitment to non-conventional energy sources.

As far back as 1981, the Indian Government had set up the Commission on

Additional Sources of Energy (CASE). A year later, a separate Department of Non-conventional Energy Sources (DNES) was created in the Ministry of

Energy. A decade later, DNES was upgraded to the level and status of a ministry, reflecting the government’s resolve to give a thrust to the renewable energy in the country. This step has earned India the distinction of being perhaps the only country in the world to have an exclusive ministry for the purpose (Ministry of

Environment and Forest, 2012 May)

One of the world’s largest programmes on renewable energy technologies is being implemented by the Government of India. The objectives of the programmes include making energy available for a variety of applications in rural and remote areas; providing improved cooking stoves and biogas plants; and recovering energy from urban municipal and industrial wastes. Besides, exploitation of chemical sources, geo thermal energy and ocean energy is envisaged. A Renewable Energy Policy Statement is being drafted to give the much needed thrust to these programmes.

Wind energy

Another major potential in renewable energy resource lies in wind energy. Throughout much of human history, wind power has been widely used

– in addition to propelling sailing ships – for grinding grain (hence the term windmill). In the USA until 1930-1940s, windmills were used for pumping water and generating small amount of energy. But again in 1970s, due to energy

5 crisis, wind energy was seriously considered. ( International Network for

Sustainable Energy 2012 May)

Many different designs of wind machines have been proposed and tested. But the most practical have been the age old wind-driven propeller blades. These are geared directly to the generator. Then wind farms came into existence. One of the largest wind farms in the world, Aralvoimozy, close to the southern tip of India, is a major success story in the field.

This initiative has been made possible due to measures adopted by the

Indian Government and the state governments to encourage investor-friendly policies for promoting privately owned wind farms. The Star Group is a leader in Maharashtra in this sector.

Biogas energy

Biogas means obtaining energy from organic waste, and generating methane from the anaerobic digestion. This technique is widely used in rural

India. The National Project on Biogas Development (NPBD) has set up family- type biogas plants across the country. Here, another advantage of such plants needs to be mentioned - sanitation has improved in villages.

Geo-thermal energy

The scientific principle of heated water or steam driving turbo generators is put to use in geothermal energy. Experience has shown that geothermal energy may not be always sustainable. It has been observed that this caused pollution due to vapour in the atmosphere. Aquatic flora and fauna is harmed as hot water is released into a stream or a river, saline conditions may occur.

6 Tidal power

There is a huge potential to generate power from the ocean tides which take place twice daily.

Non-renewable energy

Non-renewable resources such as coal, oil and natural gas which produce energy are also known as fossil fuels. They are derived from the remains of living organisms which lived during the Paleozoic and the Mesozoic geological Eras, 100 million to 500 million years ago. The organic matter trapped in rocks underground was converted gradually into coal, oil and natural gas by pressure and heat.

Coal

Coal can be obtained by two methods, surface mining and underground mining. The mining work can be hazardous, and injuries and fatalities are not uncommon. Both methods have substantial environmental impacts. Use of coal causes air pollution as carbon dioxide, and fly ash are produced after it is burnt.

Mineral

As oil becomes scarce, the OPEC countries will once again dominate the world oil market. The Middle East possesses 65% of the world’s reserves, and eventually the developed and developing world will rely on that region for oil imports. Resource limitation and increasing demand cause hike in prices.

Moreover, its consumption leaves behind smoke, fly ash, carbon dioxide and other pollutants.

7 Natural

There is a plentiful reserve of natural gas in the world, but much of it is inaccessible. The positive aspect is that this fuel causes less pollution. But this energy is not a sustainable solution for the energy crisis.

1.1.2 Agriculture and Industry

Agriculture

Agriculture is the main occupation or source of livelihood for most of the Indians. The increasing population needs more food grains. Thus, farmers use more chemical fertilisers and pesticides for increasing the crop yield. This practice has led to decrease in soil fertility, soil erosion and increased salinity.

Excessive use of fertilisers and pesticides pollutes lakes and rivers. It pollutes the ground water too.

An increased use of new ‘improved’ high-yielding seed varieties, along with chemical fertilisers and pesticides, has led to the loss of better traditional, local varieties. To revive the use of traditional varieties, a group of farmers, led by farmer and social activist Vijay Jardhari from Jardhargaon in Tehri Garhwal district of Uttaranchal, has launched ‘Save the Seed Movement’.

Though the ‘Green Revolution’ has solved the problem of availability of food grains, it introduced toxicity through many way like through pesticides, new crop disease. Sometime decreased genetic diversity we could find within an area of production. Hence, the need of the hour is sustainable agriculture.

Industry

Small and medium enterprises (SMEs) are the backbone of the Indian

8 economy. With three million SMEs, this sector contributes 40% towards the national income. The SMEs are also a major area of concern as they account for about 70% of industrial pollution.

Due to obsolete technologies and poor operation and maintenance, these industries have a high specific waste generation factor. These wastes are hazardous and adversely affect the ecosystem. The waste includes solid and liquid wastes, untreated effluents, fly ash and carbon emissions. Here the state pollution controlling authority has a major role to play.

1.1.3 Pollution

Environmental pollution means lowering of environmental quality due to human activities. Pollution is harmful for the environment in general and man in particular. The US Environmental Protection Agency defines pollution as ‘the presence of substance in the environment that, because of its chemical composition or quantity, prevents the functioning of natural processes and produces undesirable environmental and health effects’. Any material that causes the pollution is called a pollutant. (Wright and Nebel 2004, p.441)

According to Chhokar et al (1990), pollutants are classified into two classes: biodegradable and non-biodegradable. (Chhokar, K,

Ettenger,K.,Hanselman, D., Pandya, M., Raghunathan,M., Sarabhai, K.,

(1990)

There are many types of pollution. These are as follows:

Air pollution

Air pollution may be defined as the disequilibrium condition of air caused due to the introduction of foreign elements from natural as well as manmade

9 sources to the air so that the air becomes injurious to all biological communities.

Some air pollutants are ammonia, arsenic, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, carcinogenic hydrocarbons such as benzene, benzpyrene, fluoride, hydrogen sulphide, nitrogen oxide, ozone, phosgene, photochemicals, suspended particles, lead, mercury etc.

Examples: Bhopal MIC gas leakage of 1984, India which is also referred to as the Bhopal Gas Tragedy. It was a gas leak incident in India. It was considered the world's worst industrial disaster.

Water pollution

Water pollution may be defined as ‘the adding to water of any substance, or the changing of water’s physical and chemical characteristics in any way, which interferes with its use for legitimate purposes’.

According to the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act,

1974, ‘Water pollution means such contamination of water or such alteration of physical, chemical or biological properties of water or such discharge of any sewage or effluent or of any other liquid, gaseous or solid substance into water (whether directly or indirectly) as may or is likely to create a nuisance or render such water harmful or injurious to public health or safety, or to domestic, commercial, industrial, agricultural or other legitimate uses, or to the life and health of animals or plants or of aquatic organisms’.

Herbicides, insecticides, detergents, vinyl chloride, lead, arsenic,

10 cadmium, copper, zinc, chromium etc are some major water pollutants.

Examples: Ganga River pollution, Panchganga River pollution, eutrophication of lakes.

Noise pollution

Noise is usually defined as unwanted (unpleasant or disagreeable loudness) sound, or sound without value that causes discomfort to the listener.

Perhaps a better definition of noise is ‘wrong sound, in wrong place at wrong time’. In legal parlance, sound pollution may be defined as an excessive, offensive, persistent or startling sound. Some sources of noise pollution are auto vehicles, factories, industries, aircrafts, domestic noise from radio, TV, street horns etc.

Radioactive pollution

Radioactive substances are the most toxic substances known. The environment gets polluted due to their exposure which is called radiation.

Material from nuclear weapons, test explosions, increased use of power reactors, and use of radioactive material in medical, industry and research are principal sources of radioactive exposures that threaten the environment.

Example: Due to exposure of radioactive substances presumptive diseases occur which are Cancers of bile ducts, bone, brain etc.

Marine pollution

Material carried by a river, generally ends up in the sea. Untreated sewage, garbage, agricultural waste, fungicides, pesticides, industrial effluents and oil spills adversely affect marine life.

11 Examples: Torrey Canyon Disaster on March 18, 1967 and Braer oil spill of 1993.

Solid waste pollution

Lack of space for dumping solid waste has become a big problem across the world. Disposal of biodegradable and non-biodegradable waste has posed a big challenge. The waste includes metals, sludge, crop residue, dead animals and toxic waste like medical waste. (Odum, 1971, p.1, 4, 9, 14. 28)

1.1.4 Population explosion and Over-consumption

Population explosion is the root cause of many problems. Human population growth, particularly in developing countries, spawns several socio- economic and environmental problems such as

• increasing demand for food and natural resources as, for instance,

minerals, forests, and water, adequate housing and health services,

• loss of agricultural land as a result of urbanisation and

industrialisation,

• socio-economic unrest,

• different types of pollution.

The North-South divide is debated in every international environmental conference due to the increasing population in the southern hemisphere and over-consumption in the northern hemisphere. Today 2015 India with about

1.28 billion people is the second most populous country in the world. The figures show that India represents almost 17.31% of the world's population, which means one out of six people on this planet live in India. (http:// www.indiaonlinepages.com/population/india-current-population.html)

12 India accounts for 2.4% of the world’s surface area but supports and sustains 16.7% population of the world. The resources of the earth are limited and the biosphere cannot sustain a large population. This will result in the depletion of resources. The ever-growing human population will bring on a continued alteration of ecosystems and the inevitable loss of more wild species.

Pollution is another cause of loss of biodiversity, which can directly kill many kinds of plants and animals, reducing their population. Introduction of some exotic species, that is, species introduced into an area from somewhere else, often from other continents, also harms biodiversity.

Overuse is another major assault on wild species. It is driven by a combination of economic greed, ignorance and desperation. Poor management represents another form of overuse leading to loss of biodiversity. Forests and woodlands are overcut for firewood, grasslands are over-grazed, game species are over-hunted, fisheries are over-exploited and croplands are over-cultivated all contributing to loss of biodiversity. (Wrigh and Nebel,2004 P. 280)

1.1.5 Urbanisation

Urbanisation is the process where rural areas become urban. Job opportunities is the reason behind migration, which puts pressure on the infrastructure in urban areas in the form of high density of population in small areas, poor sanitation, pollution of water and health problems. To overcome this problem, is the need for regional planning and management for living space, roads, transport (particularly, public transport), water supply, sanitation planning, waste collection and safer disposal facilities and many more such aspects.

13 1.1.6 Climate Change and Ozone Depletion

Climate change

Global warming will seriously affect rainfall and agriculture. The present day difference between temperatures at the poles and those at the equator is a major driving force for the atmospheric circulation. The warming associated with doubling of greenhouse gas levels is likely to be more pronounced in the polar regions (as much as 10 degrees Celsius) and less pronounced in the equatorial regions (1 to 2 degrees Celsius). Greater heating at the poles than at the equator will change the atmospheric circulation patterns as well as rainfall distribution patterns.

Higher temperatures promote more evaporation and greater ability of the atmosphere to hold moisture, which enhances precipitation. Some regions will be drier and some others will be wetter. Drought frequency will increase.

Further, there will be an alteration in the oceanic circulation. Another expected impact is weather change.

The following changes have already been observed :

• Winters in Europe have been warmer and wetter during the last

decade, as a result of the last Atlantic circulation.

• El Nino events become frequent and intense.

• Droughts have become more frequent in the recent decade.

• Thunderstorms, hurricanes, wind storms become frequent and

more severe.

Steps to combat global warming, climate change

14 Many countries deliberated on global warming and climate change during the Earth Summit in Rio de Janerio in 1992; Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC) and Kyoto Conference for Climate Change in

December 1997. They tried to find solutions to these issues and set the agenda for further sustainable development. (Wright and Nebel, 2004 p. 441)

Ozone hole

Like an umbrella, ozone protects the earth from the harmful UV radiations coming from cosmic rays. Ozone plays a major role in the climate and the life on the earth. Over the last few years, it has become clear that the stratospheric

O3 layer is thinning out, largely due to excessive use of Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). The drastic thinning out of the O3 layer, colloquially known as ozone hole, apparently began around 1976.

1.1.7 Biodiversity – Loss, Conservation, Legislation

Biodiversity

According to the Convention on Biological Diversity Article 2,

"Biological diversity means the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part: this includes diversity within species." United Nations Treaty Collection, Rio de janerio 5 June 1992

Yearley (1996) states that the term biodiversity was first developed by biological scientists and is closely related to well-established work in ecology. The term refers to the number of varieties of life forms, that is, micro-organisms, macro-organisms, plants, animals, birds, the genes they carry and the ecosystems in which they exist. The variability of life is usually

15 observed at three levels - genetic, species and ecosystem biodiversity. The loss of biodiversity will threaten the survival of various life forms, including the human life. The biodiversity is essential because it fulfills the basics of daily needs of human for food, shelter, medicine and cultural practices etc.

India is endowed with rich biodiversity due to variety of geographic and climatic conditions found in the country. It has ten bio-geographic zones:

Trance Himalayan, Himalayan, Indian Desert, Semi-arid, Western Ghats,

Deccan Peninsula, Gangetic plains, North East India, and islands and coasts.

Each biographic zone has its own climatic conditions and supports a unique ecosystem.

India has eight per cent of biodiversity in the world on just two percent of earth’s surface, making it one of the twelve mega -diversity countries in the world. (Ministry of Environment and Forests Govt of India.C.P.R.

Environmental Education Centre.)

In India, there are over 45,000 identified plant species, with around

15,000 flowering plants. One third of the world’s flowering plants are found in

India alone. There are 81,000 identified species of animals in the country. Out of 1,228 species of bird found, some 14 per cent are unique to India. Similarly,

32 per cent of its reptile species and 62 per cent of its 204 amphibians are also unique to the country.

Loss of biodiversity

Bio diversity is getting disturbed worldwide. At least 484 animal species and 654 plant species have become extinct since 1600. The known causes of extinction, assessed by the World Conservation Union are species introduction

(39%), habitat destruction (36%), hunting (23%) and other (2%). (IUCN – The

16 World Conservation Union)

Reasons for decline of biodiversity are physical alteration of habitats through conversion to housing, industrial centre's and shopping malls etc.

Fragmentation is another reason for declining biodiversity. Natural landscapes generally have large patches of habitats that are well-connected to other similar patches. Sometimes due to developmental reasons, these large patches are divided into smaller ones. This division affects biodiversity.

Consequences of loss of biodiversity

Loss of biodiversity is bound to be expensive because natural ecosystems provide vital services to human societies. Loss of species will bring certain and unwelcome consequences because it is linked directly to the degradation or disappearance of ecosystems.

Steps to protect the biodiversity

Under the leadership of the USA, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora or CITES was established in

1970s. CITES is not specifically a device to protect rare species; instead it is an international agreement signed by 118 nations, that focuses on the trade in wildlife and wildlife parts. The best example of CITES Act was the ban on the international trade of ivory in 1990 in order to stop the rapid decline of the

African elephant.

In Indian context, a national Biodiversity Bill for the conservation of biodiversity is being mulled. The Bill, proposed by the Central Government, envisages setting up of the National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) to regulate the movement of bio-resources in the country. The Bill not only includes a

17 framework for protecting traditional knowledge but also provides mechanisms, through which important bio-recourses and related traditional knowledge can be utilised sustainably, with fair benefits for the communities. Some important features included in the Bill are:

1. The NBA will have the power to grant approval to any person

who intends to obtain any biological resource occurring in India

or knowledge associated thereto for research or for commercial

utilisation. It can also permit transfer of such resources or

knowledge.

2. A provision for setting up of biodiversity funds at the central, state

and local levels. The monetary benefits, fees and royalties as a

result of approvals by the NBA are to be deposited. In cases, where

biological resources and knowledge are accessed from specific

individuals or group of individuals, the monetary benefits will be

directly made to the providers.

In India, biodiversity registers are maintained, and legislations have also been made to protect it. National parks, sanctuaries are the bio-reserve areas.

Project Tiger, Project Elephant have been launched by the government.

1.1.8 Sustainable Development

The need of the world today is new holistic ethics, in which growth and environment go hand in hand. Signs of ecological crisis and degradation are visible everywhere in the world. Development issues based on technology should be oriented with a holistic approach.

In 1987 the Brundtland Commission which was formerly known as

The World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED) defined

18 ‘sustainable development’ as that which meets the need of present without compromising the ability of future generation to meet their own needs. The central rationale for sustainable development is to increase peoples’ standard of living and, in particular, the wellbeing of the least advantaged people in societies. Economic growth and environmental protection are, therefore, least potentially compatible objectives. Future generations have a right to expect an inheritance sufficient to allow the capacity to generate for them a level of welfare no less than that enjoyed by the current generation. ( Joshi, 2001)

The concept of sustainable development dates back to the early 1970s.

The United Nations Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992 is seen as the major event that organised co-ordinated efforts of scientists and social service organizations.

‘Sustainable’ means balanced and limited, and ‘development’ means getting something more for the betterment. According to Hanson and Gabriel

(1992)), "Sustainable development links environment, economy and wellbeing of the people within the centers of decision making in government, industry, the home and the community."

‘Communication aimed at achieving sustainable development must simultaneously promote shift towards personal restraint and non-material satisfaction, and the introduction of systematic reforms to institutions and our business and our business conducts’. ( Joshi, 2001, P35-36)

Sustainable development focuses on people and societies, their needs, goals, economic activities contributing to economic development and their environmental consequences. It has become a forceful way to acknowledge the tension between industrial development, social justice and environmental protection.

19 Sustainable development is based on following principles:

• Respect and care for the community of life,

• Improve the quality of human life,

• Conserve the earth’s vitality and diversity,

• Minimise the depletion of non-renewable resources,

• Keep within the earth’s carrying capacity,

• Change personal attitude and practices,

• Provide a national framework for integrating development and

conservation,

• Create a global alliance. (Joshi,2001)

1.1.9 Acid Rain

Sulphuric and nitric acids are the main factors involved in acid rain. It is seen that the oxides of sulphur and nitrogen are produced by smelting plants and motor vehicle exhausts. These oxides are swept up into the atmosphere through tall chimneys, which may be 400 metres high and can travel thousands of kilometers before returning to the earth. The longer they stay in the atmosphere, the more likely they are to be oxidised into the sulphuric acid and nitric acid, which in turn get dissolved in water present in the atmosphere and falls to the ground as acid rain (or snow) or may remain in the atmosphere in clouds and fogs.

The strange aspect of the acid rain is that the culprit is one locality but the victim is another, because the pollutants are carried away by winds. The major implications of this phenomenon have been increase in acidity of the soil,

20 threat to human and aquatic life, reduction in crop productivity, and corrosion of buildings and monuments.

1.1.10 Desertification

Desertification is the process in which fertile land, particularly the tropical grassy plains, is turned into a barren land or a desert. The scale of desertification worldwide came to light in 1972 at the Stockholm United

Nations Conference on Human Environment. In 1977, at the UN Conference on

Desertification (UNCOD) held at Nairobi, it was concluded that desertification was then one of the most serious environmental problems worldwide. UNCOD data showed that 6,000 km2 of land was being ruined each year.

1.1.11 Green house Gases and Global Warming

The atmosphere around the earth acts as a green house, which allows the incoming solar radiation to pass through but does not allow the outgoing terrestrial radiation to escape. This process makes the earth warm. This is known

as the green house effect of the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide (CO2), methane

(CH4), chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) and nitrous oxide (N2O) are the green house gases. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has predicted an increase in the global average temperature of about one degree Celsius above the present value by 2025, and three degrees Celsius before the end of next century. Many scientists believe that the temperature could rise more than two degrees Celsius within the next 50 years. Global warming leads to increase in temperatures, reduction in sea level and loss of ecosystem etc.

21 1.1.12 Eutrophication

The term ‘trophic’ refers to feeding, literally means ‘well-nourished’.

There are some quite undesirable consequences of high levels of ‘nourishment’ in water bodies. Although eutrophication can be an entirely natural process, introduction of pollutants into water bodies has greatly increased the scope and the speed of eutrophication. Due to this situation, growth of bacteria and depletion of dissolved oxygen, suffocation of higher organisms occurs. If a lake is a source of drinking water, phytoplankton rapidly clog water filters and water tastes foul. Aquatic life is endangered, as, for instance, in the Rankala lake in

Kolhapur, Maharashtra.

Conclusion

It is obvious that human interference causes environmental degradation.

Man’s greed depletes natural resources, alters natural conditions and the overall effect is loss of the natural environment, pollution, foul water etc.

The environment pollution affects overall biota, living conditions. Thus, formal and non-formal environmental education is needed. The media plays a vital role in non-formal education of the masses. It informs and educates people so that they realize issues, contribute to the solutions and care for the environment.

Newspapers, a popular and secular mass communication tool, make people aware and motivate them. For a proper appreciation of newspapers’ role as a medium of mass communication visa-a-vis the environment, it will be appropriate to describe the status of newspapers in India, particularly from

Maharashtra. This is done in the following section.

22 1.2. History of newspapers in India

The history of Indian Press is over 200 years old, from the time of Hicky to the present day. It may be said, ‘’Newspaper history in India is inextricably tangled with political history’’. (http://www.pressreference.com)

The history of newspapers has all along been parallel to the struggle for freedom. The launch of the first newspaper in India was ‘announced’ in 1776 by

William Bolts. He asked all those who were interested to gather at his residence to read the news. This newspaper had the twin function of informing the British community of news from home and ventilating grievances against the colonial administration.

James Augustus Hicky was the founder of India's first newspaper, the Calcutta General Advertiser, also known as Hicky's Bengal Gazette , in

1780. Soon other newspapers came into existence in Calcutta and Madras: the Calcutta Gazette , the Bengal Journal, the Oriental Magazine , the Madras

Courier, and the Indian Gazette While the India Gazette enjoyed governmental patronage including free postal circulation and advertisements, Hicky's Bengal

Gazette earned the rulers' wrath due to its criticism of the government. In

November 1780 its circulation was halted by government decree. Hicky protested against this arbitrary harassment without avail, and was imprisoned.

The Bengal Gazette and the India Gazette were followed by the Calcutta

Gazette which subsequently became the government's ‘medium for making its general orders’. (Sankhdher, 1984, p.24-32).

The Madras Courier and the Bombay Herald afterwards merged into the Bombay Courier. They were subservient to the government, and therefore flourished. The total circulation of all these weeklies was not more than 2,000.

The government issued the Press Regulations (1799) making the publication of

23 the names of the printer, the editor and the proprietor obligatory. The regulations also mandated these newspapers to declare themselves to the Secretary of the

Government and to submit all material for prior examination to the same authority. (Kumar, 2012 p.76-77)

Patriotic movements grew in proportion with colonial ruthlessness, and a vehicle of information dissemination became a tool for freedom struggle. In the struggle for freedom, journalists in the twentieth century performed a dual role as professionals and nationalists. Indeed many national leaders, from Gandhi to

Vajpayee, were journalists as well. Calcutta, Madras, Bombay and Delhi were four main centre of urban renaissance which nourished news in India. It was only during and after the seventies, especially after Indira Gandhi's defeat in

1977, that regional language newspapers became prevalent.

There were nationalist echoes from other linguistic provinces. West Bengal,

Gujarat, Tamilnadu, Kerala, Punjab, Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh produced dailies in regional languages. (http://www.pressreference.com)

1.2.1 The languages press in India

The pioneers of journalism in Indian languages were missionaries in

Serampore, who started the Samachar Darpan and other Bengali periodicals.

Raja Rammohan Roy, the social reformer, launched a Persian newspaper, the

Miratool Akabar. His objective in starting the paper was "to lay before the public such articles of intelligence as may increase their experience, and tend to social improvement and to indicate to the rulers a knowledge of real situation of their subjects, and make the subjects acquainted with the established laws and customs of their rules". (Kumar, 2012,p. 21)

The Bombay Samachar, a Gujarati newspaper, appeared in 1822. It was

24 almost a decade before daily vernacular papers such as the Mombai Vartaman in 1830, the Jan-e-Jamshed in 1831 and the Bombay Darpan in 1850 began publication. In the South, a Tamil and a Telugu newspaper was established with the government aid. In the North West Provinces, a Hindi and an Urdu periodical was started with the help of government.

The Bengali Press had nine newspapers in 1839 with a circulation of around 200 copies each, even as the British Press with 26 newspapers, six of them dailies, grew in strength and power, under the liberal rule of Lord Metcalfe and later under Lord Auckland. ( Kumar, 2012, p. 78-79)

During the next two decades, The Times of India, the Pioneer, The

Madras Mail, and The Amrit Bazar Patrika came into existence. The Kesari of

Lokmanya Tilak soon gained a reputation for opposing the government attempts to suppress nationalist aspirations. ( Kumar, 2012,p. 80)

Soon, Lord Elgin added a section to the Indian Penal Code to enable the government to deal with the promotion of ‘disaffection’ against the Crown and for voicing anti-government stance. The penalties for the offences ranged from simple jail and fine to life imprisonment. The first victim of the new law was

Bal Gangadhar Tilak, the editor of the Kesari and its English companion, the

Mahratha. He was arrested and jailed for six months, but the Kesari received support from the masses.

The Kesari completed 130 years of its journey on January 4, 2013. This is indeed phenomenal in the history of vernacular journalism in India as it is the one and the only newspaper in vernacular languages that is being published by a trust for the past 133 years. This journey of the Kesari, difficult and committed as it has been, needs a special mention in the history of Indian journalism.

This is not merely an account of the work done by a Marathi newspaper. It is

25 a historical record of 130 years, of the political, economic, social and cultural revival of the whole nation. (Mone, 2011)

Along with Kesari, other votaries of press freedom around the same time included Aurobindo Ghose of Bande Mataram, B.B. Upadhayaya of the

Sandhya, and B.N. Dutt of the Jugantar.

The vernacular press suffered rigorous suppression during the period

1910-14. The government banned 50 works in English and 272 in vernacular, which included 114 in Marathi, 52 in Urdu and 51 in Bengali.

World War I introduced still more stringent press laws but there was no let-up in nationalist agitations. Annie Besant’s New India became the mouthpiece of the Home Rule movement, ably supported by the Bombay

Chronicle edited by Benjamin Horniman, the Maratha edited by N.C. Kelkar, and other publications.

The Swaraj Party led by C.R. Das, Vallabhbhai Patel and Motilal Nehru, launched its own publication - the Bangtar Katha in Calcutta, the Swadesh

Mitram in the South and the Hindusthan Times, the Pratap, and the Basumati in the North.

Meanwhile, the Free Press of India, which began as a news agency, started The Indian Express and Dhenamani in Madras The news agency collapsed under the Indian Press Act, but the publications continued under different owners and Free Press editors started a new agency called the United

Press of India (UPI). (Kumar, 2012, p.81-82)

1.2.2 Brief History of Marathi Newspapers

The Marathi Press played a very important role in the development of

26 Indian Journalism in later years of nineteenth centrury. It distinguished itself by campaigning on social and political fronts. Outside Bengal, the battle for the social reform first gathered strength in Pune and Bombay before it spread to other parts of the country. Thus, we can say that the Marathi press was in vanguard of the movement. As Johanson (2005,p. 62)) mentioned, ‘...by the end of nineteenth century Poona had an almost established and unchallenged hold over Maharashtrian Press.’

On 6 January,1832, Bal Shastri Jambhekar published the Bombay

Darpan -a Marathi- English fortnightly magazine from Bombay. By May 1832, it become an eight- page weekly. The objective of the Bombay Darpan was to convey information on events and point out the ways for improvement of the conditions of the people. It was the first Marathi medium expression of current and passing events. ( Chatterjee, 2013)

The Bombay Darpan played a notable part in the social reform movement and had considerable influence. It specifically dealt with the issue of widow re- marriage. It resulted into support of masses for the widow remarrage.

It specifically tried to develop a scientific temper among the masses.

In 1840 Jambhekar published the first Marathi monthly, the Digdarshan, and edited it for five years. Jambhekar is considered the Father of Marathi

Journalism. (Lele, R.,K., 2004)

The Kesari, the Mahratha, the Kal, the Sudharak, the Mukanayak were started as papers with certain views. In those days, we could find two pages of editorial discussing principles, politics and various conflicts. The editorial view was important and social and technological changes were reported in the newspaper. The first century in the history of Marathi journalism was the period of revolutionary changes in political, social, economic, cultural and

27 technological spheres. The British united the divergent India. The British education system and communication system enabled flow of information and initiated discussions on various issues. (Mone, 2011)

On October 24, 1841, Govind Vithal Kunte began the Prabhakar. Kunte was considered as the first professional Marathi journalist. Christian missionaries tried to propagate their religion through publications in Maharashtra like in other states. They began to publish the Jnyanodaya in 1842 for the purpose.

Meanwhile, there were many periodicals that came to be published. The list includes the Jaganmitra from Ratnagiri, the Shubh Suchak from Satara, the

Vartaman Deepika, the Varthaman Sangrah.

Though the Darpan was the first Marathi newspaper, the Dnyanprakash established in 1849 was the first daily newspaper in Marathi. The format they had adopted was - news and information as well as features such as temperature, market rates, government notifications, panchang (alamanc), features, advertisement for wanted, court and crime news. Krishnaji Tryambak Ranade started the Dnyanprakash in Pune. It was initially a weekly and later became a daily. The daily was later taken over by the Servants of India Society. Hari

Narayan Apte was the editor. Social reformers such as Mahadev Govind Ranade and Gopal Krishna Gokhale also contributed for the daily.

Three popular weeklies during the period were the Bartaman Deepika

(Bombay) edited by V.B. Gokhale, the Vichara Lahari (Pune) edited by

Krishnashastri Chiplunkar, and the Dhumkmetu (Pune). ( Chatterji, 2013)

In 1862 the Induprakash began in Mumbai. It was edited by Mahadev

Govind Ranade. This bilingual journal opposed orthodoxy. In 1877 Mahatma

Phule and Krishnarao Bhaskar began the Deenbandhu which was the part of the Satyashodhak Samaj founded by Mahatma Phule. Later, in Nagpur in 1882

28 began the weekly, Hitavada. Later, it was changed into an English weekly and still later in 1936, it became a daily. (Lele, 2004)

Bal Gangadhar Tilak founded the Kesari and the Maratha in 1881, along with Gopal Ganesh Agarkar, an English newspaper. Lokmanya Tilak used

Kesari to educate and to mould commoners’ views on Swaraj in all respects.

Editorial pieces such as ‘Punyatil Pahili Chimni’, ‘Hey Amche Guru Navhet’,

‘Sugar Industry’ and write-ups on democracy, labour movement, cultural bonds, education, upliftment of backward classes, women’s liberation and religion were published. Agarkar left Kesari in 1887 to start the Sudharak which was bilingual. He started the Sudharak along with Gopal Krishna Gokhale.

In 1890 Anandrao Ramchandra Dharandhar started the publication of Bhoot on a full moon day. It was the first Marathi paper to carry cartoons on political and social matters. The popular publication ceased in 1904.

Shivarampant Paranjape started the weekly, Kaal, in 1898, and it soon became popular because of patriotism, intellectualism. It survived until 1909. In 1920 he started a new weekly Swarajya.

Mahadev Govind Ranade in a review of growth in Marathi journalism in 1898 noted the existence of three daily newspapers. Two of which published in Bombay. They were Mumbai Vaibhav and Gurakhi. Mumbai Vaibhav started and edited by K.P. Mehendale in 1893. Gurakhi edited by L.N.Joshi. Then

Rashtramat was another paper from Bombay by S.K.Damale.

The Sandesh was started in Mumbai in 1915 by A.B. Kolhatkar.

K.P.Khadilkar started the Navakal in 1923. It had a sister publication in the form of an evening daily –Sandhyakal. The Prabhat edited by P.M.Bhagvat was the first Marathi daily to have simultaneous editions in from Mumbai and Pune.

Later the trend spread in case of other publications.

29 N.B.Parulekar published the Sakal from Pune on 1January 1932.It changes the way news used to be presented in Marathi Newspaper. It made serious effort to publish the latest news. S.K.Kulkarni commented,'' only with

Sakal Marathi readers tasted the flavour of fresh news. It was the beginning of new era, the era of real newspapers in Marathi.'' Sakal changed the way of news which was collected, written and also of presentation before masses. Sakal set the benchmark for Marathi journalism. Within a year Nanasaheb Parulekar launched a weekly titled Saptahik Sakal. After that he launched a low priced daily Tej. He also started a daily Swarajya from Mumbai in 1936. A number of

Marathi dailies come up in1940s. Navshakti founded by Sadananda in 1942 and

Lok Sangraha from Pune was among them.

After Independence in 1948, the Indian Express Group started the

Loksatta inMumbai, which was the first daily to appear after India became independent. In 1962 the Times of India group launched the Maharashtra

Times

Marathi journalism was not confined to big cities and towns. Prestigious newspapers were published from several other cities and towns as well. Some of the newspapers in this category are Lokmat and Tarun Bharat from Nagpur,

Pudhari from Kolhapur, Deshonnati, Matrubhumi from Akola, Aikya from

Satara, Gavkari and Deshdoot from Nashik, Janmadhyam from Amravati,

Sarvamat from Shrirampur, Prajawani and Godateer Samachar from Nanded,

Ekmat from Latur, Sagar from Chiplun, Tarun Bharat from Belgaum, Gomantak from Goa. ( Chatterjee, 2013)

30 1.2.3 Scenario Today

The print sector continues to remain a highly fragmented space, at the national and regional level. In 2014 the print industry witnessed a rise in circulation revenues on the back of rising cover prices and subscriptions aided by low media penetration, population growth and rising income and literacy levels as per the FICCI-KPMG Indian Media and Entertainment Industry Report 2015.

Further, as per the report the growth largely came from tier I and tier III cities with regional language editions outperforming the national editions and English dailies. 34 (FICCI-KPMG-2015 Report). Furthermore, Registrar of Newspapers of India and the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting provided information that until March 31, 2014 as many as 99,660 publications (Newspapers & Other periodicals) have been registered in India witnessing a constant growth of the print media. The Press in India Report 2013-14 informs that Print Media has responded to the new changes and challenges with its modern approach. It has embraced Information Technology, which resulted in better coverage with great speed and affordable price. The readership of newspapers is also growing. The report also added that statistics show that people prefer regional language publications and that is why the regional publications are venturing out to bring editions from other cities where there is sizeable population of the people knowing respective language. (Press in India Report 2013-14, p. 16)

As per the annual statements received to RNI for 2013-14, the number of dailies being published in the country was 6,730 as against 5,767 during 2012-

13. The claimed circulation of dailies increased by 17.81% from 22,43,37,652 copies to 26,42,89,811 copies per publishing day.

On the basis of circulation, the RNI report mentioned that Ananda

Bazar Patrika, a Bengali daily published from Kolkata turns to be the largest

31 circulated single edition daily with a claimed circulation of 11,81,112 copies per publishing day. It is followed by TheTimes of India, an English Daily published from Mumbai with a claimed circulation of 10,26,153 copies, and the

Hindustan Times, an English daily published from Delhi with a circulation of

9,75,737 copies per publishing day.

The Times of India having 29 editions in English with a total claimed circulation of 47,42, 671 copies per publishing day occupied the first position among multi editions dailies during 2013-14 and the Dainik Bhaskar having

35 editions in Hindi with a total claimed circulation of 35,49,796 copies per publishing day occupied second position among multi-editions dailies.

The total number of daily publications in 2013-14 increased to 13,350 as compared to previous year 12,109, that is, an increase by 1241 in number or

10.25 per cent.

Daily publications were published in almost all main languages. Hindi dailies topped the list with 5739. Other languages in which more than 100 daily publications were brought out are English (1119), Marathi (951]). (Press in

India Report 2013-14p.3)

As per Audit Bureau of Circulations July-Dec. 13, statistics of the most circulated dailies in Marathi is shown in Table 1.1. 37(auditbureau.org/Top_

Circulations, 2013)

32 Table 1.1

The Most Circulated Dailies in Marathi

Average Qualifying Average Publication/ Sales Jul-Dec 2013 Qualifying Language Title (Certified upto 14th Sales Jan-Jun May 2014) 2013

Marathi Lokmat 1,476,900 1,48,463

Marathi Daily Sakal 1,311,884 1,324,229

Marathi Pudhari 721, 649 713,384

Marathi Punyanagari 516,430 494,847

Source: (http://www.auditbureau.org)

33 1.2.4 Readership Survey

As per the Indian Readership Survey 2014, Table 1.2 shows statistics of the top ten dailies. Dainik Jagran continues to lead with an AIR of 1,66,21,000.

The Times of India is on the eighth position with an AIR of 75,90,000. The

Marathi daily, Lokmat has an AIR of 58,87,000.

34 Table 1.2

Indian Readership Survey 2014: Top Ten Dailies

Readership Readership Publication Language Periodicity 2013 2014

Dainik Jagran Hindi Daily 15527 16621

Hindusthan Hindi Daily 14246 14746

Dainik Bhaskar Hindi Daily 12857 13830

Malyaram Malayalam Daily 8565 8803 Manorama

Daily Thanti Tamil Daily 8156 8283

Rajasthan Patrika Hindi Daily 7665 7905

Amar Ujala Hindi Daily 7071 7808

The Times of English Daily 7254 7590 India

Matrubhumi Malyalam Daily 6136 6020

Lokmat Marathi Daily 5601 5887

Source:(http://mruc.net/sites/default/files/IRS%202014%20Topline%20Findin gs_0.pdf)

(Average Issue Readership(AIR) figures in 000)

35 Language Dailies

In local language dailies, the Malayala Manorama continues to lead with an AIR of 8803 in 2014. The Lokmat which is placed at number four slot has also gained figures from 56,01,000 in 2013 to 58,87,000 in 2014. Daily Sakal is placed at 8th position with AIR of 40,07,000. Table 1.3 shows the top ten language dailies with their AIR figures in 2013 and 2014. 38 (http://mruc.net)

36 Table 1.3

Top Ten Language Dailies

Readership Readership Publication Language Periodicity 2013 2014

Malyaram Malayalam Daily 8565 8803 Manorama

Daily Thanti Tamil Daily 8156 8283

Matrubhumi Malayalam Daily 6136 6020

Lokmat Marathi Daily 5601 5887

Anand Bazar Bengali Daily 5515 5653 Patrika

Eenadu Telugu Daily 5380 5608

Gujarat Gujarati Daily 4339 4642 Samachar

Daily Sakal Marathi Daily 3707 4007

Sandesh Gujarati Daily 3724 3849

Sakshi Telugu Daily 3368 3694

Source: (http://mruc.net/sites/default/files/IRS%202014%20Topline%20Findi ngs_0.pdf)

(Average Issue Readership(AIR) figures in 000)

37 1.2.5 Revenue Generation by Newspapers

India is one of the few places in the world, where newspapers still thrive.

In fact, circulation and advertising numbers are rising. Why India’s newspaper industry is thriving Ken Auletta (2012 October 8) (The New Yorker Annals of

Communications, Citizens Jain;)

Anant Rangaswami’s write-up ‘Why television will thrive and print media will struggle in 2013’ (First Post, Jan 1, 2013) stated: "This is a mixed bag. With the total print readership flat and the ad revenue shrinking, this was never going to be an easy year. Whatever readership growth is visible for the category as a whole comes from new markets, with the mature markets flat or negative. As a result, I see the industry operating different strategies for new and mature markets."

Further Rangaswami (First Post, Jan 1, 2013) discussed that in mature markets, pressure on both margins and volumes will force the newspapers, finally, into looking at cover price revenues to generate income. English, especially pink, newspaper cover prices in the metros will go up. Simultaneously, pagination in the main papers is coming down, as it is in this section that the advertiser demand is most vulnerable. Supplements will increase across the country, as the low ad rates (justified by low print runs) will continue to attract smaller advertisers targeting niche geographies or readers. Leaders in mature market, thanks to their domination in respective markets, will be able to keep ad rates steady, but it is difficult to see any increase in 2013.

Also because of technological advances, the newspaper industry is shrinking its editorial teams in all small towns, with the bulk of the content coming from a central office, and only city pages being made in these cities.

38 Technology allows smooth and low-cost transfer of data, making many in small towns working on ‘national’ pages, business pages, sports pages and entertainment stories redundant. This will also change the mathematics in the business, as people cost in these editions will come down. The papers will bleed, but not bleed badly. The larger newspapers are doing well on the digital front.

All large newspapers have a mature digital presence, and consumption of the content on the web is increasing exponentially. The problem is the monetisation of this readership, which a few in the world have managed to find a solution to.

In the English market, as readers embrace (especially the new, young readers) digital devices, the paper, in a physical form, is under threat. The flat readership, as measured by IRS, is perhaps a proof of the migration to digital.

(Indian Media and Entertainment Industry report 2012, March 7, IBNS)

As per FICCI-KPMG 2015 Report, newspaper continues to be the biggest contributor of revenue to the print industry, In 2014, the contribution of newspapers to the print revenue stood close to 95 per cent. As per the analysis of FICCI-KPMG 2015 Report newspaper industry contributed 92.4% revenue in 2012 while in 2015, its contribution to total revenue was 95%. In this report it has been predicted that by 2019 the revenue from newspapers would be 96.4%.

41(FICCI-KPMG 2015 report)

Conclusion

From the above description of the state of the environment and the newspapers in India, it may be concluded that both are extremely important for the common man. Environmental issues related to energy, agriculture, pollution,

39 urbanisation, population, climate change, biodiversity, sustainable development and many more need specific keen attestation and the masses should be informed and educated about them. Newspapers cover these issues to a certain extent, but not up to the required extent due to various factors and limitations. Political, economical and entertainment news gets more coverage in dailies. The readers are mostly interested in news that directly influences their lives. The increase in readership of dailies in language press shows people want to know happenings in their areas and also they need information in their own language.

Thus, in view of these facts, it can be concluded that it would be important to know and study the news in print media and comparatively which newspapers and which language press give more coverage. Research has been conducted to find out the facts related to coverage of environmental issues in the dailies - The Times of India, The Indian Express, Daily Lokmat, and Daily

Sakal.

Summary of Chapters

Chapter 2 of the thesis reviews literature on the subject and covers important aspects such as how media scholars perceive the term environment, how they define the environment, why the issues of environment are important, classification of environmental issues by scholars, problems in writing the news content, and the role of newspapers in informal education.

In Chapter 3 the aims and objectives, the significance, and the scope of research, and research methodology have been described.

Chapter 4 gives profiles of the newspapers, namely, The Times of India,

The Indian Express, Lokmat, and Sakal, and data with an analysis.

Chapter 5 provides content analysis of selected dailies.

40 Chapter 6 covers the subject Environment and Politics. This chapter also includes interviews of environmentalists, journalists, NGOs, field workers and scientists in the field.

Chapter 7 presents the summary, findings of the research; conclusions.

At the end of the thesis, are a references, questionnaire.

41