CULTURAL TYPOLOGY OF REVEALED IN PRAMOEDYA‘S NOVEL

TIPOLOGI BUDAYA MASYARAKAT INDONESIA DALAM NOVEL PRAMOEDYA

Koh Young Hun

Malay Indonesia Department HUFS Seoul [email protected]

Tanggal naskah masuk: 28 November 2012 Tanggal revisi terakhir: 3 Desember 2012

Abstrak

Seperti halnya Poerbatjaraka, meskipun berbeda tipe penulisannya, karya-karya Pramoedya berisi perlawanan terhadap budaya Jawa yang diketahui saat menghabiskan masa kecil dan masa mudanya. Sepanjang yang penulis ketahui, Pramoedya tidak pernah menerbitkan karya dalam bahasa daerahnya. Namun, tidak berarti Pramoedya jauh dari budaya Jawa.

Kata kunci: tipologi budaya, budaya Jawa

Abstract Like Poerbatjaraka, though in a very different style, Pramoedya Ananta Toer was, and is, a rebel against the Javanese culture he imbibed as a child and young man. So far as I know, he has never published a page in the language of his childhood home; but this does not mean that and its culture are ever very far from his mind.

Key words: cultural typology, Javanese culture

1. Culture and Literature community, most of which are In a narrow understanding culture inherited from the past. It is clear then is concerned with all high aspects of that culture as human beings‘ efforts life, such as special arts and tradition. for the past and present civilization. However, in a wide definition, culture Cultural change cannot take place deals with all activities and behaviors without the existence of the past culture human beings do as their efforts to and this can be historically shown from achieve their adjustments and perfect the fact that there have been cultural life (Ismail Hussein 1966:15–17). borrowing and influences among the argued that culture is a countries in the world. Through these unity of ”‘ and ”power‘, becoming elements, culture gets new triggers in an integrated mind. The meaning of its wealth and continuity (Koh Young culture, therefore, refers to all efforts Hun 1996:103).2 and minds which result from the mind We cannot deny that literature is for the sake of achievement.1 a community phenomenon due to the The above discussion leads to the fact that literary products reflect their point that culture covers all activities community despite different forms and in connection with traditions, the ways. This idea is strongly underpinned systems and way of life of a by the fact that the role of poets as a 70

Cultural Typology of IndonesiaY (Koh Young Hun) |71 community member. Literature is also soften people‘s life; (iii) a concept sensitive regarding the phenomena of considering culture as an effort of a its community who shapes it and community; (iii) the concept interprets these phenomena presented considering culture as an effort of a in their literature works. Consequently, community to face the existing analyzing a writer actually means to challenge in a certain development study his/her views on the world as stage. reflected on his/her works. It, then, can be accepted that the essential spiritual 2. Strengths and Weaknesses of and physical life of the writer can be Indonesian Culture felt as the life experience of the Since the early settlement of the community where this writer lives. Indonesian islands, these ancient G. Lukacs also argues that settlers realized that Indonesia has got literary works are created according to her specialty from geographic, geo- a certain perspective their writers economic and geo-politic factors. The construct and without such perspective wealth of spices, and natural resources a literary work is merely a report. and strategic location of Moreover, he argues that literary is islands became once well-known knowledge about facts channeled among Indian and Chinese traders in through creative writing which shapes the first and third centuries. Peaceful its genre. These shapes are actually not seas, strategic straits, sources of forests, the technical or linguistic matters as mining and agricultural products were expected by the literary critics of interesting keys to establish important formalists or structuralists; on the trade traffics (Wolters 1989:68–80). contrary, literature is an aesthetic or This fact is not a coincident that stylistic one existing in its content, busy trading with these natural wealth form manifested through plotting gradually became community techniques, such as the period of advancement leading to power and narration and the connection between government centralization. In addition, the characters and atmosphere in the absorption of the value system literature (Jefferson & Robey influence in the centers of trading and 1998:204–205). governments who had a connection When this issue is referred to with Indian and Chinese traders is not Pramoedya‘s literary works, it is either an unexpected fact. The Buddhist strongly felt that he gives a special and Hinduism monks joined these attention to his own national culture trading activities and actively with terrible concern which is useful disseminated their own religious because this concern trigger the wealth teaching and values. The same thing and weakness of national culture happened to entering this functioning as two of the factors archipelago in 13th Century (Umar leading to the victory and failure facing Kayam 1989:5) and this entrance has external challenges. The definition of played an unquestionably important culture in this paper, therefore, means role in establishing belief system and to cover: (i) one inner-life element culture in this area. referred to spirituality, meaning and In this case, Indonesian society purposes of life and truths; (ii) one maintain old attitudes and traditions as bodily element referred to material called ”historic instructions‘ by Umar culture, anything which can ease or Kayam, namely a historic calling in 72| Mabasan, Vol. 6 No. 1, JanuarivJuni 2012 order that these attitudes and traditions dialogues between Islamic civilization are maintained to be done in daily and Indonesian culture took place activities. This fact leads to the unsteadily. What we call Indonesia- difficulty in quickly and thoroughly Hinduism synthesis as the change accepting foreign influences result occurred in 7 centuries through traditionally adjusted with local various achievements and experiments conditions, such as ”elegant‘, ”flexible‘, from Mataram I, Kediri and Singasari ”creative‘, as reflected by Borobudur as periods to Majapahit and this is a the monument of Buddhism Mahayana cultural change experience as an during Syailendra kingdom in 8th important way of cultural search. Century and Prambanan as a This fact results in the in-depth Hinduism-Buddhism monument in the absorption of various cultural bases and same century, illustrating elegant, cores of great civilizations into flexible and creative traditions to face Indonesian culture. When Islam and accept the great influence of India entered Indonesian culture, the in term of developing and enriching meetings between religion and cultural Indonesian traditions. This cultural value system so as to strengthen this transformation, therefore, reflects cultural system (Umar Kayam 1989:8). change process of ”Indonesianization‘, The cultural changes viewed from the instead of ”Indianization‘, against above context does not show the Indian civilization influence (Umar cultural loss against foreign cultures Kayam, 1989:5–6).3 and this idea results from the cultural According to Umar Kayam, the change at that time to face influence Indonesianizing process influenced by acceptance and existing local cultural Indian tradition took place until post creation. Mataram period which was not actually However, when the under the Indian shadow. Majapahit came to Indonesia to control all spice can be considered as the process peak trading activities and settled here to be of Indonesia-Hinduism cultural process the colonist of Nusantara archipelago, and after Sriwijaya in 8th Century, the kingdoms in this area were not Majapahit reached its Nusantara empire ready to face the European power with status in 14th and 15th Centuries. The advanced and complex military and Hinduism belief system civilization is organizations that they had not clearly illustrated in the temple previously experienced. Their coming monuments and Nagarakartagama and to Indonesia was to seize, press and Prapanca texts. This color of Hinduism, monopolize spice trade and to control however, was then creatively and all these trade routes by force. The elegantly adjusted and then cultivated confrontations between European and in East Indonesia. The emergence of Nusantara traders were direct and Demak as an Islam-Indonesia dialogue forceful and these confrontations discourse leads to the bankruptcy of defeated Nusantara kingdoms against Majapahit and this makes the these European traders (Koh Young Indonesia-Hinduism cultural changes Hun 1996:107–108). stop (Umar Kayam 1989:7). Pramoedya was principally proud Islam entering Nusantara of Indonesian culture treasure and he followed the same step, through the argued that considered from written tradesmen and ulemas who intended to manuscripts, Indonesia is actually disseminate this new religion, but these much richer than the European nations Cultural Typology of IndonesiaY (Koh Young Hun) |73 by the 8th Century due to the fact that (Anderson 1990:200). Most of these Indonesian people could already read defeats of Indonesia, according to when most European nations were Pramoedya, are considered to result illiterate when the Dutch just had a from both the efforts of the colonial contact with Christian religion and countries to have Indonesian people even they killed the first evangelist fight against other Indonesian group, Bonifacious. Pramoedya was community and particularly the also proud of the essence that Mpu greediness of their own kings. He Tantular and Prapanca, as poets, further states that Indonesian culture succeeded in writing Sutasoma and in does not have the power to face the 14th century in Hayam Wuruk period. development of the Western culture Viewed from another elements. Moreover, the weakness of perspective, however, Indonesia this country can be reflected through experienced continuous defeats against her own apparently colonized the Western cultures in the battlefields mentality, leading to weak and passive in three hundred years. Pramoedya culture (Nadi Insan 1982:31). argued that human beings, the Earth and Indonesian thoughts were defeated 3. Indonesian Culture and by Europe again and again, and this World defeat led Indonesia to the fact that Defining the priyayi (aristocrat) Indonesia did not know the big world group is not that easy due to various and Indonesia closed herself to be a perspectives regarding this term. continuously defeated country because Geertz defines priyayi as an elite group Indonesia lost anything owned on lnad who have official statues and master and on the sea and even Indonesia intellectual fields, such as religion, herself. What is left is merely a , arts, knowledge, and historical burden (Rumah Kaca: 374). academic skills, and this group differs Pramoedya presented this idea by from farmers who are under this elite saying: group and control the society‘s basic —Indonesia has continuously been needs, i.e. food stocks (Geertz defeated. When it is defeated by praise, 1981:305). Koentjaraningrat explained she actually does not know anything that prior to the Second World War, the what has happened in this world so far. government officers were called A human being is usually conquered by priyayi (Koentjaraningrat 1984:234). the first praise. If you learn the history Suseno defines priyayi as a worker of Indonesia, too few number of heroes group and educated people who do not have been murdered in the battle fields do what forced labors do; they are to defend their philosophy. All are considered as officers from various unsteady, give up to the Dutch and this levels and fields, such as Elementary defeat acknowledges the power and School teachers, post-officers, and train philosophy of Europe, not only merely officers in small towns, middle officers knowledge“ (RK: 306). and high level officers in big cities In the same context, Ben (Suseno 1988:12). Van Niel also Anderson states that —beginning in the explains that priyayi is a group of early seventeenth century, Javanese administrative officers, government rulers had indeed experienced an officers and educated people with high almost unbroken series of defeats, official structures (Niel 1984: 30).4 humiliations, and catastrophes“ 74| Mabasan, Vol. 6 No. 1, JanuarivJuni 2012

Pramoedya‘s novels present bad own grandchildren as such? Don‘t you priyayi who do not obey their own think about it, damned ancestor! (BM: cultural values, such as sepi ing pamrih 116). (sincere) and shows a conflicting This quotation illustrates that attitude between feudal priyayi and the Minke strongly intends to take off main characters in his novels. These feudalistic elements inherited by cultural conflicts stem from perception ancestors and to refuse to be a priyayi. disputes on life values between main Keith Foulcher also agrees to state that characters and priyayi characters who —the condition of his (Minke) life still maintain their national cultural begins to be formed of potential which heritage, considered by Pramoedya as Nyai appears to embody, and a the main drawback for the national repudiation of his Javanese priyayi development. For example, Minke as background“ (Foulcher 1981 the main character in Bumi Manusia —Pramoedya Ananta Toer and the (BM) tetralogy novel can be claimed as Indonesian Consciousness: Some a priyayi, because the father is bupati, Considerations“, a paper presented at a district head, and Minke can be Seminar Bahasa dan Sastra Indonesia, promoted to be a district head upon his 19-22 Agustus, Pacet: 2). This refute is education at HBS, and STOVIA. considered important and serious Minke, however, has refused to be the because the descendent element is feudal district head since the beginning used as a key factor used to of this story due to the fact that Minke differentiate priyayi from non-priyayi intends to be —a free man is not (Geertz, 1989:309) and illustrates controlled, and does not control the Minke‘s view to be a free man. He community“(BM: 123). This thought is does not want to become a priyayi a new horizon which is different from whose daily needs are collected from what the local élite perceived at that humiliating the poor. time. The education in European The negative illustrations on schools makes Minke humiliated if he priyayi group drawn in his novels are is forced to crawl on hands and knees connected to Pramoedya‘s views on respecting a priyayi and this cultural their duties and functions in the humiliation on human beings‘ dignity colonial era. He believes that priyayi is cynically criticized by Parmoedya. did not have a significant role to make The following are his views on strongly this country free from colonization. refusing feudalistic attitudes of priyayi. Some groups of priyayi, however, Facing a district head means to be intentionally established the ready to be humiliated without any cooperation with the colonial agents to opportunities to defend ourselves. negatively govern and systematically Never do I force anybody to do such humiliate the poor. Umar Kayam also things to me. Why should I do this for states that the important movements in others. Damn it! ------Really, my Indonesian history, such as Sarekat school mates will fully laugh at me Islam who was not from the priyayi seeing a drama of how human beings group or descendants, but they were who really walk, on their own feet, but and (students of , they now have to walk in a half-way, Islamic boarding schools) traders and underpinned by two hands. Ya Allah, did not have priyayi ethos based you the ancestor, you, why did you considerations (Umar Kayam, create a tradition which humiliates your Cultural Typology of IndonesiaY (Koh Young Hun) |75

1989:21). Anderson has similar views Sastrotomo, who wants to be promoted on this issue as follows: from a clerk to be a cashier at the After 1830, the only Javanese Tulangan sugar company in Sidoarjo. who clashed physically with the These traditions are inherited to his son colonialists were small clusters of Haji, of Sastrotomo, Sastro Kassier, who sell local toughs, peasants and other his own daughter, Surati, to an elements of common people. The administrative officer of the sugar Javanese upper class became the pliant company in Plikemboh, to maintain his tool of the Dutch in erecting the official structural position. These two ruthlessly exploitative cultuurstelsel, in inherited cases show that it is the facilitating the depredations of private official position which is really agrarian capitalism in the Liberal era, important in ‘ community. and so on till the close of the colonial Selling someone‘s own children for age (Anderson 1990:200–201). any purposes cannot clearly be Pramoedya criticizes the pseudo- accepted as a normal way! Sanikem priyayi attitudes deviating from the and Surati are surely disappointed to general truths of priyayi, all of which their own parents. Sanikem says that are etiquettes, arts, and mystical —since then, my appreciation and practices as three priyayis‘ main respect to my father have really principles. These three key principles disappeared; to anybody who in his life function as the successive efforts sells their own children“ (BM: 77). In moving from human beings‘ physical addition, Surati revenges through a experiences leading to their inner-life, terrible way, suffering from chicken from external aspects to internal ones. pox then attacking Plikemboh till his One example is that an etiquette factor death. Boris Parnikel argues that a is really emphasized as a way to polish marriage by force experienced by people‘s behavior to become a socially Sanikem in Indonesian mythology appropriate interaction tool, to draw symbolizes a tie by force between mental formality on day-to-day Indonesian land and the coming agent activities, double discipline of thoughts from overseas who is not invited, the and physical matters, illustrating the ties agreed by cowardly and intentional deep meaning on physical movements. Indonesian land kings (Parnikel There are four important principles 1981:260–261). underlying the priyayis‘ etiquettes: The characters in Pramoedya‘s appropriate forms for correct structural literary works reveal the importance of levels, discontinuity, pretense, and the official structure in an office for avoidance of each behavior showing priyayi groups and this phenomenon is wild acts or inability to do self-control actually connected to the Dutch (Geertz 1989:319–326). policies in order to spread and In this perspective, Pramoedya empower their bureaucracy on their thinks that the deviation of priyayi who colonized countries. The demands of dare to sell their own children for the Dutch‘s cultural idioms emphasizing sake of job promotion or job rationality, impressions and maintenance is considered a terribly productivity added with colonial serious one as reflected by the case of system greediness do not give any Sanikem and Surati in BM trilogy. A room for the local people to 14-year old Sanikem is sold to be a comprehensively understand them. The nyai (mistress) by her own father, worse one is that princes, district heads 76| Mabasan, Vol. 6 No. 1, JanuarivJuni 2012 and others, due to their pessimistic Pramoedya‘s cynical perspectives ideas, are searching for the adjustments on priyayi‘s frozen or passive attitudes to put themselves even as the parts of showing satisfaction and interests the Dutch‘s bureaucratic machinery. In merely on salary raise and post the 20th Century, the Dutch maintenance are clearly presented. It is successfully established the East Indies the priyayi group who get educational as an country without politics benefits provided by the Dutch (beambtenstaat), focusing on Government for Indonesia and this bureaucratic dynamics but neglecting groups work in the Dutch‘s sugar political power. This is the cause which manufacturers, export-import local governmental system absorption companies, and transportation agents. into the Dutch bureaucratic system This group, however, does not have an comes into existence (Sutherland 1979: intention to make this country free 1-2). from colonial control and this attitude That this condition leads is actually connected to one of Indonesian people to prioritize Indonesian principles, the ones bureaucracy can be accepted. In connected to respect based on the idea addition, being a member of that all communities‘ references are bureaucratic elites, becoming a hierarchically structured and this government officer, is what most hierarchy contributes values to the Indonesian people want to be and it is structure itself. an old value, ”ngawula ing praja lan Every human being, therefore, is raja‘ (employing oneself to the king obliged to maintain this structure or and nation). Therefore, the story of order and brings themselves according Sumantri Ngenger puppets narrates an to it (Hildred Geertz, 1961:147). This ambitious young man who urbanizes to view is actually based on the idea to a big city and then gets a good job in well put the community‘s existence in the kingdom by scarifying his sister order that human beings acknowledge and this story is an important one for their posts and duties so as to Indonesian (Umar Kayam, 1989:19). contribute their participation to making Pramoedya‘s views on posts as the community united to be one. Each follows: community member, accordingly, is But post: -- it is everything and required in order that this member does all are for the local people, not farmers not develop the idea of competing each and not craftsmen. Wealth can other, instead, this member feels disappear, families can be destroyed, satisfied with the post s/he occupies names can be damaged, posts have to and does her/his the occupation be safe. Post is not only a matter of consistently. In other words, someone‘s making money, internally it is a dream and competitiveness should be respect, truth, dignity, and even living sacrificed to avoid fractions, itself. People fight, pray, austerity disharmony and contradictions. through fasting and meditation, false Respect principles are actually good, accusation, lies, hard working, bringing but these can make priyayi‘s attitudes misfortunate to others, just for the sake frozen rather than efforts to improve of the post. People are ready to lose this now. anything just for the sake of the post, According to Indonesian with which anything can be redeemed perspectives, initiatives mean to leave a (ASB: 130). guaranteed place and set new heavy Cultural Typology of IndonesiaY (Koh Young Hun) |77 posts. This idea can shake the existing Similarly, Pramoedya refers this balance and then the idea destroys with Indonesian characters, self- existing universe system as illustrated adaptation, self-compromise, and self- by the following expression rame ing accommodation, all of which are gawe, frequently used to describe such national characters which throw these attitude and meaning that everyone has characters when they meet the nations to fulfill his/her obligation at each post. with stronger characters. These Mulder interprets this expression as characters which are actually connected —Each human being is obliged to do to the cultural experiences become the his/her duties, due to the loyalty to peak of our own defeat. When the accept and do the duties, s/he does the nation was still struggling with the duties in her/his life where s/he was correct formulation to deal with the born and does acts according to the cultural changes in the Indonesia-Islam karma laws, ‘s and human beings‘ synthesis, European culture with laws, instead of her/his own initiatives strange aggressive cultural idioms or personal responsibilities. Similarly, came beating this nation. These strong he thinks of the doubts whether experiences and history-oriented Indonesian etiquettes are marked by demands in order to be elegant, rame ing gawe as an aware effort to flexible, creative, and tactful to use improve the world (Mulder, 1984:40– archipelagic geography, geo-economics 41). and geopolitics, therefore, become the In the same context, Pramoedy weak point when this nation faces the disagrees with the Indonesian attitude West. These are considered to become which neglects personal initiatives and the weak points according to creativity due to the fact that this Pramoedya‘s perspectives, as follows: attitude can hamper the national In a wrong philosophy, God, it‘s development. Pramoedya gives a only self-defense left. Indonesian strong view on this issue as illustrated nation facing the white is not due to by the dialogue between Mingke and aggression. They just know to defense Bunda, visiting the child who is themselves, defense and then they get studying at STOVIA, as follows: defeated, due to the defeated —You say it is for the sake of philosophy. The philosophy is more freedom of human beings from the declining, as God knows at the moment burden other human beings have it‘s not the four-hundred-year-ago created. Don‘t you remember, kid? nation. -----Now what left are just That‘s not an Indonesian way. adaptation, compromise, even this Indonesian do anything just the sake of nation cannot defense herself. No doing their obligation, orders are from development. It‘s a pity, they God, , from the kings. Upon themselves do not this condition. It‘s a completion their job, people feel happy high time this nation look at other to be themselves until another job is nations as models. In the last one ordered again. Therefore, human hundred years their writing has been beings express thanks, acknowledging merely the thoughts of the defeated thanks. Human beings are not chased nation who does not understand how to by the giant in their body.“ —Mother, set herself free from her own defeat I‘ve got a lot of lessons so far. (Rumah Kaca; 80). Therefore, I realized that life is not that Pramoedya believes that a left- simple.“ (JL: 54) behind country is colonized by the 78| Mabasan, Vol. 6 No. 1, JanuarivJuni 2012 developed one. This can learned from 4. Conclusion the West and we have to know the It is true that a nation needs to refuse the sickness from the West. He have its own literary works to help its further argues that modern human people remember their past (Bachtiar, beings must them set free from 1981:31). From this idea, Pramoedya unnecessary things, such as weak successfully fulfills this perspective, cultural heritage. His idea resembles because his works are rich with the Sutan Takdir Alisjabana‘s thought that problems which can make the people he strongly states the nation‘s cultural aware of their own posts and horizons development orientation should be of the strong and weak points of a associated to Western cultures and nation from the perspectives of urges to leave static Hinduism thoughts Pramoedya who was very sensitive of (Achdiat, 1986:13–34), i.e. the nataion defeat resulting from its Indonesian culture must be free from own weak cultural heritage. In this feudal culture which can kill context, forgetting bad historic burdens individualistic perspectives. Pramoedya is a way to encourage a nation which has an idea that a developed world is once had great historical experiences the one which is developed, free from due to the fact that burdening historical historical burdens,5 some of which are heritage leads to an endless cultural passive, static, and feudal ideas. tiredness. Criticizing the static members of Pramoedya‘s interpretation Sarekat Islam movements, Pramoedya should be well accepted as implied argues that —The members are static suggestions in literary works, without priyayi members without any initiatives any prejudice on him. Pramoedya and life spirit, merely intending to himself argues: —It‘s true that spend their time peacefully in the discussing literary works cannot be Governor‘s official duties. It shouldn‘t separated from their writers. Somehow, have been like this, well we have no literary works really depend on their not to accept it because these writers‘ hands, including historical mistakes have taken place (JL: 230). lump-sum, present situation, and future The characteristics of gamelan (a set of prospects. I myself do not mind being Javanese musical instruments) are used evaluated on my own matters as a by Pamoedya to cynically criticize person, writer, social shady character these problems: with all involvement. We finally agree Gamelan mostly sings the that we are earth creatures, instead of longing of a nation to welcome a hell and heaven creatures, with strength Messias–missing something/someone, and weaknesses, spirit and does not do the searching and does not powerlessness, with truths and errors œ give a birth. Gemelan itself represents all of which are the process of ”nation Indonesian soul life which is lazy to do building‘, as the Earth creatures who the searching, going around in the always human beings‘ problems and circle, repeating, like prayers and humanity to express deep love to our magic spell, drowning, killing own nation.6 With these ideas, thoughts, bringing human beings to be Pramoedya was a literary writer who in the misleading exhaustion, no always searched for human beings‘ individuals. (BM: 188). problems and humanity to express deep love to our own nation.

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