Technological Forests: Engineering Nature with Tree Planting
Total Page：16
File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb
TECHNOLOGICAL FORESTS: ENGINEERING NATURE WITH TREE PLANTING ON THE GREAT PLAINS, 1870-1944 by Robert Charles Gardner A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in History MONTANA STATE UNIVERSITY Bozeman, Montana April 2013 ©COPYRIGHT by Robert Charles Gardner 2013 All Rights Reserved ii APPROVAL of a dissertation submitted by Robert Charles Gardner This dissertation has been read by each member of the dissertation committee and has been found to be satisfactory regarding content, English usage, format, citation, bibliographic style, and consistency and is ready for submission to The Graduate School. Timothy J. LeCain Approved for the Department of History and Philosophy David Cherry Approved for The Graduate School Dr. Ronald W. Larsen iii STATEMENT OF PERMISSION TO USE In presenting this dissertation in partial fulfillment of the requirements for a doctoral degree at Montana State University, I agree that the Library shall make it available to borrowers under rules of the Library. I further agree that copying of this dissertation is allowable only for scholarly purposes, consistent with “fair use” as prescribed in the U.S. Copyright Law. Requests for extensive copying or reproduction of this dissertation should be referred to ProQuest Information and Learning, 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106, to whom I have granted “the right to reproduce and distribute my dissertation in and from microform along with the non-exclusive right to reproduce and distribute my abstract in any format in whole or in part.” Robert Charles Gardner April 2013 iv DEDICATION For Wendy v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I could not have completed this work without the help of many people. The history department at Montana State has been a wonderful place to study. All of the people there have become mentors, colleagues, and friends. Brad and Jerry were the best of compatriots. I am grateful to my committee members Rob Campbell, Michael Reidy, and Brett Walker for their help and generosity. Nancy Langston did me a great service in steering me towards this topic and supporting my work. As the chair of my committee, Tim LeCain has been a hard worker and a deep thinker and has inspired me to try and emulate him. My parents have always been supportive of everything I have ever attempted, thank you. My sons Bryndan and Evan were a most welcome distraction from finishing this work and will always be the most important of any of my accomplishments. My wife Wendy encouraged me and waited patiently. I owe her for everything. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS 1. PEOPLE AND TREES: CONSTRUCTING NATURE AND TECHNOLOGY............1 Forest Histories ................................................................................................................6 People in Nature.............................................................................................................15 Nature and Technology..................................................................................................30 Great Plains and Planted Forest .....................................................................................42 Planting Trees ................................................................................................................50 Seeing the Whole System ..............................................................................................55 2. MANIFEST DESTINYAND THE GOSPEL OF TREE PLANTING..........................59 Conceptions of the Land—Ideology, Environment, and Migration ..............................60 Settling the Land—Railroad Promotions of People and Trees......................................67 Cultural Construction—Planting Trees to Shape the Land............................................72 Federal Forestry—The Need for Experts and Planning.................................................84 Planting Windbreaks—Using Trees as Technology......................................................89 A Forest Experiment—To Replant the Plains ...............................................................96 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................102 3. BUILDING A TREE FACTORY................................................................................105 The Lay of the Land—Scouting a Forest Location .....................................................106 A Treeless Forest—Creating the Dismal River Reserve .............................................113 The Factory—Building a Tree Nursery .......................................................................117 Production Line—A System to Manufacture Seedlings..............................................124 Manufacturing—Ecology and Technology of Production...........................................132 Expanding Control—Manipulating and Managing the System...................................138 Bugs in the System—Opportunistic Organisms Limiting Production.........................144 Factory Workers—Labor Management for Tree Production.......................................147 Modernization—Improving the Production Line ........................................................153 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................154 4. GROWING A FUNCTIONAL FOREST....................................................................156 Factory Output—Trees For a Future Forest.................................................................158 Forest Dreams—Planting the First Trees.....................................................................161 Nurturing the Forest—Giving Seedlings the Best Start...............................................170 Machines and Men—Technology and Labor of Tree Planting ...................................177 Forest Ecology—Learning to Make the System Work................................................185 Wildlife—Managing Forest Populations .....................................................................190 Ecosystem Management—Forest Conditions and Public Attraction...........................198 vii TABLE OF CONTENTS - CONTINUED Conclusion ...................................................................................................................204 5. ENGINEERING THE GREAT PLAINS ENVIRONMENT......................................207 Technological Trees—The Shelterbelt Idea ................................................................208 Trees on the Ground—Placing the Shelterbelt Zone ...................................................211 Technological Trees—Engineering Society on the Plains...........................................215 Doubt and Defense—The Scientific Reputation of Forestry.......................................222 Seed Money—Getting the Project Started...................................................................228 Technical Standards—The Social Construction of Shelterbelts..................................231 Ecological Standards—The Environmental Construction of Shelterbelts...................235 Forest Conditions—The Value of Organic Technology..............................................238 Trees and People—The Meaning of Shelterbelts on the Plains...................................245 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................247 6. RESTORING AN IMAGINED NATURE..................................................................250 Forest Fire—The Natural Enemy of an Artificial Forest.............................................254 Restoration History—Creating New Values................................................................259 Ecological Engineering—Constructing Form and Function........................................263 Restoration Philosophy—Debating the Meaning of Nature ........................................269 Inventing Ecologies—Beyond Restoration Ecology ...................................................275 Conclusion ...................................................................................................................279 REFERENCES CITED....................................................................................................284 viii LIST OF FIGURES Figure Page 1. Bessey Nursery in Nebraska National Forest.........................................................3 2. Surveying the Dismal River Reserve .................................................................116 3. Covered seedbeds, 1902.....................................................................................119 4. Headquarters building ........................................................................................126 5. Mobile Sprayer, 1908.........................................................................................143 6. First forest planting, 1903 ..................................................................................164 7. Horse plowing and trencher operation ...............................................................179 8. Tractor trenching, 1940 ......................................................................................181 9. Tree planter, 1922 ..............................................................................................183 10. Rows of jack pine, 1911...................................................................................189 11. Seedlings eaten by gophers ..............................................................................192