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Download Full Book Stage to Studio James P. Kraft Published by Johns Hopkins University Press Kraft, James P. Stage to Studio: Musicians and the Sound Revolution, 1890-1950. Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003. Project MUSE. doi:10.1353/book.60326. https://muse.jhu.edu/. For additional information about this book https://muse.jhu.edu/book/60326 [ Access provided at 30 Sep 2021 01:34 GMT with no institutional affiliation ] This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Stage to Studio t ~ STUDIES IN• INDUSTRY AND SOCIETY Philip B. Scranton, Series Editor Published with the assistance ofthe Hagley Museum and Library I. Burton W Folsom Jr. Urban Capitalists: Entrepreneurs and City Growth in Pennsylvania's Lackawanna and Lehigh Regions, r8oo-r920 2. John Bodner Workers' World: Kinship, Community, and Protest in an Industrial Society, I9oo-I940 3· Paul F. Paskoff Industrial Evolution: Organization, Structure, and Growth ofthe Pennsylvania Iron Industry, IJso-r86o 4· David A. Hounshell From the American System to Mass Production, r8oo-r932: The Development ofManufacturing Technology in the United States 5· Cynthia J. Shelton The Mills ofManayunk: Industrialization and Conflict in the Philadelphia Region, q8rr831 6. JoAnne Yates Control through Communication: The Rise of System in American Management 7· Charles W Cheape Strictly Business: Walter Carpenter at Du Pont and General Motors 8. John K. Brown The Baldwin Locomotive Works, I8JI-I9If: A Study in American Industrial Practice 9· James P. Kraft Stage to Studio: Musicians and the Sound Revolution, r890-I950 James P. Kraft Stage to Studio Musicians and the Sound Revolution, r89o-r950 The Johns Hopkins University Press Baltimore and London © 1996 The Johns Hopkins University Press All rights reserved. Published 1996 Printed in the United States of America on acid-free paper 05 04 03 02 or oo 99 98 97 96 5 4 3 2 r The Johns Hopkins University Press 2715 North Charles Street Baltimore, Maryland 21218-43!9 The Johns Hopkins Press Ltd., London Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data will be found at the end of this book. A catalog record for this book is available from the British Library. To my mother and father, Marion and Hubert Kraft 00_FM_6155_JHUP 3/15/05 10:01 AM Page ii This page intentionally left blank Contents Acknowledgments lX Introduction I One Working Scales in Industrial America 7 Two Boom and Bust in Early Movie Theaters 33 Three Encountering Records and Radio 59 Four Playing in Hollywood between the Wars 88 Five Rising Militancy 107 Six Recording Ban 137 Seven Balancing Success and Failure Conclusion 193 Appendix: AFM Membership, 1896-1956 203 Notes 205 Essay on Sources 243 Index 249 00_FM_6155_JHUP 3/15/05 10:01 AM Page ii This page intentionally left blank Acknowledgments THIS STUDY has benefited from the knowledge and advice of many people. Edwin Perkins guided it through the dissertation stage at the Uni- versity of Southern California with intelligence and care. Steven Ross, who also served on my dissertation committee, helped improve the early drafts in his own thoughtful ways. Richard Jewell of the USC Cinema School, Terry Seip, and Frank Mitchell also read and commented on all or parts of the dissertation drafts, and Doyce Nunis, Jr., pointed me to valuable re- sources. I am deeply indebted to these and other scholars at USC for their generosity and counsel. Turning the dissertation into a book entailed new obligations. At Ohio State University I encountered an especially sharp group of business and labor historians who offered new direction and inspiration. David Sicilia read an earlier version of the manuscript and made many valuable sugges- tions. Mansel Blackford and Warren Van Tine went over selected chapters and alerted me to inconsistencies as well as additional sources. At the Uni- versity of Hawaii I have had the opportunity to work in an equally sup- portive environment. I am particularly grateful to Robert Locke and Idus Newby for reading and rereading drafts of the book to my advantage. I wish to thank librarians and archivists at the University of Southern California; the Academy of Motion Pictures, Arts, and Sciences; the Uni- versity of California at Los Angeles; the University of California at Berke- ley; the University of Puget Sound; the Ohio State University; the Ohio Historical Society; the Cleveland Public Library; the AFL-CIO Economic Research Department; and the University of Hawaii Library. I also wish to thank Serena Williams, Bill Peterson, Ed Ward, Sue-Ellen Hershman, Thelma Stewart, and Mark Massagli of the American Federation of Musi- cians; and Lee Petrillo, Milton Gabler, John TeGroen, Phil Fischer, Lenny Atkins, Eudice Shapiro, Henry Gruen, AI Hendrickson, Art Smith, Helen Lee, Jack Bunch, Roc Hilman, Richard Taesch, Rocky Jackson, Robb Navrides, Bob Fleming, Will Brady, Buddy Peterson, Bill Hitchcock, and Robert Alder, each of whom I interviewed in the course of my research. lX For the photographs included herein, I am grateful to Dace Miller, Ned Comstock, Peter Lloyd Jones, Bill Benedict, Sarah Partridge, Marc Wannamaker, Greg Geary, Terry Geesken, Elvis Brathwaite, Vernon Will, Charles Arp, Elizabeth McCullough, Miles Kreugger, Carol Merrill- Mirsky, Jerry Anker, Lowell Angell, and Ray Avery. For permission tore- produce photographs, I wish to thank the University of Southern Califor- nia, the Theatre Historical Society of America, the Case Research Lab Museum, the Bison Archives, the Chicago Sun- Times, the Ohio Historical Society, the Bettmann Archive, the Museum of Modern Art, AP/Wide World Photos, and the American Federation of Musicians. For help with tables and graphs, I thank Chris Grandy, David Ross, Billie Ikeda, Gwen Agina, and Susan Abe of the University of Hawaii, and George Potamianos and John Ahouse of USC. The book and I have also benefited from the advice of editors and anonymous referees. Chapter 1 draws on ''Artists as Workers: Musicians and Trade Unionism in America, I88o-1917," The Musical Quarterly 79 (Fall 1995): 512-54. Chapter 2 is a reworked version of "The 'Pit' Musi- cians: Mechanization in the Movie Theaters, 1926-1934," Labor History 35 (Winter 1994): 66-89. Chapter 4 contains material from "Musicians in Hollywood: Work and Technological Change in Entertainment Industries, 1926-1940," Technology and Culture 35 (April 1994): 289-314. Many thanks to Thomas Levin, Daniel Leah, and Robert Post, editors at these journals, for their guidance. I also wish to express my sincere thanks to the editorial team of Robert Brugger, Philip Scranton, and Mary Yates, who helped me turn the manuscript into a book with consummate skill. In the course of completing this project, I received financial assistance from the John and Dora Haynes Foundation, the University of Southern California, the Ohio State University, and the University of Hawaii. On a more personal level, I wish to thank Louise McReynolds, Kenneth Lipar- tito, Michael Speidel, Arthur Verge, and Sheldon Anderson for their help, and all the friends who offered good cheer and moral support during the past decade. My most heartfelt thanks belong to my wife, Renee, whose special contribution to my work is more important than words can say. All errors of fact or interpretation, of course, are mine alone. X Acknowledgments Stage to Studio 00_FM_6155_JHUP 3/15/05 10:01 AM Page ii This page intentionally left blank Introduction THE STORY OF the harnessing of sound waves by entertainment industries is less a tale of glamour and personalities than one of new technologies, business enterprise, and workers riding roller coasters of boom and bust. Modern sound technology originated in early developments in telegraphy. In 1877 Thomas A. Edison made the first phonographic recording when he recited a nursery rhyme into a telephone diaphragm fitted with a needle that carved grooves onto a cylinder covered with tinfoil. Edison and others soon made recordings of higher fidelity using spring-driven motors, jeweled needles, flat discs, and other technological contrivances. The recording process reached new heights in 1915, when Edwin S. Pridham and Peter L. Jensen connected a power transformer and a twelve-volt bat- tery to existing electrical circuitry, thereby dramatically increasing the volume of recorded sound. This development---'the loudspeaker-ensured the success of phonog- raphy and thus of radio. Radio enthusiasts had been sending broken mes- sages in Morse code without telephone lines since the turn of the century, when inventors first captured the power of electromagnetic waves. The re- sulting "wireless" primarily served maritime interests until 1906, when Reginald Fessenden demonstrated that more powerful alternators could make "continuous wave" transmissions. By the early 1920s broadcasters were running telephone wires from radio stations to football stadiums to provide new sources of entertainment, and telephone lines were carrying programs from one station to another, and thus to audiences far removed from the original broadcast. As a result, broadcasters in small and remote communities began hooking up to powerful stations in large cities to gain access to news and entertainment programming. As radio networks crisscrossed the nation, parallel advances in sound • technology revolutionized the motion-picture industry. Inventors first tried to mesh the phonograph and the camera in 1894, when William K. L. Dickson introduced a coin-operated Kinetoscope on Broadway. Problems of synchronizing sounds and photographs, however, delayed the marriage of technologies until 1923, when Lee de Forest, drawing on the work of Theodore Case, copied recorded music onto a narrow filmstrip. By 1926 Western Electric and Warner Bros. had coupled film technology with high-quality amplifier tubes and slow-turning phonographs to produce sound movies. The instant popularity of these movies persuaded industry leaders to abandon silent films in favor of "talkies." Over the next two decades these developments and others that built onto and sometimes su- perseded them contributed to the rise of television, frequency-modulation (FM) broadcasting, and other forms of new and improved mass commu- nication and entertainment.
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