NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2011 — page 1 of 35

Assessment Schedule – 2011 History: Examine a significant historical situation in the context of change, in an essay (90658) Evidence Statement

Achievement Achievement with Merit Achievement with Excellence

Through her / his response to the Through her / his response to the Through her / his response to the first part of the essay question, the first part of the essay question, the first part of the essay question, the candidate has accurately candidate has accurately candidate has accurately and described factors that contributed explained factors that contributed perceptively explained factors that to the decision. to the decision. contributed to the decision.

(See content guidelines for examples of (See content guidelines for examples of (See content guidelines for examples of relevant historical information that could relevant historical information that could relevant historical information that could be included in the candidate’s answer ). be included in the candidate’s answer ). be included in the candidate’s answer ).

Through her / his response to the Through her / his response to the Through the breadth, depth and/or second part of the essay question, second part of the essay question, range of ideas in her / his response the candidate has accurately the candidate has evaluated the to the second part of the question described the consequences of the consequences of the decision. the candidate has decision. comprehensively evaluated the consequences of the decision.

(See content guidelines for examples of (See content guidelines for examples of (See content guidelines for examples of relevant historical information that could relevant historical information that could relevant historical information that could be included in the candidate’s answer ). be included in the candidate’s answer ). be included in the candidate’s answer ).

The candidate has structured and The candidate has structured and The candidate has structured and organised her / his information using organised her / his information using organised her / his information using an appropriate essay format. an appropriate essay format. an appropriate and effective essay format. • Introductory paragraph • Introductory paragraph • Relevant, structured and • Relevant, structured and • Introductory paragraph logically sequenced paragraphs logically sequenced paragraphs • Relevant, structured and • Conclusion • Conclusion logically sequenced paragraphs • Conclusion

The candidate has provided a The candidate has provided an convincing argument, i.e. the argument, i.e. the candidate has candidate has a clearly articulated stated a view and supported it with view and has supported it with relevant and accurate evidence sound reasoning and relevant, (probably most obvious in the accurate, and significant evidence evaluative part of her / his essay). (probably most obvious in the evaluative part of her / his essay).

NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2011 — page 2 of 35

Content Guidelines Topic One: Early Modern England 1558–1667

Topic One: Essay (a) Describe the traditional roles of women in early modern English society between 1558 and 1667. Evaluate the extent to which periods of crisis influenced the lives of women and brought changes to their roles.

The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include: • England was a patriarchal, hierarchical society, with the secondary role of women reinforced by church, state and family. Women were expected to be obedient, submissive and conforming. They were generally denied a formal education and were limited in roles they could take up outside the home. In times of major upheaval these roles could change, but women were expected to conform again once the upheaval was over. • Women’s inferior role was reinforced by religious beliefs. Eve was created after Adam, and from part of his body. Eve had sinned first and tempted Adam to join her in eating the forbidden fruit of the Garden of Eden. The scriptures also were seen to prohibit women from speaking in Church. • Some medical writers considered women to be deformed males — at conception, all foetuses were male, but in approximately half something 'went wrong' and they were born female. Women were seen to be physically weaker and with smaller brains. The emotional changes associated with women's menstrual cycles and their menopause, made them unfit for any role needing reasoned thought and unclouded judgement, such as managing an estate or business. • Medieval society placed great value on fighting skills and the physical strength to perform heavy agricultural work. Society placed on women the main burden of caring for home and children – roles that did not require very much education, nor give them experience of the male-dominated world. • The legal position of women was similar to that of children. They were meant to be either in the care and protection of their father or husband. Local authorities could compel any women between the ages of 14 and 40 who were alone to go into service under the authority of a male householder. However, an unmarried woman, or feme sole, had far more legal rights than her married sister, a feme covert. A girl was able to give legal consent to marriage at 12, compared with 14 for a boy. • The doctrine of coverture stated that 'Man and wife were one person, and that person was the husband'. The wife had few rights over her body in relation to her husband. Wife beating was legal, although society generally disapproved of it. Prosecution for marital rape was legally impossible. Married women could not make contracts except for the supply of personal food and clothing. Her earnings belonged to her husband and she could neither sue nor be sued in a civil action. Any dowry or personal property she inherited became her husband's unless there were special provisions in the will. There were some exceptions to coverture, especially in the trading rights women enjoyed in some cities. In London, especially, local custom allowed all women to trade as femes sole. Despite the common-law principal of coverture, the law courts did, in practice, allow married women some property rights. A married woman had the right to be maintained by her husband during his lifetime. If she outlived him she was entitled to a jointure – one-third of his estate if she had children, one-half if she did not. • Women did not have full rights of citizenship. Women could not vote in parliamentary elections, could not sit in the House of Parliament, and could not be jurors, sheriffs or coroners. Women were occasionally appointed to minor offices such as parish constable, but they probably exercised the functions by deputy. • Women usually became involved in public duties only when the traditionally female and male spheres came in contact. In witchcraft cases a 'jury of matrons' examined women's bodies for 'witch marks', and they judged whether women sentenced to death were pregnant. • Women were employed in public institutions performing work, which was an extension of their domestic skills, eg Queen's Wardrobe Mistresses, warders for female prisoners, charitable institutions – which cared for children and the elderly, and as nurses in hospitals. • Women were ineligible to hold office in the Church. However, some Interregnum sects such as the Quakers did allow women to preach. Women were still often very important in the religious life of their parish community. They were particularly important in ensuring the survival of Catholicism. • While male-dominated, the economy was less exclusively male. Men owned most property, managed most farms and businesses, performed most of the skilled labour. The role of most women was subordinate. There were, however, exceptions: Widows often continued their late husbands' businesses. Some livery companies allowed widows to take over their husbands' memberships and even to train apprentices. Women sometimes ran their own businesses, especially those which adapted women's traditional household skills such as in the food and hospitality industries, laundries, schools. They also acted as nurses and midwives. In the sixteenth century some women were licensed as surgeons.

NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2011 — page 3 of 35

The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include: • Crisis Situations such as poor harvests caused economic disruption as well as starvation in the 1590s, 1620s and 1648 – 52. Attempts to find jobs and food caused considerable internal migration. Epidemic disease such as the plague, influenza and smallpox often followed bad harvests. Diseases caused instability for families, disrupted the economy and caused unintended mobility if the family attempted to run away from the disease. During these times women frequently lost their husbands or fathers, and were forced to assume more masculine roles for a short period of time in order to survive. In 1630 – 31, women staged public protests at the high prices demanded for grain. • Patricia Crawford claims that the Civil War intensified the existing problems and risks faced by women and families. The Civil War led to the deaths of approximately 10% of the adult male population of England, probably more in Scotland and Ireland. It separated husbands and wives, postponed marriages and reduced the birth rate. Families suffered economically from the absence of men needed to run the farm or business, high taxation, compulsory billeting of soldiers and disruptions to trade. With the absence of so many men, women assumed many tasks usually performed by men; however, this role in farms and businesses was usually an extension of the situation, which arose when the man was away, or the woman was left a widow. • Women were involved in looking after sick and wounded soldiers, preparing food, and as prostitutes during the war. Some women became involved in the fighting, usually in defence of their homes. Ladies on both sides organised the defence of castles (eg the Duchess of Portland and Lady Brilliana Harley). When Lady Bankes' house was attacked, her chambermaids joined her in throwing stones and hot embers on the heads of the attackers. Women also acted as fire wardens in several sieges and assisted in building earthworks or demolishing those of the enemy. A few women disguised themselves as men and fought. Some women acted as spies (eg Jane Whorwood, who carried money and information through enemy lines to the king). • Women were affected emotionally by worry and grief and by divided families eg for Susan, Countess of Denbigh, her husband, William, fought for the King at Edgehill, while her eldest son, Basil, Lord Fielding, was on the other side. • Women whose husbands were away were exposed to sexual temptation or to rape. Women were casualties in sieges; like men, they contracted diseases transmitted by mobile soldiers; they were forced to travel even when pregnant and suffered deprivation when war disrupted the economy. Wives of lower- class soldiers and sailors suffered financially as their husband's pay was low and erratic. • The Civil War increased the political activity of women. In 1640 women attempted to vote in the Worcestershire and Suffolk election. Women petitioned Parliament in support of the Levellers and of the Independent Churches. Women appeared before Parliamentary committees pleading for the return of their royalist husband's estates. Women frequently favoured peace initiatives and often joined radical sects.

During the Interregnum the Levellers included many women. Women preached in some of the radical sects and were particularly influential among the Quakers. After the Restoration though there was a return to 'normality' in gender roles and relationships. Women’s activities during the Interregnum generally resulted in more male disapproval than admiration.

NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2011 — page 4 of 35

Topic One: Essay (b) Describe the main features of popular beliefs that were held by people in England between 1558 and 1667. Evaluate the extent of the influence of popular beliefs on the lives of people during this period.

The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include: • Popular beliefs arose from a traditional oral culture based primarily on early pagan superstitions generated from a fear of natural and spiritual forces. • Popular beliefs in early modern England, however, contained an amalgam of aspects of Christianity with traditional pagan beliefs in magic, fortune telling, astrology, prophesy, witchcraft, and spirit beings. • Popular beliefs were concerned more with the daily affairs of life, and the dangers and misfortunes of life than with salvation after death. A supernatural world was believed to exist alongside the natural everyday world and in almost everything there was a supernatural / spiritual explanation. • There were blurred margins between traditional pagan (goblins, fairies, witches, sorcerers, vampires, and werewolves) and Christian (demons and angels) spiritual worlds. • Magic and folklore took various forms (tokens, charms or flowers, divining rods, magic words, the power of healers and cunning men). King Charles II revived the Royal touch to ward off the “King’s Evil” – scrofula. Forms of magic were widely used and never really diminished in this period. • Astrology and horoscope readings were seen as compatible with Christianity, because God ruled the heavens, so stars and planets were his agents. Astrologers were consulted about important decisions because they were believed to be able to give some guidance about the future. Leading practitioners, like John Dee, advised the monarch. Astrological almanacs giving information about the luck associated with particular activities and days were very popular. • Black witchcraft involved the surrender of one’s soul to the devil in return for certain powers and was most often associated with poorer women. Charges of maleficium (the causing of harm using invisible powers) were most common. Witches were popularly believed to have familiars (animals who did their bidding) that they suckled. White witches or cunning folk were usually men, who used magic or good spiritual powers to combat black witchcraft. Acts against witchcraft, making it a capital offence, were passed in 1563 and 1604. • Belief in superstition, magic and witchcraft is considered to have declined during the period through the trickle-down effect of education, literacy, science and social controls. There was a continual war on religious rituals and festivity until at the end of the period separation was drawn between church and communal festivities. Magistrates began to express disbelief in black witchcraft, so it was increasingly difficult to get convictions.

NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2011 — page 5 of 35

The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include: • Popular beliefs encompassed all sectors of the population. It was not an entity, but a range of changing beliefs in different regions, where each community had its own customs. Few experienced a formal education or travelled beyond their home village to be exposed to other beliefs. • They occupied an important place in the lives of people because there was an implicit belief by all in an unseen supernatural world of spirits competing for each human soul. Belief in the devil and the potential salvation or damnation of each soul was a part of popular consciousness. • Popular beliefs were important in influencing each individual’s attitudes, values and perspectives on the vicissitudes of life. They seemed to have a stronger hold on the hearts and minds of people. To protect themselves from personal misfortune, a variety of charms, spells, prayers and herbal remedies were used. Their perceived potential to affect the seasons and weather had a significant influence on an individual’s well-being and survival. People worried about such things as the length and intensity of winter, harvest failure, the success of hunting and fishing ventures. A series of traditional rites and ceremonies were important in allaying these concerns, eg New Year’s Day was to encourage the return of spring, and fasting before Easter helped conserve food for the latter part of winter. Accusations of witchcraft increased in times of economic hardship when people were less willing to give charity. • Taking part in festivals and ceremonies gave members of a community a sense of identity and were important times of fun and release from the rigours of daily life (eg giving gifts on New Year’s Day reinforced status and obligation ties). • At all levels of society, people believed in some supernatural forces at work. They had difficulty distinguishing between the influence of religion or magic, and proved reluctant to part with anything that gave them reassurance, protection, support or comfort in dealing with the dangers and misfortunes of life. • Popular culture did become more secularised. Concerns about how revelry could disrupt public order and get out of hand caused many to stop sponsoring festivities in favour of organised entertainment such as races and displays. Popular amusements conducive to lust and sexual misdemeanour were frowned on, eg May Day celebrations.

Some historians argue that traditional popular beliefs were, by the end of the period, becoming limited to the rural working class. Oral traditions passed into a kind of folklore and popular literature as society was exposed to greater secularisation.

NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2011 — page 6 of 35

Topic One: Essay (c) Describe the foreign policy initiatives that Elizabeth took between 1559 and 1603. Evaluate the extent of her success and any improvement England’s international standing.

The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include: • Elizabeth’s reign coincided with the Catholic Counter-Reformation in Europe driven by the two major powers France and Spain. England was only a minor power and because of her Protestant religious settlement faced a possible Catholic Crusade against her. Foreign policy for England prior to Elizabeth’s reign had rested on the understanding that France was her traditional enemy and Spain (France’s rival) her traditional ally. But could a Protestant England maintain that policy? Scotland – although a Protestant country – was always considered a threat, because of her historic friendship with France (the Auld Alliance). The Netherlands was the most important trading partner. • Elizabeth’s first initiative was to extricate England from the disastrous long-term war with France. Under the Treaty of Cateau-Cambresis (1559) Elizabeth surrendered Calais, England’s last bastion of French soil. This allowed Elizabeth to focus her energies and finances to more productive policy. The French King, Henry II, died shortly after, leaving a period of instability with his wife Catherine de Medici regent. From 1562 to 1598, France was to be distracted by the Wars of Religion in Europe. • French rule in Scotland through the regent, Mary of Guise, with its rigid Catholicism, had not been popular among Scottish Presbyterians. Under the fiery preaching of John Knox, disorder soon erupted. In February 1560, at Cecil’s instigation, Elizabeth made the Treaty of Berwick with Scottish nobles, and in March sent troops. For the first time, Englishmen and Scotsmen fought side by side rather than against one another. • Soon after Mary of Guise died, in the Treaty of Edinburgh (July 1560) it was agreed between France and England that all their land and naval forces would withdraw from Scotland. From France, Mary, Queen of Scots agreed to accept the Presbyterian takeover in exchange for being recognised as ruler and allowed the private exercise of her faith. Scotland, in effect, had now become an ally of England, but only extreme pressure from her Council induced Elizabeth to give limited support when intervention from France seemed imminent. • Helping Protestant rebels in the Netherlands and France – ‘Lighting fires in other men’s houses” as William Cecil put it now became the cornerstone of English foreign policy for the fist half of Elizabeth’s reign. Despite her reluctance to aid rebellion against a ruling monarch and limited financial resources, Elizabeth sent English troops to assist French Huguenots in 1562 and when a Protestant rebellion against Catholic Spanish rule in the Netherlands broke out in 1567 she allowed English volunteers to support them and confiscated a Geonese loan of silver bullion meant to be used to pay Spanish troops. • Mary Stuart fled from Scotland to England after military defeat in a civil war in 1568. Although she remained under ‘house arrest’ in England until 1587 she became the centre of intrigue involving Catholics who wished to see her supplant Elizabeth. • Marriage negotiations with the Duke of Anjou and Duke of Alencon between 1569 and 1572 kept French enmity in check despite the Papal Bull of 1570 excommunicating Elizabeth. But the St Bartholomew Day’s massacre of Huguenots in Paris deeply alarmed English Protestants. Nonetheless Elizabeth was even more concerned at the presence of a large Spanish army in the Netherlands. • The Dutch revolt proved to be the issue that would eventually led to war between England and Spain. England’s economy depended heavily on the export of cloth to Antwerp in the Spanish Netherlands. Also The Netherlands occupied a strategic position only 50kms from Dover from which a Catholic invasion of England could be easily launched. It was crucial to England’s interests that the Dutch remain self- governing, and not fall under the direct control of either Spain or France. • Council and Parliament called for intervention in the Netherlands and France to show solidarity with the Protestant cause in Europe. Although she had a personal dislike of war and distrust of rebels, Elizabeth aided the Dutch rebels unofficially sending money and volunteers and permitted French Huguenots to use England as a base and English Protestants to assist them with munitions and loans. • Part of the reasoning behind a renewal of marriage negotiations with the Duke of Alencon was to try to induce France to act against the Spanish army in the Netherlands by offering to fund an Anjou led army. The Dutch rebels even offered Anjou sovereignty over the Netherlands. However defeat at Antwerp and Anjou’s death ended that venture by 1584. In 1585 the Dutch offered Elizabeth sovereignty of the Netherlands; she declined but agreed to take the Dutch under her protection and in the Treaty of Nonsuch openly provided aid with a subsidy amounting to a third of her annual income and an English army of 6000 commanded by the Earl of Leicester. This was effectively a declaration of war against Spain. • Elizabeth had delayed declaring war against Spain until England’s security was directly threatened by a Catholic Alliance of France and Spain, the assassination of the Dutch Protestant leader William of Orange (1584) and the imminent victory of Spanish forces in the Netherlands. She knew England lacked military resources and war brought crippling expenditure. Although she had a powerful navy, England did not have a standing army and local militia’s were not necessarily well trained or properly equipped. NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2011 — page 7 of 35

• The defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1587 boosted England’s status as the leader of Protestant resistance to the Catholic Counter-reformation. She maintained command of the sea, thwarting further armadas, striking at Philip’s naval bases in Spain and raiding the New World silver fleets through to 1603 without much success. • She also continued her support for the Dutch rebels and French Huguenots. A strong independent Netherlands emerged by 1603 and England gained an ally on the French throne in Henry IV. Even though he converted to Catholicism in 1593, under the Edict of Nantes in 1598 Huguenots were guaranteed freedom of worship. The potential of a Franco-Spanish Catholic Crusade against England was over. • Catholic Ireland always had the potential to be used by the Spanish as a base for an invasion of England. Hugh O’Neill, Earl of Tyrone rebelled against the English with the support of a Spanish army, which landed at Kinsale in 1601. Elizabeth was forced into an expensive campaign in Ireland, sending the Earl of Essex and later Lord Mountjoy to repress the rebellion and secure the country. • The costs of Elizabethan foreign policy had been high, but the realm had been kept secure and the Protestant cause in Europe had been advanced.

The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include: • Historians such as J.E. Neale and A.L. Rowse see the reign of Elizabeth as an age of greatness, when England began to establish itself as a leading power in Western Europe. To them the England that Elizabeth inherited was on the verge of bankruptcy and had little international standing, but by 1603, it was a comparatively stable country, with an expanding economy, power on the international stage and on the verge of acquiring an empire. • Elizabeth’s government had established both its authority at home and its title to respect in Europe. "She is only a woman, only mistress of half an island," marvelled Pope Sixtus V, "and yet she makes herself feared by Spain, by France, by the Empire, by all" http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire. • By the time of Elizabeth’s death, the Northern Netherlands had become sovereign state of the United Provinces. The Edict of Nantes (1598) had granted Huguenots the right to worship in France, and France was no longer seen as major threat to English national security. The defeat of the Spanish Armada, the establishment of the first English colonies in North America and the extension of English influence over Scotland and Ireland, all laid the foundations for the rise of Britain as a major power in Europe. • Parliamentarians looked back on the last 15 years of Elizabeth’s reign as a period in which people and ruler united against all odds, and with divine providence had survived a period of extreme peril from the malevolence of Roman Catholics. They may have been years of severe financial strain, but Elizabethan foreign policy had generally met with approval from the governing class. • Given its limited military and financial resources, England was very restricted in what it could do in foreign affairs. National policy had been shaped as much by circumstances as by the will of the Queen or the persuasions of her privy councillors or the interests of commerce or the pressures of religion. But if the main aim of foreign policy is to protect national security and to prevent invasion, then Elizabethan foreign policy was a success. England had avoided invasion – although perhaps more by luck than judgment. In organizing national defense, major improvements had taken place in the English army and navy. Creation of trained bands and work of lord lieutenant had improved military defense. Improvement in ship design and administration of the Admiralty created a fleet, which could operate across the Atlantic as well as around England. • Recent historians, however, have taken a more complicated view of Elizabethan foreign policy. Although her reign is famous for the defeat of the Armada, some historians point to military failures on land and at sea. The policy of gaining control through colonisation in Ireland had limited success, caused deep resentment among the Anglo-Irish, and resulted in intermittent rebellion. Conquest after Tyrone’s Rebellion was achieved only through major military involvement at considerable financial expense. • Rather than as Heroine of the Protestant cause, she is more often regarded as cautious in her foreign policies. She offered very limited aid to foreign Protestants and failed to provide her commanders with the funds to make a difference abroad. • Throughout her reign – until 1587 – the issue of Elizabeth’s possible marriage and the line of succession to the English throne had an important influence on foreign policy. The problem of Catholic Mary Stuart’s claim to the throne, and the use of marriage as a diplomatic weapon, were factors that complicated and drove policy at times. • Inflation in the last decade of Elizabeth’s rule was the direct result of the expense of war with Spain and rebellion in Ireland. It increased demand for goods, forcing up prices and leading to widespread poverty.

NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2011 — page 8 of 35

Topic One: Essay (d) Describe the traditional structure, function, and privileges of the early Stuart Parliament. Evaluate the impact of James I’s conflict with his parliaments between 1603 and 1625 on the traditional relationship between the monarch and Parliament.

The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include: • The early Stuart Parliament was composed of the monarch, about 80 peers, bishops and judges with the right to sit in the House of Lords and about 460 gentry, lawyers, and merchants who sat as elected representatives in the House of Commons. • Parliaments meetings were irregular, because the monarch alone could summon, adjourn, prorogue and dissolve it. • When the Crown summoned Parliament, an election to the House of Commons was held. In the counties, all males who were freeholders of land worth 40 shillings' annual rent were entitled to vote for two MP’s and the elections were organised by the local sheriff. Borough elections were according to a royal charter and often a formality – the nominees of a powerful patron or the crown was usually elected. Throughout early Stuart parliaments there was a rise in the social status and education of MPs. • The functions of Parliament: o Financial. The House of Commons provided the Crown with extraordinary revenue when needed in the form of direct taxes — subsidies and fifteenths and tenths. Parliament did not, however, audit expenditure, and had no access to the Crown's financial accounts. o Legislative. Subject to royal veto, Parliament could pass statute law (the highest form of law), which was applicable to the whole kingdom. o Judicial. Parliament could act as a court and impeach individuals. The Commons charged and prosecuted and the Lords sat in judgement. o A sounding board. Less formally, Parliament acted as a point of contact between the monarch and representatives of the governing class. Both Houses were bound together by loyalty to the monarch. While it was the duty of the Crown to heed grievances raised in Parliament and remedy them with appropriate laws, MPs had a duty to pass laws and vote taxes to ensure security of the realm. • Privileges: At the opening of each Parliament the Speaker of the House of Commons requested: o Freedom of speech in Parliament. But the Monarch was able to limit what the Commons might legitimately debate. Elizabeth I for example had been careful to distinguish those subjects, which touched on her prerogative rights (such as religion and foreign policy) and could not be freely discussed. Parliament was not meant to be a place of conflict, but one of co-operation. o Freedom from arrest from civil suits while Parliament was sitting. o Freedom to propose new laws, especially those requested by the locality they represented.

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The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include: • Despite the general good will which surrounded James’s accession there was some apprehension about the intentions of this new and ‘foreign’ king. His reputation as author of The Trew Law of Free Monarchies with its emphasis on the divine right of kings had preceded him. Consequently Parliament was very sensitive to any perceived attack upon its traditional privileges and any absolutist tendencies on his part - this is evidenced by The Form of Apology and Satisfaction in 1604. In his early parliaments he faced concern over issues such as immunity from arrest by MP’s, adjudicating disputed elections, crown plans for a full union with Scotland, crown use of monopolies, purveyance and wardship, and introduction of impositions without parliamentary consent. • Despite their differences and James’s notorious extravagance, Parliament still provided him an unprecedented 3 subsidies in peacetime in 1606 after the Gunpowder Plot. It could be argued that these early clashes between James and his parliaments were more apparent than real. The disagreements were over specific issues, rather than a concerted and organised opposition to the crown. Through inadequate Council representation in the Commons, James had failed to explain crown policies clearly. He lacked the presence and skills to manage a contentious Commons and too frequently resorted to hectoring them with lengthy speeches. When the Commons refused to agree to him styling himself ‘King of Great Britain’ he took the title by proclamation instead. He used judges to interpret the law in his favour with regard to impositions (eg Bates Case), which though acknowledged as legal, was resented. Finally, rather than face questioning about his spending in parliament, he curtailed negotiation of the Great Contract. • Conflict with James in his early Parliaments threatened the harmonious relationship and understanding between the governing class and monarch – conflict had become the norm rather than the exception. James was a foreign King determined from the outset not to surrender his divine right and absolute authority. Equally, he was challenged by an English governing class in Parliament anxious to preserve their traditional birthrights and privileges under common law as well as the superior standing of statute law. While accepting that Kings should act within the bounds of the law, James insisted that Parliaments met by royal grace and favour and that dissent with royal policy was both sinful and treasonous. He felt that Parliament should concern itself with providing subsidies and voicing the grievances of the communities they represented rather than discussing royal policy and trying to hold his ministers accountable. The Commons in response became sensitive to any supposed expansion of the royal prerogative. • Moreover, James did allow Parliament to sit for much longer sessions to facilitate the passage of communal and private bills. Even though he had little interest in promotion of an official programme of legislation, he was concerned to deal with grievances from the localities brought to Parliament. James may have found the English parliament less benign than the Scottish parliament – ‘a body without a head’, but he still recognised it was important for effective government as well as gaining additional finance. • Nonetheless, in James’s last parliaments conflict with serious consequences was to arise. In the 1614 Addled Parliament factional divisions at court and in council began to spill over into parliament. One favourite, the Duke of Buckingham was to completely dominate royal policy and the distribution of patronage. There was criticism of royal policy, extravagant spending on favourites and new impositions. Moreover from 1618 the Thirty Years War between Catholic and Protestant began in Europe and was to reawaken anti-Catholic sensibilities in England. So when the 1621 parliament met it duly voted two subsidies to finance expeditions to retrieve the Palatinate for James’s Protestant son-in-law. However, the Commons were also anxious to curtail the impact of the large number of monopolies James had granted as patronage. Some councillors and favourites like Buckingham were implicated and to deflect attention from their own involvement, encouraged Parliament to revive an ancient impeachment process and use it against the Lord Chancellor, Francis Bacon, who had approved the new monopolies. James chose to let them do so. He was preoccupied with a more personal conflict with parliament over the direction of foreign policy and especially his intention to arrange a Spanish marriage for his son Charles. So when the Commons entered a ‘Protestation’ that they ought to be able to discuss such matters, James angrily tore it from the House journal and dissolved parliament, imprisoning Sir Edward Coke and others who had drafted it. NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2011 — page 10 of 35

• A lack of clear definition of nature of parliamentary privilege (freedom from arrest, free speech) compounded the conflict between James and his governing class. The distinction between important matters of state as opposed to what was restricted to the royal prerogative was another major issue. Parliament believed they should be able to discuss foreign policy and religion. Revival of the ancient process of impeachment by Coke further complicated the subject of how far Parliament’s role extended. • However when negotiations for the Spanish match collapsed, under pressure from an aggrieved Prince Charles and Buckingham, James, in an apparent turn around, invited the 1624 Parliament to advise him on foreign policy. He expected Parliament to thereby take responsibility for funding that policy and agreed they could set up a committee to supervise the spending of any subsidies raised for it. James made a further concession to the Commons by signing the Monopolies Act restricting for the first time by legislation the royal prerogative to grant further monopolies. Buckingham and Charles promoted a war against Spain and urged Parliament to impeach Lord Treasurer Cranfield who had warned war would be expensive. • Factional court politics in which Buckingham and Charles had played a leading role, had allowed Parliament to make unexpected gains that would severely alter the harmonious relationship between the monarch and his governing class in parliament. Dangerous precedents had been created. Parliament had been invited to freely discuss foreign policy, could now dispense with ‘evil ministers’, have a committee supervise subsidy expenditure and (by the Monopolies Act) restrict royal power to acting within the law. It remained only to see how much further they would be driven to go to define the relationship between the Crown and Parliament.

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Topic One: Essay (e) Describe the situation in Britain between 1637 and 1642 that led to the outbreak of civil war between Charles I and Parliament. Evaluate the influence of the civil war on people’s lives in England during the 1640s.

The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include: • The crisis that led to the outbreak of civil war between Charles I and Parliament in 1640 began with his attempts to impose royal authority on the Presbyterian Church in Scotland. • In 1637, Archbishop of Canterbury, William Laud, required the Kirk to accept a prayer book and order of service closely modeled on the 1633 Anglican one. This brought Scottish fears to a head. The elite saw this as the action of an alien king, who now sought to dictate how they worshipped and what they believed. Worse, to Scottish Presbyterian eyes, the Laudian reforms smacked of Catholicism. Nobility, gentry, and the Kirk were united in opposition. Riots greeted the new prayer book; a large portion of the nobility petitioned against its introduction. An alliance of the landed elite and the Presbyterian clergy was formed and a provisional opposition government set up in Edinburgh. A National Covenant was signed in 1638 by nobility, gentry, clergy, and merchants united against “ungodly rule and popery”. They protested their loyalty to the King but refused to accept the “innovations” of the liturgy. Without the support of Scottish nobility or the Kirk, royal authority throughout Scotland ceased to exist. • In Nov 1638 the Scottish National Assembly abolished the High Commission and removed bishops. They also started to collect an army. • The English felt sympathy for the Scottish cause against Charles’s imposition of the new Prayer Book and he had difficulty raising a willing and effective militia to suppress the Covenanters. • This led to the recall from Ireland of Thomas Wentworth (Earl of Strafford), who advised the King to call the English parliament to vote subsidies for an army against the Scots. The ensuing Short Parliament was disappointing. Led by Pym and Hampden, the House of Commons wanted redress of grievances before they would vote subsidies. • In the Second Bishops war the Scots captured Newcastle cutting off London’s vital coal supply and occupying the north of England. Charles signed the Treaty of Ripon. He was forced to pay 850 pounds a day to provision the Scots army and prevent them moving further south. Defeated and unable to pay these costs Charles looked to London financiers, but they would not provide loans unless Parliament was recalled. • The Long Parliament was called in 1640 with Charles I desperate for Parliament’s aid to contain an armed rebellion by the Scots that had escalated to an invasion of the north of England. It was an opportunity therefore for Parliament to put to right their past grievances with the King and ensure they would not be repeated once the Scottish crisis had been resolved. • These grievances involved: o Charles’ association with despotism through his mismanagement of parliament 1625-29, his claim to rule by divine right alone, the years of personal rule 1629 to 1640 resulting in the alienation of his governing class and dismissal of the Short Parliament 1640. They centered around the issues of: § arbitrary taxation; Tunnage and Poundage, impositions, forced loans, ship money, forest fines, distraint of knighthood. § arbitrary imprisonment; Five Knights case, Sir John Eliot, use of Star Chamber, John Hampden’s case. § arbitrary government; Thorough policy under Thomas Wentworth, Earl of Strafford, in the northern counties and Ireland. o Charles’ association with Catholicism through his marriage to Henrietta Maria and tolerance of Catholicism at court, his promotion of Arminianism through Archbishop William Laud in the Church of England and the use of harsh enforcement through bishops and the Court of High Commission. • Throughout the Long Parliament the aims of John Pym and other leaders were therefore to challenge and change specific royal prerogatives: o To do away with evil counselors (eg Strafford and Laud), so that the ‘natural advisors’ from the governing class could be listened to. This defied Charles right to appoint ministers. o To attack the instruments of Charles’ personal rule and make him more economically dependent on Parliament, This subverted his prerogative right to raise revenue. o Ensuring a permanent place for Parliament in the machinery of government. This changed the authority kings normally exercised over Parliament. • Pym and his group considered they were restoring the traditional balance between King, Lords and Commons under the constitution that Charles by arbitrary acts had damaged. o The passage of the Triennial Act placed a three year limit on any period of personal rule, forcing the King to summon Parliament after that time. NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2011 — page 12 of 35

o The Act against the dissolution of Parliament meant the king could not dissolve Parliament without its own consent. o By the Tunnage and Poundage Act the King was forced to give up the right to impose any customs duties without Parliament’s assent o Revenue gathering innovations (such as ship money, forest fines and distraint of knighthood) used during the personal rule were abolished conflicting with the monarch’s prerogative rights of extra- ordinary taxation. o Prerogative courts used to enforce royal policy during the personal rule, eg Star Chamber, High Commission, and regional councils were abolished attacking the King’s rights as the fount of justice. o The “Root and Branch Petition” calling for the abolition of the episcopacy infringed on the King’s rights as Head of the Church. • Further challenges to the royal prerogative in the second session of the Long Parliament such as the “Grand Remonstrance”, arose from the need to have an army in Ireland to put down the Catholic rebellion there. It split the Commons over whether the Parliament should have the right to veto the King’s appointment of ministers and control of the militia simply because they suspected he might use those powers to reverse the gains they had already made. • However, the fiasco of the attempted arrest of the Five Members by Charles confirmed those suspicions and caused the Long Parliament to further attack the royal prerogative by the excluding bishops from the House of Lords and passing the Militia Ordinance granting control of the militia to Parliament itself. • Charles left London and called the Commission of Array attempting to secure the support of the county militias. Parliament offered him the Nineteen Propositions (claiming control of Ministers, the militia and Church matters as well as guardianship of his children). As a basis for negotiation it left little room for compromise. Charles formally declared war on Parliament 22nd August, 1642.

The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include: • The war was a huge shock to English society. The taking-up of arms against the King represented to many ‘a world tipped upside down’, a society where things would never be quite the same again. • The war split the nation, forcing people to side with the monarchy or Parliament. For some this was a very difficult choice, as they found themselves torn between loyalties to the King on the one hand and concern for the status of the governing class on the other. It has been estimated that 10% of the adult male population fought in the war. • The gentry in twenty counties pleaded with Parliament to allow them to be neutral, but all areas were dragged into the fighting in some way. Both sides recruited as many men as possible, often from the same areas. Initially they relied on volunteers, later they had to forcibly conscript. • Desertion was common. Loyalty was to their county rather than King or Parliament. Most were chiefly concerned with the fortunes of their local community than national politics or the possible outcome of the war. In some counties, armed groups, called Clubmen, organised to try and persuade the Royalists and Parliamentarians to take their war somewhere else, usually without success. • Lost lives – bodies were stripped of valuables and buried quickly to avoid disease. Some prisoners of war were ransomed back to their families. Some of the wounded and sick were shot. If the effects of disease and the fighting are taken into account among both soldiers and civilians as much as 100,000 people may have lost their lives. • Accounts tell of soldiers occupying and looting farms and farmhouses and molesting and abusing the occupants. Soldiers on both sides committed atrocities, acting as if they were beyond the law, murdering and raping vulnerable civilians. Those living in towns under attack especially, faced the prospect of losing their lives as well as their possessions. • Homes and churches were vandalised, eg cutting open feather mattresses, destroying books and manuscripts, breaking down fencing, killing animals, spoiling crops and cutting down fruit trees. • Taxes, forced loans, sequestration by both sides meant no one’s property was safe. • Forced billeting. Both sides expected the local population to accommodate their armies. • Normal life virtually stopped in many areas. Travel and trade was extremely hazardous. Goods were often confiscated by soldiers before they got to their destination. Passes were needed for travel. • Women were left on their own to survive. Gender roles were distorted by the war, as women took on extra responsibilities eg Brilliana Harley supervised the defence of a town against Royalist forces. • In 1643 a crowd of women with white ribbons marched for an end to the fighting. They fought barehanded against cavalry before being dispersed. • Nonetheless, some historians believe we may have an exaggerated view of the impact of the war on the daily lives of ordinary people. Life was not continuously disrupted by the fighting, and for many the struggle for subsistence took their full attention. NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2011 — page 13 of 35

Topic One: Essay (f) Describe the situation that led to the adoption of the Instrument of Government and the Protectorate in 1653. Evaluate the effectiveness of the Protectorate in providing stable government till 1659.

The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include: • On 7th February 1649, the Monarchy in England was officially abolished as being ‘unnecessary, burdensome and dangerous’. The execution of Charles I in 1649 created a power vacuum in England that was filled by a variety of political experiments that had difficulty finding stability and acceptance in a time of chaos and turmoil. Overriding all of this was the ghost of Charles I, and the questions over the legality of both his execution and the experiments themselves. • England now officially became a Commonwealth, with the House of Lords abolished. Conservatives realised they were in fact under a military regime using the Rump Parliament as a cloak of legality and respectability – the last vestige of the traditional political system. On 17 May, the Rump Parliament (the 60 to 70 survivors of Pride’s Purge from the elected Long Parliament of 1640) enacted that England should be governed by a Council of State with 40 members (31 MPs and 9 army officers). The Rump Parliament itself continued in constant session. It had to cope with dislocation caused by the Civil Wars, the expectations of a politicised army, the hopes of republicans, an economic slump and pressures for religious reform. • Seizure of power by the army had alienated the majority of the traditional governing class, who recognised the threat to their own status and authority. All males over the age of 18 were required to swear the ‘Engagement Oath’ to be ‘true and faithful’ to the Commonwealth. This was too much for many gentry, who preferred to drop out of public life. • By 1653, the Rump Parliament’s continued obstruction of even modest social, legal and religious reforms and avoidance of the prospect of new elections frustrated army leaders. Cromwell found himself having to choose between his role as an MP and army commander-in-chief. Having no large group of civilian MPs to support him, Cromwell chose to break all links with traditional forms of government and used the army to dissolve the Rump. The New Model Army was now the sole political authority directing affairs and Cromwell their most important leader. • Between 1649 and 1653, Cromwell became the arbiter of English affairs despite the fact that military campaigns took him away from politics at first. As the Commonwealth’s most successful general, Cromwell was required to ensure her security from outside threats and used the army to re-impose English control of Ireland and suppress Charles II’s attempt, with the support of the Scots, to invade England. He also put down a Leveller mutiny in the army at Burford. His experiences of leading the army to victory over all opponents, combined with his deep religious convictions, made him believe that he and the army were God’s chosen instruments. • The Barebones Assembly that replaced the Rump was simply a reflection of the army leadership’s desire (and perhaps Cromwell’s) to experiment with ‘godly reformation’ in England. It was an appointed group of 140 gentry selected for their ‘godliness’ with 5 representatives from Scotland and six from Ireland. Despite constant divisions between radicals and conservatives, they did introduce civil marriage, registration of births, deaths and marriages, more humane treatment of the mentally ill and simplified law court procedures. However, an attempt to abolish tithes upset those who were still profiting from their impropriation of what was meant to be a source of Church revenue, and moderates in the Assembly voted to dissolve themselves and hand power back to Cromwell. Cromwell, himself, appears to have been seriously alarmed at the confused wrangling within the Assembly. • A council of army officers then devised the Instrument of Government. England was to be ruled by a Lord Protector (Cromwell refused the title of monarch) chosen by Parliament for life. He would be assisted by a Council of State. A Parliament of 400 would represent England, Ireland and Scotland and would be called every three years to sit for five months. The Engagement Act was repealed to allow a greater number to be willing to serve. A standing army of 30 000 men would be maintained under the Lord Protector. Religious toleration would be granted except to Anglicans and Catholics. • The Protectorate’s constitution was not fully accepted by the ensuing Parliament. Argument arose over the role and size of army, Cromwell’s powers and the degree of religious toleration permitted. This move to what seemed a more familiar, and traditional form of government in an attempt to find political stability was doomed to fail.

NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2011 — page 14 of 35

The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include: • Each of the Protectorate’s political experiments was unsuccessful and unacceptable to the governing class. The ‘ghost’ of Charles I and the traditional appeal of monarchy hung over all the political experiments, but the role of the army and concerns about its political involvement and power were most crucial in determining their lack of success. Seizure of power by the army had alienated the majority of the traditional governing class, who recognised its pretentions as a threat to their own status and authority in central government and in the counties. • For most of the governing class, the civil wars had been a traumatic experience not to be repeated. They could not accept any government associated with the regicides. The vast majority of gentry simply opted to drop out of public life and any active part in local government leaving their roles to inexperienced members of the lesser gentry. • A standing army remained necessary throughout the Protectorate to ensure Britain’s security against foreign threats and rebellion from the disaffected. However, the presence of such a large army was also expensive to maintain and the heavy taxation for it was widely resented especially since many gentry had lost estates, suffered imprisonment and been severely fined during the Civil Wars. • The Instrument of Government and Humble Petition and Advice was a return to more familiar and traditional political mechanisms that had the potential to be more acceptable to the governing class and bring greater stability. The Council and Parliaments were civilian-dominated. Cromwell had become Lord Protector because he was the only choice. He had led the army to a remarkable series of victories and sympathised with many of its aims and aspirations. The army trusted him and he could control its more radical elements. As a typical country gentleman concerned for law and order and stability, he had some standing with the conservative governing class. He had rejected military dictatorship showing he wanted a return to “the old ways” with due respect to civil rights and the rule of law. It seemed that without him, the country might descend into chaos. Nonetheless, although he bridged the civilian–military gap, Cromwell’s leadership qualities, was not enough on its own to attract the support of the governing class and ensure stability. • The seizure of political power in the localities by the army Major-Generals in 1655 – 56 completely alienated the traditional governing class. They deeply resented the manner in which ‘lowborn’ army officers were able to defy or ignore their status and authority and make demands of them that were demeaning. The moral reforms they attempted to institute were highly unpopular and a cause for much bickering and discontent. • The great degree of religious variance and toleration permitted under the Protectorate was also highly controversial. Cromwell’s loosely organised national Church, desire for religious toleration and the emergence of radical sects was alarming to the governing class. • Some positives did emerge from the Protectorate. After Cromwell’s victories in Ireland and Scotland, the Navigation Act, the development of a powerful navy and defeat of the Dutch, Britons felt not only more secure, but experienced an enhanced international reputation. However, the Protectorate had not provided domestic stability. The governing class still could not come to terms with what to them were essentially illegal regimes bolstered by a large and expensive standing army. They longed for a return to traditional political mechanisms and to their conventional roles in central and local government and society. To them stability, prosperity and order could only come with the restoration of monarchy. NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2011 — page 15 of 35

Achievement Achievement with Merit Achievement with Excellence

Through her / his response to the first Through her / his response to the first Through her / his response to the part of the essay question, the part of the essay question, the first part of the essay question, candidate has accurately described candidate has accurately explained the candidate has accurately factors that contributed to the factors that contributed to the and perceptively explained decision. decision. factors that contributed to the decision. (See content guidelines for examples of (See content guidelines for examples of relevant historical information that could relevant historical information that could (See content guidelines for examples be included in the candidate’s answer.) be included in the candidate’s answer.) of relevant historical information that could be included in the candidate’s answer.)

Through her / his response to the Through her / his response to the Through the breadth, depth second part of the essay question, second part of the essay question, and/or range of ideas in her / his the candidate has accurately the candidate has evaluated the response to the second part of described the consequences of the consequences of the decision. the question the candidate has decision. comprehensively evaluated the consequences of the decision.

(See content guidelines for examples of (See content guidelines for examples of (See content guidelines for examples relevant historical information that could relevant historical information that could of relevant historical information that be included in the candidate’s answer.) be included in the candidate’s answer.) could be included in the candidate’s answer.) The candidate has structured and The candidate has structured and The candidate has structured organised her / his information using organised her / his information using and organised her / his an appropriate essay format. an appropriate essay format. information using an appropriate and effective essay format. • Introductory paragraph • Introductory paragraph • Relevant, structured and • Relevant, structured and • Introductory paragraph logically sequenced logically sequenced • Relevant, structured and paragraphs paragraphs logically sequenced • Conclusion • Conclusion paragraphs • Conclusion The candidate has provided an argument, i.e. the candidate has The candidate has provided a stated a view and supported it with convincing argument, i.e. the relevant and accurate evidence candidate has a clearly (probably most obvious in the articulated view and has evaluative part of her / his essay). supported it with sound reasoning and relevant, accurate, and significant evidence (probably most obvious in the evaluative part of her / his essay).

NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2011 — page 16 of 35

Content Guidelines Topic Two: New Zealand in the Nineteenth Century

Topic Two: Essay One

Describe the various ways in which New Zealand was connected to the outside world during the early contact period. Evaluate which connection had the most significant impact on different Māori societies between 1800 and 1840.

The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include: • The connections that were made between New Zealand and the outside world were centred mainly on the following areas:

Whaling: o Plenty of opportunities for connections to the outside world as Māori worked on whaling ships and travelled to London, Sydney, and Hobart. These Māori whalers weren’t always well treated, but they learned a great deal about the world outside New Zealand. o The Bay of Islands was frequently the location of stopovers for whalers. Many negotiated for sex with Māori women. The whalers also wanted water, food, and timber. Economic connections to the outside world were made as trade grew, particularly with New South Wales. Kororareka became notorious and was known as the “hell hole of the South Pacific”. o Along the east coast from Mahia all the way to Stewart Island there were shore-based whaling stations. Intermarriage between Pākehā whalers and Māori women was very common. Māori also became very involved in shore-based whaling. Sealing: o There was some contact between sealers and Māori and some intermarriage especially in the Deep South around Stewart Island. Sealing ships came from Hobart, Sydney, Britain, and the United States. The majority of the sealers were American. Māori in Murihiku (Southland) and on Stewart Island and Ruapuke provided food and labour. All these characteristics of the sealing industry helped connect this country to the outside world. The timber trade: o This was concentrated largely in the far north, especially Hokianga. Māori benefited from ship building as capital was pumped into the hapū associated with the ship builders. Thomas McDonnell’s shipyard at Te Horeke came under the mana of Te Taonui of Te Mahurehure (New Zealand Historical Atlas). Traders: o Most of the traders that visited New Zealand during this period did so erratically, but some Europeans settled in New Zealand in order to be traders. Often they worked as agents of trading companies based in Sydney. Some came under Māori control but they were important mediators between Māori and the outside world. Traders certainly helped make economic connections to the outside world. Intermarriage: o Many Māori women who had either permanent or temporary relationships with Pākehā men served as important connections between the cultures and the outside world. Missionary contact with Māori: o As a result of a European evangelical revival, the Church Missionary Society (Anglican) established their mission in Rangihoua in the Bay of Islands in 1814. Their initial plan was to civilise Māori in order to evangelise them. The Methodist (or Wesleyan) mission began in Whangaroa in 1823 and the Catholic Mission was established at Kororareka in 1838 after the arrival of the Frenchman, Bishop Pompallier. The missionaries connected this country to the outside world both socially, economically and politically through their attempts to change Māori culture into one modelled on a British Christian view of morality, their teaching of agricultural skills which helped create a thriving economic base and through their connecting Māori to a relationship with the Crown – William Yate and the 1831 petition to William IV. The increasing involvement of the British Crown in New Zealand: o Despite their reluctance to be involved and the crown did build relationships with Māori. Early Māori links with NSW Governors; chiefs Hongi and Waikato met King George IV in 1820; the Elizabeth Affair, Busby and the Declaration of Independence; Captain Hobson as Lieutenant Governor. o Busby moved to create a flag for this country in response to the seizure of the “Sir George Murray”, a flag which was clearly referenced to the flag of England.

NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2011 — page 17 of 35

The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include: • Arguments based on the significance of contact with the deep sea whalers who called for extended periods in the Bay of Islands resulting in: o Growing lawlessness, contributing to the notion of the ‘hellhole of the Pacific’ o The introduction of sexually transmitted infections which would impact significantly on Māori fertility and mortality o An ability for Māori to join whaling crews and travel overseas, creating an awareness of other societies and cultures. • Māori agency was at work during this period as Māori took Pākehā goods and ideas and used them for their own reasons and spread them amongst themselves. There was significant change in the lifestyles of many Māori as they embraced aspects of European life, marrying European men and adopting and adapting their tools, artefacts, and weapons etc. for their own use. However, many Māori in certain areas at certain times suffered from disease because of a lack of immunity. • The impact of Missionary Christianity on Māori. This was a significant impact as it changed the world views of many Māori . Initially, very few Māori converted to Christianity as Hongi Hika dominated the missionaries. (He may have protected the missionaries in order to give the Bay of Islands a reputation for peace, which might enhance the amount of trade that took place in the region ). In the 1830s, thousands of Māori converted to Christianity. (Candidates are likely to discuss the views of different historians concerning this issue. High-performing candidates will do so in a manner that focuses on the impact of Christianity on Māori rather than a long download of historiography. Some may discuss the importance of literacy in Māori conversion). By 1840, many Māori had begun to develop their own versions of Christianity, which in some cases rejected missionary interpretations of the Bible. • The growing importance of the musket and the changes that occurred to relations between Māori and Pākehā as a result. The musket meant Pākehā became crucial to survival as a source of weapons for a new form of warfare. This was a significant change as Māori had initially had considerable control over the Pākehā traders. • The changes that occurred to Māori warfare as a result of the introduction of the musket. A new type of warfare for the old reasons. The Musket Wars killed 20 000. This had a significant impact on Māori societies. In many cases, this led to migration from traditional lands. While different societies had differing degrees of contact, the societal dislocation caused by conflict affected Māori societies throughout the North Island and to a lesser degree in the South Island. • Pākehā involvement in inter-tribal affairs (eg Elizabeth Affair) had an impact on the Māori world. • There was an exchange of ideas and beliefs during this period. It was a two-way process, eg Pākehā imitated Māori medicine as well as vice versa. • Pan-tribalism began to develop during this period (eg the Declaration of Independence) as some Māori began to unite in response to outside influences. This was to become much more significant in the post- Treaty period. • Not all Māori societies were affected in the same way. For Nga Puhi the impact of the whalers, missionaries and traders was considerable. For inland societies there was relatively little impact. While some hapu moved to where there was access to trade and to where flax grew in profusion allowing for commerce to flourish, for many change was to come after the Treaty.

Fatal Impact versus Acculturation: Candidates will be familiar with this discussion. It is one that needs to be integrated into an argument rather than a descriptive account of what Harrison Wright claims and Belich et alia refute. NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2011 — page 18 of 35

Topic Two: Essay Two

Describe the different methods by which Māori attempted to assert sovereignty in Taranaki from 1860 to 1900. Evaluate the extent to which these attempt to assert sovereignty were successful by 1900.

The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include: • A number of wars were fought in Taranaki by Imperial troops and colonial militia against Taranaki Māori and members of Te Kingitanga. Māori also attempted to assert sovereignty through the emergence of prophetic movements that combined traditional and new aspects of religious practice in a response to colonisation. At Parihaka this took the shape of the extraordinary response of passively resisting land alienation. • In the period after the initial Pākehā settlement of New Plymouth, several blocks of land had been purchased from Taranaki and Te Ati Awa hapū. Most of this land was inland and covered in bush. Pākehā settlers were eager to acquire the more fertile land around the Waitara River, which flowed into a river mouth harbour. New Plymouth lacked a decent harbour. • The settlers were jealous that 4000 Māori in Taranaki owned 800 000 hectares while the original New Zealand Company purchase for New Plymouth was just 1400 hectares. • In one of his dispatches, Gore Browne alleged that Māori had far more land than they needed and that the settlers would get hold of it “recte si possint, si non quocunque modo” (“fairly, if possible, if not, then by any means at all”). • The establishing of Kingitanga in 1858 was viewed by most Pākehā as a land-holding movement. This was a time when the populations of Auckland and New Plymouth were increasing. Governor Thomas Gore Browne believed that Māori needed to be taught a “sharp lesson”. • Governor Gore Browne believed the rumours that Māori who wanted to sell land were being intimidated by a pupuri whenua land league. In 1859, he had announced that any Māori wanting to sell land were able to do so without the consent of their chiefs. (This was a direct breach of Article Two of the Treaty, which affirmed chiefly authority ). • Governor Gore Browne saw the dispute over the sale of the Waitara block as an issue of sovereignty. When Te Teira offered the land for sale, the paramount chief of the area, Wiremu Kingi Te Rangitake, objected. He argued that Te Teira didn’t have the mana or support needed to make the sale. o When the survey began, Wiremu Kingi’s supporters disrupted it by pulling out the survey pegs. o In February, Governor Gore Browne declared martial law and troops were sent in from New Plymouth. Waitara was occupied by troops, and Kingi’s pa Te Kohia was bombarded. The Te Ati Awa garrison abandoned the pa with little loss. o Wiremu Kingi had not initially supported the establishment of Kingitanga, but he now sought an alliance with Te Wherowhero. Kingitanga sent a force of volunteers to support Kingi in Taranaki. This was significant as it showed that Kingitanga would support Māori landholders in their disputes against the British. (Governor Grey later used Kingitanga’s involvement in the Taranaki War as part of his excuse to invade the Waikato). o On 27 June 1860, Te Ati Awa and their allies inflicted some heavy losses on British troops at the twin pa of Puketakauere and Onukukaitara near Waitara. On 6 November the British troops gained their first success when they drove Ngāti Haua and Waikato from their defences at Mahoetahi. o In July 1860, Governor Gore Browne convened the Kohimarama Conference, at which he attempted to undermine Wiremu Kingi and the Kingitanga (neither Kingi nor Te Wherowhero were invited) by having other North Island chiefs reaffirm aspects of the Treaty of Waitangi. o For almost three months, early in 1861, General Pratt led more than 2000 men on an advance by the means of a sap (trench) and a series of redoubts against Māori occupying pa and rifle pits at the bush edge on the bank of the Waitara River. o The conflict remained unresolved as neither side was strong enough to defeat the other, and a ceasefire was agreed in March 1861. Māori continued to control the Tataraimaka block but lost control of some of the land around Waitara. o When Governor Grey reoccupied the Tataraimaka block before giving up land at Waitara, there were further incidents around New Plymouth • Tension continued in the late 1860s with the rise of the Pai Marire prophetic movement which led to an attempt to assert sovereignty through a return to traditional Māori values mingled with aspects of the Old Testament • Te Ua Haumene was the founder and prophet of the Pai Mārire (Hauhau) Church. He claimed that he had had a revelation from God in which he was appointed to lead Māori to sovereignty over New Zealand. When some of his followers ambushed a government patrol in Taranaki, Te Ua was presented with the victims’ heads. This incident was followed by a major war between followers of Pai Mārire and kūpapa on NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2011 — page 19 of 35

Moutoa Island in the Whanganui River. Later, some followers of Pai Mārire killed a missionary, Carl Volkner, on the East Coast. Te Ua was essentially a religious leader but it was very difficult for him to contain his followers within the spiritual boundaries that he established. • Another way that Māori in Taranaki attempted to assert sovereignty was through the actions of Tïtokowaru who responded to the creeping confiscation of land in South Taranaki with a hit and run guerrilla campaign against Pākehā settlers. o Titokowaru may have intended to undertake a peaceful response to land alienation - At the beginning of 1867 Titokowaru began his great peace campaign, symbolised by his proclamation: 'This is the year of the daughters, this is the year of the lamb', but war broke out again on 9 June 1868 when, on his orders, Nga Ruahine killed three military settlers on disputed land at Ketemarae. He conducted these raids from his base at Te Ngutu o te Manu (the beak of the bird). He also goaded the Armed Constabulary into attacking him on his own ground. He staged a remarkable victory at Te Ngutu o te Manu on September 7, 1868. This is the battle in which Von Tempsky was killed and McDonnell’s reputation shattered. o Tïtokowaru went on to defeat McDonnell’s successor, Whitmore at Moturoa, but on the verge of an attack on Wanganui, his warriors deserted him, possibly because of an affair that Tïtokowaru may have been having with another chief’s wife. • Events at Parihaka were a further significant way in which Māori addressed the question of sovereignty through a renunciation of fighting for a non-aggressive method of resolving the alienation of land. • Located halfway between Mount Taranaki and the Tasman Sea, Parihaka became the centre of a peaceful resistance movement from the mid-1860s. The movement involved not only other Taranaki tribes, but also Māori from around the country. The confiscation of Taranaki Māori land prompted Te Whiti-o-Rongomai and Tohu Kakahi to develop a campaign to resist European settlement on confiscated land. • Parihaka was created in 1867. Te Whiti and Tohu Kakahi and their 600 followers developed a community centred on religion and peace. It was a model village built on hard work, enterprise and communal responsibility. Though they did reject some Pākehā institutions, the spiritual leadership provided by Te Whiti and Tohu was very positive. The aim of Te Whiti and Tohu was to save the land and restore the self-respect of the people. Energy was directed into developing large-scale cultivations of maize, potatoes, tobacco and vegetables. • Parihaka was established on land that had been confiscated but not yet occupied. Te Whiti felt that the confiscation of the land was unfair. He was angered by the government’s failure to keep its promise to set aside reserves for the Māori people. • In 1879, the government planned to open up the Waimate Plains to Pākehā farmers. Surveying began on confiscated land on the Waimate Plain without setting aside Māori reserves. The surveyors ran their projected roads right through the cultivations of the Parihaka settlement. • In response, Te Whiti devised a policy to put pressure on the government. Under the leadership of Te Whiti and Tohu Kakahi, Parihaka Māori embarked upon a ploughing campaign to protest against European settlement on confiscated Māori land. This campaign used non-violent methods. Te Whiti’s followers disrupted these surveys by ploughing and fencing land occupied by settlers. Each day, two men went out from Parihaka with a team of horses to plough up the land of Pākehā farmers nearby. Many were arrested and held without trial in the South Island. As each pair was arrested, another two were sent out. The protests continued, and more took part. They also cut the numbers off survey pegs and pulled them out and erected fences across the roads. • In 1881, the West Coast Settlements Act was passed, making it legal to jail protestors without trial for up to two years. The jails could not hold the prisoners, and most were released. • Parihaka became a concern to the government as it was seen as a place that could reignite Māori opposition to Pākehā progress. Hazel Riseborough wrote ‘Parihaka had become a haven for the dispossessed and disillusioned from the length and breadth of the coast, and as far away as North Auckland, the King Country, Wairarapa and the Chatham Islands.’ • Te Whiti was turned into a bogeyman by the Pākehā press. He was seen not just as a raving religious fanatic but also as a threat to the stability of the whole country. According to the press, he was preparing for rebellion against the Queen. The presence of Titokowaru in the Parihaka settlement was enough to make alarm bells ring in the minds of the Taranaki settlers, who were strongly represented in Parliament by leading politicians like Harry Atkinson. • Parihaka became a symbol for many Māori, and its people received food and other supplies from many tribes throughout the country – including those as far away as the Chatham Islands. • The invasion decision was based on the imminent return to New Zealand of Governor Gordon, who would never have agreed to the attack. Judge Prendergast signed the invasion order. (Dick Scott, p 100) NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2011 — page 20 of 35

• In October 1881, a government proclamation demanded that Te Whiti and Tohu step aside and accept the confiscations or risk war. Te Whiti must be taught a lesson and be made to recognise the dominance of the Pākehā. Rumours that Parihaka was fortified also inflamed Pākehā fears. • On the morning of 5 November 1881 (while the Governor was out of the country), some 1 600 volunteers and Armed Constabulary invaded the settlement. More than 2 000 villagers sat quietly on the marae and put up no resistance as a group of singing children greeted the force led by Native Minister John Bryce. Bryce had described Parihaka as ‘that headquarters of fanaticism and disaffection’. He was a local MP and had fought in the war against Titokowaru.

NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2011 — page 21 of 35

The candidate’s response to the second part of essay question could include: • Conflict continued sporadically but failed to successfully assert sovereignty through force of arms. • A skirmish at Allen’s Hill, above Omata, on 2 October 1863 involved members of the 57th Regiment, the Taranaki Mounted Volunteers and the Taranaki Rifle Volunteers. After the fighting at Allen’s Hill, the Māori built several pa on the Kaitake range, inland from Oakura. They were driven out of the area by troops and militia in March 1864 and a redoubt was built to protect local military settlers. • Te Ua Haumene’s failed to successfully contain the Pai Marie movement within its early focus on peace. While his message for Māori was the ‘triumph of righteousness’ over the military forces that were opposing their attempts to assert their sovereignty over their land, the involvement of some of his followers in the death of missionary Carl von Volkner saw many Pakeha regard his movement as far from peaceful. • After the death of Te Ua in 1866, Pai Mārire continued as the faith of the Kīngitanga. Matutaera, the second Māori king, had been rebaptised by Te Ua in August 1864 as Tāwhiao (bind the world). Tāwhiao took these teachings back to the King Country. • After the collapse of his attempts to assert sovereignty Titokowaru remained in Ngati Maru country until 1871, when he reoccupied his old territories, building villages at Omutarangi and Taikatu, and, subsequently, at Okaiawa, where his new meeting house was named Te Aroha Kainga. He came to a tacit understanding with the government that neither would molest the other; organised a highly successful commercial enterprise selling cocksfoot grass-seed to settlers and making £3,000 a year, and established an increasingly close alliance with Te Whiti and Tohu Kakahi at Parihaka. It was almost certainly Titokowaru's military reputation which protected central Taranaki as an independent Māori state through most of the 1870s. • By 1878 Pakeha fear of Titokowaru had faded sufficiently for creeping confiscation to begin again. At first Titokowaru did not actively oppose the surveys, and accepted government payments to the value of at least £900. By 1879 Titokowaru had joined with Te Whiti –o-Rongomai and Tohu Kakahi and was orchestrating a campaign of active but non-violent resistance: the removal of survey parties and their gear, the ploughing-up of disputed land, and eventually the overloading of government resources through the peaceful acceptance of mass arrest at Parihaka. • The New Zealand Settlements Act 1863 enabled the confiscation of land from ‘rebels’. Actually, all land appropriated under the act was in practice made available for Pākehā settlers. No serious effort was made to compensate ‘loyal’ or non-combatant Māori. • By 1865, 2 million acres (809,000 hectares) – the whole of the western projection of the North Island, from Pukearuhe in the north to the Waitōtara River in the south – had been seized, at least on paper • The Native Lands Act of 1862 was instrumental in the setting up of Land Courts to determine individual title to land previously held by communal interests. These courts removed land from Māori control more effectively than confiscation • Bryce ordered the arrest of Parihaka’s leaders. In the following days, he ordered the destruction of the village and the dispersal of the bulk of its inhabitants. The soldiers then systematically wrecked the settlement, and Māori tradition speaks of brutality and rape. • Te Whiti and Tohu were arrested in 1881 and exiled and imprisoned until 1883. In their absence, Parihaka was rebuilt and the ploughing campaigns continued into the 1890s. The imprisonment of Parihaka protesters without trial also continued until the late 1890s. • Te Whiti was charged with ‘wickedly, maliciously, and seditiously contriving and intending to disturb the peace’. Held without trial, he was not released until 1883, when he returned to the ruined Parihaka settlement. Te Whiti and Tohu continued to lead peaceful Māori protest, and Te Whiti was imprisoned again for six months in 1886. • Long promised reserves were eventually set aside for Māori owners, but most were placed in public trust and let to settlers on terms over which the Māori owners had no control. In 1892, the West Coast Settlement Reserves Act brought in a system of renewable leases to settlers on over 200 000 acres of Māori land. Māori persisted with the ploughing campaigns in protest at the Act. In 1897, 92 Māori were arrested for ploughing in protest at delays in resolving the grievances over the Native Trustee’s management of these leases. NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2011 — page 22 of 35

• The presses were banned from the field of action by Bryce. They were ambivalent about the government’s actions, but the great majority of colonists were reportedly in favour. Te Whiti and Tohu were detained without trial for 16 months. The government managed to suppress all official documents relating to these events, and their publication in New Zealand was delayed until 1883 and 1884. Some prisoners were held for up to 18 years without trial. Bryce and others were in time shown up as heavy- handed and fanatical. • In the absence of the leadership, Parihaka fell away and ceased to pose a threat to the government. Parihaka was destroyed for a time as a viable village. It never regained its full strength. Parihaka and other Taranaki villages lost most of their land to the confiscations. • Te Whiti and Tohu died in 1907 within a few months of each other. The white albatross feather, which Te Whiti’s followers adopted as a symbol protecting the mana of the Parihaka settlement, remains an enduring emblem among Te Ati Awa. NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2011 — page 23 of 35

Topic Two: Essay Three Describe the changes that took place in the gold industry in the North and South Islands between 1858 and 1900. Evaluate the impact of these changes on the economic and social lives of people in both North and South islands until 1900.

The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include: • From the beginnings of Pākehā settlement, there was a search for gold. The discovery of gold was encouraged by governments and dreamed of by individuals hoping to better themselves. Gold was valuable and portable, and it gave hope of wealth and vast profits. As an export, it would pay for imports. • There were rumours of gold in New Zealand as early as the 1820s, but it is usually accepted that the first gold discovery by a European was near Coromandel in 1852. There were later discoveries in Golden Bay (1856), Otago (1861), Marlborough (1864), and the West Coast of the South Island (1864). Significant rushes occurred only on the Coromandel Peninsula, the West Coast, and Otago. • The discovery by Gabriel Read in Otago sparked the first major rush in New Zealand. Gabriel’s Gully instantly became a canvas town. This was followed by the rush to Dunstan, which was sparked by the discovery made by Irishman Christopher Reilly and American Horatio Hartley. • The discovery of gold substantially and very quickly altered the course of New Zealand’s colonial history. The main period of extraction was from 1861 to 1865 in Otago, but there were also sustained periods of extraction in Nelson / Marlborough, Thames / Coromandel / Hauraki, and the West Coast of the South Island. • A full 194, 000 settlers came to New Zealand in the 1860s, largely to find gold or to make money as part of the huge support industry of publicans, theatre managers, store keepers, dancing girls, bankers, etc that followed the miners. • Exploitation of gold was done by private enterprise but regulated by government. • Most migrants in this period were male, unmarried, and young. This led to a significant gender imbalance on the goldfields in the South Island. The migrants were very multicultural. The Irish influx into Presbyterian Otago was described as “the new inequity”. • The search for gold was a worldwide phenomenon. Many of New Zealand’s gold miners had mined in California, Victoria, and New South Wales. When they left New Zealand, many of the miners went on to Queensland, Western Australia, or South Africa. The miners that stayed moved into other employment such as service industries, farming and coalmining. • The gold rush brought Chinese and non-British Europeans to New Zealand in large numbers for the first time. • The method of gold mining changed depending on the region in which the gold was being mined. In Otago and the West Coast of the South Island, the gold was extracted through the washing of alluvial gravels, silts and sand with simple cradles and sluice boxes (individuals). Little capital was required for this small-scale mining, and those involved shared in the returns. Methods changed to extracting gold with hydraulic sluicing systems using water races, pipes and hoses (groups), and then with massive dredges that worked whole river beds (companies). • On the Hauraki fields, the method of extraction was to crush gold-bearing quartz. This was no place for the individual miner. Local and overseas investors formed companies to raise the capital needed. Most of the gold that was found after 1870 was extracted by companies who paid the individual miners to work for them. • Many Otago miners believed that there must be a mother lode – a hard rock source of gold at the start of the river. At Skipper’s Canyon, Bendigo and Macetown, rich veins were found and worked. Otago’s schist held quartz reefs that contained gold. Rivers and glaciers had ground away at it over thousands of years, so there was often higher concentration on gold beneath the rivers and glaciers. There was no mother lode. • The price of gold rose steadily, and the methods of recovering it became more efficient, reworking the earlier gold fields was economic. Gold production continued after 1870 at an influential level, though there were no more successful ‘rushes’. • Quartz mining was important to the end of the century and beyond, providing about half the gold. It was revived after 1889 with the use of cyanide for extraction, which enabled the mining of low grade gold ore near Waihi. • In the decade 1890–99, the value of gold exports totaled just over £10 million; by 1900, the total value of gold produced in and exported from New Zealand was over 56 million, a quarter from quartz mines and the remainder alluvial gold.

NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2011 — page 24 of 35

The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include: • Gold is not a sustainable industry; and since New Zealand had relatively small resources of ore, the industry could not become the basis of long-term economic activity. This was particularly so for the alluvial goldfields stage. During the 1860s, gold production from these fields had a dramatic but short- lived impact on New Zealand’s export earnings. In this decade, export income from gold exceeded that of all other export products, including wool. The second stage of the industry provided a smaller but steadier source of export earnings for the remainder of the century. • The income from gold sales had a dramatic impact on national earnings, but the effect was even more intense in the regions where gold was mined, especially in the South Island alluvial goldfields. • It stimulated development of a financial infrastructure. Banks – the Bank of New Zealand and the Bank of New South Wales did well as a result of the gold rushes. • It stimulated the beginnings of manufacturing (soap, beer, brick manufacture, etc) and later engineering with the dredging boom of the late 1890s. • Gold was a “boom and bust” industry, an unstable economic activity. Historians debate the importance of the gold rush to New Zealand’s history. Some argue that the impact of the gold rushes was relatively limited because they were very concentrated in terms of time and location. Most miners who came to New Zealand left again. Others, like Belich, disagree. They point out that right around the Pacific gold-mining rim, there was a drop-off and that a large group of gold miners and members of the support industry stayed in New Zealand. Their values and aspirations were very important in the shaping of New Zealand society. • A few lucky prospectors become rich out of gold, but others perished in winter floods and sharp snowstorms. Others developed scurvy because of their poor diets, which were often just tea and flour. • The discovery of gold opened up previously unsettled areas for settlement. It led to the rapid establishment of transport routes. At the peak of the West Coast gold rush, in 1867, there were about 29 000 people on the West Coast, which was around 12 per cent of New Zealand’s Pākehā population. Surveyors quickly followed the miners into new areas for settlement. • Gold led to major demographic changes in New Zealand in terms of gender, ethnicity, and location. It led to extensive male migration. • Many of the migrants who came for gold brought positive attitudes to hard work and versatile skills. They brought a different culture to many of the settlers with an emphasis on alcohol and gambling. • At times, the goldfields were lawless. There were murders, fights and claim-jumping. Most of the problems were associated with alcohol. At Christmas 1865, Hokitika’s 72 pubs were packed with drunken miners. Illegal liquor suppliers were common. • Gold contributed significantly to the economic and political dominance of the South Island during the second half of the nineteenth century. It can be argued that gold was one of the key factors in the emergence of ‘Middle Island Ascendancy’. It led to further rivalry between the provinces. The Canterbury provincial council offered £1 000 to anyone who found gold within the Canterbury province. • Gold also provided an incentive for foreign investors to put money into the New Zealand economy, including the Vogel Plan. • The miners needed shelter, clothes, alcohol, entertainment, food and equipment; and entrepreneurs supplied them with these. The entrepreneurs usually made more money than the miners. • Surveyors quickly followed the gold seekers to map the land and government administration also followed. • Lawlessness was largely prevented under the Gold Fields Act of 1858, which followed Australian precedents. • Most of the gold went overseas, mainly to mints in Melbourne, but much of the money that was paid for it went back into the New Zealand economy. The capital created by gold led to economic expansion in the 1870s. Gold created a sense of optimism about New Zealand’s future at a time when the North Island was experiencing considerable racial tension and war. • In 1865, Chinese, mainly from the Guangdong province, were invited to rework the Otago goldfields. They were very meticulous. They were the first large group of non-European migrants to come to New Zealand. They were the subjects of overt racism that culminated in a poll tax being introduced in 1881 to discourage migration. They lived in their own settlements, such as the Lawrence Chinese Camp. Most hoped to earn enough money to return to China, but many died in New Zealand. Large groups were disinterred to be buried back in China, but the boat carrying their bodies sank off the Hokianga in 1902. • Economic benefits of gold were variable. Dunedin had grown and prospered because of gold, but many of the townships that had sprung up when gold had been discovered declined with the absence of gold as miners moved on to the next place where gold was discovered. • Gold allowed women a range of economic activities. Not only were women employed as barmaids, entertainers and prostitutes, but a number of women became successful business women, running boarding houses and public houses. At one stage, all the hotels in Queenstown were run by women. NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2011 — page 25 of 35

• The influx of young single men helped shape a male – oriented culture that Jock Phillips describes in ‘A Man’s Country’. Miles Fairburn argues that the frontier society and the transitory nature of gold mining resulted in an ‘atomised’ society. • Candidates could argue that the gold industry increased the social problem of alcohol abuse, a problem that was to become one of the most important social issues of the later part of the 19th century. • While alluvial mining saw the emergence of men moving from place to place in pursuit of the illusory dream of wealth, men working in the quartz gold industry in the Coromandel were employed by the mining companies. The promise of regular employment enabled many of these men to settle down and marry. • Many of the miners who came to this country were skilled and literate men. They believed in self- improvement and set up Mechanics’ Institutes and Athenaeums and Libraries wherever they went. • Generally, the miners made New Zealand into a more dynamic and egalitarian society. The miners’ uncontrolled entry to this country, their disorderly behaviour and their pursuit of material advancement undermined any vestment of the older Wakefield settlements with their concentration on rank and respectability.

NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2011 — page 26 of 35

Topic Two: Essay Four

Describe the changes that took place in the development of New Zealand’s economy between 1840 and 1900. Evaluate the influence of these changes on the political and social structures of New Zealand by the end of the nineteenth century.

The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include: • The New Zealand economy was reliant on exports and imports but, until the 1880s, its exports were made up of a narrow range of primary products – wool, gold, and timber and this dependency led to a ‘boom and bust’ economy • Alluvial gold, timber, seals, flax, kauri gum, and whales (shore-based) were resources that were quickly depleted. • The dependence on exporting / importing made the New Zealand economy susceptible to overseas trends. • Until the late nineteenth century, many internal markets were often inaccessible due to a lack of safe harbours or rugged terrain. • New Zealand was so far away from its main overseas markets. Many potential export items were perishable. This distance made it very difficult to attract private investment. • New Zealand lacked trading relationships with other countries. It was reliant on Britain and the Australian colonies for goods and capital investment. • After 1840 government expenditure was vital for the development of the colonial economy. • From 1840 – 1860 Māori dominated the economy, particularly in the north of New Zealand where emerging settlements like Auckland were reliant on Māori to supply them with food. • Confiscation of productive land from Māori diminished the effectiveness of the Māori economy and allowed the Pakeha economy to develop and flourish. Establishment of Native Land Courts expedited the alienation of land from Māori control. • Wool was a key player in the developing economy. The development of pastoralism saw the value of wool as a commodity become significant in shaping the economy. • Timber declined in its importance to the economy as exploitation of this natural resource proved to be non-sustainable. • Gum was in demand for use in a number of industries, in particular in the manufacture of oil varnishes. • The discovery of gold led to a ‘gold rush’ which caused the stimulation of the national economy and the local economy of regions such as Otago, the West Coast and Auckland. • Within New Zealand there was often a local focus on economic development, rather than a national one. This was particularly so at the height of the Provincial politics era. • The Vogel Scheme resulted in rapid and significant development of the national infrastructure as bridges, railways, harbours, roads and telegraph lines were built. Further progress was made towards a national economy due to developments in transport and communications. • The increase in population through the Vogel Scheme also stimulated the economy. It created a temporary but significant domestic market: food for workforce, housing for immigrants, construction materials developed • From 1879 exports earned less, a reduction in borrowed capital restricted development, much of the economy was stagnant or contracting, and times were tough for many people. There was also some net migration loss. New Zealand was already burdened with overseas debts incurred in the 1870s. New Zealand imports exceeded exports by value 1872–85 (except 1880). • Wool continued to be purchased in Britain but the price New Zealand received for it dropped considerably. • Overseas demand for timber and kauri gum was erratic, and New Zealand’s production of gold was shrinking. • 1882–83 was the last boom season for New Zealand wheat exports. • The dependence on a few staple exports led to balance-of-payment problems until refrigeration began to have an impact. Refrigeration helped bring greater prosperity by 1900. • Land speculation was reduced after the collapse of the City of Glasgow Bank in 1878. British lending in New Zealand continued erratically 1878–85, and was halted by the collapse of the Auckland boom. • The South Island, dependent on wool and gold, was affected first by the economic downturn. Rural people were often affected before urban people, but in the country people could survive through subsistence living. NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2011 — page 27 of 35

• Places with diverse economic activity were slower to be affected. There was steady development in the Wellington province until 1885, based on railways and farming, and a property and timber-processing boom in the Auckland province 1875–85 where Māori land was available for purchase. • Urban manufacturing continued to grow, though more slowly after about 1886. • Bankruptcy rate increased, especially among big businesses and Auckland merchants once the effects of the ‘Depression’ reached the north. NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2011 — page 28 of 35

• Considerable social distress followed – swaggers were common, sweated labour of women and children, unemployment (up to 10% of the male workforce) especially in winter. There were falling marriage and birth rates, higher crime rates, and juvenile delinquency, prostitution, increased desertion of wives by husbands, increased male drinking and violence, poor housing, and health problems all seemed to be on the increase. • Contraction of credit, the borrowed capital on which the boom of the 1870s had been based. Private investors withdrew and some large estates crashed. Investors seemed to lose confidence in New Zealand. • There was a huge public debt of over £40 million in 1887. GDP declined in seven of the 17 years from 1879 to 1895. Most of the export prices fell considerably. There was reduced government spending especially on public works, and increased unemployment. • The cost of living in New Zealand fell, as did the cost of some imports, but working class wages dropped proportionately more and led to difficulties. • Migration to Australia exceeded immigration during the Depression leading to population loss. • Not everyone was poorly off during the ‘Depression’. Those with no debt or manageable debt found their income reduced but also their living costs. Some well-off people, especially pastoralists, remained affluent, eg, William ‘Ready Money’ Robinson in Cheviot, North Canterbury. • The balance of the population and economic activity began to shift from south to north. • The new products that refrigeration allowed led to increased dependence on the British market. • Acquisition of land from Māori, bush clearing and refrigeration all encouraged growth in the number of small farms. • The time taken to travel within NZ was reducing all the time. There was increased application of mechanisation and technology to farming and the processing of farm produce, which sometimes threatened farm labour. • Banks found themselves in financial difficulties. Due to the defaults on loan repayments, banks had no choice but to foreclose and take over material assets, which they did not want. In this way the Bank of New Zealand (BNZ) became the largest landowner in the country. The bank itself was in great difficulty in the 1880s because the value of the properties against which it had lent money had fallen so much. • Historian Gary Hawke argued that there wasn’t a ‘depression’, instead there was a recession, as there was little fall in real income. Other historians suggest that the problems and concerns of the period do suggest a depression rather than a more temporary recession, using the issues of bankruptcy, unemployment, out-migration, sweating to support their argument. • The Liberal government actively worked to create a shift from extensive pastoralism to intensive pastoralism. Over 3,000,000 acres was removed from Māori control to allow the development of the small farmer in response to refrigeration. • The interventionist policies of the Liberal government and the growth of a prosperous lower-middle class in Britain resulted in a much stronger economy through the last decade of the 19th century. Refrigeration was able to take advantage of British prosperity and by 1900 the ‘protein bridge’ enriched both this country and Britain. • NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2011 — page 29 of 35

The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include: • The development of extensive pastoralism helped create an oligarchic political structure. The mercantilism of commercial centres like Auckland joined forces with pastoralists in the pursuit of self interest. • It was not until the election of the Liberal government in 1890 that the economic and social interests of the working class were addressed by political structures. • Access to large amounts of land and the ability to take advantage of emerging technologies saw the emergence of a ‘landed gentry’, a concentration of wealth and a matching lifestyle. By 1890 about 65% of freehold land was owned by some 600 individuals, families and companies • The enrichment of the Pakeha economy was at the expense of Māori and the consequent diminishing of their economy. The Native Land Courts created significant social as well as economic problems for many Māori . • The emergence of intensive pastoralism helps create the family farm and subsequent communities centred on the local co-operative dairy factory. Such economic change has an impact on the political structure of the country as these small farmers help support the Liberal party • The economic downturn of the late 1870s and through the 80s has a considerable impact on both the political and social life of this country. o The economic changes of the 1880s led to political instability and to a growth in class consciousness. Many settlers came to resent the misleading propaganda of New Zealand as a paradise for workers and investors. o The sweating scandals of the 1880s, which had been largely confined to Dunedin, had a big impact on national politics. Pākehā New Zealanders were shocked that these Old World evils had made their way to New Zealand o The ministries of the 1880s led by Hall, Whitaker, Atkinson, Stout and Vogel, tried various measures to alleviate the social distress and economic difficulties. o Politicians practised retrenchment – ending borrowing and cutting back on government spending. This did little to improve the well being of the economy or people in the short term. o The Hall and Atkinson ‘Conservative’ governments cut costs and expenditure, raised taxes, borrowed further overseas, tried to settle more people on the land, placed tariffs on some imports to protect local industry, and encouraged the work of charitable aid boards. In many of its actions the government favoured the rural interests of the large-scale pastoralists, so land monopoly became a social, economic and political issue in the 1880s. o Atkinson considered pensions, national insurance and assistance to small settlers but little was achieved as the scheme had not been adopted by Parliament. o There were calls to limit Chinese immigration and a poll tax on Chinese immigrants was introduced in 1881. o Stout-Vogel government overhauled welfare policy in 1885 providing limited state assistance. o Improvements to the legal rights of women occurred in the 1880s – fairer divorce laws, franchise bills were introduced. o Responses to social issues came more from individuals, eg Stout’s attempts to deal with larrikinism; or from social organisations such as the Salvation Army and WCTU. • The 1887 Election had the highest voter turnout ever. The Vogel / Stout ministry was decisively defeated. Political Reform Associations demanded a halt to borrowing. The Governor invited Atkinson to form a government. Atkinson needed support from a diverse range of MPs who demanded retrenchment. This became known as the ‘Scarecrow Ministry’. o Overall the government did not have as much impact on the economic and social situation as many people wanted. There were many overseas constraints and perhaps some limited thinking among New Zealand politicians. o Some radical ideas did come to fore, particularly relating to leave and working conditions. There was an increasing desire for economic stability and perhaps self-sufficiency, and the evolution of a social and political will for more interventionist government that led to the election of a Liberal government, which attempted to do much more, especially for small farmers, by breaking up the large estates. o Unions gained a legal basis in 1878 and became popular in the 1880s among skilled and unskilled workers – Seaman’s Union, two small coal unions 1884, Shearer’s Union 1886, the American-based Knights of Labour formed a society in New Zealand in 1887 and helped organise unskilled and semi- skilled workers. Unionism collapsed in 1890 with the failure of the Maritime Strike. • Some of the reforms instituted by the Liberals to deal with the economic and social changes in the 1890s were: NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2011 — page 30 of 35

Land • Land and Income Tax 1891 (taxed unimproved land or absentee owners). • Department of Agriculture 1892 (to educate farmers). • Lands for Settlement Act 1892 (lands could be repurchased by the state for closer settlement – but private subdivision opened up much more land than this did). • Advances to Settlers Act (state loans to farmers for development – not Māori). • Large-scale purchase of Māori land to make it available for farming. Labour • Truck Act 1891 (workers to be paid in cash not goods). • Department of Labour 1892 (created to inspect factories and help find employment). • Factories Act 1894 (restricted hours for women, girls and boys, set holiday entitlement, health and safety measures). • Industrial Conciliation and Arbitration Act 1894 (peaceful settlement of industrial disputes and encourage unionism). There were no strikes in New Zealand for the following ten years and the system lasted for 70 years+. NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2011 — page 31 of 35

Topic Two: Essay Five

Describe the various ways in which European and Chinese men and women could experience racial and gender discrimination between 1840 and 1900. Evaluate the effectiveness of the attempts of individuals and organisations to end such discrimination by the end of the nineteenth century.

The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include: • Racial and gender discrimination was evident through this period. Discrimination on the grounds of gender reflected societal views on the roles of men and women in colonial society. The neo-nationalist notion that some races were superior to others, and that the emerging society of 19th century New Zealand was to be constructed to reflect the cultural values and aspirations of a ‘Better Britain’, was powerful and pervasive. • The Wakefield settlements were peopled by settlers who had been selected on the basis of status and race. The Irish were actively discouraged as they did not meet Wakefield’s ‘ideal society’. In the period 1840-1850 the percentage of Irish in the New Zealand Company’s settlements was 1.8%. The percentage of English was 82.1%. Contrast these figures against the percentage of Irish in a non-Wakefield settlement – Auckland – and there is a significant change: 35.9% Irish and 45.7% English. o Large numbers of Irish came to this country in search of gold and the changing societal dynamics were most evident on the West Coast where tension between the Irish and supporters of the British Crown resulted in a riot involving over 1500 miners. o The New Zealand government directed its efforts to attract migrants to this country to the protestant north of Ireland. o Active discrimination in the work place which saw the Irish passed over in favour of other nationalities. • Little evidence of discrimination against Jews. Julius Vogel was a prominent provincial and national politician who was Jewish • Migrants from Croatia met with discrimination. In 1898 the Kauri Gum Industry Act introduced kauri-gum reserves for British subjects only, and licences for gum-digging. Laws passed in 1908 and 1910 further restricted Dalmatians’ rights by confining digging licences to British subjects. • Chinese were subjected to significant discrimination on the grounds of race. Invited to this country to prospect for gold on the Otago goldfields the level of discrimination grew with their numbers. o As early as 1857 an anti-Chinese committee was established in Nelson. Other groups such as the White Race League and the Anti-Asiatic League were also established o Anti-Chinese acts were passed. o In 1881 a £10 poll tax was placed on each Chinese immigrant, and their numbers were restricted to one person for every 10 tons of ship’s cargo. These figures were raised in 1896 to £100 poll tax and 200 tons of cargo. o In 1892 naturalisation as New Zealand citizens became free for all except Chinese. In 1908 naturalisation for Chinese was abolished and did not resume until 1952. o In 1907 a reading test in English was imposed for Chinese immigrants. o Chinese were specifically excluded from the old-age pension (1898). • The major roles of Pākehā women as seen by colonial society were those of wife, mother, worker, helpmeet and as a civilising influence on men. To ensure that these roles were maintained, women suffered a good deal of discrimination in the work place, in their relationships with men and in their exclusion from the political process. • A high proportion of Pākehā women were married and ‘embedded’ in families, childbearing, and unpaid domestic labour. A wife had no separate legal existence. Judith Elphick Malone – upon marriage, women became third-class citizens before the law. • Marriage laws were discriminatory and unequal. Before 1884, married women had no control of property that they brought to a marriage, or of their wages. A wife had no legal say in the control of income or savings. If a wife chose to leave her husband she stood to lose her children, home and maintenance. • It was much harder for a woman to gain a divorce – first allowed in 1867. A man could divorce his wife for ‘simple adultery’ but a woman could divorce her husband only for ‘aggravated adultery’. • The Contagious Diseases Act passed in 1869 was regarded by women as a blatant example of sexual double standards and discrimination. The Act legalised the arrest, forcible examination for venereal disease and imprisonment of suspected prostitutes until they were certified ‘clean’ of the disease. The male customers of these prostitutes were not subjected to any such inspection. • Women did much unpaid domestic work in the 19th century. Paid employment was usually lower-paid work, with many working as servants or in farming, and later in factories. NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2011 — page 32 of 35

• There was significant gender difference in employment. Women were not expected to do heavy farm work, mining, or labouring and mainly worked in a very restricted range of occupations. • Primary schooling became compulsory in 1877, but girls’ participation was less than boys’ and the curriculum was designed to ensure girls stayed in the domestic sphere. Girls often started primary school later and withdrew earlier. • Women could not vote in government elections until 1893 (disenfranchised) or serve on a jury. • Male alcohol consumption and violence affected many women and their families. • During the 1880s women were exploited in manufacturing jobs being forced to work long hours and were paid low wages, much lower than men (sweating). • The women campaigning for suffrage were faced with public derision and scorn by anti-suffrage and liquor lobby supporters – both men and women. • Women were not allowed to serve on a jury if married.

The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include: • The legislation that was passed to deter Chinese immigration was not repealed until well into the 20th century. Anti-Chinese prejudice continued to reflect the social Darwinism of the late 19th century and the random murder of Joe Kum Yung by Lionel Terry in 1905 was one of the outcomes of such thinking. • Efforts by Bishop Moran to build a separate education system for Catholics in response to the 1877 Education Act were successful • A mouthpiece for Irish Catholics – the Tablet – was founded in 1873 • Discrimination against migrants from countries other than Britain and Germany/Scandinavia continued to be evident by the end of the century. • The discrimination faced by many women, and the fight to remove it, began to develop its own impetus: o Marriage laws were gradually changed in women’s favour during the latter part of the century. o Deserted wives gained the right to their wages and property in 1860. o The Married Women’s Property Act 1884 gave married women the same rights to their property and wages as their husbands had. o In 1885, women who owned property gained the right to vote in Hospital and Charitable Aid Board elections. o The 1898 Divorce Act gave equal access to divorce for men and women, and the Testators Family Maintenance Act of 1900 forced husbands to pay some maintenance towards the upkeep of wives and children. o Women’s participation in the paid workforce was limited, though growing, by 1900. Individual women sought careers from the 1880s as teachers or nurses as the educational levels of girls gradually improved. o University study became possible for girls in the later part of the 19th century. The first woman university graduate was Kate Edger, who graduated BA in 1877. About half of the Arts students at Canterbury University College in the 1890s were women. Women were beginning to enter professions such as law from 1896. o Women were able to serve on various local bodies such as school committees by 1877 and could vote in local body elections from 1889, with some property restrictions. o The Employment of Females Act 1881 regulated working conditions for women but it was impossible to enforce due to the difficulties the Inspectors had in collecting evidence, and evasive and uncooperative employers. o Harriet Morrison led the Tailoresses’ Union formed in Dunedin and in Christchurch a women’s clothing workers union was formed. Other unions sprang up for women who worked as waitresses, boot machinists and domestic servants. o Labour reforms were introduced by the Liberal Government in the early 1890s and the sweating issue largely went away with the Liberal laws and improved economic conditions of 1895. o Increasing questioning by some women of their limited roles led to an emergence of a ‘feminist culture’ in the main centres. Articles and debates occurred during the 1860s and 70s about women’s rights. Mary Ann Muller (Femina), Mary Taylor, and Mary Colclough (Polly Plum) wrote about the injustice of the inequalities between men and women before the law and within the constitution. This led to the establishment of organisations such as the Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) in 1885, which campaigned for the prohibition of alcohol because of its effects on family life and society. o They also campaigned for the purity of the home, religious teaching in schools and engaged in welfare work with prostitutes, prisoners, the homeless and the hungry. The focus of the WCTU was the welfare of women and children. NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2011 — page 33 of 35

o The WCTU also dominated the franchise campaign along with other suffrage organisations such as the Women’s Franchise Leagues. Three major petitions were gathered in 1891, 1892 and 1893. By 1893 a law was passed by Parliament giving women over the age of 21 the vote. However, women couldn’t stand for Parliament and they tended to vote as men did. o The Liberal Government placed far greater importance on ‘progressive issues’ such as the legislation that made it easier to divorce violent or wayward husbands, legislation that forced ex-husbands to pay some maintenance, the Old Age Pension, public health reform, labour legislation and the welfare of the nation’s children. o Feminist campaigning continued after the success of 1893. A ‘Parliament of Women’ organised by Kate Sheppard was held in 1896 and it set up the National Council of Women (NCW). Sheppard saw the NCW as a voice for women in the affairs of New Zealand, since women were still excluded from becoming MPs. The NCW aimed to pressure the Government into passing laws to ensure women would gain equality and acceptance in the workplace and local and central government. Lady Stout, Mrs Schnackenberg and Mrs Sievwright coordinated the numerous women’s societies that sprung up after 1893. The NCW wanted humanitarian laws in areas such as the care of children and prison reform. It also pressed for the removal of women’s continuing political and legal disabilities and the repeal of the Contagious Diseases Act. Little success was achieved by the NCW in securing law changes. • Meri Mangakahia sought rights for Māori women through Kotahitanga; in 1895, Te Hauke enabled Māori women to discuss land matters and equal rights for women within Kotahitanga. • The growth of the ‘cult of domesticity’ associated with Truby King and the Plunket Society reaffirmed and highlighted the need for ‘scientific motherhood’ and saw women’s traditional roles continue. With the emphasis on domesticity, where the infant’s welfare was to be put above all else, the separate roles of men and women became more polarised with the wife in the home and the husband in the public world of work. • There had been progress but women were not emancipated to any great extent. Most women were still tied to marriage and children. Few women had economic independence from men though there were greater economic opportunities in New Zealand, which some took advantage of. • The double standard in attitudes to sexuality was still strong. • There was limited social freedom and expanded roles for women with the ongoing work of the WCTU, the appearance of the educated ‘new woman’, the dress reform movement and the wider use of bicycles by women.

NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2011 — page 34 of 35

Topic Two: Essay Six

Describe changing settlement patterns within New Zealand between 1840 and 1900. Evaluate the extent to which these changing settlement patterns resulted in the emergence of an urban society by 1900.

The candidate’s response to the first part of the essay question could include: • Until the 1860s, most people lived in the North Island. Two-thirds of the Māori population lived north of Taupo, and most migrants went to either the Wakefield settlements or to Auckland. • 1860–1890 was a period of “Middle Island ascendancy” as the gold rush, pastoralism, and Vogel attracted settlers to the South Island. War in the North Island also helped the growth of the Pakeha population in the South Island. • By 1896, the North Island was dominant again. The effects of the “Long Depression” were more acutely obvious in the South and the timber industry, refrigeration, and confiscation had opened up the North Island for farming. The last major gold strike was in the Coromandel region. • The trend towards urbanisation was first apparent in the 1874 census • Till 1840, most Pākehā lived on the coastal North Island. Many were itinerant and most, if not all, had a close relationship with Māori. Some were “Pakeha-Māori ”: missionaries, sealers, whalers, traders, or worked in timber industry, etc. • 1840–1860 saw the development of small-scale coastal settlements. These were the planned Wakefield settlements and Auckland. Pastoralism began in the hinterland beyond these settlements. • 1860–1900 was the period of great territorial expansion of much wider Pākehā settlement with large waves of South Island immigration and the development of inland towns and cities in Waikato, Manawatu, Southern Hawkes Bay and Taranaki. This Pākehā expansion was largely due to confiscation, refrigeration, the timber industry and the railways. • Settlement patterns reflected the different waves of immigration to this country. The original Wakefield settlements enjoyed significantly higher numbers of settlers of English descent, while the gold rushes saw large numbers of Irish on the West Coast where, in 1871, they almost equalled the English. In that same year the number of people of Scottish descent in Otago and Southland was over 50%. • The settlement patterns for Māori remain consistent through this period. Most Māori lived in rural areas of the North Island and two thirds lived north of Taupo • The emergence of new technologies such as refrigeration had considerable impact on settlement patterns with the establishment of dairy farms. Milk produced on these farms was processed at co-operative dairy factories which as they grew in size created communities of workers and subsequent schools and commercial activity. • Freezing works were built to process animal carcasses and so helped create new patterns of settlement with the development of working class communities

NCEA Level 3 History (90658) 2011 — page 35 of 35

The candidate’s response to the second part of the essay question could include: • There was gradual urbanisation of the Pākehā population; but even by 1900, Pākehā New Zealand was still largely rural (54.4 percent in 1901). • Four main urban centres of near equal importance had emerged: Dunedin, Auckland, Christchurch, Wellington • Each centre was dominant in one region, and rates of growth reflected the varying growth rates in the hinterland • Urban centres had developed particular spheres of activity – industrial and residential. Clear evidence of housing reflecting the emergence of a working class. Social differential a characteristic of urban settlement. • Buildings reflected government and community activities. Banks, telephone exchanges, churches, universities, schools, leisure and sports. • Some centres reflected ethnic variation in immigration, eg Dunedin (Jewish, Chinese) • Economic recession of the 1880s sees movement of people into urban areas in search of employment. • Industrialization had helped in growth of urban societies but with industrialization had emerged social problems such as: alcoholism – male and female drunkenness; gambling; sweating. • Towns and cities in the new colony grew in a rapid and haphazard manner. They soon showed many of the worst features of European cities. Rubbish and sewage accumulated, polluting the water supply and leading to epidemics of disease. • In 1864 the Otago Daily Times complained that Dunedin had ‘reproduced with faithful accuracy the wretched tenements and filthy back slums of an English town’. • In the same year Auckland’s Herald attacked ‘those abominable nests of squalid filth, the rookeries of small houses in the back lanes and slums of the City’. • Urban society is characterized by opportunities for leisure activities: playing areas for cricket, rugby and other ball games established. • The changing patterns of urban work, earnings and domestic life allows for increased leisure time. Picture palaces – cinemas – are built (eg Dunedin 1897). • Choirs, bands, orchestras and amateur operatic societies flourish in response to growing urbanization. • Women’s activities are widened in scope. • Emergence of an urban society sees educational opportunities grow, particularly for women. By 1890s half of New Zealand university students were women.