DOCSLIB.ORG

Standards for the Prevention, Detection, Response, and Monitoring of Sexual Abuse in Adult Prisons and Jails

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Standards for the Prevention, Detection, Response, and Monitoring of Sexual Abuse in Adult Prisons and Jails STANDARDS FOR THE PREVENTION, DETECTION, RESPONSE, AND MONITORING OF SEXUAL ABUSE IN ADULT PRISONS AND JAILS STANDARDS FOR THE PREVENTION, DETECTION, RESPONSE, AND MONITORING OF SEXUAL ABUSE IN ADULT PRISONS AND JAILS INCLUDING SUPPLEMENTAL STANDARDS FOR FACILITIES WITH IMMIGRATION DETAINEES PREFACE Ours has been a daunting task, albeit a deeply motivating and compelling one—to provide the President, members of Congress, the Attorney General, and the Secretary of Health and Human Services with national standards by which to detect, prevent, reduce, and punish prison rape. As we submit these standards to the Attorney General for review and approval, I and my col- leagues on the Commission believe that they are as urgently needed now as they were in 2003 when Congress mandated this groundbreaking project as part of the Prison Rape Elimination Act. Sexual abuse of incarcerated individuals remains a persistent problem, with life-altering consequences for victims, for the integrity of correctional institutions, and for fundamental principles of justice. We discuss the problem in great detail in our report; this standards docu- ment and its companion volumes are our blueprint for lasting nationwide change. The standards development process benefited from, and indeed could not have happened without, the contributions of dozens of private and governmental organizations and more than 400 individuals—corrections professionals, academics, researchers, practitioners, and survivors of sexual abuse in confinement—who provided testimony at hearings, advice at ex- pert committee and stakeholder meetings, and input during an extensive public comment period. In finalizing these standards and incorporating their expertise, our discussions have been long and lively and our debates rigorous. We are particularly grateful for the insights and lessons learned from early reformers—corrections professionals who have been working to prevent sexual abuse in their facilities since long before the passage of the Prison Rape Elimina- tion Act and who continue to do so. Each set of standards has been customized to ensure validity for particular conditions of con- finement. The members of the National Prison Rape Elimination Commission are confident that the implementation of these national standards can have a substantial and salutary effect on the safety of prisons, jails, lockups, immigration detention centers, juvenile detention facili- ties, and community correctional facilities. We are proud to entrust the enactment and implementation of these standards to the many capable policymakers and professionals who will now take up the torch. It has been an honor for us to play a part in the elimination of sexual abuse in confinement. A just and civil society should strive for nothing less. The Honorable Reggie B. Walton, Chair Preface iii TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................................. 1 GLOSSARY ............................................................................................................................................................................... 3 I. PREVENTION AND RESPONSE PLANNING .................................................................................................. 9 PREVENTION PLANNING (PP)................................................................................................................................ 9 PP-1: Zero tolerance of sexual abuse ................................................................................................................. 9 PP-2: Contracting with other entities for the confinement of inmates ......................................10 PP-3: Inmate supervision ......................................................................................................................................10 PP-4: Limits to cross-gender viewing and searches ................................................................................ 11 PP-5: Accommodating inmates with special needs ............................................................................... 13 PP-6: Hiring and promotion decisions ........................................................................................................... 13 PP-7: Assessment and use of monitoring technology ........................................................................... 15 RESPONSE PLANNING (RP) .................................................................................................................................... 15 RP-1: Evidence protocol and forensic medical exams ........................................................................... 15 RP-2: Agreements with outside public entities and community service providers ............. 17 RP-3: Agreements with outside law enforcement agencies...............................................................18 RP-4: Agreements with the prosecuting authority ................................................................................ 19 II. PREVENTION ................................................................................................................................................................. 21 TRAINING AND EDUCATION (TR) ................................................................................................................... 21 TR-1: Employee training ......................................................................................................................................... 21 TR-2: Volunteer and contractor training ..................................................................................................... 22 TR-3: Inmate education ........................................................................................................................................ 23 TR-4: Specialized training: Investigations ..................................................................................................... 24 TR-5: Specialized training: Medical and mental health care .............................................................26 SCREENING FOR RISK OF SEXUAL VICTIMIZATION AND ABUSIVENESS (SC) .....................27 SC-1: Screening for risk of victimization and abusiveness ...................................................................27 SC-2: Use of screening information ................................................................................................................ 30 III. DETECTION AND RESPONSE ...........................................................................................................................33 REPORTING (RE)............................................................................................................................................................33 RE-1: Inmate reporting ............................................................................................................................................33 RE-2: Exhaustion of administrative remedies ............................................................................................ 34 RE-3: Inmate access to outside confidential support services ......................................................... 36 RE-4: Third-party reporting .................................................................................................................................37 Table of Contents v OFFICIAL RESPONSE FOLLOWING AN INMATE REPORT (OR) ............................................................37 OR-1: Staff and facility head reporting duties............................................................................................37 OR-2: Reporting to other confinement facilities .................................................................................... 38 OR-3: Staff first responder duties .....................................................................................................................39 OR-4: Coordinated response ............................................................................................................................. 40 OR-5: Agency protection against retaliation ............................................................................................. 41 INVESTIGATIONS (IN)................................................................................................................................................42 IN-1: Duty to investigate ........................................................................................................................................42 IN-2: Criminal and administrative agency investigations ....................................................................43 IN-3: Evidence standard for administrative investigations ................................................................ 46 DISCIPLINE (DI).............................................................................................................................................................. 46 DI-1: Disciplinary sanctions for staff ............................................................................................................. 46 DI-2: Disciplinary sanctions for inmates ......................................................................................................47 MEDICAL AND MENTAL HEALTH CARE (MM) .........................................................................................49 MM-1: Medical and mental health screenings—history of sexual abuse
Load more

Recommended publications
  • Union Calendar No. 481 104Th Congress, 2D Session – – – – – – – – – – – – House Report 104–879
    1 Union Calendar No. 481 104th Congress, 2d Session ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± ± House Report 104±879 REPORT ON THE ACTIVITIES OF THE COMMITTEE ON THE JUDICIARY OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES DURING THE ONE HUNDRED FOURTH CONGRESS PURSUANT TO CLAUSE 1(d) RULE XI OF THE RULES OF THE HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES JANUARY 2, 1997.ÐCommitted to the Committee of the Whole House on the State of the Union and ordered to be printed U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 36±501 WASHINGTON : 1997 COMMITTEE ON THE JUDICIARY HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES ONE HUNDRED FOURTH CONGRESS HENRY J. HYDE, Illinois, Chairman 1 CARLOS J. MOORHEAD, California JOHN CONYERS, JR., Michigan F. JAMES SENSENBRENNER, JR., PATRICIA SCHROEDER, Colorado Wisconsin BARNEY FRANK, Massachusetts BILL MCCOLLUM, Florida CHARLES E. SCHUMER, New York GEORGE W. GEKAS, Pennsylvania HOWARD L. BERMAN, California HOWARD COBLE, North Carolina RICH BOUCHER, Virginia LAMAR SMITH, Texas JOHN BRYANT, Texas STEVEN SCHIFF, New Mexico JACK REED, Rhode Island ELTON GALLEGLY, California JERROLD NADLER, New York CHARLES T. CANADY, Florida ROBERT C. SCOTT, Virginia BOB INGLIS, South Carolina MELVIN L. WATT, North Carolina BOB GOODLATTE, Virginia XAVIER BECERRA, California STEPHEN E. BUYER, Indiana JOSEÂ E. SERRANO, New York 2 MARTIN R. HOKE, Ohio ZOE LOFGREN, California SONNY BONO, California SHEILA JACKSON LEE, Texas FRED HEINEMAN, North Carolina MAXINE WATERS, California 3 ED BRYANT, Tennessee STEVE CHABOT, Ohio MICHAEL PATRICK FLANAGAN, Illinois BOB BARR, Georgia ALAN F. COFFEY, JR., General Counsel/Staff Director JULIAN EPSTEIN, Minority Staff Director 1 Henry J. Hyde, Illinois, elected to the Committee as Chairman pursuant to House Resolution 11, approved by the House January 5 (legislative day of January 4), 1995.
    [Show full text]
  • Prison Abolition and Grounded Justice
    Georgetown University Law Center Scholarship @ GEORGETOWN LAW 2015 Prison Abolition and Grounded Justice Allegra M. McLeod Georgetown University Law Center, [email protected] This paper can be downloaded free of charge from: https://scholarship.law.georgetown.edu/facpub/1490 http://ssrn.com/abstract=2625217 62 UCLA L. Rev. 1156-1239 (2015) This open-access article is brought to you by the Georgetown Law Library. Posted with permission of the author. Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarship.law.georgetown.edu/facpub Part of the Criminal Law Commons, Criminal Procedure Commons, Criminology Commons, and the Social Control, Law, Crime, and Deviance Commons Prison Abolition and Grounded Justice Allegra M. McLeod EVIEW R ABSTRACT This Article introduces to legal scholarship the first sustained discussion of prison LA LAW LA LAW C abolition and what I will call a “prison abolitionist ethic.” Prisons and punitive policing U produce tremendous brutality, violence, racial stratification, ideological rigidity, despair, and waste. Meanwhile, incarceration and prison-backed policing neither redress nor repair the very sorts of harms they are supposed to address—interpersonal violence, addiction, mental illness, and sexual abuse, among others. Yet despite persistent and increasing recognition of the deep problems that attend U.S. incarceration and prison- backed policing, criminal law scholarship has largely failed to consider how the goals of criminal law—principally deterrence, incapacitation, rehabilitation, and retributive justice—might be pursued by means entirely apart from criminal law enforcement. Abandoning prison-backed punishment and punitive policing remains generally unfathomable. This Article argues that the general reluctance to engage seriously an abolitionist framework represents a failure of moral, legal, and political imagination.
    [Show full text]
  • Prisoner Testimonies of Torture in United States Prisons and Jails
    Survivors Speak Prisoner Testimonies of Torture in United States Prisons and Jails A Shadow Report Submitted for the November 2014 Review of the United States by the Committee Against Torture I. Reporting organization The American Friends Service Committee (AFSC) is a Quaker faith based organization that promotes lasting peace with justice, as a practical expression of faith in action. AFSC’s interest in prison reform is strongly influenced by Quaker (Religious Society of Friends) activism addressing prison conditions as informed by the imprisonment of Friends for their beliefs and actions in the 17th and 18th centuries. For over three decades AFSC has spoken out on behalf of prisoners, whose voices are all too frequently silenced. We have received thousands of calls and letters of testimony of an increasingly disturbing nature from prisoners and their families about conditions in prison that fail to honor the Light in each of us. Drawing on continuing spiritual insights and working with people of many backgrounds, we nurture the seeds of change and respect for human life that transform social relations and systems. AFSC works to end mass incarceration, improve conditions for people who are in prison, stop prison privatization, and promote a reconciliation and healing approach to criminal justice issues. Contact Person: Lia Lindsey, Esq. 1822 R St NW; Washington, DC 20009; USA Email: [email protected] +1-202-483-3341 x108 Website: www.afsc.org Acknowledgements This report would not have been possible but for the courageous individuals held in U.S. prisons and jails who rise above the specter of reprisal for sharing testimonies of the abuses they endure.
    [Show full text]
  • Slavery by Another Name History Background
    Slavery by Another Name History Background By Nancy O’Brien Wagner, Bluestem Heritage Group Introduction For more than seventy-five years after the Emancipation Proclamation and the end of the Civil War, thousands of blacks were systematically forced to work against their will. While the methods of forced labor took on many forms over those eight decades — peonage, sharecropping, convict leasing, and chain gangs — the end result was a system that deprived thousands of citizens of their happiness, health, and liberty, and sometimes even their lives. Though forced labor occurred across the nation, its greatest concentration was in the South, and its victims were disproportionately black and poor. Ostensibly developed in response to penal, economic, or labor problems, forced labor was tightly bound to political, cultural, and social systems of racial oppression. Setting the Stage: The South after the Civil War After the Civil War, the South’s economy, infrastructure, politics, and society were left completely destroyed. Years of warfare had crippled the South’s economy, and the abolishment of slavery completely destroyed what was left. The South’s currency was worthless and its financial system was in ruins. For employers, workers, and merchants, this created many complex problems. With the abolishment of slavery, much of Southern planters’ wealth had disappeared. Accustomed to the unpaid labor of slaves, they were now faced with the need to pay their workers — but there was little cash available. In this environment, intricate systems of forced labor, which guaranteed cheap labor and ensured white control of that labor, flourished. For a brief period after the conclusion of fighting in the spring of 1865, Southern whites maintained control of the political system.
    [Show full text]
  • Overview of Prison Privatization in Arizona
    Prison Privatization in Arizona A briefing paper prepared by the American Friends Service Committee, Arizona Area Program American Friends Service Committee, Arizona Area 103 N. Park Ave., Ste. 111 Tucson, AZ 85719 (520)623-9141 (520)623-5901 fax [email protected] October 2010 Introduction The American Friends Service Committee (AFSC) is a Quaker organization that works for peace and justice worldwide. Our work is based on a commitment to nonviolence and the belief that all people have value and deserve to be treated with dignity and respect. The AFSC‟s programs promote social justice by focusing on a diverse set of social concerns. The organization‟s criminal justice work has always focused on the need for an effective and humane criminal justice system that emphasizes rehabilitation over punishment. Here in Arizona, our criminal justice program advocates for a reduction in the state‟s prison population through rational sentencing reform and a moratorium on new prison construction. A key focus of that effort is our work to educate the public on the risks inherent in prison privatization through for-profit prison corporations. This document is an attempt to paint a picture of the current efforts at privatization of prisons in the state of Arizona and raise questions about the potential pitfalls of this practice. Arizona Overview Arizona‟s experiment with for-profit incarceration began in the early 90‟s when the state faced the first of many prison overcrowding crises. Arizona‟s first privately operated prison was the Marana Community Correctional Treatment Facility, a minimum-security prison for people with substance abuse issues.
    [Show full text]
  • Inmate Litigation Margo Schlanger Harvard Law School, [email protected]
    University of Michigan Law School University of Michigan Law School Scholarship Repository Articles Faculty Scholarship 2003 Inmate Litigation Margo Schlanger Harvard Law School, [email protected] Available at: https://repository.law.umich.edu/articles/1296 Follow this and additional works at: https://repository.law.umich.edu/articles Part of the Courts Commons, Law Enforcement and Corrections Commons, Legislation Commons, and the Torts Commons Recommended Citation Schlanger, Margo. "Inmate Litigation." Harv. L. Rev. 116, no. 6 (2003): 1555-706. This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Faculty Scholarship at University of Michigan Law School Scholarship Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Articles by an authorized administrator of University of Michigan Law School Scholarship Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. VOLUME 116 APRIL 2003 NUMBER 6 HARVARD LAW REVIEW I ARTICLE INMATE LITIGATION Margo Schlanger TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION r557 I. INMATE LITIGATION TRENDS r565 A. The Varied Subject Matter ofInmate Litigation r570 B. Inmate Litigation Rates r575 C. Inmate Filing Rates over Time: The "Deluge" r578 D. OfBabies and Bath Water: The Processing ofInmate Cases r587 II. OUTCOMES IN INMATE CASES (PRIOR TO THE PLRA) r590 A. Outcomes: The Data r593 B. Outcomes: Explanations r605 1. Limited Legal Rights/Exacting Decision Standard , r605 2. Easy Access to Courts r 607 3. The Absence of Counsel r609 4· Obstacles to Settlement. r6 r4 (a) The Impact of the Low Quality of the Docket r6r4 (b) Asymmetric Information r6r6 (c) Low Litigation Costs r6r7 (d) Perceived High External Settlement Costs r6r7 (e) Corrections Culture r620 5.
    [Show full text]
  • Educator Pedagogical Approach Shedding Light on Solitary Confinement Moya Atkinson, MSW May 2020
    Q&A: Educator Pedagogical Approach Shedding Light on Solitary Confinement Moya Atkinson, MSW May 2020 What approach to teaching about solitary confinement, and incarceration more broadly, do you recommend? The most powerful teaching approach is experiential, namely involvement in relevant activities coupled with reflection. Following are some learning opportunities for students that we recommend. Involvement and Observation 1. Witness the prison environment. Take part in a correctional facility tour: visit a prison, jail, or detention center. Some jails offer educational tours to college and university classes at the request of the professor. See, for example, information from the Orange County Corrections Department in Florida, and the Strafford County Department of Correction in New Hampshire. 2. Write letters to incarcerated people. See Letters from Solitary by Solitary Watch. Another excellent resource is the Prison and Justice Writing Program, which is part of PEN America, an organization that promotes the intersection of literature and human rights. Set up opportunities to interview returning citizens who were formerly incarcerated. 3. Experience solitary confinement virtually. The Guardian offers 6x9: A virtual experience of solitary confinement, which places you inside a U.S. solitary confinement prison cell. 4. Get involved in efforts by organizations that advocate for issues of solitary confinement and for the improvement of the justice system: Q&A: Educator Pedagogical Approach 2 American Civil Liberties Union The Vera Institute of Justice The Center for Constitutional Rights The Marshall Project (Abolition Resources) Prison Policy Initiative Center for Prison Reform (Explore their extensive list of organizations, including those for currently and formerly incarcerated people and for their families.) 5.
    [Show full text]
  • Treatment of American Prisoners of War in Southeast Asia 1961-1973 by John N. Powers
    Treatment of American Prisoners of War In Southeast Asia 1961-1973 By John N. Powers The years 1961 to 1973 are commonly used when studying American POWs during the Vietnam War, even though history books generally refer to the years 1964 to 1973 in defining that war. Americans were captured as early as 1954 and as late as 1975. In these pages the years 1961 to 1973 will be used. Americans were held prisoner by the North Vietnamese in North Vietnam, the Viet Cong (and their political arm the National Liberation Front) in South Vietnam, and the Pathet Lao in Laos. This article will not discuss those Americans held in Cambodia and China. The Defense Prisoner of War/Missing Personnel Office (DPMO) lists 687 American Prisoners of War who were returned alive by the Vietnamese from 1961 through 1976. Of this number, 72 were returned prior to the release of the bulk of the POWs in Operation Homecoming in 1973. Twelve of these early releases came from North Vietnam. DPMO figures list thirty-six successful escapes, thirty-four of them in South Vietnam and two in Laos. There were more than those thirty-six escapes, including some from prison camps in Hanoi itself. Some escapes ended in recapture within hours, some individuals were not recaptured for days, and some were simply never seen again. There were individuals who escaped multiple times, in both North and South Vietnam. However, only thirty- six American prisoners of war escaped and reached American forces. Of those thirty- six successful attempts, twenty-eight of them escaped within their first month of captivity.
    [Show full text]
  • The Angola Special Civics Project, 1987-1992
    University of New Orleans ScholarWorks@UNO University of New Orleans Theses and Dissertations Dissertations and Theses Summer 8-4-2011 Organizing for Freedom: The Angola Special Civics Project, 1987-1992 Lydia Pelot-Hobbs University of New Orleans, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.uno.edu/td Part of the Sociology Commons Recommended Citation Pelot-Hobbs, Lydia, "Organizing for Freedom: The Angola Special Civics Project, 1987-1992" (2011). University of New Orleans Theses and Dissertations. 349. https://scholarworks.uno.edu/td/349 This Thesis is protected by copyright and/or related rights. It has been brought to you by ScholarWorks@UNO with permission from the rights-holder(s). You are free to use this Thesis in any way that is permitted by the copyright and related rights legislation that applies to your use. For other uses you need to obtain permission from the rights- holder(s) directly, unless additional rights are indicated by a Creative Commons license in the record and/or on the work itself. This Thesis has been accepted for inclusion in University of New Orleans Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of ScholarWorks@UNO. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Organizing for Freedom: The Angola Special Civics Project, 1987-1992 A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the University of New Orleans in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Urban Studies by Lydia Pelot-Hobbs B.A. Oberlin College 2007 August 2011 Table of Contents Abstract .............................................................................................................................. iv Epigraph .............................................................................................................................. v Chapter 1: Introduction ......................................................................................................
    [Show full text]
  • What Is a Prisoner of War For?
    19 WHAT IS A PRISONER OF WAR FOR? Professor John Hickman Associate Professor of Government, Berry College Abstract This article presents a conceptual map of the purposes served by continuing custody of prisoners of war and captured non-combatants. Morally legitimate and non-controversial purposes include preventing prisoners of war from rejoining their comrades-in-arms, preventing both prisoners of war and captured non-combatants from giving material support to combatants still in the field, facilitating orderly release and repatriation at the end of hostilities, and the prosecution for war crimes. Morally illegitimate purposes include punishment, exploitation as conscript labour, recruitment or conscription as combatants, exploitation for intelligence, display as proof of victory, and ideological indoctrination. Analysis of historical cases illustrating each purpose reveal that continuing custody is often motivated by multiple purposes, both legitimate and illegitimate. What explains adoption of multiple and illegitimate purposes for continuing custody? Prisoners are available for legitimate and illegitimate purposes because neither elites nor masses within the captor state typically view prisoners as members of the moral community.1 Continuing custody does not alter the perceived status of the captured as aliens who cannot be intuitively invested with expectations of reciprocity. This suggests both ending custody as soon as legitimate purposes are served and bringing the captured within the moral community while in continuing captivity. Introduction Throughout human history, those captured in war have presented their captors with the basic choice between immediate execution, immediate release, or continuing custody – holding them in custody pending their release or other 1 The moral community comprises those persons to whom moral obligations are owed because moral values are shared.
    [Show full text]
  • The Cradle to Prison Pipeline Crisis 2006
    The Cradle to Prison Pipeline Crisis By Marian Wright Edelman The Children’s Defense Fund (CDF) is grateful for the work of the Joint Center Health Policy Institute’s Dellums Commission, which highlights some of the very dangerous trends in the status of children of color. Poor children, and especially poor black and Latino children, are coming into contact with the juvenile justice and criminal justice systems at younger and younger ages and for less serious and less specifically defined offenses that used to be handled in the community by school officials, community leaders, pastors, or families. The overwhelming majority of children being locked up involve nonviolent offenses. Today, a complex web of social, economic, and political elements converge to reduce the odds that poor children of color will grow up to become productive adults and increase the odds that they will face a Cradle to Prison Pipeline Crisis (a trademarked concept of the Children’s Defense Fund). CDF is preparing to release a report on this crisis that we all must name and address to prevent the clock of racial and social progress from turning backwards. Why There Is a Crisis The Cradle to Prison Pipeline crisis stems from the overarching reality that the United States of America is not a level playing field for all children. At crucial points in their development from birth through adulthood, poor children— and disproportionately large numbers of poor children of color— face many risks that converge, cumulate, and overwhelm fragile young lives and significantly increase their involvement in the criminal justice system.
    [Show full text]
  • Minidoka Internment National Park Service U.S
    National Monument Minidoka Internment National Park Service U.S. Department of the Interior Glossary 442nd Regimental Combat Team – a segregated U.S. Army regiment of primarily Japanese American soldiers. The 442nd fought in Italy, France, and Germany. Assembly Centers – temporary detention camps maintained by the Army that held Japanese Americans who were removed from their West Coast homes. Most assembly centers were located at fairgrounds, racetracks, or former Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) camps. By mid-1942, Japanese Americans were transferred to more permanent war relocation centers. Assembly centers are also known as “temporary incarceration camps” and “temporary prison camps.” Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians (CWRIC) – a Congressional commission established in 1980 to “review the facts and circumstances surrounding Executive Order 9066” and to “recommend appropriate remedies.” Evacuation – the term used by the Army during World War II to describe the process of removing Japanese Americans from their West Coast homes located within exclusion zones. The terms “exclusion” and “removal” are more commonly used today. Exclusion Zones – areas described in each Civilian Exclusion Order from which all Japanese Americans were removed. Civilian Exclusion Orders were issued by the Western Defense Command and Fourth Army to implement the provisions of Executive Order 9066. Executive Order 9066 – authorized the War Department to establish military areas from which “any or all persons may be excluded...” This order was signed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on February 19, 1942 and was the basis for the removal from the West Coast of anyone with 1/16 Japanese ancestry. Family Number – a WCCA number assigned to each family unit or individual living alone during registration for “evacuation.” The numbers were used for administrative and property identification purposes.
    [Show full text]