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I BALIK-ISLAM in the PHILIPPINES BALIK-ISLAM IN THE PHILIPPINES: REVERSION, SYMBOLIC NEGOTIATION, AND BECOMING THE OTHER A Dissertation Submitted to the Temple University Graduate Board In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION by Marybeth T. Acac August 2020 Examining Committee Members: Dr. Zain Abdullah, Advisory Chair, Department of Religion Dr. Terry Rey, Department of Religion Dr. Sydney White, Department of Religion Dr. Vivienne Angeles, External Member, LaSalle University i © Copyright 2020 by Marybeth T. Acac All Rights Reserved ii ABSTRACT Although the majority of Filipinos are Christian, recent developments reflect an upsurge in conversion to Islam, particularly in the northern Philippines. This dissertation examines one of the fastest growing religious phenomena in Southeast Asia, Balik-Islam, which means “reverts to Islam,” or the process of “returning to Islam.” The Balik-Islam movement has become popular since the 1970s, and its religious narratives on Muslim reversion challenge and complicate what we already know generally about conversion to new religions, including the impact of the external “non-religious” factors associated with it. This dissertation shows how a discourse of “reversion” among Balik-Islam members reveals complex realities about the appeal of Islam to Filipinos. While other scholars have used paradigms concerning “othering” and underlying “symbolic” forces to understanding the reasons why conflict and crisis might appear in conversion narratives, this characterization also tends to reify religion and position Christianity and Islam as polar opposites operating within a hostile environment. My approach is to understand how Balik- Islam members negotiate their transition to Islam by virtue of social and cultural settings that are both fluid and multifaceted. By critically assessing their “reversion” narratives, this dissertation reveals how their transition to Islam reflects a “symbolic negotiation,” or an act of reimagining the process of religious conversion itself, substituting it for a discourse of reversion that reflects a diverse set of spiritual and social needs. iii For my parents. Maraming salamat sa pagmamahal ninyo sa akin at sa walang sawa ninyong pagsuporta at pasensya. Ito po para sa inyo. iv ACKNOWLEDGMENTS “Life happens to you while doing a PhD,” my advisor would remind me whenever I felt disheartened, overwhelmed, or fatigued during the course of my doctoral studies. With heartfelt encouragement and candor, he explained: “The journey of the doctorate isn’t outside your life. It’s deeply a part of it, including the ups and downs.” His words capture precisely what this dissertation means to me. It represents a considerable part of my life—essentially the vehicle through which I journeyed to become the person I am today. To my doctoral advisor, Dr. Zain Abdullah—thank you for allowing me to embrace the ups and downs of life and transform these experiences into a critical and, I hope, positive contribution to the scholarly study of religion. Your mentorship, understanding, and optimism has impacted my life far beyond this PhD program. To my dissertation committee: Dr. Terry Rey, Dr. Sydney White, and Dr. Vivienne Angeles—I am indebted to your kindness and am honored to have had the opportunity to work with you these many years. Terry, your insights on Bourdieu and our discussions on religious conversion inspired the notion of “symbolic negotiation”, as presented in this thesis. Sydney, your expertise on the religious dimensions of labor and migration provided me with invaluably fresh perspective. Vivienne, your pioneering work on Islam in the Philippines laid the necessary groundwork for my research to come into fruition. I thank each of you for your patience, feedback, and continued support. To the members of the Balik-Islam community who graciously welcomed me into your lives—into your homes and offices, and into some of your deepest, most profound thoughts about the human condition and life hereafter, I am eternally grateful for your cooperation, trust, and goodwill. v To family and friends who directly and indirectly supported my efforts to complete my research, fieldwork, and writing, please know I could not have done any of this without you. It is your love and support that enabled me to accomplish what oftentimes felt like the impossible. Special thanks goes to the Villegas family, who adopted me as their own during my time in the Philippines. Tita Liza, Tito Joey, Jygz, Iya, and Vonti—your capacity for love and sacrifice embody the best of Filipino culture. To the Oliver family—your steadfast support and understanding gave me the strength I needed to make it to the finish line. Krystle Corpuz and Erin Guinn-Villareal—when I asked for a helping hand, you offered to carry me forward. To my sisters, Ate Bevan and Marielle—when I needed a listening ear, you paused your world to attend to mine. To my mom and dad—you placed me on your shoulders so I could reach the stars. To my partner and best friend, Ryan—you inspired me to persevere and renewed my will to succeed. To my son, Kobe—you breathed new life into my universe and gave me a higher purpose than I believed possible. I love you more than I can comprehend. To Filipinos around the world—especially those working overseas, far from the comforts of home—I hope this dissertation does justice to your service and sacrifice. And to Carmen Cordoviz—your story continues to motivate me to use my privilege as a platform for voices that might otherwise go unheard. May you rest in peace. vi Page ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... iii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...................................................................................................v TABLE OF CONTENTS .................................................................................................. vii LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................. xi LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................... xii LIST OF PHOTOS .......................................................................................................... xiii CHAPTER 1. THE ISLAM OF RETURNING AND REVERTING .....................................................1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 1 How I Got Here ....................................................................................................... 6 Research Questions and Scope ............................................................................. 10 Chapter Outline ..................................................................................................... 17 2. TOPOGRAPHY OF REVERSION IN THE PHILIPPINES.........................................23 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 23 Reproducing the Muslim Other: Spanish Reconquista in Asia ............................ 28 Enforcing Division through Integration: American Occupation and Politics of Filipinization ..................................................................................................................... 33 Navigating between Moro and Christian: Filipino Born-Again Muslims ............ 46 Reverting to a Globalized Islam: Deterritorialized and Translocal Muslims ....... 50 vii 3. APPROACHING REVERSION THROUGH “SYMBOLIC NEGOTIATION”..........58 Introduction ........................................................................................................... 58 Reexamining the Stage Approach ......................................................................... 61 Symbolic Universe ................................................................................................ 67 Symbolic Battle ..................................................................................................... 72 Theory of Practice ................................................................................................. 76 Habitus ................................................................................................................. 77 Field ..................................................................................................................... 78 Capital .................................................................................................................. 78 The Three Ds of Symbolic Negotiation ................................................................ 86 Diaspora ............................................................................................................... 90 Discord ................................................................................................................. 91 DaꜤwah ................................................................................................................. 91 Case study #1: Ibrahim ........................................................................................ 92 Case Study #2: Omar ........................................................................................... 94 Case #3: Maryam ................................................................................................. 96 Scope and Limitations of Symbolic Negotiation ................................................ 100 4. DIASPORA:
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