Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project

Amhara National Regional State

Bureau of Environmental Protection, Land Administration and Use

(BOEPLAU)

Tana Land Use planning and Environmental Study Project

Technical Report: Land Utilization Types Descriptions and Their Environmental Requirements Setting

ADSWE, LUPESP/TaSB Sec: III: VO: 02: February/2015

Bahir Dar

Client: Bureau of Environmental Protection and Land Administration and Use (BoEPLAU)

Address: P.O.box: 145 Telephone: +251-58-265-5458 Fax: 251-58 -26-5479 E-mail: amhara [email protected] Bahir Dar, Ethiopia Consultant: Amhara Design & Supervision Works Enterprise (ADSWE) Address: P.O.box: 1921 Telephone: +251-58-218-0638/181077 Fax: 251-582-180550/ 180560/ E-mail:[email protected] Bahir Dar, Ethiopia

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project LIST OF REPORTS

Section I: MAIN REPORT

Section II: SECTOR STUDIES

Volume I: Soil Survey Volume II: Forest and Wildlife Assessment Volume III: Hydrology and Water Resource Assessment Volume IV: Land Use and Land Cover Volume V: Agro Climatic Assessment Volume VI: Crop Resource Assessment Volume VII: Watershed Management Volume VIII: Livestock Production and Feed Resource Assessment Volume IX: Human Health Assessment Volume X Animal Health Assessment Volume XI: Fish and Wetland Assessment Volume XII: Sociologic assessment Volume XIII: Economic Study Volume XIV: Tourism Assessment Section III PLANNING Volume I Approaches, Procedures and Methods Volume II Land Utilization Types Description and their Environmental Requirements Setting Volume III Planning Units Description Volume IV Land Suitability Evaluation Volume V Land Use Plan Volume VI Management plan Volume VII Implementation Guideline SECTION IV ANNEXES Maps albums and data base

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Tana sub basin is one of the six Development corridors of Amhara region in which this study has been undertaken. It is geographically located between North latitude 1210669 – 1411084 m and East longitude 254549 - 416363m. Its elevation is ranging 1327 - 4109 meter above sea level. The basin has a total area of 1,589,654.98 hectares. It is one of the most important potential areas for all development in Amhara region, where 100 33‘ to 120 15‘ N latitude and 390 51‘ to 410 49‘ E longitude .It covers 2,302,670 hectare. This basin has much potential for most development activities, especially for livestock, high value crop production under irrigation, wild life and ecotourism development.

Land evaluation study was intended to identify and describe the prospective and productive land utilization types which form major components of the project assisting in the preparation of suitability maps and land use plan of the study area. The methodology for identification, descriptions and selection of land utilization types were made based on the concepts of FAO land evaluation framework developed since 1976, and several subsequent specific guidelines of rain fed agriculture (FAO, 1985), forestry (FAO, 1984), irrigated agriculture (FAO, 1985) and extensive grazing (FAO, 1992) and local survey experiences. The study aimed to identify the most relevant land utilization types from existing land utilization types and new once that fit the land use and natural resources condition of the study area for the planning horizon. Alternatives, potential and existing, improved or new land utilization types proposed through proper identification, selection and combination practices occurred one after the other. Land utilization types of the study area were identified, described and selected from the relevant data obtained from secondary and primary sources. For this purpose, relevant data from the reconnaissance survey, previous survey data, census and statistics; and woreda institutions were highly accounted before the main field survey. Besides, important data‘s were collected during the main field survey from individual pastorals, agro pastural through household interviews , and community focus group discussions, research institutions and woreda sectors addressed through woreda focus group discussion and during secondary data collection provide essential inputs for the purpose. Biophysical field observations were also another essential method to enrich information on land utilization types.

In which, a total of 38 land utilization types and combinations were identified for the determination of land use requirements and land suitability evaluation of the study area during the planning horizon. More specifically, 12 LUTs 5 rain fed cropping, 7 LUTs from irrigation

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project agriculture,4 LUTs from primary livestock feed resources and 5 secondary livestock LUTs, including Apiculture,6 LUTs from forest and 2 LUTs Tourism , 2 LUTs from fishery and 1 for settlement ,wind farm and solar farm are respectively identifying in the study areas as land utilization types and combinations are represented

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF REPORTS ...... ii EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... iii LIST OF TABLES ...... viii LIST OF FIGURES ...... xiii ABBREVATION AND ACRONYMS ...... xiv 1 INTRODUCTION...... 1 1.1 General ...... 1 1.2 Objectives ...... 2 1.3 Scope of the study ...... 3 1.4 Limitation of study ...... 3 2 METHODS AND MATERIALS ...... 4 2.1 Descriptions of Tana sub basin ...... 4 2.2 Materials ...... 7 2.3 Methods ...... 7 2.3.1 Methods of LUTs identification, description and selection ...... 8 2.3.1.1 Identification of lands uses/ land utilization types ...... 8 2.3.1.2 Description of land use/land utilization types ...... 10 3 RESULT AND DISCUSSION ...... 12 3.1 Existing land use systems ...... 12 3.1.1 Small Holder Rain Fed Crop Production ...... 12 3.1.2 Smallholder Irrigated Crop Production ...... 14 3.1.3 Small to Medium Scale Crop-Livestock Mixed Production ...... 15 3.1.4 Smallholder Perennial Crops and Forest Production ...... 15 3.1.5 Smallholder Farm Forestry Production ...... 16 3.1.6 Nature Conservation and Tourist ...... 16 3.1.7 Constraints to Existing Land Use System...... 16 3.1.8 OPPORTUNITIES ...... 17 3.2 Identification of land utilization types ...... 17 3.3 Descriptions of land utilization types ...... 19 3.3.1 Descriptions of crop land utilization types ...... 19 3.3.1.1 Small holders rain fed Teff production ...... 22 3.3.1.2 Rain-fed small holders Wheat production ...... 24 3.3.1.3 Rain fed small holders food and malt barley production ...... 25 3.3.1.4 Rain-fed small holders low and high land Maize production...... 27 3.3.1.5 Rain-fed small holders paddy Rice production ...... 29 3.3.1.6 Rain-fed small holders Finger millet production...... 31 3.3.1.7 Rain-fed small holders sorghum production ...... 32 3.3.1.8 Rain-fed small holders Faba bean production ...... 34 3.3.1.9 Rain-fed small holders Field pea production...... 35 3.3.1.10 Rain-fed small holders chickpea production ...... 35 3.3.1.11 Rain-fed small holders Grass pea production ...... 36 3.3.1.12 Rain-fed small holders Soya bean production ...... 38 3.3.1.13 Rain-fed small holders Haricot bean production ...... 39 3.3.1.14 Rain-fed small holders Niger seed production ...... 40 3.3.1.15 Smallholder rain fed Tomato production ...... 41 3.3.1.16 Smallholder irrigated Onion production ...... 43 3.3.1.17 Smallholder rain fed and irrigated Garlic production...... 44 3.3.1.18 Smallholder rain fed Potato production ...... 45 3.3.1.19 Smallholder rain fed pepper production ...... 46 3.3.1.20 Carrot ...... 46 3.3.1.21 Mango ...... 47

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3.3.1.22 Citrus fruit ...... 48 3.3.1.23 Banana ...... 49 3.3.1.24 Fenugreek ...... 49 3.3.1.25 Irrigated Sugar cane production ...... 50 3.3.2 Feed Resources Development...... 52 3.3.2.1 Natural pasture ...... 55 3.3.2.2 Alfalfa ...... 56 3.3.2.3 Napier grass ...... 58 3.3.2.4 Oat ...... 60 3.3.2.5 Vetch ...... 61 3.3.2.6 Rhodes grass ...... 62 3.3.2.7 Clover ...... 65 3.3.2.8 Stylo ...... 67 3.3.2.9 Pigeon pea ...... 68 3.3.2.10 Sesbania sesban ...... 69 3.3.2.11 Tree lucerne ...... 70 3.3.2.12 Cow pea ...... 72 3.3.2.13 Chibeha (ficus thonningii) ...... 73 3.3.3 Livestock Production ...... 74 3.3.3.1 Cattle production ...... 77 3.3.3.2 Sheep production ...... 79 3.3.3.3 Goats production ...... 80 3.3.3.4 Equines production ...... 81 3.3.3.5 Poultry production ...... 82 3.3.3.6 Apiculture production ...... 83 3.3.4 Forestry ...... 92 3.3.4.1 Production forestry ...... 92 3.3.4.2 Tree management ...... 99 3.3.4.3 Agroforestry ...... 102 3.3.4.4 Environmental forestry ...... 106 3.3.5 Irrigation System ...... 107 3.3.5.1 Surface irrigation ...... 108 3.3.5.2 Sprinkler irrigation ...... 109 3.3.5.3 Drip irrigation ...... 109 3.3.5.4 Pond Farming ...... 109 3.3.6 Fishing ...... 111 3.3.6.1 Culture fisheries ...... 111 3.3.6.2 Capture fisheries ...... 114 3.3.7 Tourism ...... 115 3.3.7.1 Natural tourist attraction resources ...... 116 3.3.7.2 Historic and heritage attractions ...... 116 3.3.7.3 Cultural tourist attraction resources ...... 117 3.3.7.4 Recreational activities ...... 118 3.3.7.5 Lodge sites ...... 120 3.3.8 Other Land Utilization types ...... 130 3.3.8.1 Settlement ...... 130 3.3.8.2 Wind farm ...... 130 3.3.8.3 Solar Energy ...... 130 3.3.8.4 Water harvesting ...... 131 3.4 Combination of land utilization types ...... 132 3.4.1 Combination within sector ...... 132 3.4.1.1 Crop ...... 132 3.4.1.2 Livestock ...... 133 BoEPAU Land Utilization Types and Their Environmental Requirements Draft Final Report ADSWE Page vi

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3.4.1.3 Forage ...... 133 3.4.1.4 Forest ...... 133 3.4.1.5 Irrigation ...... 133 3.4.1.6 Fishing ...... 134 3.4.1.7 Tourism ...... 134 3.4.2 Intersectional Combinations ...... 134 3.5 Land use requirements ...... 136 3.5.1 Requirements for crop production, Forage and forest trees development ...... 136 3.5.2 Requirements for Livestock Production ...... 176 3.5.3 Irrigation ...... 181 3.5.4 Requirements for Irrigation systems evaluation ...... 181 3.5.5 Fish farming requirements ...... 190 3.5.5.1 Culture fishery ...... 190 3.5.5.2 Capture fishery ...... 194 3.5.6 Other development Land Utilization ...... 195 3.5.6.1 Settlement ...... 195 3.5.6.2 Wind farm ...... 196 3.5.6.3 Solar energy ...... 198 3.5.6.4 Pond Farming ...... 198 4 RFERENCE...... 201 5 APPENDICES ...... 202 5.1 Guideline of Identification and Selection of Land Utilization Types ...... 202 5.2 Glossary ...... 217

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Initial identified land utilization types in the study area ...... 17

Table 2: Description of management levels ...... 20

Table 3: Hierarchal definition of feed resources LUTs ...... 52

Table 4 Description Natural pasture development at three level of management ...... 56

Table 5: Alfalfa production at three level of management ...... 58

Table 6 Description of Napier grass Production ...... 59

Table 7: Oat Production description ...... 60

Table 8 Description of Common Vecth Production ...... 62

Table 9 Description of Common Rhodes Grass Production ...... 65

Table 10 Distribution of clover production at each level of management ...... 67

Table 11 Stylo production land descriptions ...... 68

Table 12: Pigeon pea production descriptions ...... 69

Table 13: Sesbania (Sesbania sesban) Production Land utilization Description ...... 70

Table 14: Description Tree Lucerne Production at three level of management ...... 71

Table 15 Cow pea (vigna unguiculata) production land utilization descriptions ...... 73

Table 16: Chibeha production description at three level of managment ...... 74

Table 17: Hierarchal definition of livestock production LUTs ...... 75

Table 18 Description of cattle production at three level of management ...... 86

Table 19 Descriptions of sheep and goat Production at three level of managment ...... 88

Table 20: Descriptions of Apiculture Production at three level of managment ...... 89

Table 21 Poultry production LUT6 description ...... 91

Table 22: Tree/shrub species in the traditional agro-ecological zones ...... 107

Table 23: A general comparison of surface irrigation methods ...... 108

Table 24: Irrigation scheme and its description ...... 110

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Table 25Demonstration culture fisheries at three levels of management ...... 113

Table 26: Descriptions of Capture fisheries at three levels of management ...... 114

Table 27: Hierarchical Definition of Tourism Land Utilization Types (LUTs) at Different Levels of Management ...... 125

Table 28: Combinations of LUTs for land suitability evaluation ...... 135

Table 29: Land qualities and symbols for suitability evaluation for rain-fed farming ...... 138

Table 30: Factor rating table for rain fed Teff production at low level of management ...... 143

Table 31: Ratings table for Rain fed Teff production at medium level of management ...... 143

Table 32: Rating table for Rain fed Teff production at high level of management ...... 143

Table 33: Ratings table for Rain fed low land maize production at low level management ...... 145

Table 34: Factor Rating for Rain fed low land maize production at medium level of management ...... 145

Table 35: Factor Rating for Rain fed low land maize production at high level of management ..... 146

Table 36 Requirement Ratings for Rain fed food barley production at low level management ..... 146

Table 37: Requirement Ratings for Rain fed food barley production: medium level management ...... 147

Table 38: Requirement Ratings for Rain fed food barley production: high level management ...... 147

Table 39: Requirement Ratings for Rain fed malt barley production: low management level ...... 147

Table 40: Requirement Ratings for Rain fed malt barley production : medium management level ...... 148

Table 41: Requirement Ratings for Rain fed malt barley production: high management level ..... 148

Table 42: Requirement Ratings for Rain fed bread wheat production: low management level ...... 149

Table 43: Requirement Ratings for Rain fed bread wheat production: medium management level ...... 149

Table 44: Requirement Ratings for Rain fed bread wheat production: high management level .... 150

Table 45: Requirement Ratings for Rain fed Paddy rice production: low management leve ...... 151

Table 46 Requirement Ratings for Rain fed rice production: medium management levelLand ..... 151

Table 47: Requirement Ratings for Rain paddy fed rice production: high management level ...... 152

Table 48: Requirement Ratings for Rain fed Faba bean production: low management level ...... 152

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Table 49: Requirement Ratings for Rain fed Faba bean production: medium management level .. 153

Table 50: Requirement Ratings for Rain fed Faba bean production: high management level ...... 153

Table 51: Requirement Ratings for Rain fed Chick pea production: low management level ...... 154

Table 52: Requirement Ratings for Rain fed Chick pea production: medium management level .. 154

Table 53: Requirement Ratings for Rain fed Chick pea production: high management level ...... 155

Table 54 Requirement Ratings for irrigated Sugar cane production: low management level ...... 155

Table 55: Requirement Ratings for irrigated Sugar cane production at medium management level ...... 156

Table 56: Requirement Ratings for irrigated Sugar cane production at medium management level ...... 156

Table 57: Requirement Ratings for irrigated Onion production: low management level ...... 157

Table 58: Requirement Ratings for irrigated Onion production at medium management level ...... 157

Table 59: Requirement Ratings for irrigated Onion production: high management level ...... 158

Table 60: Requirement Ratings for irrigated Mango production at low management level ...... 158

Table 61: Requirement Ratings for irrigated Mango production at medium management level .... 158

Table 62: Requirement Ratings for irrigated Mango production at high management level ...... 159

Table 63: Requirement Ratings for irrigated high land fruits production: low management level ...... 160

Table 64: Requirement Ratings for irrigated high land fruits production: Medium management level ...... 160

Table 65: Requirement Ratings for irrigated high land fruits production: high management level ...... 161

Table 66 Environmental requirements of natural pasture production at low level of management ...... 161

Table 67: Rating table for natural pasture production at intermediate level of management ...... 161

Table 68: Rating table for natural pasture production at high level of management ...... 161

Table 69: Rating table for Alfalfa production at low level of management ...... 162

Table 70: Rating table of Alfalfa production at intermediate level of management ...... 162

Table 71 Rating table for Alfalfa production at high level of management ...... 162

Table 72: Rating table for Napier grass production at low level of management ...... 163

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Table 73: Rating table for Napier grass production at intermediate level of management ...... 163

Table 74 Rating table for Napier grass production at high level of management ...... 164

Table 75 Requirement table for Rhodes grass at low level of management ...... 164

Table 76: Rating table for Rhodes grass production at intermediate level of management ...... 164

Table 77: Rating table for Tree Lucerne production at low level of management ...... 165

Table 78: Rating table for Tree Lucerne production at intermediate level of management ...... 165

Table 79:Growth requirement of Cordia Africana at Low level of management ...... 165

Table 80:Growth requirement of Cordia Africana at intermediate level of management ...... 166

Table 81: Growth requirement of Cordia Africana For a high level of management ...... 166

Table 82: growth requirement of Cupressus lusitanica for Low level of management ...... 167

Table 83: Growth requirement of Cupressus lusitanica for intermediate level of management) .... 167

Table 84: Rating table of Cupressus lusitanica at high level of management ...... 168

Table 85: growth requirement of Pinus patula for Low level of management ...... 168

Table 86: growth requirement of Pinus patula For Intermediate level of management ...... 169

Table 87: growth requirement of Pinus patula for a high level of management...... 169

Table 88: Factor rating table of Podocarpus falcatus at Low level of management ...... 170

Table 89: Factor rating table of Podocarpus falcatus at intermediate level of management ...... 170

Table 90: Rating table of Podocarpus falcatus at high level of management ...... 171

Table 91: growth requirement of High land bamboo for Low level of management ...... 171

Table 92: growth requirement of High land bamboo for intermediate level of management ...... 171

Table 93: growth requirement of High land bamboo For High level of management ...... 172

Table 94: growth requirement of Eucalyptus globules for Low level of management ...... 172

Table 95: growth requirement of Eucalyptus globules For Intermediate level of Management ..... 172

Table 96: growth requirement of Eucalyptus globules for high level of management ...... 173

Table 97: growth requirement of Eucalyptus grandis For Low level of Management ...... 173

Table 98: growth requirement of Eucalyptus grandis For Intermediate level of Management ...... 173

Table 99: growth requirement of Eucalyptus grandis for high level of management ...... 174

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Table 100: Growth requirement of Eucalyptus camaldulensis at intermediate level of management ...... 174

Table 101: Rating of the growth requirement of Acacia albida Low level of management ...... 174

Table 102: Growth requirement table of Acacia Seyal production with low level of management ...... 175

Table 103: growth requirement of G.robusta for Low level of management ...... 175

Table 104: growth requirement of G.robusta for intermediate level of management ...... 176

Table 105: growth requirement of G.robusta For High level of management...... 176

Table 106: Cattle Production LUT Environmental Requirements at low level of management ..... 177

Table 107: Cattle Production LUT Environmental Requirements at Intermediate level of management ...... 178

Table 108: Cattle Production LUT Environmental Requirements at high level of management .... 178

Table 109: Environmental Requirement of Sheep production at medium level of management .... 178

Table 110 Environmental Requirement of Sheep production at medium level of management ..... 179

Table 111 Environmental Requirement of Sheep production at medium level of management ..... 179

Table 112 Requirement for poultry production at low level of management ...... 179

Table 113 Environmental requirement for poultry production medium level of Management ...... 180

Table 114 Environmental requirement for poultry production high level of management ...... 180

Table 115 Rating Land Use Requirements for Apiculture production ...... 180

Table 116: Partial suitability classes and factor rating for surface irrigation ...... 184

Table 117: Partial suitability classes and factor rating for drip irrigation ...... 184

Table 118 : Partial suitability classes and factor rating for sprinkler irrigation ...... 185

Table 119: Factor rating table for Tourist Attraction potential site Identification ...... 189

Table 120: Factor rating table for resort lodge site assessment ...... 190

Table 121: Environmental requirements rating for Fish culture (LUT1) low level of management ...... 191

Table 122 Environmental requirements rating for Fish culture (LUT1) at intermediate level of management ...... 192

Table 123: Factor rating table for culture fishery at low level of management ...... 192

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Table 124: Factor rating table for culture fishery at medium level of management ...... 193

Table 125: Environmental requirements rating for Fish culture (LUT1) at high level of management ...... 193

Table 126: Factor rating table for capture fisheries at low levels of management ...... 195

Table 127: Factor rating table for settlement site selection ...... 196

Table 128: Factor rating for wind farm potential assessment ...... 197

Table 129 Factor rating of solar energy LUTs requirements ...... 198

Table 130: Factor rating table farm pond site selection ...... 200

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1 Map of Tana sub basin ...... 5

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ABBREVATION AND ACRONYMS

ADSWE: Amhara Design and Supervision Works Enterprise

AEZ: Agro Ecological Zone

ANRS: Amhara National Regional State

FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization

GIS: Geographic Information System

GPS: Geographic Positioning System

LGP: Length of Growing Period

LUP&ESP: Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project

LUPRD: Land Use Planning and Regulatory Department

LUR: Land Use Requirements

LUT: Land Utilization Types

MLU: Major Land Uses

TOR: Terms of References

TSB; Tana sub basin

UTM: Universal Traverse Mercator

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1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 General

Historically, the nature of the human being has been to develop and essentially to use the available natural resources around him. ―Land‖ is a primary resource naturally endowed to us by God to build our shelters on it, till it to get food; fishing on its lakes and rivers and to use the forestry products from its naturally grown trees (Tom Balsem, 2011). Land is the base of civilization for a given society. Unwise use of natural resources leads to destruction of civilization; because, it is the ultimate source of wealth and the foundation on which civilization is constructed (FAO, 1995, cited in: Fissile, 2009).

According to the international land use planning advisor‘s mission Report (April 2011), every year, millions of hectares of agricultural land is converted to scattered settlements and urban centers, often forcing farmers onto shrinking and more marginal lands. The uncontrolled expansion of human settlements constitutes a challenge for sustainable land use planning and management. Particularly the concentration of people in a given area increases the demand for limited land resources. Demands on land resources and the risks to sustainability are likely to intensify.

Population growth, economic development and urbanization are driving demands for food, water, energy and raw materials. The continued shift from sparsely resource utilization to intensive utilization is requiring a higher input in land and water resources as well as threatens biodiversity. With all of these, implications for proper land uses and appropriate policy measures are required to minimize possible negative effects. The impacts are varying across place to place and locations and will depend on cultivation practices and whether new land is converted in to cultivated land or others. Expanded demand for agricultural products will aggravate pressures on the natural resource base, especially if the agricultural practices met with inappropriate land use.

Therefore, proper land use planning is the most important tool to guide its proper land resource use. The aim is to ensure that scarce land and its resources can be planned, controlled and utilized in the most beneficial and sustainable way. In land use planning process; identification, descriptions and selection of land utilization types and major kinds of land uses taken as the most important basis of land evaluation

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project mainly based on the framework for land evaluation (FAO, 1976) that gives a standard set of headings for description of land utilization types and several subsequent FAO guidelines. Land utilization types provide one of the two major bases for land evaluation, the other being the land mapping units which provides a basis from which their environmental requirements can be assessed. Land utilization types of rain fed cropping, irrigated agriculture, livestock production and feed resources, forest and wildlife conservation and other major kinds of land use were referred and identified. The individual descriptions were preceded by an account of the format for description.

Descriptions of land utilization types were a basis for land suitability evaluation. It is one of the distinctive features of land suitability evaluation, in which it differs from most previous systems of land classification and evaluation that as much attention have given to the land utilization types as to the land mapping units. The report indicated the agricultural or other technological features of each land utilization type, including estimates of crop yields, and provides information on the economic, environmental and social setting at relevant level of inputs. Taken in conjunction with the crop and tree species environmental requirements, the land utilization types provide a basis for land suitability evaluation and management specifications.

1.2 Objectives

The overall objective of this study was to ensure effective and efficient utilization of lands for sustainable socioeconomic development and promote sustainability of natural resources bases of the sub basin through the application of specific land utilization type for a given land mapping unit based on land suitability evaluation.

As result this thematic report is prepared as component of land evaluation process to indicated:

Identification, descriptions and definition of major land uses and potential land utilization types used for evaluation; Selection of important and prospective land utilization types that enable to optimize the use of available resource and overcome constraints. Setting of environmental requirements and rating table of selected LUTs

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1.3 Scope of the study

In general, the definition of a land utilization type in this report was scoped mainly to those characteristics of the production system and social context which influence suitability, including: products, inputs, production calendar, markets and other external influences in the Tana sub basin.

1.4 Limitation of study

Even though complete description was made for all selected LUTs, availability of site specific research results and survey result was challenging for some LUTs. As result review of national and international standards as well as considering experts experience and community practical knowledge was considered. 1210691m to 1410799.77m East

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2 METHODS AND MATERIALS

2.1 Descriptions of Tana sub basin

Tana sub basin is found in the Amhara region. Geographically, the basin is located between North latitude 1210669m – 1411084m and East longitude 254549 - 416363m. Its elevation is ranging 1327 - 4109 meter above sea level. The basin has a total area of 1,589,654.98 hectares. It is one of the most important potential areas for all development in Amhara region. The largest lake in Ethiopia, Lake Tana is found in the sub basin.

Parts or the whole of 29 Woredas and three administrative zones are encompasses in the sub-basin. These include Banja, Fageta Lekuma and Dangila Woredas in Awi zone; Sekela, South Achefer, North Achefer, Mecha and BahirDar Zuria Woredas in West Gojjam zone; Bahir Dar Town in Bahir Dar Town administration; Dera, Estie, Farta, Libo Kemkem, Ebinat and Fogera Woredas in South Gondar zone; Debre Tabor Town in Debre Tabor Town Administration; Gondar Zuria, Wogera, Lay Armachiho, Dembia, Chilga, Alefa and Takusa in North Gondar zone and Gondar Town in Gondar Town Administration

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Figure 1 Map of Tana sub basin

Human population in Tana Sub Basin is generally homogeneous linguistically and consists of the main ethnic families of Amhara. According to CSAs 2007 census and Woredas, the study area has a total population of 3158247 with male 1587394and female 1570853 this is about 16 percent of the total regional population. The very big proportion or 76.9 percent of the population of the area is living in rural areas where as the remaining 23.1 percent are concentrated in urban and semi urban centers. The settlement pattern of the study area is dominantly scattered and the average population density of the area is 200 persons per km square.

The sub basin is endowed with eight different agro-climatic zones namely, moist tepid, sub-humid tepid, moist cool, moist warm, moist cold, moist very cold, sub-humid cool and sub-humid cold. Most of the project area (79.4%) is found in moist tepid agro climatic zone followed by sub-humid tepid, moist cool and sub-humid cool which account for 12%, 5% and 3% respectively. The area is dominated by one main rainy season, from June to September and one dry season between October and May. The rainfall distribution of area is controlled by the northward and southward movement of the inter-tropical convergence zone (ITCZ) resulting in a single rainy season.

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project

River Megech, Rib, Gumara and Gilgel Abbay are the main permanent water resources in the Basin, However, the Megech and Rib rivers sometimes dries-up at downstream during the dry seasons. Both Rivers used to supply water for human and livestock consumption and also for crop irrigation. The others seasonal rivers originate from the upper in the mountainous range in the north and in hilly zones in the inter-riverine area of river Megech and Rib are also other sources of water. River Infranz, River Jema, River Awra Arda, River Derba, River Arno-Garno, River Shine, River Selamko, River Dengura are some of prominent seasonal rivers found in the study area.

The sub basin is one among the other agrarian areas of the nation, where by Agricultural field crop production is predominantly prevailing. With this respect, Agriculture production is the mainstay for the livelihood of people in the sub basin. Beyond the presence of huge arable land resource, the sub basin is adequately endowed with a wide variety of indigenous plants with a unique heritage of diverse germplasm of vegetables, fruits, oil crops, forages, tubers, cereals and pulses. Teff, Noug, safflower, rape seed, caster bean, Gesho, are among indigenous plants grown in the basin. Maize, sorghum, beans, barley finger millet, wheat, chickpea and others are commonly grown crops. Livestock constitutes a major part of the farming system next to crop production, providing draft power, producing milk and conferring a certain degree of security against crop failures. However, performance in the production of the major food commodities of livestock origin has been poor compared with other African countries, including neighboring Kenya (IFAD/EPLAUA, 2007). Inadequate feed and nutrition, widespread diseases and poor health, poor breeding stock, and infrastructure have been cited as major constraints affecting livestock performance.

Forest resource offer the main energy supply is one of the most dynamic economic activity in sub basin; it also contribute to sustainable agricultural systems; and are a source for agro-biodiversity and a major storehouse for carbon and water. However, Forest resource in the sub basin is being depleted, biodiversity is declining, timber and non-timber forest products and services are weakened, and most of the important biological endemic species, that have a potential to sustain the livelihood in the basin, are now vulnerable.

The sub basin is rich in fish and wetland resources. However the fishery of Lake Tana is at an early stage of development due to low level of technology employed by fishery man

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project and a lack of marketing facilities.On other hand the wetlands resources also declining due to ever-increasing population in the study area coupled with inappropriate land use and wetland management system.

The position of the basin in its cultural heritage is remarkable. For example, Some 37 islands & 21 monasteries surviving remnants of a very old meditative tradition have been used as safe keeping places for the religious relics and art treasures during the times of trouble. And these monasteries from all corners of the country have architectural significances, beautiful mural paintings and icons, as well as numerous strikingly illustrated parchments and intricately decorated processional and hand crosses. It is also house myriads of treasures, beautiful mural paintings, icons, parchment manuscripts, scrolls and emperors assets. However, efforts and progress made on archaeological searches for historical values in the area are still at infancy. As a result, most of the attractions including those that have been declared world heritage by UNESCO have long suffered from severe deterioration by both natural calamities and human interferences

2.2 Materials

A framework for land evaluation (FAO, 1976) and subsequent FAO guidelines to several specific major land uses, namely, rain fed agriculture, irrigated agriculture, and livestock and forestry production (FAO, 1983; 1984; 1985; 1991 respectively) were among the central materials guiding the identification, description and selection of land utilization types. Different regional and national research results, working materials, annual reports and publications were used as a reference for the study. Added supplies used during the survey were: global positioning system (GPS); digital camera; laptop computer and different software‘s; and field data collection sheets and checklists.

2.3 Methods

The description and selection of land utilization types were made based on the concepts of FAO land evaluation framework developed since 1976, and several subsequent specific guidelines of rain fed agriculture (FAO, 1985), forestry (FAO, 1984), irrigated agriculture (FAO, 1985) and extensive grazing (FAO, 1992) and local survey experiences.

Starting from the inception, the major types of rural land uses of the study area and major subdivisions were identified from the results of reconnaissance survey and previous site

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project specific studies and described based on the work of Young (1976). Accordingly, rain fed crop production, irrigated agriculture, livestock production and feed resources, forest production, tourism, wildlife and nature conservation and other types of rural land uses were identified as major land uses; while others like settlement and built up area, exposed surfaces, swamps and water bodies were minor use of the study area.

The land utilization types selected for detailed land evaluation were tried to be relevant to the biophysical and socioeconomic situation of the study area. They were generally selected in early stages of land evaluation which involves a step-wise process.

Land utilization types were identified, described and selected based on data obtained from secondary and primary sources. For this purpose, relevant data from the reconnaissance survey, previous survey data, census and statistics; and woreda institutions were collected. Besides, relevant data‘s were collected during the main field survey from household interviews and community focus group discussions. Research institutions and woreda sectors addressed through woreda focus group discussion and experts' interview provided essential inputs. Biophysical field observations were also another essential method to enrich information and acquisition of illustrative pictures on land utilization types.

2.3.1 Methods of LUTs identification, description and selection

2.3.1.1 Identification of lands uses/ land utilization types

From the general principle of land evaluation our first step was to decide the alternative land uses (i.e. land utilization types or farming systems) of interest and prepare to evaluate each of these separately. For this study a complete list of present land utilization types and new once were identified from various sources, mainly identified from the present land use (what are the current uses, what farming or use techniques are used and how is the input utilization etc), apparent agro climatic suitability and possible extrapolation from other area comparable to the study area, information and knowledge of local experts, research stations and community, market and development demands (what demand is not satisfied and what is the potential) and suggestions from local and regional governments of the project.

From the initial identification exercise, all land utilization types were identified from rain fed cropping, irrigation, livestock production and feed resources, forestry and wildlife

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project conservation Tourism, wetland and social conditions. Accordingly, preliminary selection and filtering were made from the long list of land utilization types to reduce effect and time and addressing critical issues through pretesting species against agro climatic suitability analysis, market demand and price reasonability analysis, does the identified land utilization types cover the whole study area, believe of experts for why and why not and wish of government to expand the land utilization types. In this regard, priority land utilization types of the study area were preliminary filtered for further land utilization type‘s analysis. Moreover, land utilization types were defined slightly based on attributes that serve to differentiate the suitability of the land area.

Within rain fed agriculture individual crops have been considered as the basis for separate land utilization types. Initially a list of land utilization types were drawn up of the majority of crops known to grow or considered as being likely to be able to be grown in the Tana sub basin , amounting to about 44 different crop type.

The complete list of rain fed crop land utilization types in the Tana sub basin were obtained from the field survey and inception report; information obtained from Woreda and kebele experts; different sectors and community representatives; from regional strategic document, extension package manual; woreda focus group discussions; reference materials and study documents (Agricultural Research Centre and other relevant literatures); and new land utilization types which have better performances in other similar areas were identified and included in selection and description process.

In the sub-basin all livestock types i.e. cattle, sheep, goats, equines, apiculture, and poultry; dominantly the local breeds are produced mainly in extensive type of production systems. Besides different forage species are also growing and can be grown in the sub basin. As result based on information obtained from Woreda office of agriculture, community, field observation and government views 6 livestock species, 12 forage crops and natural pasture implement were identified as land use type under livestock and feed resource heading. Culture fisheries and capture fisheries were also identified

Similarly based on information obtained during field observations and data collected from secondary sources forest LUTs were identified as LUTs for production, tree management, agro forestry and environmental protection. During identification their importance for production of fuel and constriction woods, ability to overcome land degradation, ability to

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project improve fodder supply, and ability to avoid environmental degradation were considered. As result Cordia Africana, Cupressus lusitanica, Pinus patula, Pinus Radiata, highland bamboo, Eucalyptus globulus, Eucalyptus grandis, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, acacia albida, acaia seyal, Grevillea robusta and others were identified. In addition protection, conservation and recreation uses were identified as LUTs by for description.

The lists of tourism land utilization types are obtained based on various sources that include, general potential tourist attraction area locations(Historic Tourist Attraction Resource Locations, Cultural Tourist Attraction Resource Locations, Natural Tourist Attraction Resource Locations and Recreational Tourist Attraction Resource Locations) ,specific tourist attraction resources(palaces and/or castles, Battle Fields, Slave Trading Centers, Archaeological Sites, Caves, Bridges ,Monuments, Churches, and Monasteries, Mosques, Synagogues, Kimants‘ Praying Sites,Agaws‘ Buirial and Praying Site,Wholly Waters, Rivers, Water Falls, Lakes and Dams, Natural Forests, Mountains Plateau, Special Cultural Sites and Lodge sites).

Surface, sprinkler and drip irrigation systems were identified for land evaluation and determination of land use requirements.

2.3.1.2 Description of land use/land utilization types

The major land uses were described in terms of area coverage, major crop and tree species/ varieties and uses, holding type or ownership, production time and season, economic and social significance, market value, contributions to the sub basin development and community livelihood. Besides, major problems, potentials, traditional and modern management and conservation practices, and additional management requirements were fully explored and briefly described.

Descriptions and definition of land utilization types were made for each land utilization type under each major land uses.

In general, as this study was for detail, the description of land utilization types includes attributes like production system, market orientation, power source, labor intensity, capital intensity, land holding, technology employed and inputs required, income level, infrastructure requirement for a single and groups (combined) land utilization types.

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project

Some of the description may be common to groups of land utilization types; while others are specific to an individual land utilization type. For this purpose, combined description (compound land utilization types) of similar land utilization types can also be possible in this study to reduce redundancy of land evaluation.

In describing the land utilization types for the following determinant factors (attributes) have been considered: technology, production, labor, capital, management, market, size of the farms, technical skills and other socio economic conditions. Based on these considerations the identified land utilization types have been described for the Tana sub basin. Furthermore, in defining and describing the LUTs three management levels; low, intermediate and high management levels were considered.

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project

3 RESULT AND DISCUSSION

3.1 Existing land use systems

Existing land use systems in the study area are as complex as the agro climate and soil terrain characteristics, and modified further by the socio cultural and economic diversity in the study area.

3.1.1 Small Holder Rain Fed Crop Production

This production is conducted at local farmers land holding level, i.e. less l hectare land. The land use is usually carrying out with low capital intensity, high family labor input and oxen, horse power used for land preparation. Rain is the main source of moisture. Family labor is used for land preparation, sowing, weeding, harvesting, threshing and winnowing. Choice of crops, planting dates, fertilization and all other management components are based on the season and typical commencement of rain for productive cropping .This system is based on the traditional farming practices; however, improved seeds, fertilizers and chemical usage are expected to improve performance in comparison with present production. In Afro alpine and sub-afro alpine zone of the study area cropping is limited to barley, with two crops per year sometimes being possible with rainfall above 1,400 mm/annum; only one crop is possible in areas with 900 – 1,400 mm. Sheep are the main livestock but cattle are kept and contribute to farm power. The major agricultural enterprise is small-scale mixed farming.

In most productive zones ;1500-3,200 masl; wide range of crops ,which include small holder cereals; Teff, maize, wheat, barley, sorghum, millet, oats, etc. pulses:horsebeans, chick-peas, haricot beans, field peas, lentils, soybean, and vetch; oilseeds ; linseed, Niger seed, fenugreek, rapeseed, sunflower, castor bean, groundnuts, etc. stimulants; coffee, tea, chat, tobacco, etc.) Fibers (cotton, sisal, flax, etc. fruits: banana, orange, grape, papaya, lemon, mandarin, apple, pineapple, mango, avocado, etc. vegetable: onion, tomato, carrot, cabbage, etc. root and tuber: potato, beets, yams, etc. and sugarcane are grown mixed with verities of livestock kept for different purpose.

In the study area, rain fed crop production can be classified into two categories: Low and medium input rain fed crop production system. ‗Input‘ here refers to material input such as seeds, fertilizer and pesticide. Low input rain fed crop production is not as extensive as in medium input production. Intercropping is very common. Bund for soil fertility and

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project moisture retention is less extensive than in the medium input category. In low input cases, the use of local seeds is widely practiced but in medium input improved seed supplied from seed suppliers has been used. No use of fertilizers application. Medium input rain fed crop production is more extensive than low input. Intercropping is not popular. Seed is mainly improved, fields are larger than 1 ha in average size. Soil bounding and bund plantation is more widespread. The use of fertilizer and manure is exercised but not at rate of recommendation in this category. In view of the above, it is very difficult to spatially distinguish between low input and medium input categories of rain fed crop production in the area. A general characterization is therefore adopted for the purposes of this study. The following is a general characterization of rain fed crop production in the area observation:

Land management; Land management consists of soil water harvesting on bund. Even though the area is not deficit in total annual water; moisture distribution is very limited for production. Moisture distribution, land degradation is a common phenomenon in the area. Input levels; the input levels are range from low to medium. However, inputs are limited in this land use class with local seed being widely used. Mainly maize, rice, wheat and Teff variety is commonly supply to farmers. Mechanization; Mechanization is rare, tractor as power for ploughing used in Kunzila area seed multiplication center. Mostly oxen/ house in high lands are used power for ploughing and crushing .Farm management; the most common form of farm management is fencing around fields to protect crops against animals. Fences are cut from live trees, which together with fuel wood demand cause an increase in deforestation. Other forms of farm management include soil bund to control soil erosion by water. Intercropping is common in the low input category. Purposes of production; the purposes of crop production are produced for food, market. In most cases, post-crop residues are stored as animal feed and fed to animals during the dry season.

Most limitations to production in the area include drought (moisture distributions), soil fertility degradation, crop failures attributed to the harsh climatic conditions hazards, pests, weeds and diseases, late planting due to lack of investment capital and poor farming techniques attributed to lack of extension. Yields of most crop production fall far below potential levels, which may be regarded as a crop failure. Low yields are attributed to low input levels that characterize this land use class. Other causes of low yields include

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project rain fall variability, poor farming techniques that are a consequence of limited farm training, pests and diseases and inappropriate seeds. It could be concluded that the majority farming system of the study area is categorized under small holder agriculture with low capital intensity, low input, high labor intensity, hoe and animal plough cultivation, small holder farming with low management level, growing primarily subsistence annual and perennial crops with some sale of surplus.

3.1.2 Smallholder Irrigated Crop Production

This mainly practiced along the river valleys and on the banks of the rivers and in suitable areas using river diversion and traditional application methods, pumping irrigation is also practiced by a few farmers around Lake Tana and some rivers, differing from rain fed in terms of crops produced and management initiatives employed. Irrigated production involves the growing of fruit trees, and vegetables. Crops are produced mostly for sale at the market, but some produce is consumed at home.

Recession farming; it is a typical riverside cropping system using the seasonal residual moisture accumulated after the recession of Lake Tana and other seasonal marsh areas/wetlands. The area under recession agriculture could not easily be estimated but it is estimated more than a hundred hectares. One of the Tana Lake shore, at entrance of the main rivers, and on the wetlands, farmers are producing different early maturing crops by traditional agricultural practice on receded area. Teff, green pepper, cabbage, maize, and banana are the common crops growing on this area.

Other characterizations include water harvesting (soil bund, surface dams, and shallow wells) as associated improvement systems. Other improvements associated with irrigation include river diversion, in some cases are cemented. Produced mostly for sale at market, but some produce is consumed at home. However, long distances to markets coupled with poor roads puts farmers in a difficult position when it comes to selling farm produce. Constraints to production include low tillage capacity (labor shortage), market inaccessibility demoralizes farmers, as they are unable to sell their produce., water scarcity, loss of irrigation infrastructure, poor roads, pests, lack of capital, lack of technical knowledge, and herbivore damage.

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project

3.1.3 Small to Medium Scale Crop-Livestock Mixed Production

In the study area, production systems are, in fact, of a mixed crop plus livestock type with draught power being important. Rainfall is generally not limiting growing seasons are often very long, with two crops per year in some parts of the study areas. Due to high population, farming is dominated by smallholdings. Medium scale private crop production is beginning as a result of the new investment policy has exercised. Medium or large scale dairying and fattening is found around towns and cities. Marginal free grazing and browsing communal land (highly degraded shrub lands and through overgrazing and cutting of trees) around villages and, settlements and near seasonal marshland around Lake Tana is a most common exercise of livestock feeding. In terms of grazing patterns, goats are associated with steep hill slopes, while cattle and sheep are found in the valleys and plains where grazing is more practical. Livestock products include milk, meat, hides and ghee, for both domestic and commercial use. Products are sold in markets, which are not easily accessible due to poor access or long distances. In the dry season both fodder and water become scarce, leading to poor animal health and starvation. Most common constraints associated with livestock production include disease, water shortage, poor quality pasture, pasture shortage, drought, soil erosion, low market prices for livestock products.

3.1.4 Smallholder Perennial Crops and Forest Production

This mixed type of land use is targeted for areas with slopes less than 60% where land is available for forming by local farmers. Perennial crops that provide economic benefit from sales of fruits, leaves and stems could be planted and additionally serve as soil and water biological conservation measures. Together with this, farmers can also grow trees that produce poles, timbers, firewood and products can be used for local construction purposes and making farm tools to be sold in markets. The system can also be integrated with controlled livestock production. The livestock can be stall fed in order to avoid destruction of woody plants established by farmers. The land use system requires low to medium intensity of capital and labor. It can be practiced mainly on private land holdings of farmers. Inputs needed for the production system include improved multipurpose fruit crops and tree species seedlings and appropriate techniques of farming. Products of the land use system can be sold in markets or can be delivered to investors who entered contractual agreement with local farmers for use in agro-industries. Appropriate fruit tree

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project crops can be introduced to the appropriate environmental conditions through the government‘s extension system with application of water throughout 12 months of the year by moisture conservation strategies like pond farming.

3.1.5 Smallholder Farm Forestry Production

Integrated farming system (Agro-forestry) is a system whereby the land use system integrates production of trees and annual crops and or livestock‘s. The system focuses on conservation and production activities that sustain production and improve the conditions of the environment. In this system multipurpose trees will be planted along field boundaries and terraces to support physical features and thereby protect the movement of soils down slope. In this system again woody plants planted to supply fodder, firewood and fruits as additional output. Leguminous woody species also add organic matter, nutrients and fix nitrogen into the soil to improve its fertility level. Improving the fertility status and water holding capacity of the soil improves the production level of annual crops grown in the system. Thus, farmers and investors can produce cereal crops, fodder and fruits that would be sold in markets for various uses by different interest groups and for home consumption.

3.1.6 Nature Conservation and Tourist

This type of land use can be implemented on areas having unique ecosystems such as wetland areas, lakes Tana water body, Afro alpines, and surrounding, heath vegetation, natural/church forests and wood lands. This land use system is important to attract biodiversity, tourists and to generate income from the smokeless industry and conserve the unique biodiversity of the study area. It can properly be done with high capital intensity and low labor intensity. Construction of roads and integrating the existing land use system with nature conservation and tourist attraction is an important activity that needs to be agreed with the local land users and the government. Benefit sharing and integrating systematic livestock grazing with the intended investment could be best strategy to be developed with the local land resource users.

3.1.7 Constraints to Existing Land Use System

Major constraints are lack of access to improved productivity enhancing inputs, erratic and non-uniform rainfall, onset and offset, recurrent drought, soil degradation, infertility and raged topography, shortage of drought power, lack of technical knowledge, shortage

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project of cultivable land, insect pest, disease and weed, natural hazards (hail, frost, flood,), lack of capital which is attributed to lack of credit facilities and, poor market, road and veterinary service accessibility, shortage of water and forage supply to animals. Land use requirements for land utilization types at corresponding input and management levels which can be modified: temperature regime, moisture availability, oxygen availability, nutrient availability, rooting condition, soil workability, erosion hazard, potential for mechanization, topographic condition, toxicity, conservation, Steepness, and climatic hazard were also consider as production physiological constraints.

3.1.8 OPPORTUNITIES

Policy and strategies in agricultural production, investment policies, natural resource (Climate soil, vegetation), and future opportunities for farmers include provision of farm power, agro-chemicals, soil and water conservation measures, extension training, pest and weed control, introduction of early-maturing varieties and improved water harvesting techniques in the area, market outlets and internal agro-industrial promotion.

3.2 Identification of land utilization types

Land utilization types for Tana sub basin was identified at office level using secondary information‘s and results of rapid reconnaissance survey. Lists of land use types were identified based on the objective of land use planning from field survey. Rain fed crop production for instance includes the production of cereals, pulses, oil crops, perennials, and spices cultivation. Each group again consists of different single crops that have different management and environmental requirements. Accordingly, the livestock and silvicultural production sectors includes each of them having different environmental and management requirements were proposed.

Table 1: Initial identified land utilization types in the study area Major land use types Land Use type Rain fed cereal crops: barley (food and malt), maize, millet, oat, rice, sorghum, Teff, wheat. Rain fed crop Rain fed plus crops: chick peas, haricot bean, horse bean, lentils, production field peas, vetch, soya bean, Rain fed oil crops: Niger seed, safflower, sunflower, rape seed, sesame

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project

Major land use types Land Use type Rain fed root crops: Potato, sweet potato, beet root, onion, tomato, green pepper, lettuce, swisschard, Rain fed spice crops: red paper, ginger, fenugreek, garlic, cumin Rain fed stimulant crops: coffee, tea, chat, Rhamnus prinoides (gesho) Rain fed vegetable crops: cabbage, green paper Rain fed fruit crops: apple, mango, avocado, lemon, papaya Irrigated cereal crop production: maize, oat, wheat, barley Irrigated plus crops: horse bean, vetch, field pea Irrigated crop Irrigated root crops and vegetable: potato, sweet potato, beet production root, onion, carrot, cabbage, green paper, Swiss chard, lettuce Irrigated perennial crops: mango, avocado, lemon, papaya, coffee, tea, chat Natural pasture production, improved pasture, irrigation pasture Rain fed improved forage crop production: oats and vetch, fodder beet, elephant grass, siratro, desmodiums, rhodes , Land based Trifolium livestock Rain fed improved forage tree production:: sesbania, and production treelulcers, Irrigated forage crop production : oats, vetch, fodder beet, rhodes grass production Small scale Cattle production, medium and large scale dairy and fattening production Sheep and goat production and fattening at small, medium and Non land based large scale Livestock Horse and donkey production production Poultry production Apiculture Fishing Protection forestry: Natural forest protection for park and wild life (Taragedam, and Alemsaga) Protection forestry Protection forestry: Natural forest protection on churches and riverine side for medical, genetic and ecological importance. Conservation forestry to rehabilitate degraded lands for enrichment plantation Conservation Conservation forestry for soil fertility maintenance in farm forestry forestry Conservation forestry for forage development Production forestry for pole and pulp production: highland Production forestry bamboo, eucalyptus sp.

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project

Major land use types Land Use type Production forestry for construction and fire wood/charcoal production: eucalyptus sp. Production forestry for oil extraction: eucalyptus sp. Cultural and heritage tourism: religious based tourism, churches Cultural and and its value, monastery historical based Cultural and heritage tourism: historical site based tourism, tourism palaces, Fasiledes, Nature based Nature based tourism scenic sites, lake Tana transport, park and tourism wild life recreation areas Settlement Rural Settlement and farm villages Energy Wind farm Rural institution centre, clinic, school, police post, FTC. Service LUTs Solar farm Pond farming Irrigation with surface system of irrigation with selected crops Irrigation with drip irrigation at selected crops( vegetables and Irrigation system fruit crops) Irrigation with sprinkler with selected crops (sugarcane, maize, barely)

3.3 Descriptions of land utilization types

3.3.1 Descriptions of crop land utilization types

Crops for this project area were selected based on physical observations of soils and agro climatic conditions, the existing farmers‘ experience, farmers relative food preference, level of technology required, support services, relative national and regional priorities (food security), relative market demanding crops to raise the farmers‘ income, etc. Moreover, Land Utilization Types (LUTs) were selected during detail survey through the information gathered from present land cover, secondary data, local information from agronomists, suggestions by local government bodies and farmers (certain specific objectives, food security, export productions, etc) during focus group desiccations and field observation.

In the context of crop production a land utilization type refers to a crop, crop combination or cropping system with a specified technical and socioeconomic setting. The description of land utilization types for rain fed and irrigation include biology of the crop, crops

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project grown in association, general statement on cropping, cultural practices, and yields and production, problems, potentials, management practices and improvements.

In describing the land utilization types the following determinant factors (attributes) have been considered: technology, production, labor, capital, management, market, size of the farms, technical skills and other socio economic conditions. Based on these considerations the identified land utilization types have been described for the Tana sub basin. Furthermore, in defining and describing the LUTs three management levels; low, intermediate and high management levels were considered, where the concepts of each can be briefly described as

A low management level refers to a condition that involves the use of hand and animal labor and absence of any fertilizer and pesticides application. It does not involve any soil conservation methods and full productivity loss arises from land degradation. It relies heavily on cultivation of presently grown local cultivars and mixture of crops on permanently arable rain fed lands. Only traditional land management practices are applied.

An intermediate level of management involves the use of improved hand tools and draught animals. It employs some fertilizer and pesticide applications and simple conservation methods to reduce productivity losses from land degradation. It includes cultivation of a combination of presently grown and improved cultivars of crops on permanently arable rain-fed lands and use of traditional irrigation.

A high level of management assumes existence of complex mechanization and full use of optimum available productivity inputs. It employs the use of necessary farm chemicals and expensive soil conservation measures and high technology irrigation practices. It depends on cultivation of productive crops on permanently arable rain-fed and irrigation lands. The specific characteristics or attributes of land utilization types of these three levels of management applied in this study were illustrate by table below.

Table 2: Description of management levels Attribute Levels of management Low traditional Improved Intermediate level High level of subsistence of management management management

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project

Attribute Levels of management Low traditional Improved Intermediate level High level of subsistence of management management management Production Rain-fed Rain-fed cultivation of Rain fed as well as systems cultivation of presently grown and irrigated cultivation presently grown improved cultivars of improved cultivars cultivars Market Subsistence with Subsistence production with Commercial orientation little or no market some marketable or surplus production crops Power source Draught animal Draught animal and manual Complete and manual labor labor mechanization Labor High, including High, including family labor Low, family labor intensity family labor cost if used Capital Very low or no Intermediate access to credit High intensity use of credit services services Land Small and Small and fragmented Large, consolidated holdings fragmented Technology Local cultivars, Improved cultivars, early High-yielding employed no fertilizers or land preparation and timely cultivars including and input chemical planting. Moderate use of hybrids. Optimum required pests/weed fertilizers, pesticides. fertilizer application. killers, only Correct plant densities and Chemical pest, traditional soil adequate manual weeding. disease and weed conservation Cultivation on correctly control. Full schemes, no spaced and contour aligned conservation agricultural and ridges. Integration of measures. Use of extension advice traditional and modern soil modern management and water conservation interventions measures. Extension advice is followed Income level Low and Intermediate, self dependent High subsistence and subsistence and some extra deficit production(Moderate) Infrastructure Limited access to Organized markets for sale Market accessibility requirements markets and of cash and surp LUTs essential, High level agricultural products and to obtain of advisory services services agricultural inputs and Application of (fertilizers, pesticides, research finding improved varieties) Source: Modified after UNEP and FAO (1999)

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project

3.3.1.1 Small holders rain fed Teff production

Teff can grow under wide and diverse agro-ecologies. Even though there are areas where the crop is grown during the short rainy season (Belg) in Amhara region, Teff is mainly cultivated during the main rainy season (Meher). It grows best between altitudes of 1800 and 2100 meters with an annual rainfall of 750-850 mm and a temperature range of 10-27 degrees centigrade, though it can also grow in much more varied areas with rainfall up to 1200mm. The length of growing period (LGP) ranges from 60 to 180 days (depending on the variety and altitude) with an optimum of 90 to 130 days.

Compared to other cereals, Teff is a relatively low risk crop as it can withstand adverse weather conditions. In addition, the crop suffers from fewer disease and pest problems, and can grow under water logged conditions, (Bekabil Fufa, et al. 2011). Small holders‘ rain-fed Teff cultivation is both for subsistence and commercial production; low capital intensity, moderate to high labor intensity. Farmers are mainly without formal education and follow traditional methods, but are willing to adopt improved methods where advice from extension services is available where the benefits of the improvements can be clearly demonstrated. Land preparation is by hand hoe, ox-drawn equipment; other activities like weeding, harvesting, threshing and the like are done by manual labor. Land Holdings are usually fragmented, with individual plots largely less than one hectare operated by the community. Inputs like local and improved seed varieties, inorganic fertilizers and other production inputs are used at optimum level.

Teff is primarily grown in Ethiopia for human consumption of its grains. Grain is the main product, which is mainly used for preparing injera the favorite national dish of most Ethiopians. The flour is also used for the preparation of porridge and kita (non-fermented unleavened bread). Sometimes, the grain is also brewed into a native beer, tella and a traditional alcoholic liquor, Katikalla or local arakie. Teff straw (chid) is the main source of feed for ruminants in various agro-ecologies.

Improved seeds, fertilizers and herbicides are the main inputs. Fertilizer rate varies based on soil type, soil fertility and crop type. 100 kg DAP/ha and 100 kg UREA/ha are required for better yield with herbicides 2, 4.D and insecticides Carbarial (savin) 85% 1.5kg/ha can be used. Teff is an annual crop, which is always grown as a pure stand, but drainage ditches and borders of fields are often sown with linseed, rapeseed, fenugreek, and safflower. In the highland areas above 2100m, barley bread wheat, white potato, field

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project pea, horse bean, lentil, and linseed; in the medium altitude (1500- 2100m) barley, bread wheat, highland maize and sorghum, finger millet, chickpea, haricot bean, lentil, chilli pepper and several other horticultural crops are consider while in lowland (<1500) finger millet, lowland maize and sorghum, sweet potato, cowpea, sesame, and chilli pepper are the associated crops. The land has to be very well prepared by Teff seed character. In traditional practices up to 5 ploughings followed by breaking up of clods, removing weeds and other debris and followed by compaction before sowing. The last ploughing usually takes place after the rains have started to destroy the first flush of weeds. Under mechanized conditions 2 ploughings, followed by disc or harrowing and peg-tooth harrowing are recommended before sowing. On loose or uneven soils, rolling to compact the seedbed is also recommended. (FAO, 1984)

Broadcasting for sowing Teff seeds most widely used due to very small seed size which makes row planting difficult by applying 25 - 30 kgs/ha of Teff seeds. Row planting is reduced seed rates, and transplanting techniques. Time of sowing varies greatly depending on the rainfall, are early July on lighter soils and end of July on heavier soils for the recommended varieties. Teff is usually planted late in the rain season, usually in August or even September where it is sown on Verticals and allowed to mature on residual moisture to avoid lodging (FAO, 1984).

In most Teff growing areas do Teff weeding. However, in some places, farmers use 2-4-D at rate of about 1 l/ha. (Bekabil Fufa, ET al.2011).Farmers practice 1-2 weeding but weeding practice is not done at the appropriate time of weeding. Teff rust is most widespread disease and Teff bunt can also be serious in some localities. Barley fly, army, locust and "Degeza"are most common pests that cause damage on Teff can be controlled by dressing the seeds before planting with 40% aldrin wettable powder at the rate of 50g for 10g of seed. 85% Carbarial/savin wettable powder at the rate of 1kg/ha can also be used to control the above pests. Shattering is a cause of significant yield loss in Teff production, the crop needs to be harvested on time. Farmers in the sub basin harvest Teff with sickles cutting the stems in bundles near ground level. Combine can harvest it if the plants have not lodged and the drum speed is reduced. Threshing of Teff is done on special flat ground called ‗awdma‘ and cattle/pack animals are driven over to separate the grain from the straw or humans do threshing by hitting the harvested Teff with a stick with significant yield losses during this process. Teff is hardly ever attacked by storage

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project pests and diseases if it is kept dry and can be stored for many years without loss in quality. Yields higher than 25 q/ha has been reported from several zones with the recent extension package activities in the country at the experimental plot a record of 50 q/ha (S1 yield) has also been noted in the past.

3.3.1.2 Rain-fed small holders Wheat production

In Ethiopia Wheat is the third most important cereal crop grows in area and the second in production after maize that plays a significant role in assuring food sufficiency. Wheat production fall between 1900m and 2700m in the highlands with bimodal rainfall distribution ranges between 600mm and 2000mm. The rainy season is in this area divided into from February to April and from June to September (Berhanu Gebremedhin, 2008).This crop is not frost tolerant. The best soil types are fertile, well-drained loam to sandy clays with a pH between 6.0 and 7.5 (FAO, 1984).

The various manufacturing establishments in cottage, small, medium and large-scale food processing industries have mainly used wheat as an input to prepare local bread, bakery, pastry, biscuits, pasta and macaroni, flour production, and for other food processing purposes.The straw are good source for animal feed and are also used for thatching roofs. Moreover, the government as well as international organizations has tried to fill the food deficit gap in the country by purchasing wheat from the domestic and international market for safety-net program in order to maintain food security (Berhanu Gebremedhin, 2008).

Cultivation can be from subsistence to commercial purpose; with moderate to high capital intensity and labor intensity. Farmers at now are mainly without formal education and follow traditional methods, but are willing to adopt improved method practices where advice from extension services is available and the benefits of the improvements can be clearly demonstrated. Land preparation is by hand hoe, ox-drawn equipment; other activities like weeding, harvesting, threshing and the like are done by manual labor. Land Holdings are usually fragmented, with individual plots largely less than one hectare operated by the community.

Inputs like local and improved seed varieties, inorganic fertilizers and other production inputs are used at no optimum level. Animal power together with human labor is the main labor source and seeds, fertilizers herbicides and pesticides are used inputs in wheat

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project production. On average 175 kg/ha for broad casting and 125kg/ha for row sowing method is required (ARARI, 2010).DAP and UREA, and natural fertilizers like FYM and Compost are used. Herbicides 2- 4.D and insecticides like Carbarial (savin) 85% 1.5kg/ha can be used.

Crops associated with Wheat are:, barley, horse bean, field pea, Teff, and linseed at higher altitudes and lentil chickpea, Niger seed, safflower Teff, linseed, highland sorghum, highland maize, enset, and chilli pepper.(FAO,1984) at lower altitudes in range.3-5 ploughings are commonly used and the last two are used to prepare a medium to fine soil for planting (FAO,1984). The crop sowed at the beginning of the main rains, usually the end of June or early July so the crop matures before frost is likely to occur at rate 125 kg/ha for row planting and 150 kg/ha at broadcasting. Small holder‘s farmers 2 hands weeding, first round 15 days after emergence and second round before heading are practiced, some farmers are also using herbicides. The crop is harvested when the straw is yellow and the grains become hard. High moisture content, rodent, insect and bacterial infestation, traditional methods of harvesting and storage, bird damage and damage during handling are the main causes of crop losses. According to 2013 CSA survey, the average regional yield of Wheat was estimated to be 21.10 and 17.84 q/h respectively. However, farmers who use improved varieties and management practices can get up to 40 q/ha to 80 q/ha. Some farmers participating in the national extension package program have reported considerably higher up to76 q/ha as the highest yield in 1997 at Arsi (Teklu Tesfaye, 2005).

3.3.1.3 Rain fed small holders food and malt barley production

Barley is annual field crop which grow mainly for food and malt for local breweries. Barley is not widely used directly as animal feed, but the sediment remains from brewing used to feed selected animals mainly cattle. Moreover, straws are used for mattresses, bedding and feed for livestock and supplementary.

It is a cool temperate crop adapted to the higher altitudes of the sub basin where annual rainfall is greater than 500mm. It is grown during both short and main rainy seasons. It grows best on well drained soils with a moderate nutrient status, but it can tolerate higher levels of soil salinity and frost than most other crops. It is the only cereal that can be grown in areas other cereals cannot be grown. Barley is grown in both short and main rains. Short rain types are early maturing, being harvested before or at the start of the

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project main rains to provide food during the main rains. Various rotations are practiced which usually include fallow, and include soil burning where barley is the only field crop grown; where other field crops are grown, barley receives less attention coming after other cereals in the rotation cycle, (FAO,1984). Cultivation is both for subsistence and for commercial production; intermediate capital intensity, moderate to high labor intensity.

Farmers are mainly without formal education and follow traditional methods, but are willing to adopt improved method of practices where advice from extension services is available and the benefits of the improvements can be clearly demonstrated.Land preparation is done by hand hoe, ox-drawn equipment and mechanization where required; other activities like weeding, harvesting, threshing and the like are also done by manual labor and mechanization. Land Holdings are usually fragmented, with individual plots operated by the community or renting labor when scarcity arises. Inputs like local and improved seed varieties, inorganic fertilizers and other production inputs are used at optimum level. For food barley on average 125 kg/ha and 85kg/ha seed rate are required in broad casting and row method of sowing respectively (EIAR, 2007). DAP and UREA, FYM and Compost are used. Fertilizer rate varies based on soil type, soil fertility and crop type. 30- 60kg P2O5/ha and 25- 60 kg N/ha for food barley are required for better yield. However, fertilizer rate for malt barley is less (EIAR, 2007).2, 4.D at 1 liter/ha used for broad leaved weeds control.

Crops associated with barley at >3000m, are wheat, horse bean, field pea, Teff, linseed; while at lower altitudes, lentil, Teff linseed, chickpea, nouiger seed, safflower, highland sorghum, highland maize, enset, chillie pepper. 3-5 ploughings are commonly used, planting starts at the beginning of rains, usually June or early July so that the crop matures before frost is likely to occur. However, early planting is particularly important for malting barley so that grain filling takes place while there is still adequate moisture in the soil. Seed rate of about 75-85kg/ha for drilling in rows 20 cm apart, 125-150kg/ha for broadcasting (FAO, 1984). For food barley about 60 kg/ha N as urea and 60 kg/ha P2O5 in red soils and, for malting barley about 40 kg/ha N and 60 kg/ha P is required. High fertility may result in lodging and yield loss. Malting barley requires less N than food barley (EIAR, 2007). Farmers 2 hands weeding, first round 30 days after emergence and second round at heading are practiced. Barley flies - seed dressing with 40% aldrin WP, rate 50g for 10g seed. Aphid - spray 15% thiometron ULV at 1.2 1/ha Ergot - remove all

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project wild and semi-domesticated oats seeds. (FAO, 1984). Food barley, fields may be harvested when the straw is still slightly green and the grain firm. For malting barley, should be allowed to mature fully in the field, i.e. when the straw is yellow and the grains hard for good quality (FAO, 1984).

3.3.1.4 Rain-fed small holders low and high land Maize production

Maize has high production potential in the corridor. It grows best in the medium altitudes, where there are alternate wet and dry seasons. Lowland types can also grow well below 1500m, provided rainfall is adequate or where irrigation water supply is available. Maize grow better under fertile soils and cannot tolerate any water logging problem, while growing best on deep, well drained and structured soils with a pH of 5.5 to 7.5. Maize suited to the cool where mean growing period temperature is less than 200 c to warm area, where mean growing period temperature > 200 c and referred as highland and lowland maize respectively. In many areas it is intercropped with sorghum, legumes, pumpkins, Teff, sesame, Haricot bean and gourd nut.

Cultivation can be both for subsistence and commercial production with to high capital and labor intensity. Farmers in the area are exercising without formal education and follow traditional methods, but are willing to adopt improved method of practices where advice from extension services is available and the benefits of the improvements can be clearly demonstrated. Land preparation is done by hand hoe, ox-drawn equipment and mechanization where required; other activities like weeding, harvesting, threshing and the like are also done by manual labor and mechanization. Land Holdings are usually fragmented, with individual plots operated by the community or renting labor when scarcity arises. Inputs like local and improved seed varieties, inorganic fertilizers and other production inputs are not used at optimum level.

Seed head, leaves and stalks are harvested parts while the main product is grain. Grain is used to make flat and fermented breads and mixed with wheat, raised bread, porridge; to provide body in brewing; whole grain eaten boiled, roasted, and chipped and boiled. Fresh maize used widely to fill the food gap before the main harvest in the form of boiled or roasted. Limited use by the livestock industry as part of concentrate feeds. In areas with a shortage of firewood and wood for construction may possibly be used to make fences, walls for houses and support for thatch, as well as for fuel. Animal power together with human labor is the main labor source used. Mechanization can also be used as

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project required when available. Different maize seed varieties are used. The Common maize seed varieties and their productivity are presented below the table. Seed rate varies based variety type, method of sowing, soil fertility and germination percentage. Recommended seed rate for maize 25-30kg/ha. To increase productivity Inorganic fertilizers like DAP and UREA, and natural/organic fertilizers like FYM and Compost are used. Fertilizer rate varies based on soil type, soil fertility and crop type. 100kg DAP and 100kg Urea/ha are used.

Maize is usually grown in pure stand. It can be intercropped with legume crops like faba bean and oil crops like rapeseed. Crops associated with maize are: highland sorghum, Teff, wheat, barley haricot bean, lima bean, soybean, cowpea, nougier seed, chillie pepper, finger millet, coffee, taro, potato, and enset, groundnut at highland and medium altitudes and lowland sorghum, cotton, cowpea, haricot bean, sesame, and groundnut at low altitudes.2-4 ploughings are commonly used and the last two are used to prepare a medium to fine soil for planting. Recommended sowing dates have been established for the major maize production areas. Generally sowing should take place as soon as the main rains start when the soil is fully moist but has not become saturated, i.e. the soil still contains a good amount of oxygen: for most areas this is in March or April for late (6-7 month) varieties, April or early May for medium (5-6 month) varieties and late May to June for early (less than 4 month) varieties under rain fed conditions. Sowing depth should be between 5 and 12.5cm depending on the soil type, higher in heavy soils and deeper in lighter drier and better drained soils. Recommended seed rate is between 25 and 30 kg/ha in order to ensure a good stand. For row planting the recommended spacing is 75cm between rows and 25-30 cm between plants. If planted by hand 2 seeds per hole can be sown and the plants thinned at the first weeding. Broadcast maize should be sown at the same rate to ensure a good stand. Recommended fertilizer rates vary with different soil types but are generally about 100 kg/ha DAP at sowing and 50 -100 kg/ha Urea either split half at sowing and the other half side banded when the plants are knee-high or all when the plants are knee-high. At early growth stages maize is sensitive to weed competition and should be weeded twice, first at 4-leaf stage and the second when the plants are knee-high. At later stages maize shades is out weeds. Good weed control has been found with pre-emergent herbicides such as atrazine and primagram. Atrazine mixed with 200 liters of water at the rate of 41t/ha for broad leaved weeds and Primagram at the rate of 4-5lt/ha for grass weeds.In the sub basin farmers practice 2-3 weeding but weeding

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project practice is not done at the appropriate time of weeding. Common maize rust and leaf blight can be controlled by using resistant varieties, other diseases by seed dressing, rotation and good disposal of crop residues. The most important pests are stalk borers, armyworms and cutworms. Stalk borers are controlled by keeping fields free of weeds and destroying all crop residues. If more than 5% of plants show damage at knee-high stage, put pinch of 5% DDT dust inside each leaf funnel. Armyworm out-breads can be controlled by either 10% DDT sprayed at the rate of 7-10 kg/ha. Or 50% malathion (EC) in 10 liters of water per hectare. In lowland areas, warthogs and other wild animals can do much damage to maize; control by guarding and scaring.

Local farmers of the sub basin do not have the concept of crop diseases, rather they relate it as weather or insect pest effect and mainly they do not practice control measures deliberately. Generally, control measures are not properly used. For grain, maize should be left to fully ripen in the field, i.e., when the moisture is less than 20%. The cobs should be cut-off as near the base as possible. High moisture content, rodent, insect and bacterial infestation, traditional methods of harvesting and storage, bird damage and damage during handling (packaging, storage and transportation) are the main causes of crop losses. Improved maize varieties like BH - 660 resulted in high yield as much as 10,496 kg/hectare (Makalu et al, 2001 as cited by ECX, 2009). The highest record of 11,000 kg/hectare of maize was harvested during 2000/01from farmers‟ field found in western Ethiopia through the Sasakawa Global 2000 extension system (Wakene et al, as cited by 2007 ECX,2009 ). The average yield of these improved maize varieties was between 6,000 - 8,000 kg/hectare. According to Fufa and Hassan 2003, as cited by ECX,2009 in 1999/2000 production year average per hectare maize yield was 5, 760 kg (57.6 quintals) among users of extension package whereas the non - extension package farmers harvested only 1,620 kg (16.2 quintals).

3.3.1.5 Rain-fed small holders paddy Rice production

Although rice has just been recently introduced to Ethiopia, recognizing its importance as a food security crop and a source of income and employment opportunities, the government of Ethiopia has named it the ―millennium crop,‖ and has ranked it among the priority commodities of the country. The national rice research and development strategy (NRRDS) for 2010-19 has been prepared to tackle rice-related progress in rice value chain, postharvest, grain quality, and marketing issues .field annual crops; Under rain fed

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project conditions only rice grown under bunded conditions has sufficient potential to be recommended for cultivation in Ethiopia. The warm climatic zones with mean temperatures above 20oC are best suited for paddy rice. As a result of bunding no strict rainfall requirements exist, provided there is sufficient water supply. Paddy rice prefers heavier soils but will grow in a wide range, provided that there is an adequate and well supplied water supply and drainage system. The nutrient and fertility status of the soils seems to be less important for paddy rice than for other crops, on account of the specific flooding conditions. These cause a higher availability level of the nutrients and of the nutrient carrying role of the irrigation water. Paddy rice is quite tolerant of both salinity and alkalinity, with pH values between 5.5 and 7.5 being preferred. Optimum temperature for rice ranges 25-30oC, operative range 10-35oC.

Cultivation is both for subsistence and commercial production; intermediate capital intensity, moderate to high labor intensity. Farmers are mainly without formal education and follow traditional methods, but are willing to adopt improved method of practices where advice from extension services is available and the benefits of the improvements can be clearly demonstrated. Land preparation is done by hand hoe, ox-drawn equipment and mechanization where required and available; other activities like weeding, harvesting, threshing and the like are also done by manual labor and medium level mechanization. Land Holdings are usually fragmented, with individual plots operated by the community or renting labor when scarcity arises. Inputs like local and improved seed varieties, inorganic fertilizers and other production inputs are used at optimum level.

Rice has become popular because it can be used to make many valuable by-products, such as rice husk, rice bran, and beer. It can also partially or fully replace Teff in the making of injera. The straw can be used for animal feed (Savitri Mohapatra, 2012).Animal power together with human labor is the main labor source used and medium level mechanization can also be used when and where required. Seeds, fertilizers and chemicals are major inputs used in rice production. Seed rate varies based variety type, method of sowing, soil fertility and germination percentage. Seed rate of 80- 140kg/ha is recommended (ARARI, 2010). Fertilizer rate varies based on soil type, soil fertility and Variety type. For rice 46kg /ha P2O5 as DAP and 64 kg /ha N as Urea are used (ARARI, 2007).

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project

Due to the very specific cropping requirements of paddy rice, combining its cultivation with other crops is not undertaken. Rotating rice with drained and non-bunded conditions should be used as a compound land use to provide weed control. After 2-3 years pasture crops can be grown for grazing, or the rotation can then include other cereals, for example barley or wheat. 2 to 4 ploughings, the last to coincide with planting. Broadcast planting of rice at 140 kg/ha seed rate was found optimum rate for rice production in Fogera Vertisols and gave yield advantage of 605 kg as compared to seed rate of 80 kg/ha. Rice seedlings transplanted at 4 leaf stages with a spacing of 25 cm x 20 cm and 3 seedlings per hill gave grain yield advantage of 1133 kg/ha (37.7%) over dry sowing. Sowing pre- germinated seeds that were soaked for 48 hours and incubated for one day make rice to emerge 5 to 6 days earlier than dry sowing which give the rice a better chance to compete with weeds. Sowing pre-germinated seeds had also made the rice to mature 10 to 11 days earlier than dry seeds sowing that ensure better yield in seasons of early rainfall cease.

According to ARARI, 2010, 46 kg/ha P2O5 as DAP and 64 kg/ha N as Urea is recommended for rice. Split application of the full recommended nitrogen rate 1/3 at planting and 2/3 at tailoring stage of rice crop was found the appropriate time of nitrogen application in Fogera Vertisols and gave 11% (437 kg/ha) grain yield increase over 1/2 at planting and 1/2 at tailoring stage. Weeding can easily be performed by hand, if done early when the weeds are not but lightly rooted. Also mechanical and chemical control of weeds may be used. With chemical weed killers one may influence an eventual fish culture. Because wetting and drying cause grain cracks the crop should be reaped before it is fully ripe, slow drying gives a higher percentage of whole grains and the moisture content at milling is less critical. Harvesting is done by sickle. Traditionally, rice threshing is done using oxen in many parts of Ethiopia. The oxen trample on rice stalks and the grains are swept and gathered. Farm machines such as mechanical threshers are now being promoted in the country to reduce yield losses and save time. The national average yield from peasant farming systems is 29 Qt/ha (CSA, 2013). Variety trials conducted by the extension services have reached 32 Qt/ha while yields at research stations for recommended varieties range from 36-40 Qt/ha (EARO, 2004).

3.3.1.6 Rain-fed small holders Finger millet production

Finger millet is an annual that has the highest yield potential of all the smaller millets and is well known for its famine insurance as it is possible to store this crop, even under humid conditions, for at least 10 years without loss in grain quality. In the store it is

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project virtually free of storage pests and diseases. This crop prefers a well drained soil with a sandy texture which has moderate to good fertility and a pH between 5.5 and 7.0. It is C4 plant, having optimum temp response for photosynthesis 30-35oC, range 15-45oC. Cultivation is both for subsistence and subsidiary commercial production; intermediate capital intensity, moderate to high labor intensity. Farmers are mainly without formal education and follow traditional methods, but are willing to adopt improved method of practices where advice from extension services is available and the benefits of the improvements can be clearly demonstrated. Land preparation is done by hand hoe, ox- drawn equipment and mechanization where required and available; other activities like weeding, harvesting, threshing and the like are also done by manual labor and medium level mechanization. Land Holdings are usually fragmented, with individual plots operated by the community or renting labor when scarcity arises. Inputs like local and improved seed varieties, inorganic fertilizers and other production inputs are used at optimum level.

Grain is the main product used for making various types of flat and fermented breads and porridge either alone or mixed with other cereals. Most extensively used for brewing, providing both the malt and the body, the latter often mixed with sorghum, also preferred grain in several areas for distilling to produce araki.Animal power together with human labor is the main labor source used but medium level mechanization can be used when and where available. Different finger millet seed varieties are used. Seed rate varies based variety type, method of sowing, soil fertility and germination percentage. Row planting recommended seed rate is 15kg/ha, 25-30kg/ha is for broad casting; for finger millet 100kg /ha DAP and 50kg /ha Urea are used (EARO, 2004) as if rate varies based on soil type, soil fertility and Variety type. The national average yield from peasant farming systems is 17.2 Qt/ha (CSA, 2013). Variety trials conducted by the extension services have reached 28 Qt/ha while yields at research stations for recommended varieties range from 30-45 Qt/ha. (EARO, 2004)

3.3.1.7 Rain-fed small holders sorghum production

Sorghum is an annual crop. It is well known for its drought tolerance, though it can also tolerate higher rainfall and some degree of water logging. In Ethiopia it is grown both in the highlands with unimodal and bimodal rainfall patterns as well as in the lowlands where rainfall is short and erratic. Sorghum prefers well drained and moderately fertile

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project soils but will also give reasonable yield on heavy clays. It has a wide pH tolerance from 5.0 to 8.5. (FAO, 1984).FAO (1978) treats sorghum is two groups: one group suited to the cool tropics and sub-tropics where the mean temperature during the growing period is less than 20oC, generally suited to areas over 1500m and the other group suited to the warm tropics and sub-tropics with mean temperatures during the growing period greater than 20oC generally suited to areas below 1500m. Where appropriate, this treatment follows this differentiation referring to the two groups as highland and lowland sorghum.

Cultivation is both for subsistence and subsidiary commercial production; intermediate capital intensity, moderate to high labor intensity. Farmers are mainly without formal education and follow traditional methods, but are willing to adopt improved method of practices where advice from extension services is available and the benefits of the improvements can be clearly demonstrated. Land preparation is done by hand hoe, ox- drawn equipment and mechanization where required and available; other activities like weeding, harvesting, threshing and the like are also done by manual labor and medium level mechanization. Land Holdings are usually fragmented, with individual plots operated by the community or renting labor when scarcity arises. Inputs like local and improved seed varieties, inorganic fertilizers and other production inputs are used at optimum level. Grain is used to make flat, fermented and raised breads, the last usually in mixture with wheat and porridge; brewing both for malt and body, particularly grains with high tannin content .Whole grains eaten popped (pop sorghum types), boiled or roasted; certain high lysine sorghum types harvested at dough stage for making special foods (traditional uses more in rural than urban populations). Leaves stripped and fed to animals after wilting, Stalks, fresh stalks particularly of sugary sorghum cut and chewed for sugary sap, may also be fed to animals; dry stalks have many uses - construction of fences, house walls and roofs, support for thatching, fuel. Roots, in areas where firewood is limiting or non available, dug out and used as fuel. Animal power together with human labor is the main labor source used and medium level mechanization can be used where required and available. Recommended seed rate for maize 10-20kg/ha. (EARO, 2004) and

46kg /ha P2o5 as DAP and 41kg /ha N as Urea are used(ARARI, 2007).2, 4.D, carbaryl 85% WP ,Malathion 5o% E.C. at rate of 2lt/ha , Endo sulfan 5% dust at rate of 6.5kg/ha .Sorghum may be grown as a mono-crop, but in many parts of the country intercropping is practiced. It is intercropped with a legume, usually cowpea or haricot bean. It is also intercropped with maize and this practice seems to be widespread. In the lowlands it may

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project be intercropped with pearl millet. Sorghum is also frequently intercropped with pumpkins and grouds.With the highland group, highland maize, barley, Teff, wheat, chickpea, lentil, haricot bean, cowpea, soybean, nouiger seed, groundnut, chillie pepper, finger millet, coffee. With the lowland group lowland maize, pearly millet, mug bean, cowpea, sesame, groundnut, cotton.

The national average yield from peasant farming systems is 21 Qt/ha. Variety trials conducted by the extension services have reached 50 Qt/ha while yields at research stations for recommended varieties range from 45-50 Qt/ha.

3.3.1.8 Rain-fed small holders Faba bean production

Horse bean and field pea grow on a wide range of soil types with moderate fertility levels, well drained and with a pH range of 6-7. Both crops require an altitude range of 1800-3000 meters above sea level, annual rainfall of 700-1000mm and frost-free growing 0 c 0 c period with maximum temperature of 20-25 and minimum of 5-15 . Horse beans prefer fertile soils with a neutral pH and good sustained water supply. But it can grow on well drained heavy clays but cannot with stand water logging. Cultivation is both for subsistence and subsidiary commercial production; intermediate capital intensity, moderate labor intensity. Farmers are mainly without formal education and follow traditional methods, but are willing to adopt improved method of practices where advice from extension services is available and the benefits of the improvements can be clearly demonstrated. Land preparation is done by hand hoe, ox-drawn equipment; other activities like weeding, harvesting, threshing and the like are also done by manual labor. Land Holdings are usually fragmented, with individual plots operated by the community or renting labor when scarcity arises. Inputs like local and improved seed varieties, inorganic fertilizers and other production inputs are used at optimum level. Beans, eaten raw, roasted, boiled, dried and then roasted, ground and boiled as porridge or as wot. Immature beans boiled or eaten raw, with or without pods. Small beans, stalks and leaves are used as animal feed. Seed rate of 150-200kg/ha is recommended and application of N and P fertilizers, at recommended rates of 100-150 kg/ha of diammonium phosphate (DAP) for clays and 100 kg/ha of triple superphosphate (TSP) for sandy loams and loams.The national average yield from peasant farming systems is 16.44 Qt/ha(CSA,2013). Variety trials conducted by the extension services have reached

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32 Qt/ha while yields at research stations for recommended varieties range from 36-40 Qt/ha.

3.3.1.9 Rain-fed small holders Field pea production

It is a field annual crop, and one of the major pulses grown in the Dega region and the lower part of the Choque region of the Highlands, from approximately 1750m to 3200m altitude. The crop prefers a cool temperate climate with a mean annual rainfall of 800-

1200mm, and a deep, well-drained soil with a pH of 5.5-6.5. Field pea is C3plant with optimum 15-20oC, operative range 5-30oC.Cultivation is both for subsistence and subsidiary commercial production; intermediate capital intensity, moderate labor intensity. Farmers are mainly without formal education and follow traditional methods, but are willing to adopt improved method of practices where advice from extension services is available and the benefits of the improvements can be clearly demonstrated. Land preparation is done by hand hoe, ox-drawn equipment; other activities like weeding, harvesting, threshing and the like are also done by manual labor. Land Holdings are usually fragmented, with individual plots operated by the community or renting labor when scarcity arises. Inputs like local and improved seed varieties, inorganic fertilizers and other production inputs are used at optimum level. Fresh green seeds are cooked and eaten as a vegetable; pods of some cultivars are eaten. Ripe dried seeds, either whole, split or as flour, are used for human food, as wot, and stock food. Leaves are used as a pot herb. Plants and haulms are suitable as forage, hay, silage and green manure. The dried vines give a good livestock feed. The Common field pea seed varieties and their productivity are presented below the table. Seed rate varies based variety type, method of sowing, soil fertility and germination percentage. Seed rate of 150kg/ha with 100kg/ha DAP is recommended (ARARI, 2010).The national average yield from peasant farming systems is 12.79 Qt/ha (CSA, 2013). Variety trials conducted by the extension services have reached 30 Qt/ha while yields at research stations for recommended varieties range from 36-40 Qt/ha.

3.3.1.10 Rain-fed small holders chickpea production

Chickpea production using residual moisture at the end of August has become an integral part of the Teff and wheat production systems in the Vertisols of the Ethiopian highlands where it is rotated with the cereals for enhancement of soil fertility. Chickpea generates cash income and improves food and nutritional security for smallholder farmers. In the

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project past the food preparations were mainly by way of roasting or boiling but now this has increased to include the making of flour for preparation of sauce used in eating Injera, the most popular Ethiopian soft bread made from Teff and other cereals. Chick peas are the most extensively grown pulse crop in Ethiopia. They are well adapted to grow in the Weina Dega and Dega regions, from approximately 1200m to 2600m altitudes. These areas have a mild to warm temperate rainy climate with distinct wet and dry periods (koppen, Aw, and Cwb , sited by FAO,1984) and with a mean annual rainfall of 750 mm to 1250mm. Chick peas can be grown on a wide range of soil types provided that the drainage is good, as they cannot withstand water logging. A pH of 6.0-8.0 is favourable, with chickpeas being fairly tolerant of both alkalinity and salinity.

A small, herbaceous, annual herb, showing considerable variation is form. Some types are semi-erect with a main stem and only a few branches, while others are semi-spreading with profuse branching. Normally the plants grow to a height of 45-60 cm and are frequently bluish-green in color and covered with glandular hairs. The tap root is well developed and can reach 30 cm or more in length. Cultivation is both for subsistence and commercial production; intermediate capital intensity, moderate labor intensity. Farmers are mainly without formal education and follow traditional methods, but are willing to adopt improved method of practices where advice from extension services is available and the benefits of the improvements can be clearly demonstrated. Land preparation is done by hand hoe, ox-drawn equipment; other activities like weeding, harvesting, threshing and the like are also done by manual labor. Land Holdings are usually fragmented, with individual plots operated by the community or renting labor when scarcity arises. Inputs like local and improved seed varieties, inorganic fertilizers and other production inputs are used at optimum level. Seeds are consumed raw (when young.), roasted or in wot. Unleavened bread is made from chick pea-flour. Roasted, salted chickpeas are served as snacks and dried vines used as cattle feed. The national average yield from peasant farming systems is 17.11 Qt/ha (CSA, 2013). Variety trials conducted by the extension services have reached 47 Qt/ha while yields at research stations for recommended varieties reach up to 52 Qt/ha.(EARO,2004 and ARARI).

3.3.1.11 Rain-fed small holders Grass pea production

In Ethiopia grass pea is cultivated in the central highlands, and is found only infrequently in the remaining highland regions. It is very hardy and will grow on land too dry for other

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project crops, though preferably it is grown in the Weina Dega region from 1700m to 2200m altitude. Grass pea tolerates water logging and a wide range of soil conditions, including poor soils. It is often grown as a cash crop, both as a grain crop and as a fodder crop, and it also eaten as a famine crop. Grass pea is valued for its high protein content (26-32%), high degree of adaptability under extreme conditions, disease resistance and low input requirement for its cultivation. Despite its tolerance to drought, grass pea is not affected by excessive rainfall and can be grown on land subjected to flooding, including very poor soils and heavy clays. The legume is planted in the off-season (in September/ October) on residual moisture in the combisol and vertisol soils at altitudes ranging from 1600-2200 meter above sea level.

Cultivation is both for subsistence and subsidiary commercial production; intermediate capital intensity, moderate labor intensity. Farmers are mainly without formal education and follow traditional methods, but are willing to adopt improved method of practices where advice from extension services is available and the benefits of the improvements can be clearly demonstrated. Land preparation is done by hand hoe, ox-drawn equipment; other activities like weeding, harvesting, threshing and the like are also done by manual labor. Land Holdings are usually fragmented, with individual plots operated by the community or renting labor when scarcity arises. Inputs like local and improved seed varieties, inorganic fertilizers and other production inputs are used at optimum level. The seed may be white, yellow, greenish-yellow, brown, grey or black, with white seed the most popular for human consumption. In Ethiopia the seeds are consumed roasted and used in 'wot'. The crop is not highly valued and is used a lot as a fodder crop. The seeds contain an alkaloid and, if not carefully boiled and consumed, can, over a long period, cause the disease lathyrism, characterized by paralysis of the lower limbs. For this reason the human diet should not include more than 20% intake of grass pea. The precise fertilizer requirements of grass pea require study. One recommended application is 40 kg/ha Phosphorus and 16 kg/ha nitrogen. The national average yield from peasant farming systems is 15.85 Qt/ha (CSA, 2013). Variety trials conducted by the extension services can give better yield while yields at research stations for recommended varieties can give more yield.(EARO,2004 and ARARI,2010).

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3.3.1.12 Rain-fed small holders Soya bean production

Soya bean is an annual crop which have a good potential for production in Ethiopia, but currently the crop is scarcely either known or grown in the country, especially at farmers' level. This legume, with a lifespan of 75-210 days depending on variety and day length, is originally a crop of the more temperate and subtropical regions. The soil fertility requirements are high and similar to those required by maize. Soils with pH values between 5.5 and 7.3 are most suitable. The soil fertility requirements are high and similar to those required by maize. Soils with pH values between 5.5 and 7.3 are most suitable. Determinate varieties essentially complete their vegetative growth prior to flowering, whilst indeterminate varieties continue to increase in height for several weeks after beginning to flower; determinate growth habit appears to be the more desirable, since the reduced height of determinate varieties also reduces the likelihood of lodging. Cultivation is both for subsistence and commercial production; intermediate capital intensity, moderate labor intensity. Farmers are mainly without formal education and follow traditional methods, but are willing to adopt improved method of practices where advice from extension services is available and the benefits of the improvements can be clearly demonstrated. Land preparation is done by hand hoe, ox-drawn equipment; other activities like weeding, harvesting, threshing and the like are also done by manual labor. Land Holdings are usually fragmented, with individual plots operated by the community or renting labor when scarcity arises. Inputs like local and improved seed varieties, inorganic fertilizers and other production inputs are used at optimum level. The beans are eaten, either unripe of ripe and dried, but the main product is edible oil expressed from the seeds, which contain 17-18% oil. The oil is also of industrial value, used in the manufacture of paints and soaps. The Soya bean plants are also important as a fodder crop and as hay and silage. The residue after oil extraction is used as cattle feed. Soya flour from the whole beans is used in many types of food products. Seed rate is ranging from 60-80 kg/ha depending on the variety type with100-150 kg/ha DAP is required (EARO, 2010).The national average yield from peasant farming systems for this crop is 20.0 Qt/ha (CSA, 2013).Variety trials conducted by the extension services have reached more than the national while yields at research stations for recommended varieties reach up to 25 Qt/ha (EARO, 2004 and ARARI).

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3.3.1.13 Rain-fed small holders Haricot bean production

Haricot beans are grown under a wide range of environmental conditions but the tropical varieties under consideration here grow best in the Kola region and the lower parts of the Weina Dega region, from approximately 100m to 1900m altitude. These areas have a warm sub-tropical climate with distinct wet and dry periods (koppen, Cwb and Aw) and with a mean annual rainfall of 700mm to 1500mm. Haricot beans can be grown successfully on most soil types, from light sands to heavy clays, but a friable, deep; well drained soil is preferred. It is a highly polymorphic species showing much variation in habit, vegetative characters, flower color and size, and shape and color of pods and seeds. Climbing, pole and dwarf determinate types occur as well as intermediate types. All forms are annual herbs and have a well developed tap root which reaches to 1m or more. The optimum temperature response of photosynthesis, ranges 20-30oC, while 10-35oC is the operative range .

Cultivation is both for subsistence and commercial production; intermediate capital intensity, moderate labor intensity. Farmers are mainly without formal education and follow traditional methods, but are willing to adopt improved method of practices where advice from extension services is available and the benefits of the improvements can be clearly demonstrated. Land preparation is done by hand hoe, ox-drawn equipment; other activities like weeding, harvesting, threshing and the like are also done by manual labor. Land Holdings are usually fragmented, with individual plots operated by the community or renting labor when scarcity arises. Inputs like local and improved seed varieties, inorganic fertilizers and other production inputs are used at optimum level. The young pods and ripe seeds are eaten in wot, soups and salads and to a lesser extent, so are the green shelled seeds. The young leaves are eaten as a vegetable or pot herb, and are also used as a cattle feed. Haricot beans can be used for the production of protein concentrates. The straw is used as forage. Animal power together with human labor is the main labor source used in the sub basin to produce haricot bean. Seed rate varies based variety type, method of sowing, soil fertility and germination percentage. Generally seed rate ranging from 110--160 kg/ha depending on the variety type. Usually the crop in the sub basin grown as a mixed or intercropped crop with cereals. Crops associated with haricot bean are Maize, sorghum, millet, Lima bean, Soya bean, cowpea, sesame, groundnut, taro, sweet potato, cassava, and chillie pepper. Very approximately, soils with a high nitrogen content should receive 100-170kg/ha of double superphosphate, where the nitrogen status

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project is average an 18:46:0 NPK mixture at 100-150 kgh/ha is recommended, for soils with a marginal deficiency of potassium 280-340 kgh/ha of an 8:16:9 NPK mixture is recommended and for sandy loams 100 kgh/ha of triple superphosphate in a 0:46:0 ratio is recommended. The national average yield from farmers farming systems for this crop is 12.62 Qt/ha (CSA, 2013). Variety trials conducted by the extension services have reached 15-25 Qt/ha while yields at research stations for recommended varieties reach up to 40 Qt/ha.(EARO,2004 and ARARI).

3.3.1.14 Rain-fed small holders Niger seed production

Niger seed is appropriately grown in the Weina Dega region, from approximately 1500m to 2300m altitude. These areas have a warm temperate rainy climate with distinct wet and dry periods (koppen, Cwb as cited by FAO, 1984) with a mean annual rainfall of 100mm to 1400mm. Niger seed will produce a reasonable crop on rather poor soils but performs better on loamy clays. It is well adapted for cultivation in the Ethiopian Highlands.Niger seed an annual crop with optimum temperature response of photosynthesis, optimum 15- 20oC, and operative range 5-30oC.Cultivation is both for subsistence and commercial production; intermediate capital intensity, moderate labor intensity. Farmers are mainly without formal education and follow traditional methods, but are willing to adopt improved method of practices where advice from extension services is available and the benefits of the improvements can be clearly demonstrated. Land preparation is done by hand hoe, ox-drawn equipment; other activities like weeding, harvesting, threshing and the like are also done by manual labor. Land Holdings are usually fragmented, with individual plots operated by the community or renting labor when scarcity arises. Inputs like local and improved seed varieties and other production inputs are used at optimum level. The seed is mainly used for oil extraction, the best quality grades being used for edible purpose and inferior grades in soap and paint industries. Niger seed contains 38- 50% oil. The oil cake from the pressed seeds is used for cattle feed and the flowering plant is used for green fodder. Animal power together with human labor is the main labor source used. Seed rate ranging from 6--10 kg/ha for early maturing varieties and 12-15 kg/ha for late maturing varieties depending on the variety type and application of 23 kg/ha N as Urea and 23 kg/ha P2O5 as DAP is important. A fine seedbed should be prepared, by ploughing two to three times to a depth of 15-20 cm.Broadcast or use seed drills. If drilled, the seeds are sown in rows 30-35cm apart at a 5-10kg/ha rate. They are then sun dried for 2-3 days, the seeds are threshed out and cleared by winnowing or

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project sieving. The national average yield from peasant farming systems for this crop is 7.0 Qt/ha (CSA, 2013). Variety trials conducted by the extension services have reached 7-8 Qt/ha while yields at research stations for recommended varieties reach up to 11 Qt/ha.

3.3.1.15 Smallholder rain fed Tomato production

In Ethiopia, it is produced in altitudes between 700 and 2000, which is characterized as warm and dry day and cooler night, are favorable for optimum growth and development of tomatoes. A temperature range between 21 to 270 c day and 10 to 20oC night is favorable for plant development, and fruit set in the country. It grows better at a constant day and night temperature. A difference of 60 c between day and night temperatures was found sufficient for good plant growth and development. Fruit setting is poor when the temperature is either high or low. Extreme temperatures cause flower drops and poor fruit set. At high temperatures such as where above 350 c day and 200 c night temperatures from March to July cause a high blossom drop. The cultivars that are currently in production failed to set fruits and gave low yield when the day and night temperatures were above 320 c and 210 c, respectively. However heat tolerant genotypes could be the potential ones for such growing conditions. It must be also noted that tomato flowers fail to set fruits as the result of poor nutrient imbalances and poor managements.

Tomato can be grown in many types of soils. However, well-drained friable sandy loam soil with pH of 6.7 is preferable for early and high fruit yield. Tomato is widely produced under irrigation. Production in the rainy season is also possible, but need intensive pest management. The bulk of tomato production is concentrated in the Central Rift Valleys however; there are favorable growing pockets different parts of the country. Production is at low capital intensity, moderate labor intensity. For Cultivation use human labor together with animal power use. Farmers are mainly without formal education and follow traditional methods, but are willing to adopt improved methods where advice from extension services is available where the benefits of the improvements can be clearly demonstrated. Produce in small scale fragmented land. The production in Tana sub basin is for subsistence and commercial purpose. Land Holdings are usually fragmented, with individual plots largely less than one hectare operated by the community.

The fresh produce is sliced and used as salad; it is also cooked for making local sauce (wot). The processed products such as tomato paste, tomato ketch up and whole peel- tomatoes are produced for local market and export. It is an important cash-generating

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project crop to small-scale farmers and provides employment in the production .It is widely accepted and commonly uses in varieties of dishes as row, cooked or processed products. Recently the crop has expanded to commercial production for home use, export and processing industries.

Different tomato cultivars have been recommended for different purpose at different times to the production systems for their high fruit yield and quality potential. However, it is important that, the cultivars should be tested for adaptation before launching production scheme in areas where the cultivars were not tested before. The nursery field should be carefully tilled, roots, stones and clods should be removed. The seedbeds should be easy for cultivation, irrigation and hardening-off operations. A suitable basic design for a seedbed should be one-meter width with 5 or 10 meters length and 40 cm between beds to permit a person to work half the seedbed from each side. The seed bed is pre-irrigated 1-2 days before seeding to facilitate the planting operation.

About 250-300 g seed with over 90%, germination potential is required for one hectare. About 15 beds (3,000 seedlings/ 10 m2 bed) of 350 m2 are required to produce sufficient number of seedlings for planting one hectare. Seeds should be mixed with equal ratio (1:1) of carrier (sand or soil) to facilitate even distribution of the seed. It is sown in the row at 15 cm row apart at the depth of about 0.5-1 cm, covered with pulverized/fine soil, and lightly firmed. The whole bed is mulched with grass or straw to protect seeds from washing away during watering and is removed after the seedlings have emerged. The beds are watered with watering can followed by surface irrigation after the seedlings have reached about 5 cm height. The seedlings are then thinned at 3-5 cm spacing at the first true leaf stage and proper management (weeding, watering) practices are followed to produce healthy and vigorous seedlings. No further shade is necessary then after to avoid the development of long and spindly seedlings, which is a common problem in farmer‘s field. Raising large number of seedlings helps to select vigorous, strong and healthy transplants. Organic manure or compost and chemical fertilizers provide nutrients for producing healthy and vigorous seedlings. Incorporating well decomposed manure is conducive for good seedling production. However, the amount of fertilizer applied on seedbed depends on the fertility of the soil. Generally about 100 g Urea is applied at thinning (at first true leaf stage) to enhance growth. ( MoA Extension Directorate, 2011)

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At initial stages, water is applied frequently with a watering can. Application could be changed to flooding when seedlings are about 5 to 8 cm height. Caution should be taken in watering the seedbeds. It should be watered with a fine spray with a sprinkling can or with garden hose. Water dashed on seedbed through a hose with large holes wash out the seed. The seeds bed should never be allowed to dry out, nor should be kept soaked but sufficient water should be applied to wet the soil. Until the plants are well established, the soil should be kept moist, but not wet. Keeping the surface wet or over watering is favorable for damping off diseases. Watering is preferred in the morning or late in the afternoon, but not encouraged in strong sun. (MoA Extension Directorate,2001)

Damping off is the most common seedbed diseases in tomato. The causal agents Pythim spp, Phytophthora spp that are soil borne fungi are common in tomato production fields.. At pre-emergence, the disease decays germinating seed before it pushes through the soil and causes poor seedling stand even with seeds of high germination capacity. Whereas, at post-emergence affected seedling shrivels and the entire plant will be lost unless control measures are practiced. Excess amount of moisture, dense seedlings, excess amount of nitrogen, carelessly handling of plants and the presence of weeds favor damping off disease. Protective seed treatment chemicals, burning straws on seedbed and solarization of seedbed for about one month were reported effective in reducing the incidence. Well decomposed farm yard manure, composts and chemical fertilizers could be used to increasing yield and quality of both fresh and processing tomatoes. In light soil, 200 kg/ha DAP (18 N and 46 P) is broadcasted and 100 kg/ha Urea (46% N) is side dressed at transplanting and early flowering, respectively. (MoA Extension Directorate, 2001)

3.3.1.16 Smallholder irrigated Onion production

In Ethiopia, it is produced in altitudes between 700 and 2000, which is characterized as warm and dry day and cooler night, are favorable for optimum growth and development of tomatoes. A temperature range between 20 to 260 c day and 10 to 20oC night is favorable for plant development. In cooler areas where temperature fall to 4-100 c or at an altitude of greater than 2000 masl bolting and disease resistant or tolerant varieties like Red Creole could be used High temperature favors bulbing and accelerates maturity then results in small, split, double and low yield and quality bulbs.

At lower temperature there will be a delay in bulbing and maturity at least by 2-3 week and yield will also be low. However, low temperature is required for flower stalk

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project development, and then warm and dry conditions for seed maturity and harvest. Onion can grow in all types of soils from sandy loam to heavy clay. Highest yield will be obtained from freely drained friable loam soil at of pH of 6-6.8. Due to build up of soil borne diseases, it should be rotated with unrelated crops such as beans, cereals, etc; onion could be planted at lones every 3-4 years. Production is at low capital intensity and moderate labor intensity. For Cultivation use human labor together with animal power use. Farmers are mainly without formal education and follow traditional methods, but are willing to adopt improved methods where advice from extension services is available where the benefits of the improvements can be clearly demonstrated. Produce in small scale fragmented land. The production in Tana sub basin is for subsistence and commercial, which contribute 3912000$ from exporting (1997-2003 EC). Land Holdings are usually fragmented, with individual plots largely less than one hectare operated by the community. It used to as ingredient to make for local and processed food; it is also part of dishes with leafy vegetables.

Onions require 4kg onion seed to grow seedling and transplant for one hectare. For 1mx5m seed bed formation require 50g onion seed. At present onion are grown almost entirely by peasant farmers on a small scale where irrigation access is exist. The types of variety, number of day to maturity and productivity of onion grown in Ethiopia are listed blow

Prepare the field by 2-4 plowings. Level and pulverize the soil to a fine texture to facilitate formation of beds. Raising beds are constructed in the area where enough moisture at 1 meter wide by 20 m long (maximum) by 10-15 cm high. The row on beds will be prepared with a distance of 15 cm and between seeds will be 2 cm. Approximately 50 grams of seeds is needed for 1mx5m seed bed. For one hectare require 560 per square meter at 1mx15 seed bed formation. Fertilizer application done at the rate of 200kg/ha DAP during planting and 100 kg/ha urea applied in two split application, first 50kg apply during planting time and the rest is after 1 month 15 day during hoeing

3.3.1.17 Smallholder rain fed and irrigated Garlic production

Garlic grows best areas with comparatively mild climate. It requires cooler weather during the early stages of growth and dry atmosphere with moderately high temperature for maturation. It can be grown from sea level to over 1.000 feet above sea level. Areas with climate dry from November to April are best for commercial production of garlic.

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Garlic can be sown in several types of soil. It grows best in sandy loam and silt loam to clay loam with pH of 5.6-6.8. The soil should be fertile, rich in organic matter. Well drained and maintains good soil moisture supply during the growing period. Production is at low capital intensity and moderate labor intensity. For cultivation use human labor together with animal power use. Farmers are mainly without formal education and follow traditional methods, but are willing to adopt improved methods where advice from extension services is available where the benefits of the improvements can be clearly demonstrated. Produce in small scale fragmented land with individual plots largely less than one hectare operated by the community. The production in Tana sub basin is for subsistence and commercial. It is mainly used as a condiment for flavoring meat, fish and salads, in fresh and dehydrated forms. It is also known to lower blood sugar and cholesterol levels. Its many other health-promoting attributes have resulted in medicinal pills, drinks and powders based on garlic extracts. The seed rate for garlic production for one hectare is 300-800kg/hectare. The bulb for planting material purpose must collect 2-3 month before planting. The land is prepared 4-6 weeks before planting. one ha production area requires 200kg /hectare DAP and 200 kg urea in two split application, require 350kg/ha seed rate. The area which have enough rain fall distribution, planting space will be 30 c.m between ridges and the 10 cm between plant and 15c.m between raw with three rows in a bed, require 500-800kg/ha seed rate.

3.3.1.18 Smallholder rain fed Potato production

It is high altitude tropical areas of the South American Andes areas characterized by cool temperatures and short day length. The temperature requirements of potato are that the mean minimum temperature must be 10-14oC and the mean maximum temperature below 21oC. All soil types are suitable for the crop, provided that they are not waterlogged and preferably have pH values between 5.5 and 6.7. The production in Tana sub basin is for subsistence and commercial purpose. Land Holdings are usually fragmented, with individual plots largely less than one hectare operated by the community with limited access to markets and agricultural services. It is also used as stock feed and for production of starch, flour, alcohol, etc. None of these uses are known in the area at present. The longer the growing seasons the higher the yields. Optimum yields in temperate maritime areas are up to 40,000kg/ha. Research centers indicate the possibility of obtaining up to 350qt/ha with improved varieties and management. Encouraging more rapid growth, where 165kg urea and 195kg DAP per hectares at sowing side dressing.

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3.3.1.19 Smallholder rain fed pepper production

Hot pepper is appropriate for the Kola and Weina Daga regions, from 1000m to 2200m altitude, where there is a tropical wet and dry climate with a mean annual rainfall of 750mm to 1250mm, preferably well distributed over the growing period. Light textured soils with adequate water holding capacity and drainage are preferred. Water logging even for short period‘s cause‘s leaf shedding.Production is at high capital intensity, moderate labor intensity. For Cultivation use human labor together with animal power use. Farmers are mainly without formal education and follow traditional methods, but are willing to adopt improved methods where advice from extension services is available where the benefits of the improvements can be clearly demonstrated. Produce in small scale fragmented land. The production in Tana sub basin is for subsistence and commercial. Land Holdings are usually fragmented, with individual plots largely less than one hectare operated by the community Limited access to markets and agricultural services.

It is important in the local dishes, karia, berbre and processing industries (coloring agent) and export in the form of oleoresin (red pigment) and ground powder in different forms.If manure is not available application of diammonium phosphate (DAP) and urea is recommended. DAP at the rate of 200 kg/ha is recommended to be applied after the field has been leveled and should be mixed with the soil. According research recommendation, application of 100 kg urea per hector provides good results and it may be applied in two split application with the receipt of little rain showers as side dressing. The first half can be applied in the early stage of the plant at 15 – 20 days after transplanting and the second half can be applied at the latter stage when the second cultivation is made. Ideally, you should conduct your own fertilizer trials to determine the optimum fertilizer rate for your area.

3.3.1.20 Carrot

The root is the edible part and it is basically a swollen base of the tap root that also includes the hypocotyls. It is conical and its length varies from 5 to 25 cm.The color of the roots varies from white, yellow, orange-yellow, light purple, deep red to deep violet. The inflorescence is a terminal compound umbel, subtended by pinnatifid bracts. The flowers of the umbel are white except for the central ones which are either red or purple. Flowers are produced in the second year.

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Production is at medium capital intensity, moderate labor intensity. For Cultivation use human labor together with animal power use. Farmers are mainly without formal education and follow traditional methods, but are willing to adopt improved methods where advice from extension services is available where the benefits of the improvements can be clearly demonstrated. Produce in small scale fragmented land. The production in Tana sub basin is for subsistence purpose. Land Holdings are usually fragmented, with individual plots largely less than one hectare operated by the community with limited access to markets and agricultural services.

Carrots are consumed fresh as a salad crop or cooked. They are also processed either alone or mixed with other vegetables. The juice is extracted and used as a drink. Tender roots are pickled or made into jams and sweetmeats in some countries. Carrot cake and carrot pudding can also be made. Whole plants can also be used as fodder for cattle and horses. Carrots are said to be rich in ß-carotene, dietary fiber, antioxidants and minerals .Fertiliser recommendations should be based on soil analyses as a general guide, 175 kg/ha fertilizer DAP be worked into the soil before planting. Compost or organic manure should not be applied since they cause unattractive, hairy roots, with a coarser texture.

3.3.1.21 Mango

The mango is adapted to both tropical and subtropical conditions. Temperature range is 24-35oC. Rainfall of at least 600 mm/year and an altitude of 1200-1600 m are ideal for the crop. The crop is intolerant to saline conditions. A dry period of at least 3 months is necessary for flowering. The tree requires plenty of sunshine for optimum growth and fruiting. Mangoes require deep soils with good drainage not necessarily fertile but mangoes can thrive in a wide range of soil types at of pH 6-7, with a mean annual rainfall of 900mm to 1015mm. (Amhara agricultural office training manual 2003).

Production is at low capital intensity, moderate labor intensity. For Cultivation use human labor together with animal power use. Farmers are mainly without formal education and follow traditional methods, but are willing to adopt improved methods where advice from extension services is available where the benefits of the improvements can be clearly demonstrated. Produce in small scale fragmented land around home stead. The production in Tana sub basin is for subsistence and commercial purpose . Land Holdings are usually fragmented, with individual plots largely less than one hectare operated by the community. Limited access to markets and agricultural services.

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Mango may be propagated both by sexual and asexual means. Seeds could be either poly embryonic or mono embryonic. Clonal cultivars are propagated mainly by grafting. Seedlings are kept under partial shade and plant in ahole.

Young trees must be fertilized very judiciously since their roots could easily be burnt. Apply three times in the first year 50g / tree of Urea and DAP In the second year double the doses In the following year continue to apply fertilizers especially before flowering and during fruiting stage.

3.3.1.22 Citrus fruit

Much of Ethiopia lies north of 6oN and there is sufficient seasonal climatic variation to make commercial citrus production a viable proposition. Lime, Citrus aurantifolia has been grown as a household tree for many centuries and commercial citrus has been produced for over 50 years, particularly in the north which has a somewhat Mediterranean climate. Citrus is suitable for production under rain fed conditions by farmers to meet local needs, but for commercial production drier areas which have access to irrigation water of good quality are more suitable. Citrus, depending on the type, can be grown from sea level to over 2000m in areas which have marked wet and dry seasons. Citrus cannot tolerate water logged conditions or frost. The preferred type of soil depends, to some extent, on the type of rootstock being used, but on the whole lighter, well drained soils with a pH range of between 5.5 and 7.0 are the most suitable.

Production is at high capital intensity, high labor intensity. For Cultivation use human labor together with animal power use. Farmers are mainly without formal education and follow traditional methods, but are willing to adopt improved methods where advice from extension services is available where the benefits of the improvements can be clearly demonstrated. Produce in small scale fragmented land mainly around the home stead. The production in Tana sub basin is for subsistence purpose. Land Holdings are usually fragmented, with individual plots largely less than one hectare operated by the community Limited access to markets and agricultural services. At first year Urea and DAP three application 100g/tree from August to March Second year: Urea and DAP same timing but double doses.

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3.3.1.23 Banana

Banana is one of the most important tropical fruits, grown mostly between 30oN and 30oS. The crop requires minimum temperatures of around 25oC and maximum temperatures up to 38oC for optimum growth. Using irrigation year is preferable. It can grow on a wide range of soil types, provided they are fertile and well drained. The demand for N is high and the optimum pH is between 5.5 and 7.0.

Production is at high capital intensity, high labor intensity. For Cultivation use human labor together with animal power use. Farmers are mainly without formal education and follow traditional methods, but are willing to adopt improved methods where advice from extension services is available where the benefits of the improvements can be clearly demonstrated. Produce in small scale fragmented land mainly around the home stead. The production in Tana sub basin is for subsistence purpose. Land Holdings are usually fragmented, with individual plots largely less than one hectare operated by the community. Limited access to markets and agricultural services

A common technique fertilizers application is a side dressing in a concentrated band near the plant. The general recommendation rate is 100kg DAP/ha and 100kg Urea kg/ha but the rate varies based on soil fertility and soil type (EIAR, 2007). All DAP should be applied during sowing while half of Urea at the time tillering. In the sub basin fertilizers, DAP and Urea are widely used, however; most farmers do not use the appropriate rate due to poor economic reasons. It is by far less than the recommended rate. Subsequent application of fertilizer should be applied as frequent as possible i.e. once every week if possible. The best approach is to apply smaller quantity of fertilizer but more frequently. For better taste and quality, try applying only organic fertilizers. It is advisable to water and fertilize at the same time to help Bananas grow. If water system is not available (i.e. fertigation or pipes), the best time for application of fertilizer is after rain. (Amhara agricultural office training manful, 2003)

3.3.1.24 Fenugreek

Fenugreek is one of the earliest spice grown to men which is originated from Eurasia (southern Europe & Asia).It is legume can fix significant amount of nitrogen. Can grow in wider environment from 1600 – 2300 m.a.s.l and requires minimum of 500 mm rain fall during its growing period, extended cool & moist conditions slow plant development.

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Production is at low capital intensity, moderate labor intensity. For Cultivation use human labor together with animal power use. Farmers are mainly without formal education and follow traditional methods, but are willing to adopt improved methods where advice from extension services is available where the benefits of the improvements can be clearly demonstrated. Produce in small scale fragmented land. The production in Tana sub basin is for subsistence and commercial purpose. Land Holdings are usually fragmented, with individual plots largely less than one hectare operated by the community.

Fenugreek has documented uterine stimulant effect and has been used in traditional medic induce childbirth hasten delivery by promoting uterine contraction. Flavoring (ingredient of curry powder) Good substitute for infant food (has high protein content).In some countries, the fresh plant is eaten as a vegetable. Medicinal Fenugreek produces high forage yield and quality and can be grown efficiently for hay or silage and fenugreek is a bloat free annual legume, having animal growth promoting substances (steroidal sapogenins like diosgenin), not present in other forage legumes. Phosphorous is important for nodule (by which it can fix N), flower & seed formation. Moreover it advances (hastens) maturity.17 kg/ha (p2o5) is added to the soil at the time of planting.

3.3.1.25 Irrigated Sugar cane production

The majority of the sugar cane crop grown in Ethiopia is likely to be grown under irrigation, there is potential for its production under rain fed conditions in the hotter, wetter environments of Kola and Weina Dega regions below 1900m altitude. These areas have to tropical wet and dry climate (koppen, Am and Aw) with a mean annual rainfall of at least 1500mm. Suitable land for sugar cane has a soil depth of at least 100 cm with the soils being moderately structured friable clay loams to clays, with high infiltration rates after cultivation, moderate available water capacity and a pH of 6.0 to 7.0. The slopes are less than 5% and there is no evidence of impeded drainage.

Production is at high capital intensity, high labor intensity. For Cultivation use human labor together with animal power use. Farmers are mainly without formal education and follow traditional methods, but are willing to adopt improved methods where advice from extension services is available where the benefits of the improvements can be clearly demonstrated. Produce in small scale fragmented land mainly. The production is for subsistence and commercial purpose. Land Holdings are usually fragmented, with

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Molasses, from which are made rum, industrial ethyl alcohol and cane syrup. Biogases, the fibrous residue left after the extraction of the juice, is used in the manufacture of paper, cardboard, fiber board and wall board. The pith from the biogases is used as stock feed with which molasses is incorporated. The filter mud made during the clarification of the juice is used as a fertilizer. The leaves are used as a fodder crop for cattle feed. (FAO,1984)

Under good management the yield of the first crop should be between 100,000 kg/ha and 175,000 kg/ha with 10-16% recoverable sucrose. Harvests from ratoon crops continue for up to 3-8 years, but yields decline with successive ratoon crops. Allowing for yield decline and soil rest and replanting period, production should average at least 10,000 kg/ha, or 50,000 t of cane per year from a 500 ha farm. Sugar cane has a high requirement for N and K but a relatively low requirement for P approximate applications of elements are N 100-200 kg/ha, P 20-90 kg/ha, K 125-260 kg/ha this is expected to give a 100 t/ha yield. Levels of N should be increased for the ratoon crops (second and subsequent crop from same root) to encourage vegetative growth. Heavy clay soils can be improved by mill waste organic matter.

Because of the vegetative method of propagation and the fact that sugar cane is a perennial crop, diseases cause cumulative losses in production with catastrophic results. Losses from diseases can cause at least 20% loss in the total crop. The development of disease resistant cvs.many of them from specific inter-hybrids, is the best protection and insurance of continued production of sugar cane. The crop is also attacked by many common insects, the most important of which are the sugar cane borer and the sugar cane beetle. Chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides are effective in controlling insect infestations.The crop is cut when the sugar content of the stalks reaches its peak. Mature cane has dead leaves on the stalks, which are first removed by burning to facilitate cutting and removal for processing. Burning however causes a considerable loss of organic matter, and after a number of years it has an adverse effect on yields. The stems must be transported rapidly to the processing factory to minimize loss in sucrose content(FAO,1984).

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3.3.2 Feed Resources Development

Rangelands in the sub basin include grasslands, shrub lands and open woodlands that support domestic and wild animals. Rangelands are found in every locality of the basin. Large amount of land in the sub basin area can be categorized as rangelands. A high proportion of this land has been put into reserves as wetlands areas, degraded escarpment and parks. Rangelands have many uses and produce many benefits of value to the livestock sector, in the basin even to the international community (wetlands). They provide a social, economic and environmental base for the livestock industry, crop production, water resources and tourism. These lands are the source of forage for livestock and provide essential habitat and feed for many species of wildlife. The social, economic and environmental values of these lands are many. The development, management and conservation is paramount important in the sub basin. But there are problems in rangelands development: such as Poor management, inadequate, seasonal and poorly developed water resources, poor conservation of water resources, and poor water use.

Table 3: Hierarchal definition of feed resources LUTs LUT Management level Low Intermediate High Natural Local SPP of plants like Gaja, level 1+ some Intermediate Level+ strict weeding practices pasture tucha, herbs, bushe and shrubs improved using burning, chemicals or manual labors. ,subsistence, for grazing and forage to Flooding Irrigation of level grass lands and browsing low labor and capital improve the control grazing like cut and carry and paddock intensity for weed control and local by over system and fertilizer application including heard only sowing + hay manure. So high quality of feed (fresh grazing or making +crop in the form of hay up to 10 ton DM per/ha/ cycle residue shall produced. management Alfalfa, Local variety of alfalfa, Rhodes, Improved variety of alfalfa, Researched and quality alfalfa Rhodes and stylo seeds will be supplied Rhodes, and stylo seeds will seeds will be supplied, need high grass, Sty and mixture forage practiced on be supplied and mixture credit, land size depends on lo backyard, enclosure area, strip forage practiced on livestock farming size. > 50% productio and hedge at farm; at this level backyard, enclosure area, exotic blood level cattle for meat n local breed cattle strip and hedge at farm; at and milk production, selected local fattening and dairy, local sheep a this level local breed cattle sheep crossed with pure exotic nd goat production will be imple fattening and dairy, local she breed like dorper, in mented at urban, pre urban and b ep and goat production will b addition selected goat crossed est developed kebele area. e implemented at urban, pre with exotic breed are used . Highly Selection of the area considered urban and best developed mechanized irrigation and rain fed, temperature, rain fall, slope and kebele area. Selection of the well pH. Family labor and capital area considered temperature, organized weed control applied it i intensity applied. Land size can rain fall, slope and pH. s completely surplus production be < 0.25 hectare. 10 ton/ Family labor and capital and used for large dairy farm, in ha/year DMY can be produced. intensity applied. Land size addition selling forage takes place Output is used for their can be < 0.5 hectare. 13 ton/ up to abroad. Animal feeding will subsistence‘s. ha/year DMY can be be cutting, chopping and making produced. Output is used for ration formulation with other

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LUT Management level Low Intermediate High their subsistence‘s. feeds. It applied at urban areas. Napier Local variety of cuttings will be Improved variety of seeds Researched and quality cuttings grass supplied on backyard, enclosure and seedlings will be will be supplied, need high credit, area, strip and hedge at farm; at supplied on backyard, land size depends on livestock this level local breed cattle enclosure area, strip and farming size. > 50% exotic blood fattening and dairy, local sheep a hedge at farm. Selected local level cattle for meat and milk nd goat production will be imple and > 25% exotic blood level production, selected local sheep mented at urban, pre urban and b cattle for meat and milk crossed with pure exotic breed like est developed kebele area. production, selected local dorper, in addition Selection of the area considered sheep and goat in addition selected goat crossed with exotic temperature, rain fall, slope and pure and breed are used . Highly pH. Family labor and capital hybrid dorper sheep breed fo mechanized irrigation and rain fed, intensity applied. Land size can r meat production. It will be i well be < 0.25 hectare. 15 ton/ mplemented at urban and organized weed control applied it i ha/year DMY can be produced. pre- urban area. Selection of s completely surplus production Output is used for their the area considered and used for large dairy farm, in subsistence‘s. temperature, rain fall, slope addition selling forage takes place and pH. Land size can be 0.5 up to abroad. Animal feeding will to1 hectare. 20 ton ha/year D be cutting, chopping and making MY can be produced. Fertiliz ration formulation with other er, extension services, weedi feeds. It applied at urban areas. ng, hay making, silage and oxen-power are used for production. output used for their livestock in green feed and making in hay form. In addition feed selling will be done. Vetch, Local variety of seeds will be Improved variety of seeds will be implemented with oats , implemented with sorghum and sorghum and maize, Selected local and > 25% exotic Cow pea maize, at this level local breed blood level cattle for meat and milk production, selected productio cattle fattening and dairy, local s local sheep and goat in addition n heep and goat production will be pure and hybrid dorper sheep breed for meat production. implemented at urban, pre urban It will be implemented at urban and pre- urban and best developed kebele area. area. Selection of the area considered temperature, rain Selection of the area considered fall, slope and pH. Land size can be 0.5 to1 hectare. 15 to temperature, rain fall, slope and n ha/year DMY can be produced. Fertilizer, extension ser pH. Family labor and capital vices, weeding, hay making, silage and oxen-power are intensity applied. Land size can used for production. Output used for their livestock in be < 0.25 hectare. 10 ton/ green feed and making in hay form. In addition feed ha/year DMY can be produced. selling will be done. Output is used for their subsistence‘s. Sesbania Local variety of seeds and Improved variety of seeds and seedlings will be supplied seedlings will be supplied on on backyard, enclosure area, strip and hedge at farm. backyard, enclosure area, strip Selected local and > 25% exotic blood level cattle for and hedge at farm; at this level meat and milk production, selected local sheep and goat local breed cattle fattening and in addition pure and dairy, local sheep and goat produ hybrid dorper sheep breed for meat production. It will be ction will be implemented at implemented at urban and pre- urban area. Selection of urban, pre urban and best develo the area considered temperature, rain fall, slope ped kebele area. Selection of the and pH. Land size can be 0.5 to1 hectare. 15 ton ha/year area considered temperature, DMY can be produced. Fertilizer, extension services, we rain fall, slope and pH. Family eding, hay making, silage and oxen-power are used for labor and capital intensity production. output used for their livestock in green feed applied. Land size can be < 0.25 and making in hay form. In addition feed selling will be hectare. 12 ton/ ha/year DMY done.

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LUT Management level Low Intermediate High can be produced. Output is used for their subsistence‘s. Tree Local variety of seeds and Improved variety of seeds and seedlings will be supplied Lucerne seedlings will be supplied on on backyard, enclosure area, strip and hedge at farm. backyard, enclosure area, strip Selected local and > 25% exotic blood level cattle for and hedge at farm; at this level meat and milk production, selected local sheep and goat local breed cattle fattening and in addition pure and dairy, local sheep and goat produ hybrid dorper sheep breed for meat production. It will be ction will be implemented at implemented at urban and pre- urban area. Selection of urban, pre urban and best develo the area considered temperature, rain fall, slope ped kebele area. Selection of the and pH. Land size can be 0.5 to1 hectare. 15 ton ha/year area considered temperature, DMY can be produced. Fertilizer, extension services, we rain fall, slope and pH. Family eding, hay making, silage and oxen-power are used for labor and capital intensity production. output used for their livestock in green feed applied. Land size can be < 0.25 and making in hay form. In addition feed selling will be hectare. 12 ton/ ha/year DMY done. can be produced. Output is used for their subsistence‘s. Clover Local variety of seeds will be Improved variety of seeds and seedlings will be sown on productio sown on natural grazing land; at natural grazing land;. Selected local and > 25% exotic n this level local breed cattle blood level cattle for meat and milk production, selected fattening and dairy, local sheep a local sheep and goat in addition nd goat production will be imple pure and hybrid dorper sheep breed for meat production. mented at urban, pre urban and b It will be implemented at urban and pre- urban est developed kebele area. area. Selection of the area considered temperature, rain Selection fall, slope and pH. Land size can be 0.5 to1 hectare. 12 to of the area considered temperatu n ha/year DMY can be produced. Fertilizer, extension ser re, rain fall, slope and pH. vices, weeding, hay making, silage and oxen-power are Family labor and capital used for production. Output used for their livestock in intensity applied. Land size can green feed and making in hay form. In addition feed be < 0.25 hectare. 9 ton/ ha/year selling will be done. DMY can be produced. Output is used for their subsistence‘s.

Pigeon Local variety of seeds will be Improved variety of seeds and seedlings will be supplied pea backyard, enclosure area, strip on backyard, enclosure area, strip and hedge at farm. and hedge at farm; at this level Selected local and > 25% exotic blood level cattle for local breed cattle fattening and d meat and milk production, selected local sheep and goat airy, local sheep and goat produc in addition pure and tion will be implemented at urba hybrid dorper sheep breed for meat production. It will be n, pre urban and best developed implemented at urban and pre- urban area. Selection of kebele area. Selection of the area the area considered temperature, rain fall, slope considered temperature, rain and pH. Land size can be 0.5 to1 hectare. 9 ton ha/year D fall, slope and pH. Family labor MY can be produced. Fertilizer, extension services, weed and capital intensity applied. ing, hay making, silage and oxen-power are used for Land size can be < 0.25 hectare. production. Output used for their livestock in green feed 6 ton/ ha/year DMY can be and making in hay form. In addition feed selling will be produced. Output is used for done. their subsistence‘s.

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LUT Management level Low Intermediate High Chibeha Local variety of cutting will be Improved variety of seeds and seedlings will be supplied productio backyard, enclosure area, strip on backyard, enclosure area, strip and hedge at farm. n and hedge at farm; at this level Selected local and > 25% exotic blood level cattle for local breed cattle fattening and d meat and milk production, selected local sheep and goat airy, local sheep and goat produc in addition pure and tion will be implemented at urba hybrid dorper sheep breed for meat production. It will be n, pre urban and best developed implemented at urban and pre- urban area. Selection of kebele area. Selection of the area the area considered temperature, rain fall, slope considered temperature, rain and pH. Land size can be 0.5 to1 hectare. 9 ton ha/year D fall, slope and pH. Family labor MY can be produced. Fertilizer, extension services, weed and capital intensity applied. ing, hay making, silage and oxen-power are used for Land size can be < 0.25 hectare. production. Output used for their livestock in green feed 6 ton/ ha/year DMY can be and making in hay form. In addition feed selling will be produced. Output is used for done. their subsistence‘s.

3.3.2.1 Natural pasture

Tenure systems of natural pasture in the basin are mostly communal and sometime private owned systems and are free, deferred and controlled types of grazing system. Primary benefits and services from the natural pasture are feed for livestock, and conservation vegetation and soil. Feed products are fresh grazing grass, herbs and legumes for grazing and browsing uses and hay production.

Annual productivity of natural grazing land is estimated 1-4ton DM/ha/year (Alemayhu, 2003); however MoA (1989), estimated as 2 ton /ha/year from high potential cereal zone of savannah grass land and 2.5 ton /ha/year from humid temperate pasture; 1.5ton/ha/year from low potential cereal zone of pasture savannah grass land and then 2 ton /ha/year from high potential perennial zone of savannah grass land. In the basin productivity of natural grazing land is low and large feed demand with low supply of feed sources is common. Market opportunities is very high within and intra sub-basin. Poor grazing and tenure system, overstocking, decreasing in size and with no improvement effort are characteristics of communal grazing land in the basin. Rain fed meher production of natural pasture/ grass land that comprised dominant native grasses spices, such as Cybogon, cynodon, Andropogon, Hayperenia, digitaria, cyprous, seadge, penisatum, etc.,dominant legumes such as tri folium SPPs and medicago; dominant bush/shrubs like acacia, rumex, caresa are produced for grazing, hay making and browsing purposes. Types of grass /pasture land are open grass land, bush and shrub grass lands, with different grazing management like control grazing( deferred), tether grazing, rotational and free communal grazing systems.

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Table 4 Description Natural pasture development at three level of management Attributes Low Intermediate High Produce and The average productivity of natural grazing/pasture land is estimated to be 1.5-5DM ton/ha/year. In products addition some experiences show it gives up to 10 ton /ha. Market Subsistence natu Subsistence plus sell of surplus feed Extra hay production for sell to the orientation ral pasture (hay). neighbouring. production Capital Low Medium credit on accessible terms for High, for irrigation, machineries, intensity improved forage seeds, seedlings, transport carts, 10000+6000+ Birr for cuttings. capital and15000 Birr for recurrent cost Labor intensity low, family low, family labor for weed eradication, 180 person day/ha. For weed control, labor herding, and transporting for hay cultivation, men. Power sources Manual labors Manual labors with hand tools and or/ Family labor, animal power, vehicles, animal traction for land preparation and generator for irrigation products transportation. Technology Local spps of Local spps. Of grasses, legumes and grasses, legumes bushes/shrub plus weed control, over Fertilizers, Improved forge, machinerie and bushes/shrub sowing and hedge plantation of s for irrigating the grasslands, hand only are used. improved forage crops with some tools conservation measures. + hand tools Land holding Small, Small, fragmented, private and Private; but sometimes communal for fragmented, communal for hay production on hay production at large communal private , meadow meadow communal Level of Low, or Low to medium High from dairy, fattening and hay income subsistence production Primary Natural Natural vegetation + Eradication of Grazing, browsing, hay, seed, cuttings, resources vegetation for unpalatable species. Fodder crops and for dairy and fattening grazing/or legumes sod seeding introduced in browsing zones with their appropriate days growing periods and so feed and seed are produced Water/moistur Rain in Meher Rain in Meher + irrigation traditional Rain in Meher + irrigation Modern e sources or small scale with motor Land use and Traditional Natural pasture + improved forage Control grazing, zero grazing with feeding system (extensive); production land Control (semi conserved feed and cut and carry permanent intensive); private rotational grazing communal plus stall feeding, fodder conservation grazing and for dry season. browsing system. livestock Over stocked Proper livestock distribution based on Proper distribution as per the carrying distribution the capability of the land would be capacity of the land applied./3/ha/year/ resources(6cows/ha/6months)

3.3.2.2 Alfalfa

Alfalfa forms a small shrub of height up to 80 cm tall with dark green foliage with back yard and mixed pasture at field using direct sowing production strategy. It grows over a wide range of altitudes from the lowlands up to 3000m and tolerant of both cool and hot temperatures, depending on variety. It has deep root system which enables to with stand drought. It produces good forage yields with more than 700mm (400-1175mm) of rain fall a year and responds well to irrigation and needs altitude 1200-2000m. As in

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Alemayehu (1997) the forage requires well drained soils with pH values between 6.5 and 8. However; David, et al, 2004 define its optimal temperature range as 22-34 oC. It could be planted broadcast or in rows at 20 cm spacing between rows. Seeds should be sown no more than 1cm deep on heavy soils and no more than2 cm deep on light soils. At optimal condition it produces 5-6ton DM/ha with 200-300kg/ha of seed product at good conditions. Alfalfa should be sown on a well prepared seed bed at a seed rate of 8-10 kg/ha for pure stand, or 5-6 kg/ha in a mixture. It should be cut at 30-40 days intervals during growing seasons.

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Table 5: Alfalfa production at three level of management Attribute Low Intermediate High Produce and Alfalfa gives 5-6t DM/ha. In addition it is possible to get 200-300kg/ha of seed if there is irrigation. products Market Subsistence Partially produced for sales It is completely surplus production and used orientation that are surplus production. for large dairy farm, in addition selling forage takes place up to abroad. Capital Low Credit from micro-finances on Need high credit with respected organization. intensity accessible terms for improved For seed 3000Birr+ 10000Birr+1400 for forage seeds. fertilizers+10000for labor= 20400.00/ ha/cycle Labor intensity Family labor Family labor and oxen power Oxen-power12 oxen day and human 180man days+transport6birr/quintal=13320Birr/cycle Technology Locally produced Local seeds and some hybrid Researched and quality seeds +generateor seeds seeds Land holding Small or fragmented Small or fragmented on Investment (land size depends on livestock on private and private and communal with farming size). communal better management Income High(2-3 ton per Medium(3-6 ton per cycle of High(>6 ton per cycle of production) cycle of production) production) Water sources Ponds, wells, rivers, River, dams, lakes etc for Highly mechanized irrigation.+ rained etc. for irrigation irrigation with good extension with local services. knowledge. Feeding Cutting and feeding Cutting, chopping and feeding Cutting, chopping and making ration system formulation with other feeds. L/stock Overstocked Properly livestock distribution Properly livestock distribution and well distribution distribution managed,/4/ha/cycle Weed control No practiced Weeding done using human Well organized weed control applied labor.

3.3.2.3 Napier grass

Elephant grass or Napier grass with stems 2 to 6 meters tall with optimum plant harvesting stage is 1-1.5 meters height. It produces large numbers of flat leaf blades which can be over 1 meter long for grazing, green feeding and silage making. It can also be planted as buffer strips for soil and water conservation practices. It grows wide range of soil, but does not tolerate water log. Optimum temperature is 25-40 oC and responds fertilizers applied after every cut (Alemu Yami and R.C. Markel). It can also grow where rainfall is 1000-2500mm in good range year (Holetta Agricultural Research Center, 2004) and once established, can survive without much attention on even relatively poor soils.

Rootstock, stem cuttings or shoot tips at a distance of 100 cm between rows and 50 cm between plants is practiced.Plants from root splits make more rapid early growth and give high herbage yields than plants from stem cuttings or shoot tips. Spacing could be adjusted on performance bases. In areas of stress low spacing distance is recommended. It

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Companions with Centrocema pubescens, Puerariaphaseoloides Neonotonia wghtii. It adopts by growing smaller shoots and leaves. Backyard forage strategy gives excellent production in good management. It is also very good planting on contour strips and in gullies to control erosion hazard. It grows as mixed forage with climbing legumes like common vetch, green-leaf or silver leaf and lablab. It can be harvested by cut back to a height of 50 cm regularly every 4 weeks. Extremely high yields are from well managed, well fertilized areas. It is average forage yield is 10-15 t DM/ha at rain fed condition. Highest DM yield recorded is 84.8 t/ha when it was fertilized and cut every 90 days. One hectare of grass provides planting material for15 to 20 hectare of land. It is drought resistant and deeper roots.

Table 6 Description of Napier grass Production

Attribute Low Intermediate High Produce/ It is average forage yield: 10-15 t DM/ha (rain fed condition). One hectare of grass provides products planting material for15 to 20 hectare of land. Market Subsistence Partially produced for a It is completely surplus production orientation sale that is surplus and used for large dairy and fattening production. farm, in addition selling forage takes place up to abroad. Capital Low (no capital Intermediate production Need high credit with respected intensity invested) of forage with credit from organization.Cutting micro-finances on 5000.birr+10000+10800+ accessible terms for 1500=27300/ha/cycle improved forage seeds. Lobor Family labor (man Family labor and oxen Oxen-power 12 pair oxen day, and intensity power) power mechanization1Generator

Technology Locally produced Locally produced cuttings Researched quality cuttings and cuttings splits and splits. splits. Land Small or fragmented on Small or fragmented on Investment (land size depends on holding private and communal private and communal livestock farming size). land. land with better management Income Low (10 ton of dry Medium (15 ton of dry High 160000berr /ha/cycle, matter) matter) production 25 ton dry matter

Water Rain fall and irrigation River, dams, lakes etc for Highly mechanized irrigation. rained sources using Ponds, wells, irrigation with good rivers, etc. using local extension services and knowledge. rain fall. Feeding Cutting and feeding Cutting, welting, Cutting, chopping and making ration system chopping and feeding formulation with other feeds.

Livestock Overstocked distribution Properly livestock Properly livestock distribution and distribution distribution well managed./12cows/ha/cy

Weed No practiced Weeding done using Well organized weed control will be control human labor. applied.

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3.3.2.4 Oat

Oat, scientifically known as Avena sativa, is a hardy cereal grain able to withstand poor soil conditions in which other crops are unable to thrive. Oats are annual grasses with soft leaves and flowering stems less than one meter tall and are used as both for human and animal nutrition and to other purposes. Aside from being a cereal crop, oats can be used as a cover crop, grown as a weed barrier or as a starter crop as natural herbicide, erosion control, groundcover, fertilizer, mulch and biomass. It grows from 1500 - 3000m as it is both cold and frost tolerant with 500-800mm rain fall. It is best when mixed with common vetch for mixture cut and made quality hay. At rain fed condition gives forage yield is 6-10 t DM/ha. Oats require a seed bed similar to that for barely. Sowing rate is 70-80kg/ha.Temperatures below 100F will cause it to die. Oats grow best in fertile light- to-medium textured soil with high nitrogen content. Too much nitrogen will lead to more stalk than grain; however, oats can tolerate a soil pH range 5.5-6. Oats harbour various grain aphids. Diseases such as cereal rusts and smuts can cause heavy crop losses.The output of oat product affected by land characteristics; temperature, growing period, moisture suitability, soil depth, pH, organic matter and topography.

Table 7: Oat Production description Attribute Low Intermediate High Produce and Average forage yield 6-10t DM/ha (rain fed condition). It can also be grazed lightly. Oats require products a seed bed similar to that for barely and sowing rate is 70-80kg/ha. Market Subsistence Some product used for subsistence and orientation partially produced for sales that is surplus production. Capital Low (no capital invested) Intermediate production of forage with intensity credit from micro-finances on accessible terms for improved forage seeds. Labor Family labor (man power) Family labor and oxen power

Technology Locally produced seeds Local seeds and some hybrid seeds Land holding Small or fragmented on private Small or fragmented on private and and communal land. communal land with better management Income Low (5 ton dry matter) Medium (10 ton dry matter produced)

Water sources Rain fall and irrigation using River, dams, lakes etc for irrigation with Ponds, wells, rivers, etc. using good extension services and rain fall. local knowledge. Feeding Cutting and feeding Cutting, welting, chopping and feeding system Livestock Overstocked distribution Properly livestock distribution distribution Weed control No practiced Weeding done using human labor.

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3.3.2.5 Vetch

Common vetch is an annual herb which uses tendrils at the end of its leaves to climb up and over other plants. It produces much vegetative growth with small round seeds and grown for pasture. It adopted wide range of conditions, 1,500m - 3000 m, moderately sensitive to frost, grow at low rain fall ranges from 300 to 1660mm at optimal temperature range of 4 0 c -21 0 c. It has good tolerance to adverse soils, low or high rainfall and a wide pH range 4.9 and 8.2 (Duke and James, 1991)with root depth of 1-3 feet.. It cultivated annually and produces 3 to10 long weak branching stems 3 to 6 ft long with a hay yield of 1.5 to 3.5 ton/acre dry weight. The leaves have 12 to 20 leaflets. Seed pods, bearing 4 to 8 seeds each, Pods tend to shatter soon after maturity. Vetches grow well on a wide range of soil types, but are best adapted to loamy and sandy soils. Because they are legumes, vetches can be grown on nitrogen-depleted soils without the addition of N fertilizer. Shallower plantings will give good stands if there is sufficient moisture (D.J. Undersander, etal, 1991).Used as a pioneer in other strategies, forage strips, mixed forages and over sowing of degraded areas. For under sowing in to maize and sorghum 12 kg/ha seed is usually sufficient. Broad casting over natural grazing land needs 5-6 kg/ha. Grazing of vetch should not begin until the plants are at least 6 inches tall. Close grazing below the lowest leaf axil will remove axillary buds, resulting in slow re-growth. Seed yields of 600-1,200kg/ha from pure stands are common. The inputs need for this LUT is labor, land, and seed, chemical.

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Table 8 Description of Common Vecth Production

Attribute Low level of management Intermediate level of management High Produce/ Vetch produces a hay yield of 1.5 to 3.5 ton/acre dry weight. Vetch seed remains viable for products 5 years or longer. Market Subsistence Vicia sativa Some product used for subsistence and partially orientation forage production at existing produced for sales that is surplus production. level of livestock production. Capital no capital invested Intermediate production of forage with credit from intensity micro-finances on accessible terms for improved forage seeds. Labor Family labor Family labor and oxen power intensity Technology Locally produced seeds Local seeds and some hybrid seeds Land Small or fragmented on Small or fragmented on private and communal holding private and communal land. land with better management Income Low (5 ton dry matter Medium (10 ton dry matter produced) produced) Water Rain fall and irrigation using River, dams, lakes etc for irrigation with good sources Ponds, wells, rivers, etc. extension services and rain fall. using local knowledge. Feeding Cutting and feeding Cutting, welting, chopping and feeding system Livestock Overstocked distribution Properly livestock distribution distribution Weed No practiced Weeding done using human labor. control

3.3.2.6 Rhodes grass

Rhodes grass is a perennial or annual grass, leafy in nature, highly variable in habit, Tufted or creeping, culms may be erect or decumbent, sometimes rooting from the nodes, 1-2 m in height. The roots are very deep, down to 4.5 m, leaves are linear, leaf-blade is flat or folded, glabrous, 12-50 cm long x 10-20 mm wide. Usually light, greenish brown (rarely yellow) in color turn darker brown as they mature. It is primarily used as forage can be grazed, cut for hay or used as deferred feed. It is not suitable for silage. It can form pure stands or be sown with other plant species (Alemayehu, 2007).

Rhodes grass is a spring and summer growing grass that can be found in open woodlands and grasslands, in road margins, disturbed sites and river banks. It is cultivated in sown pastures, in irrigated terraces. Its latitudinal range is between 18-33°N and S and it grows from sea level up to 1500-2400 m in equatorial areas and up to 1000 m in sub-tropical

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areas.Rhodes grass thrives in places where annual temperatures range from 15oC to 40°C (with maximum growth at 30°C/25°C (day/night temperature)) and annual rainfall is about 600-900 mm with a summer rainfall period (Moore, et al, 1997). However, Rhodes grass can survive in areas where annual rainfall range is between 310 mm and 4030 mm and where temperature extremes are 5°C and 50°C (http://www.feedipedia.org/node/480). Deep rooted, Rhodes grass can withstand long dry periods (over 6 months) and up to 15 days flooding. Seasonal water logging over 30 cm kills the plant. Some cultivars are also tolerant of frost.

Rhodes grass can grow on a wide range of soil from poor sandy to heavy clay alkaline and saline soils (>10dS/m). This salt tolerance is particularly interesting for irrigated pastures where it can be cultivated without problem. Rhodes grass does better on fertile, well-structured soils and it prefers soil pH between 5.5 and 7.5. Establishment on acidic soils is difficult. Rhodes grass is a persistent, drought resistant and highly productive species, the highest recorded yield being about 30-40 t DM/ha while average value is in the 10-16 t DM/ha. Rhodes grass requires good management and fertilizer (N) if long production (over 3 years) is intended. Rhodes grass is suited to both rainfed and irrigated pastures. It can be sown alone or in combination with various other grasses such as Paspalum dilatatum, Setaria sphacelata, Cenchrus ciliaris or lower growing cvs. of Panicum maximum. This grass can be mixed with oats or wheat that provides protection during winter or it can be broadcast in maize, sorghum or cotton crops. Association of Rhodes grass with legumes was shown to improve yields. It can be successfully sown with alfalfa (Medicago sativa), stylo (Stylosanthes guianensis), Neonotonia wightii, centro (Centrosema pubescens), phasey bean (Macroptylium lathyroides), Lototonis bainesii, Desmodium uncinatum and Trifolium sp.

Rhodes grass can be vegetative propagated or established from seeds. For vegetative propagation, larger clumps can be cut into pieces and be planted at 1 m distance from each other. Seeds can be broadcasted or shallow drilled (5-10 mm depth) during fall. The seeds can germinate under dry conditions provided the soil has residual moisture. As soon as favourable conditions occur in early spring, Rhodes grass resumes active growth and it provides full groundcover within 3 months of sowing. Sowing Rhodes grass during late spring is a strategy to kill weeds such as spiny burr grass. Because Rhodes grass seeds are fluffy they may need to be coated or to be mixed with a carrier to improve the flow

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through the seeders. Rhodes grass seeds establish readily on a well prepared seed bed. Mulching might help Rhodes grass establishment after sowing. Rhodes grass develops quickly and the stand begins to produce valuable forage within 6 months. The highest yield is however obtained during the second year of cultivation. Only low seeding rates of less than 2 kg/ha are needed for over sowing in exclusion areas, while 3-5kg/ha are used for sowing mixed pastures. When care full management applied, it is possible to get 50- 150kg seed/ha/harvest. If under irrigation, three or more harvests a year are possible. It is well tolerant salinities. Rhodes grass nutritive value is rather high and can be improved through fertilizer or manure applications. Grazing may maintain Rhodes grass in leafy and highly nutritive condition provided grazing is not too heavy and practiced over short periods. If the grass is used to make hay, cuttings can be done once a month. During the first year of cultivation, livestock should not enter the Rhodes grass stands before the secondary root system that allows grass anchorage in the soil is well established, otherwise, livestock might uproot Rhodes grass and hurt the stand. Moreover, in order to improve stand longevity through seedlings, newly established stands of Rhodes grass should be allowed to flower and set seeds before being grazed. Rhodes grass Dry matter digestibility is 61-65% (monthly cuts) 49-56% (when cut after 105-140 days) and it is Crude protein 6.3% (unfertilized), 10.4-13.8% (low to high fertilizer N with monthly cuts).

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Table 9 Description of Common Rhodes Grass Production

Attrributes Low level of management Intermediate level of management High level of management Produce and The highest recorded yield being about 30-40 t DM/ha while average value is in the 10-16 t products DM/ha range. Market Subsistence Chloris gayana f Some product used for subsistence and orientation orage production at existing partially produced for sales that is surplus level of livestock production. production. Capital Low (no capital invested) Intermediate production of forage with credit intensity from micro-finances on accessible terms for improved forage seeds. Labor intensity Family labor (man power) Family labor and oxen power Technology Locally produced seeds Local seeds and some hybrid seeds Land holding Small or fragmented on Small or fragmented on private and private and communal land. communal land with better management Income Low (10 ton dry matter Medium (15 ton dry matter produced) produced) Water sources Rain fall and irrigation using River, dams, lakes, etc for irrigation with Ponds, wells, rivers, etc. good extension services and rain fall. using local knowledge. Feeding Cutting and feeding Cutting, welting, chopping and feeding system Livestock Overstocked distribution Properly livestock distribution distribution Weed control No practiced Weeding done using human labor.

3.3.2.7 Clover

The name of the genus, trifolium literally means ―three leaved‖, as these species all have trifoliate compound leaves. Tthere are 27 indigenous and 5 introduced species recorded for the country. There are over 20 different species of trifolium native to the Amhara region found 2000 meters above sea level. It is reported that two-thirds of the clover species in Ethiopia are annuals and the remaining species are perennials (Akundabweni, 1984). Clover species are fast growing plants and can be used alone or mixed with grasses for hay to feed animals, or as green manure to increase nutrients and organic matter content in the soil.

Different species studied in high land Ethiopia such as T. quartinianum, T. decorum, T. steudneri, T. rueppellianum, T. simense, Tsemipilosum and T. tembense. Clovers contain a large amount of crude protein, ranging from 8-16%. Trifolium species are tolerant of water logged soils and seasonally in undatedareas which provide important grazing during the dry season. A common weakness of most of the indigenous species is that they

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stop growing almost immediately at the end of the wet season, another problem is causes animal to suffer bloating. This species adopted in all woreda except North achefer during field visit.

Clover species can be grown in a variety of soils and environmental conditions. It needs minimum rain fall amount 700 mm, well adapted with PH of 5.5-7.5 and upper limit altitude is 3500 meter. Trifolium need suitable strategies like, mixed pasture and under sowing. Mixtures of grasses and T. repens have been studied at various seed rates in Ethiopian high lands. Seed mixtures of 50% grass and 50% clover produced more forage dry matter compared to other ratios of seed or pure stands of either species (Tamir, 2006). Its seeding rate on the average is 700-900Kg/ha. DM yield under irrigating and rain fed is 12 and 9 ton/year/ha respectively.

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Table 10 Distribution of clover production at each level of management

Attribute Low level of management Intermediate level of management High mgt level Produce/ Trifolium species (clover) Clover species are fast growing plants and can be used alone or products mixed with grasses for hay to feed animals. Market Subsistence Some product used for subsistence and partia orientation lly produced for sales that is surplus production. Capital no capital invested) Intermediate production of forage with intensity credit from micro-finances on accessible terms for improved forage seeds. Lobour Family labor (man power) Family labor and oxen power intensity Technology Locally produced seeds Local seeds and some hybrid seeds Land holding Small or fragmented on private Small or fragmented on private and and communal communal with better management Income Low (9 ton dry matter Medium (15 ton dry matter produced) produced) Water Ponds, wells, rivers, etc. for River, dams, lakes etc for irrigation with sources irrigation with local knowledge. good extension services. Feeding Cutting and feeding Cutting, chopping and feeding system Livestock Overstocked distribution Properly livestock distribution distribution Weed control No practiced Weeding done using human labor.

3.3.2.8 Stylo

The stylos are perennial herbs or small shrubs which have leaves with 3 leaflets; stipules are usually joined to the leaf stock. It is important fodder species. Stylos grow well at low to medium altitude up to about 2000 meter. They are adapted to wide range of rain fall, but generally need above 500 mm (600-800mm) of rain a year to grow well. It grows from 25-30 0 c and its pH requirement is 4-8. Once established they are very drought tolerant and retain green leaves throughout the dry season. However, plants will lose their leaves under sever moisture stress.

Adaptation soil type is extremely hardy and will grow on soils of very low phosphate status and on some quite acid soils, prefer good drainage. Mostly establish readily by surface sowing even on rough seed beds. Sowing/planting date: Early sowing at the onset of the rainy season delayed time of planting will be subjected to poor germination, uneven stand & extreme low yield. Sowing/planting method: very shallow, preferably covering by tree branches or planting and left uncover on relatively coarse seedbeds. Packing the seedbed by driving animals before sowing and light packing after sowing is also possible practice. It could be planted broadcast or in rows at 30 cm spacing between rows. Seeding rate from 2-10 kg/ha depending on the BoEPAU Land Utilization Types and Their Environmental Requirements Draft Final Report ADSWE Page 67

Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project weather and field preparation conditions. On cooler and high altitude areas usually high seeding rate is important. Its average DM yield is 3-6ton/year/ha.

Stylos are most useful for over sowing of poor grazing land and improving stock exclusion areas. They have a possible role also in under sowing and mixed pastures. The seeds of stylo should be either treated with hot water or mechanically scarified to get good germination. Seed yields of 400-800kg/ha have been obtained from pure stands. The plants can be cut and the seed threshed out, or seed can be beaten out of the growing plants or sweep from ground around them.

Table 11 Stylo production land descriptions Attribute Low level of management Intermediate level of management High Produce/products Its average DM yield is 3-6ton/year/ha. Market Subsistence Partially produced for sale that is surplus production. Capital intensity no capital invested Intermediate production of forage with credit from micro-finances on accessible terms for improved forage seeds. Lobour intensity Family labor (man power) Family labor and oxen power Technology Locally produced seeds Local seeds and some hybrid seeds Land holding Small or fragmented on private Small or fragmented on private and communal and communal with better management Income Low (3 ton dry matter Medium (6 ton dry matter produced) produced) Water sources Ponds, wells, rivers, etc. for River, dams, lakes etc for irrigation with good irrigation with local knowledge. extension services. Feeding system Cutting and feeding Cutting, chopping and feeding Livestock distribution Overstocked distribution Properly livestock distribution Weed control No practiced Weeding done using human labor.

3.3.2.9 Pigeon pea

A small, slender-stemmed, pubescent shrubby herb or shrub growing to about 5 meter tall with yellow to red pea shaped flowers and sticky pods up to 10 cm long containing 4-5 fairly large round grey green seeds. It is multi-purpose plant, all the parts being used; seed as food leaves and pods as forage, flowers for bee forage, young stems to weave baskets, older stems as fire wood. This is an excellent crop to improve food security as it is very drought tolerant and produces pods over several months. Established shrubs help to stabilize soils and improve their nitrogen content. Pigeon pea has a broad genetic diversity varying from short lived woody shrubs.

Pigeon pea is suited to a very wide range of climates and altitudes, but grows best between 1,000 and 2,400m. It can be grown over a broad rainfall range and is very productive with a long growing season. Once established, it is extremely drought tolerant and may yield some grain with rainfall lower than 400 mm, but it is optimal rain fall is between 600-1000 mm (24-

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project 40 inches). In addition it is growing temperature is between 18-30oC (64-85F). Pigeon pea grows well on a wide range of soils, but requires good drainage. It is tolerant of moderate defoliation pressure and will make good re-growth after light browsing or cutting of smaller branches. This is a pioneer in forage mixtures at lower altitudes. The most appropriate strategy is to use pigeon pea as a component of forage strips as it is a conspicuous and fast growing pioneer species. It can form hedges around house compounds, thus providing backyard forage. It also intercrops well with annual crops.Establishment of pigeon pea, on direct seeding is best as transplanting of seeding is difficult. Cuttings can also be used but need more care than growing plants from seed. The seeds are planted in prepared beds at seeding rates of 10-50 kg/ha to get a pure stand. For mixtures to be grown as contour strip, 1-2 kg/km usually gives an adequate density. Dry should be soaked for about 12 hours and they sown on well prepared beds, covered with 1-2cm of soil and watered well. Early growth is usually slow, but the plants require little attention once well established. Top-growth biomass production has been reported as high as 35 tons of fresh weight green matter per acre. Dry matter top growth production is about 2.5 tons/acre, contributing about 25 Kg (50 lb) of nitrogen per ton of dry matter. Most forage lines yield around 1,500kg/ha, but long season perennial types yield 2,500-3000kg/ha on suitable sites.

Table 12: Pigeon pea production descriptions Attributes Low level of Intermediate level of management High management Produce and Dry matter top growth production is about 2.5 tons/acre, contributing about 25 Kg products (50 lb) of nitrogen per ton of dry matter. Market Subsistence Partially produced for sales that is orientation surplus production. Capital intensity Low (no capital invested) Intermediate production of forage with credit from micro-finances on accessible terms for improved forage seeds. Lobour intensity Family labor (man power) Family labor and oxen power Technology Locally produced seeds Local seeds and some hybrid seeds Land holding Small or fragmented on Small or fragmented on private and private and communal communal with better management Income Low (3 ton dry matter Medium produced (6 ton dry matter) produced) Water sources Ponds, wells, rivers, etc. River, dams, lakes etc for irrigation with for irrigation with local good extension services. knowledge. Feeding system Cutting and feeding Cutting, chopping and feeding Livestock Overstocked distribution Properly livestock distribution distribution Weed control No practiced Weeding done using human labor.

3.3.2.10 Sesbania sesban

Sesbania is a widely promoted fodder shrub for tropical areas, best below 2000m (300-2000), but can also be found up to 2200 m and occasionally to 2500 meter above sea level. Mostly

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project major used browse/ forage and as a shade tree for coffee plants.It is generally short-lived with plants dying after 2 to 7 years. This small tree can be used as a light shelter belt or living fence, but it does not produce dense foliage or shade. Growing sesbania in fallow fields or as strips between crops has been found to provide a good amount of nitrogen. It also makes an attractive small ornamental tree. The wood is soft and does not burn well or make permanent structures growing to 7 meter. This species prefers higher rainfall sites and is not very drought tolerant. In normal circumstances it does not grow well or persist where annual rainfall is less than 600mm. It tolerates a wide range of soils, including very poor acidic soils. It responds well to improved fertility. Established plants can tolerate quite severe water logging and it is one of the few woody plants which can grow on heavy black clay soils. Its strategies are back yard, in forage strips (including soil conservation bunds, contour strips and alley farming) and as an intercrop with annual as well as perennial crops. Direct seeding or transplanted seedlings, direct seeding is recommended. The seedlings are planted in rows at 1 meter between rows and 50 cm between plants (could also be planted denser for mulching).Seeding rate: about 20, 000 seedlings per hectare. For direct seeding two seeds per hole and then thin to one plant after germination if necessary. It is dry matter yield is 12 ton per hectare. Regular cutting is the key to maintain a high level of productivity.

Table 13: Sesbania (Sesbania sesban) Production Land utilization Description Attribute Low level of management Intermediate level of management High Produce and It is dry matter yield is 12 ton per hectare. Regular cutting is the key to maintain a high level of products productivity Market Subsistence Some product used for subsistence and partially orientation produced for sales that is surplus production. Capital no capital invested Intermediate production of forage with credit from intensity micro-finances on accessible terms for improved forage seeds. Labor Family labor Family labor and oxen power intensity Technology Locally produced seeds Local seeds and some hybrid seeds Land holding Small or fragmented on private Small or fragmented on private and communal and communal with better management Income Low (12 ton dry matter produced) Medium (20 ton dry matter produced) Water sources Ponds, wells, rivers, etc. for River, dams, lakes etc for irrigation with good irrigation with local knowledge. extension services. Feeding Cutting and feeding Cutting, chopping and feeding system Livestock Overstocked distribution Properly livestock distribution distribution Weed control No practiced Weeding done using human labor.

3.3.2.11 Tree lucerne

A small tree or shrub grows up to 6 meter tall with dark-green trifoliolate leaves, white pea- shaped flowers and hairy pods producing around 10 small black seeds. Its major use is as

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project forage and fire wood. It can also improve soil by assisting in erosion control and supplying nitrogen for companion crops. It can be grown as a shelter belt or living fence to give protection against wind. The flowers are good bee forage. Tree Lucerne is very variable with major differences in canopy shape, branching, leafiness, flowering and seeding capacity. This diversity is a major advantage in view of the wide agro-ecological range over which the plant can be grown.

Tree Lucerne tolerates frost and has been found adapted to areas up to and over 3000 meter (2000-3000). It requires an annual rainfall above 600mm (600-1000mm).but will not tolerate water logging at all. It is drought tolerant once established and will grow on a wide range of soils, including infertile acidic ones. However, it does best on light well drained soils. This species can be used as backyard forage, in forage strips, including on bunds and contour strips and in alley farming. It improves stock exclusion areas and can be intercropped with highland perennial tree crops. Tree Lucerne will establish from both direct seeding and transplanted seedlings. However, early seedling growth is usually slow, so transplanting of well-grown seedlings is preferable. Lucerne prefers a fertile soil, which is rich in organic matter, calcium, phosphorous and potash. Lucerne requires well prepared field as the seeds are very small. The seed rate depends upon method of sowing and type of the crop, i.e., pure or mixed stands. In broadcast method, a seed rate of 20–25 kg/ha should be used while line sowing needs only 12–15 kg/ ha but in case of intercropping, it requires only 6-12 kg/ha. Line sowing is preferred over broad casting, 10 to 20 m long beds should be made along with slope with irrigation channels 4–5 m apart. Proper drainage should be ensured to avoid water logging in rainy season. The first cutting should be taken at 55–65 days after sowing and the subsequent cuts may be taken 30–35 days interval. In general, annual lucerne gives 4–5 cuts while in the perennial crop, 7–8 cuts can be taken. Average forage yield: 6- 10 t DM/ha/year at rain fed system

Table 14: Description Tree Lucerne Production at three level of management

Attribute Low Intermediate High Produce and 6- 10 t DM/ha/year (rain fed condition). products Market Subsistence Partially produced for sale that is surplus orientation production. Capital intensity Low(no capital invested) Intermediate production of forage with credit from micro-finances on accessible terms for improved forage seeds. Labor intensity Family labor (man power) Family labor and oxen power Technology Locally produced seeds Local seeds and some hybrid seeds Land holding Small or fragmented on Small or fragmented on private and private and communal communal with better management

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project Income Low (6 ton dry matter Medium (10 ton dry matter produced) produced) Water sources Ponds, wells, rivers, etc. River, dams, lakes etc for irrigation with for irrigation with local good extension services. knowledge. Feeding system Cutting and feeding Cutting, chopping and feeding Livestock Overstocked distribution Properly livestock distribution distribution Weed control No practiced Weeding done using human labor.

3.3.2.12 Cow pea

Cowpea is a highly variable annual or perennial climber with 3 somewhat triangular leaflets in each leaf. White, green yellow or purple flowers in stalked clusters are replaced by long narrow pods which are usually around 10 cm but it can be nearly 100 cm in the variety called yard long bean. It is traditional crop under sown with sorghum or as a backyard multipurpose plant. As forage, cowpea is generally used by cutting or grazing after the bean crop has been harvested for human consumption. Cowpea is a major staple food crop in sub-Saharan Africa, especially in the dry savanna regions of West Africa. The seeds are a major source of plant proteins and vitamins for man, feed for animals, and also a source of cash income.

Cowpea does not tolerate either frost or water logging. It is, however, drought tolerant. Recommended seeding rate for Ethiopia is 10 to 20 kg/ha, with an expected forage yield of about 6 tons dry matter per hectare. Cow pea is found both wild and cultivated in the drier parts of country below 2,200m. It is drought tolerant and depending on the cultivar, it can mature where there is only around 400mm of annual rainfall. The species grows on a variety of well drained soils and suited to a wide environmental range. Suitable strategies are traditional crop often under sown into sorghum. Elsewhere it is grown as a back yard multipurpose species for forage, green manure and human food. The young leaves young pods and mature seeds can all be eaten. Cow pea will establish on fairly rough seed bed. It is sown at 15 kg/ha in a pure stand and 12 kg/ha when under sown. It is most easy to establish under maize and sorghum. Dry matter production is 5 ton ha/ year.

Cowpea can be grown under rain-fed conditions as well as by using irrigation or residual moisture along river or lake flood plains during the dry season, provided that the range of minimum and maximum temperatures is between 28 and 30°C (night and day) during the growing season. Cowpea performs well in agro-ecological zones where the rainfall range is between 500 and 1200 mm/year. However, with the development of extra-early and early maturing cowpea varieties, the crop can thrive in the Sahel where the rainfall is less than 500

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project mm/ year. It is tolerant of drought and well adapted to sandy and poor soils. However, best yields are obtained in well-drained sandy loam to clay loam soils with the pH between 6 – 7

Table 15 Cow pea (vigna unguiculata) production land utilization descriptions Attributes Low level of Intermediate level of management High management Produce and products Forage yield of about 6 tons dry matter per hectare. Market orientation Subsistence Partially produced for sales that is surplus production. Capital intensity Low (no capital Intermediate production of forage with invested) credit from micro-finances on accessible terms for improved forage seeds. Lobour intensity Family labor (man Family labor and oxen power power) Technology Locally produced Local seeds and some hybrid seeds seeds Land holding Small or fragmented Small or fragmented on private and on private and communal with better management communal Income Low (5 ton dry Medium (8 ton dry matter yield matter produced) produced) Water sources Ponds, wells, rivers, River, dams, lakes etc for irrigation with etc. for irrigation good extension services. with local knowledge. Feeding system Cutting and feeding Cutting, chopping and feeding Livestock distribution Overstocked Properly livestock distribution distribution Weed control No practiced Weeding done using human labor.

3.3.2.13 Chibeha (ficus thonningii)

Ficus thonningii is a shrub or tree to about 12 meters tall, with a trunk up to about 0.5 meter in diameter, possibly larger.It is found at elevations from 1,000-2,500 meters. It grows best in areas where annual daytime temperatures are within the range 22-28°c, but can tolerate 16- 36°c. It prefers a mean annual rainfall in the range 750-2,000mm, but tolerates 600-2,500mm. It prefers a position in full sun, tolerating some shade. Chibeha occurs on a wide variety of soils but favours light, deep and well-drained soils with neutral to acidic reaction and humus- rich or deep loamy soils. It prefers a pH in the range 5-7, tolerating 4.5-7.5. Trees are relatively drought resistant. Plants can flower and fruit nearly all year round in at least some parts of its range. It requires wide spacing because of its spreading crown. It should be protected from browsing at the initial stages of establishment. It is tolerant to pruning and lopping. It is products are fodder, fuel, fiber timber, rubber (latex), other services are erosion control, soil improver, inter-cropping, ornamental, etc. It produced 5-10 ton dry matter per year.

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project Table 16: Chibeha production description at three level of managment Attributes Low level of Intermediate level of management High management

Produce and products . It produced 5-10 ton dry matter per year. Market orientation Subsistence Partially produced for sale that is surplus production. Capital intensity no capital invested Intermediate production of forage with credit from micro-finances on accessible terms for improved forage seeds. Lobour intensity Family labor (man Family labor and oxen power power) Technology Locally produced Local seeds and some hybrid seeds seeds Land holding Small or fragmented Small or fragmented on private and on private and communal with better management communal Income Low (5 ton dry matter Medium (10 ton dry matter produced) produced)

Water sources Ponds, wells, rivers, River, dams, lakes etc for irrigation with etc. for irrigation with good extension services. local knowledge. Feeding system Cutting and feeding Cutting, chopping and feeding Livestock distribution Overstocked Properly livestock distribution distribution Weed control No practiced Weeding done using human labor.

3.3.3 Livestock Production

The livestock sub-sector is an important source of food in the form of meat, milk and eggs. Further to these, livestock provides manure, skin and hides, and draught power.Cattle, sheep, goats, equines, apiculture, and poultry dominantly the local breeds are produced mainly in extensive type of production systems. Using information from community and government views and field assessment the following existing livestock production types were identified.Cattle Production, Sheep Production, Goats Production, Equines Production, Poultry Production and Apiculture.

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Table 17: Hierarchal definition of livestock production LUTs

Livestock Low level Medium High level LUTs Cattle 3-5 Cows (local zebu, It shall be conducted with, It shall be conducted with, Production Fogera, hybrid of zebu 10-30 crossbreeds cows(50%), LUT1- and Fogera breeds +, with initial capital of 200 70 and above crossbreeds cows(75-100% Dairy with average of 1.5-2 000Birr ( 10heifers) and AI crossed), with initial capital of 5463000 litre of milk production To produce average of 10litre Birr at all infrastructures are available for210 days for of milk/day/cow for270days (water, power+ clinic, market= at 0Km for substances and local sell, for sell for local and distance the 1st three and0 – 150Km for market with with family labour and market road access)+ shelter with feeding and small capital intense and watering troughs+ with no or some sort of Twice vaccination and regular shelter, medicament, treatment To produce 15 lit of milk/day/cow for 300 feed supply and shelter. days for commercial sell and milk w/point, v/clinic and 2-3 family labours and processing at the site or local areas. market at 4-6,6-7 and periodical professional 10-12Km distance assistance Twice vaccination and regular treatment at respectively + twi times site vaccine and two times 7.5 Kg DM feed per day treatment per year+6Kg balanced diet and with shelter, 3-5 family+ haired labours and constant DM feed feeding and watering troughs professional assistance

W/point, v/clinic and market 7.5 Kg DM feed per day (formulated at 0-4,4-4 and 8--10Km ration) from industrial by products (at 0- distance respectively 100Km for industrial by-products) and hay sources. Fattening 1-5 oxen (local zebu, 20-40 local best oxen with 80 and above crossbreeds cows(local best fogera, hybrid of zebu initial capital of Birr 150000 +75-100% crossed), with initial capital of and fogera breeds, to (20 oxen), with 435 Gk live 580000(80oxen) Birr at all infrastructures produce 285 gk live weight of fattened oxen per day are available (water, power+ clinic weight of lacally fattend for 90 days, for commercial market= at 0Km for the 1st three and0 – oxen with95 days of sell at local and distance 150Km for market with road access)+ weight increment for market. shelter with feeding and watering troughs+ local sell, with family labour and small capital Twice vaccination and regular To produce 505Kg body Wight day/oxen intense and with some treatment at 90 days for commercial sell and meat sort of shelter, one at a processing at the site or local areas. time treatment and 2-3 family labours and vaccine , with local feed periodical professional Twice vaccination and regular treatment at supply ( crop residue assistance site +local brewery by products like Brint= 6Kg 6Kg DM formulated ration per 3-5 family+ haired labours and constant /day. day and with shelter, feeding professional assistance and watering troughs 6Kg DM feed per day (formulated ration) from industrial by products (at 0-100Km for industrial by-products) and hay sources. Sheep 6-12sheep(10F+20M) 20-30sheep(2-3M+18-27M) Sheep production with high numbers of LUT2 with local best breeds, with local best breeds, to sheep(>100 sheep at Guna and Sekela with to produce 15 lambs per produce 18- lambs per year for local best breeds, Washera crossed with year for house house consumption and sell at local breeds + improved (Derper)to consumption and sell at local and distance market(8- produce 180 lambs per year for local market(0-12Km) 10Km) commercial sell at local and distance markets(0-150Km). Production With control grazing+ With control grazing+ minerals, crop residues, minerals, crop residues, hay+ With control grazing+ minerals+ hay+ hay supplementation and industrial by products industrial by products supplementation and shelter at 12000 Birr supplementation and shelter; at shelter; at Birr 120000 (100 sheep) initial initial capital and Birr 25000 (20 sheep) initial capital and three times vaccine and 0.25manday capital and twice vaccine and regular treatment+ with 3 man days/ and BoEPAU Land Utilization Types and Theirregular Environmental treatment+ Requirements with 0.5 Draft Finalprofessional Report assistancesADSWE Page 75 Health service and water man day/ and professional Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project

points at Kebele (4- assistances+ Vet clinic and Water points at + v clinic (0Km)+ shelter+ 6Km) and 6-7 water Points0-4Km+0-50Km improving natural grazing lands with over respectively. for processed feed. sowing + manure application. Feed source 0-100Km

Fattening 5-10sheep(M) with local 30-50sheep(M) with local best Sheep fattening with high numbers of best breeds, to produce breeds, to produce 50 Kg live sheep(>70 sheep at urban and pre urban 40 Kg live weight days weight of fattened sheep areas with local best breeds, Washera sell at local market(0- for sell at local and distance crossed with local breeds and improved 10Km),With control market(0-3Km) Southn African breeds to 51-70Kg live grazing+ minerals, crop weigh of body weight 90 daye commercial residues, hay With control grazing+ sell at local and distance markets(0Km). supplementation and minerals(0-3Km), crop shelter at 9000 Birr residues, hay+ industrial by Feedlot feeding system; with initial capital initial capital and 0.25 products supplementation and of Birr 70 000 (70 sheep) initial capital man day. or with feedlot system; shelter; and three times vaccine and regular at Birr 34 000 (30 sheep) treatment+ with 3 man days/ and Health service and water initial capital and twice professional assistances points at Kebele(0-5Km vaccine and regular treatment+ with 0.5 man day/ and Water points (Km)+ shelter+ vet professional assistances Health clinic(0Km)+ market0-100Km (+ feed service and water points and v sources with 0-150 Km for market and clinic (0-3Km) feed sources

LUT 6-12goats(10F+20M) 20-30 goats(2-3M+18-27M) with local best breeds+ Goats with local best breeds, improved-South Africa type(50% blood levels), to to produce 15 kids per produce 18- lambs per year for house consumption Production year for house and sell at local and distance market(8-10) consumption and sell at local market(0-12) With control grazing+ minerals, crop residues, hay+ industrial by products supplementation and shelter; With control browsing+ at Birr 25000 (20 goats) initial capital and twice minerals, crop residues, vaccine and regular treatment+ with 0.5 man day/ hay supplementation and and professional assistances shelter at 10000 Birr initial capital(10 goats) V clinic+ water=0-4Km+0-50Km for processed and 0.25manday; V feed. water +clinic =4-6 and 6-7 Km respectively

Fattening 5-10sheep(M) with local 20-40sheep(M) with local best breeds, best breeds, to 30Kg to produce 40-60Kg body weight of live weight of fattened sheep for sell at local and distance goats to sell at local market(8-10) market, With control browsing+ minerals, With control browsing+ minerals, crop crop residues, hay residues, hay+ industrial by products supplementation and supplementation and or with feedlot shelter at 8000 Birr system; shelter; at Birr 20,000 (30 initial capital(10Goats) goats) initial capital and twice vaccine and 0.25 man day. and regular treatment+ with 0.5 man day/ and professional assistances; with feed source distances of0-50KM at 0- 4Km for water and clinic site

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Poultry 6-12puulets and cock(1- 20-50 pullets and cockerels with local It shall be done with>100 chicken 2M+25-18F) with local best breeds+ improved (100%)WLH to with 100% WLH breeds to Egg best breeds, and hybrids produce average 140 eggs per hen per produce 200eggs from each pullets Production to produce year for sell at local and distance per year for commercial sells at (Layers) 80Eggs/hen/year for market(0-50) distance market(0-50Km) With house consumption and feedlot system (using formulating sell at local market(0- With control feeding+ minerals, crop ration) + water+ power+ vet clinic 10Km) residues +industrial by products at 0Km. With 1man day With control browsing+ supplementation and shelter; at Birr minerals, crop residues, 7000 (50 pullets and cockerels) initial With initial capital of Birr 15,000 and shelter at 1800 Birr capital and vaccine and regular (100Pullets) initial capital(10 poultry) treatment+ with 0.5 man day/ and and professional assistances 0.05manday; V clinic+ water=0Km+0-10Km for V clinic+ water=0Km+ 0-30Km for processed feed processed feed Meat 20-40 Young Cocks(M) 50-100day old chicks(M) with With 200 and more day old chicks production with local best breeds,+ improved(RLR) breeds to produce with 100% RIR breeds to produce (Broilers) hybrids to grow 1.8Kg 2Kg live weight at 55days for sell at 2Kg live weight cockerels for meat live weight matured local and distance market(0-5Km) and to sell at local and distance cocks with 65 days for market (0Km) and for meat sell at local market(0- With control feeding+ minerals, crop processors; With feedlot system 10Km), With control residues, hay+ industrial by products (using formulating ration) + feeding+ minerals, crop supplementation and or with feedlot water+ power+ vet clinic at 0Km+ residues, system; shelter; at Birr 6000 (100 day with 2 men day.. With initial supplementation and old chicks) initial capital and vaccine capitals of Birr12000 and with shelter at 700.00 Birr and regular treatment+ with 1 man day/ feed source distances of 0-80Km. initial capital(40day old and professional assistances; + water+ chicken) and 0.025 man power+ vet clinic at 0Km. day, + water+ power+ vet clinic at 0Km.+ 0-10 with feed source distances of 0-60KM Km for processed feed. Apiculture With 5 traditional and 2 With 50 (25transitional +25 modern With 100 and more modern bee Honey and transitional bee hives bee hives) with local bee types to hives with local bee types to wax with local bee types to produce 18kg of honey/hive/year for produce 25kg of honey/ hive/year Production produce commercial sell at 0-5Km market and for commercial sell at 0-3Km average honey of 7Kg/hi with bee forage plants availability (at market and with bee forage plants ve/Year to sell at local 10-10Km) and with initial capital of availability (at 0-10Km) and with market(0-20Km).at 0- 25000 birr for 25 bee hives. initial capital of 70000 birr for100 10Km bee forage plants modern bee hives. With ¼ man availabilityWith initial With 1/8 man day day. capital of 3000 birr( 7 bee hives)+ 1/8manday

3.3.3.1 Cattle production

Indigenous cattle breeds of Fogera at Fogera, Dembia, Maksegnit, Mecha, and south Achefr areas, and Zebu types at the rest localities in the basin are produced extensively. In addition improved dairy cattle at small level are produced in the sub-basin especially at urban and pre- urban and at the highlands and middle altitudes. The dominant crossbreed of dairy cattle is a crossed of Fogera breed with Holstein, Frisians mostly with blood level of 50%. Being agricultural production systems in the basin is crop and livestock mixed type, cattle production is perpetual and mainly produced for draught power , milk, meat, means of saving cash.Productivity and performances of cattle in the region is low due to poor nutrition, health services and low genotype performances (SCI, etal 2006).

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As a result age at first calving (in month), calving intervals (in month), lactation periods (in days) and milk production in litter per day /cow are 50.2, 21.3, 219, and 1.1 respectively. In Amahara Regional state, average body weight, off-take rate, carcass weight, average life expectancy and average productive life of cattle are 250-285kg, 7-8%, 125kg, 13years, 8 years for oxen and 11-13 years for cows accordingly. These are taken for the sub-basin too as a reference data. In the field survey however, at Mech Woreda kebele Wetet Abay and South Achefer Woreda Lihude Kebele producers assured that local best cows give 10-15 litres of milk per day as far as they are well managed and properly breed. Similarly, growth rate, body weight gain and carcass weight are by far more than at Mecha Woreda at and around Merawi town due to best fattening practise and local alcohol by-products ( Brintt) feeding.and too at North Gondar at Addis Alem Kebele

In general, all these data indicated that goods and services gained from cattle are extremely low since the inputs for nutrition, veterinary services, introduction of cross breeds, better take off, transport and processing are at low level. The only inputs utilized for subsistence level of production is labor to herd and feed the cattle. However, small scale dairy production and oxen fattening are started and better inputes like improved forage, industrial by-products, salt, shelter, health services, technical support and managements are delivered in this LUT as combined ones. Although, the general status of the livestock situation in the basin are at low level of input-output production level, this LUT is selected since it covers the whole area of the basin; it is the only sources of draught power supplying, it is main sources of feed and cash, it has irreplaceable socio economic role and accepted with all respective bodies.

The prices of livestock and their products are increased from time to time and accessibility to main markets is available in the basin.

Demands and opportunities for livestock and their produces are high. The basic demand of the community in the basin in this LUT are feed supply, improved markets and marketing systems, livestock health service and infrastructural services. So as to solve these problems and to achieve the development goals of the community, feed and livestock development plans and packages (cattle fattening and small dairy) are formulated and implemented at community level.

Like the biophysical factors that affect cattle productivity, climatic conditions including very high and low temperatures, intense solar radiation, prolonged rain fall, high relative humidity, and strong winds and slope can cause undue hardship to them. Of which the following are

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3.3.3.2 Sheep production

Total numbers of sheep found in the sub-basin are expected to be 951982(23%) and they are the most important component of livestock production. Common breeds that accustomed and well reared in the sub-basin are common highland sheep type which are short- fat- tailed, Washera type and intermediate type (the cross breeds of these two) which all are extensible produced.

Sheep are reared mainly for meat and sources of cash as well as skin. During cash shortage, sheep are the first animals which are sold to satisfy family needs. In most cases they are produced in low input of nutrition, health care, breed improvement and as a result the outputs gained from are low. However, intermediate levels of production are at started stage which is applied in the small ruminant production and sheep fattening programs. At this intermediate level of production, common salt, improved feeds, relatively better shelter in the night and herding care in the day time are given. In the highland of the basin crossing of local best breeds with Washera breed to improve their genotype is started up.

Age at first lambing, lambing intervals, off-take rate, average body weight, carcass weight, and mortality rate of the Amhara Regional state sheep are 14.2 months, 9 months, 30%, 30kg, 10kg, and 20% respectively (SCI,2006). Production and reproductivity parameters indicated that the produces gained are as low as per the quantity and quality of inputs supplied to them.

Markets and marketing system in general are at lower level, since no prices determination on weight or products base is performed, low transport facility, absences of shelter, and standards for live animals and products.

However, demands and opportunities for sheep and their produces are high due to the special location of the sub-basin, i.e. the availability of main asphalt road from the sub-basin main markets to all direction including to Addis Ababa as well as the nearest Sudan dry port to export live animals and their products to Arab countries.

Although the general production and productivity of the sheep in the basin are at low level, sheep production and fattening is selected as a combined LUT since most of the requirements are similar and the detailed could be treated at project planning phases. The reasons are, this LUT are wide area coverage, use as the best cash deposit or sources at risk time, used for meat and skin sources for house consumption and sell, used for security, gift and religious ritual.

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In order to resolve, all problems and to attain the sector development objectives, the regional government paid due attention for small ruminants through production and fattening packages.

3.3.3.3 Goats production

Goats are produced in the sub-basin basically for meat and sources of income as well as for skin in all agro ecological zones and subsistence production system. Total number of goats produced in the sub-basin is 549778 (13%). Goats are the most important animal for immediate sell to purchase household utilities like close, spices and agricultural inputs and other services at all time. Goats have shorter reproduction interval and higher twins and triplet rate, heat resistance ability and better browse habit (SCI, 2006).Breed of goats found in the sub-basin is dominantly central high land goats breed (ESGPIP, 2009).

In Amhra Regional State, productivity and productivity of goats are 36% off take, 30kg live weight, 10gk carcass weight, 13.8 months age at first kidding and 8 months kidding interval (SCI, 2006).Under normal circumstances, tropical sheep/goats should be lambing/kidding at least three times in two years(Alemu etal 2008). These indicated that productivities of the country and the sub-basin shoats are low due to low inputs supplied to the sector especially for extensive production systems.

Intermediate level of goats‘ production with in small ruminants and goats fattening development program are implemented. In this regarded better shelter and health services, common salt and some additional feeds are supplied.Markets and marketing system in general are at lower level, since no prices determination on weight or products base, transport facility, shelter, and standards for the live animals and products.On the other hand, demands and opportunities for goat and their produces are high due to the special location of the sub-basin.

Although the general production and productivity of the goats in the basin are at low level, goats production and fattening is selected as a combined LUT since most of their requirements are the same. The reasons used for the selection of this LUT are wide area coverage, use as the best cash deposit or sources at drought season, used for meat and skin sources for house consumption and sell, used for security, gift and religious rituals.With the aim to resolve, all problems and to attain the sector development objectives government paid due attention for goat developments through production, breed improvement and fattening packages. The biophysical, climatic related and infrastructural factors are affecting goat production and productivity

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3.3.3.4 Equines production

The production system for the equines (donkeys, mules and horses) is mixed crop-livestock production type. Large amount of donkeys are found in the study area and used to transport goods and crop products from and to market on back. Mules are produced mainly in the highland and middle altitude mostly for transport of goods and crop products from and to market on back as well as on cart especially at Mecha, Sekela, Dangila Fagita Lekoma, BahirDar Zuria Woredas and in a very rear cases to transport human beings. Horses are produces only in the highlands mainly for human transportation, to ploughing the crop land at Farata and Fagita Lekoma Woredas and only some times to transport goods and crop products from and to market on back. They are allowed to graze mostly on communal grazing land and road side grazing land with minimum labor and shelter inputs. Equines are highly integrated with crop production by supplying transport, threshing and backing the seed bed of Teff during sowing time. They are also used as a good sources of cash especially horses and mules. Crop residues and natural grazes are the main sources of feeds for equines. Even though the service is this much significances, the attention given to them are very negligence. As a result no breeding and feeding strategies are yet formulated in the region and too in the sub-basin. So, the production system is generally extensive type with the characters of no feed, significance health care, appropriate shelter, and breeding strategy. As result the power and services gained are not as good as those equines have got proper care. The local market demands for these animals are very high, since the sub-basin has got highly undulated land parts and the transformation of men animal back transportation to animal cart transportation system. They are also withstanding the harsh environmental condition and high temperature (donkey) to survive in. Huge number of equines especially donkeys are traded to other regions like Benshangule and Wolega.

As of the environmental requirements is regard, donkey can survive with vast altitude range of >500-3700masl and rainfall of <900 to >1400mm, but horse can live from 1500-3700masl and up to 1400mm rain fall. Mules however survive at the altitude and rain fall ranges of 1500-3700masl and 900-1400mm respectively (Alemayhu, 2000).

The sub-basin also has the altitude range of 1304-4109 masl. As a result, the study areas as a whole shall be more comfortable for donkey. Nonetheless, mule and horses shall produce better at the middle parts of the study areas.

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3.3.3.5 Poultry production

According to the data collected from different sources, there are1749438 local and 85877 exotic chicken populations in all ACZs of the sub-basin. The local Poultry breeds reared are dominantly uncharacterized, but the well-known Tilli local best breed, the Infranz and Melo Hamusit breeds are available in the sub-basin and the exotic ones are Road Island Red (RIR) and White Leghorn Breeds which are multiplied and distributed at Andasa and Kombolcha state Poultry Multiplication and Distribution Centres.

Most of the poultry production system in the sub-basin is extensive- traditional production system and then with low output and benefits, however, inputs utilized to intermediate production levels are housing, feeding and taking all rounds cares. In Amhara Regional State, productivity and reproductive parameters of poultry are indicated as 98% off take, 1.5 kg live weight in six months, 1.3gk carcass weight, 107, 65 and 60 eggs per layer per year for exotic, package and local chicken respectively (RHSES, 2003).These indicated that productivities are low due to low inputs supplied to the sector. However, intermediate Production system is started with the improved breeds to get better eggs and meat produces for house hold consumption and sell.

There is also a good opportunities to improve the poultry in the sub-basin. Some of which are availability of experiences, availability of high demand for the products, market access and Universities, Andasa Poultry Multiplication Centre. Market opportunity is high and demand is still unsatisfied. The main problems are feed, improved breeds, disease, low effort to improve genetically potential local breeds and market development.

To solve the problems, that are pertinent with this LUT, the government gave attention to poultry improvement packages, poultry multiplication and distribution centres, better extension services. As a potential identification criteria; poultry population, government and community needs, the availability of good opportunities, market accesses, proliferate nature of the poultry, demand of small initial capital, labor and places are given due attention to select the LUT as egg and meat combined production type to produce at medium and large scale level by the cooperatives and investors in the basin. Special nature of this LUT is considered as a landless LUT.i.e it does not compute at large for land with other LUTs like crop, forest and large livestock (cattle, sheep and goats) as far as the production is conducted at medium and large scales (confined). As of the biophysical requirement of poultry production regard is poultry in general can survive in the country with the altitudes range of 1500-3700masl and at the rainfall of <900and up to 1400mm (Alemayehu, 2000).The biophysical requirements of BoEPAU Land Utilization Types and Their Environmental Requirements Draft Final Report ADSWE Page 82

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Broilers and young turkeys reared at ambient temperatures below 18°C are heavier than similar stock reared within the 18 to 35°C range, but their feed conversion efficiency will be less.

Laying birds produce the greatest number of eggs and the largest sized eggs at 13 to 24° C. The best feed conversion efficiency is achieved between 21 to 24° C. Above 24°C there is a reduction in egg production and egg size (FAO, 1988).The ranged value of altitude and temperature of the study areas are 1304-4109 masl and 14.07-21.56°C respectively.Besides to the biophysical requirements, the availability of electric power, pure water supply, transportation system and market are prerequisites to implement the poultry development enterprises. Therefore, dual purpose poultry production at farmers (small scale) level shall be produced at any parts of the study area, since the scientific requirements are laid within the ranges what the study area has; but chicks shall be treated with special heat sources like Solomon brooding boxes. Medium and high level or confined meat or egg poultry development enterprises shall be implemented by the cooperatives and /or private investors at all Woreda, Zone and Region towns found in the sub-basin, since they have all essential infrastructures.

3.3.3.6 Apiculture production

In the sub-basin,large of the area is covered with forest, bushes, shrubs, grazing lands which comprised various types of plants that help to supply bee forage. Moreover most importantly very large area of land was covered with different croping pattern in during meher and irrigation seasons,besides, perinial water sources from, springs, rivers, swamp areas and lakes are available for the bees which are good oportunity apiculture production. Common bee type produced in the basin are Apis mellifera monticola and Apis mellifera bandasii,(Kerealm. Etal.2009), which have the widest environmental adaptations in the world. As a result traditional (219852), transitional (3116) and modern (18741) bee hives are found in the sub- basin at private small scale production level with the main objective of honey and wax production. Honey productivity of traditional, transitional and modern bee hives are 6, 15 and 20 kg respectively. These indicated that productivities are low due to low inputs and management supplied to the sector.

Most of the production system is back yard beekeeping type using traditional beehives which are made from locally available materials and benefits gained from are low. However,

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The basin has got also a good potential to improve honey and wax but the recurrent drought effect and unwisely utilized pesticides have drawback effect. Hopes to improve the honey and wax production are available in the sub-basin such as, Agricultural Universities, NGOs experiences, good market demand, and infrastructures.

Even if market opportunity and demand for honey and other beehive products are very high in the sub-basin and honey prices and other beehive products are somehow increased from the previous time, there are still drought, miss utilization of insecticide and herbicides which are main problems claimed by the community. To tackle the main problems and achieve the development goals, government committed to enhance the development of the sub sector through better extension services, honey and wax improvement packages.

This LUT as a potential identification are selected based on the colony population, the environmental requirements, the demand of the government and the community, the role of the sectors that play an important role to supply honey and wax as well as the role of cross pollination of crops as well as the combined land use suitability of grazing land, bush/ shrub, forest land and crop production.

This LUT is considered as a land less LUT like that of poultry production LUT, since it does not need as large areas as other LUTs independently. Furthermore, it can be combined with crop, forest, mountain or closure areas development since the requirements are synonyms and development infrastructures are available.As of the biophysical requirements of apiculture view is concerned, an altitude and rain fall range of 500- 3700masl and 900-1400mm respectively are indicated as wide area of bee living(Alemayehu,2006).

At the national level, the country is divided in to three production areas i.e. major, moderate and marginal beekeeping areas based on vegetation condition, crops, temperature, rainfall and altitudes. As a result the study area is categorized under moderate producing area with forest trees and bush vegetation cover type, Teff, Barley, Wheat, Chick pea, Grass pea, Noug, Lupins, Sunflower, Linseed, Rapeseed, Fruit, Coffee, Banana, Pulse crop types, with temperature range of 7.5-27.5°C, Altitude range of 400-3600masl and rainfall range of 200-2200mm.(GRM, 2006).The ranged value of altitude and temperature of the study areas are 1304-4109 masl and 14.07-21.56°C respectively. Therefore, small and medium scales beekeeping at farmers‘ level shall be conducted with traditional, transitional and modern beehives at any parts of the study area. Medium and large scale of production also shall be performed by the cooperatives and

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Finally, selected LUTs (5) are described in more detail way based on the sets of technical attributes at different management levels in the form of Tables given below

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Table 18 Description of cattle production at three level of management Attributs Low intermidate High Produce and products These low level of production especially meat and milk are supposed to be increased i.e. milk from1.1 litter to 6 litter and meat from 250 kg to 300kg. So, the intended development direction is to small scale cattle production for the continuity of oxen supply, dairy and fattening in respect to their development requirements. Moreover, using high level of inputs modern dairy and fattening enterprises shall be performed especially at urban and pre urban areas using best local breeds like Fogera Breed, Amount of milk produces can be estimated to be 10-13 and 14-18 litter per day per cow from medium and large scale dairy production levels respectively.The number of fattened animals for medium and large scale fattening can be 10-30 and 31-90 and the blood level can be 100% local up to 50-100% respectively for medium and large scale fattening. Nutrition/feeds Traditional/commu Mineral, some feeds are Feed lot feeding system with nal and free grazing supplied + crop residues industrial and local ( Brint) + Crop residues ( sometimes treated, some brewery by products, minerals, larger quantity in improved forage, and hay, plus sedentary human food left over.etc. Production) and industrial by-products for fattened and dairy animals with sedentary production system and grazing. Market orientation Subsistence Subsistence production plus Surplus products (milk, fattened production commercial sell of surplus oxen + young animals, calves from products (milk, calves, dairy) + piped water and health fattened oxen + young service at 0 Km distances+ market animals) farmers live in the availability. nearby the small towns and for Kebele employees. Water point(pipe or at nearby areas) Capital intensity Low, with local(2- Intermediate with credit on High; for feeds, breeds, health 5cows)+labor+ accessible terms for cross care, equipment, professionals some vaccination breeds and feeds purchase. 30*15000+house+feed+health= and treatment+ 10*10000+house+feed+heal 546300 (capital and recurrent shelter and crop th= 150 000.00 (capital and cost);30*6000+feed+health=28800 residues recurrent cost) 0.00 10*6000+feed+healt= 960000 for fattening Labor intensity low, non cosseted Medium, non cosseted Qualified (2), + (4) non qualified family labor( 1 for family labor ( 3 for the employed or family labor. the herd) herd)+ 1 seasonal health Pro. Professional but for fattening 1 for managing and feeding+1 seasonal health professional. But for fattening, 2 non qualified+1 seasonal health professional Power sources Manual labors Manual labors with hand Manual labors with hand tools and tools and or/ animal traction or/ animal traction for feed for feed production and production and transportation+ transportation vehicles for feed, milk and fattened animals transportation. Generator or solar for light sources.

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Attributs Low intermidate High Technology Local SPPs of Local SPPs. Of grasses, Improved forage for different grasses, legumes legumes and bushes/shrub strategies. Mineral and bushes/shrub, plus weed control, over supplementation, cross breed may be natural sowing of improved forage heifer and AI. Pure breed dairy mineral water once crops with some heifers + industrial by-products. or twice in a year conservation measures. for mineral Improved forage with supplements.+ different strategies. Mineral water /day supplementation, cross breed heifer and AI. Health/services/disea Low vaccine, Intermediate vaccine (two Intermediate vaccine (two times ses treatment services times per year), treatments per year), treatments when the and long distance when the need arises and need arises and 0Km distances for of clinical location moderate distances for the the location of vet clinics (within0- at available clinics location of vet clinics 5km radius) which is a limiting (7-10Km radius) (within5-7 km radius) which factors plus constant professional is a limiting factors. to strictly follow the production process. Land holding Small, fragmented, Small, fragmented, private/ Private/cooperative/ownership in private , communal communal+ the form of investment. Level of income Low Moderate( 21500.from High, 645000 from 30 cows dairy dairy+ 15000.00 from farm+460,000.00 from fattening fattening) Resources Local cattle breed Local + Dairy cross breeds Best Local + Dairy cross breeds+ for drought power for fattening, drought power pure breed for milk and fattening, supply, milk and and milk supply.+ land+ + land+ man power+ meat as by- man power+ capital products+ land+ man power water Natural sources + As, the low level and Pure and permanent water from ponds in some manmade types like well, pure sources( pipe, well, ) and places, rain water pumped and piped type, good and permanent watering that temporarily sufficient both in quality trough(0Km )distances. stored at any place, and quantity. (0-5Km low quality, scares distance) in quantity at 3-4 hours/day of travel in some seasons Land use and feeding Small scale cattle Land for feed production+ Land for forage production and system production with for cattle production+ land for cattle enterprises traditional medium scale cattle establishment (large scale of (extensive); production with control fattening and dairy) with zero permanent, (semi intensive); rotational feeding system communal grazing grazing plus stall feeding, land for drought fodder conservation for dry power production.+ season ( crop residues + weed control+ hay)+ management improvement+ grazing system

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Table 19 Descriptions of sheep and goat Production at three level of managment Attributes Low level of Intermediate level of inputes High level of inputes inputes Produce and In Amhara Regional State, productivity and reproductive of goats are indicated as 36% products off take, 30kg live weight, 10kg carcass weight. Nutrition Traditional/commu Mineral is supplied + some Formulated ration based on nal and free improved forage, and human age , sex and physiological browsing + stubble food left over.etc. and industrial functions ( from different grazing; shall be by-products for fattened, sources i.e. industrial by private or suckling does and growers products, mineral sources, cooperatives kids3kg/day improved forges+ hay and other) Health/services/disea Low vaccine, Intermediate vaccine (two times Intermediate vaccine (two ses treatment, services per year), treatments when the times per year), treatments and long distance need arises and moderate when the need arises at the of clinical location. distances for the location of vet production site and strict At each Kebele clinics (at most within 3-5 km follow-up by professionals; that radius).or at least at each shall be at 0-2Km distance Market orientation Subsistence Subsistence production plus Commercial sell of surplus production commercial sell of surplus products (Young goats and products (Young and fattened fattened goats). Production of goats). lambs and they would be fattened goats can be conducted at middle altitudes in the form of control browsing fattening at large urban places where all requirements are there. Capital intensity Low Intermediate with credit on Medium for industrial by accessible terms for selected products, best local breeds like local best breeds and for Washera and improved forge fattened goat feeds purchase. sources (seeds, seedling, and cutting) and improved sheep buck. 5*1000+feed+health+shelter+la Stock+ feed+ health+ labor+ bor= 20000 others= 400000 for 100goat for fattening or production Labor intensity Low family labor Low family labor0.25 man day Medium family, employed .25mand day laborer and professional for management and overall follow up purposes 2 mend day Power sources Manual labors Manual labors with hand tools Manual labors with hand tools and or/ animal traction for feed and or/ animal traction for feed production and transportation production and transportation. Furthermore, vehicles are required for industrial by products and kids and fattened goats transportation. Technology Local spps of Local SPPs. Of bushes/shrub Supplements(Feed+ bushes/shrub, may plus weed control, over sowing Minerals)+Medicaments+ Impr be natural mineral of improved forage crops with oved forage SPPs+ local best water once or some conservation measures. sheep breeds+ Pure improved twice in a year for Improved forage with different Buck goats mineral strategies. Mineral supplements supplementation,

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project Attributes Low level of Intermediate level of inputes High level of inputes inputes Land holding Small, fragmented, Small, fragmented, private with Specified and delineated based private , communal systematic browsing on the scale of production; that but shall be private shall be in the form of private or cooperative or cooperatives ownership. form Level of income Low 4000.00 gross Moderate, 5*9000*2=90000.00 Medium to from production gross from production and high;100*2*900=180000.00 5*3*300=4500 from fattening from ranching and 100*3*500= 150000 from fattening Resources Local goats breeds Local goats breeds for meat and Best local breed+ pure breed + for meat and skin skin improved forage +land +capital +professionals Natural sources + As, the low level and like well, Pure and permanent water from ponds in some pumped and piped type; pure sources( pipe, well, ) and places shortage is limiting factor good and permanent watering trough Land use and Land for forage Small scale goats production feeding system production with Control (semi intensive); rotational browsing plus stall feeding, industrial by-products.

Table 20: Descriptions of Apiculture Production at three level of managment Attributes Low Inttermidate High Produce and products Honey productivity of traditional, transitional and modern bee hives are 6, 15 and 20 kg respectively (BoARD2004). Then, by applying the intermediate level of management the productivity of bee hives shall be 10, 20 and 30kg for traditional, transitional and modern bee hives at medium and large scale of management. Nutrition Traditional and free Traditional free foraging Traditional free foraging + bee foraging + bee forage production forage plants production + water + water and additional and additional feed supply during feed supply during drought/feeds shortage seasons drought /feeds shortage season. Health/services/diseases no No but only hygiene and Hygiene+ insect control+ proper insect control services chemicals application with proper will be provided. rules and regulation and control mechanism Market orientation Subsistence Subsistence production commercial sell of surplus products production + some plus commercial sell of (honey and wax, bee colonies) at to sell surplus products (honey local and distance market and wax) at local market Capital intensity Low with Intermediate with credit High with 51 beehives with 54000 traditional bee on accessible terms for birr initial capital hives up to 10 bee colony, modern bee beehives which hives and other tools and may take cost3000. equipment. For 50 modern and transitional beehives (25+25)+ shelter+ additional feed which may cost = 25500 Labor intensity Some for cleaning Low family labor 1 man Low families (1) + trained and harvesting(1) for some time per day professional for training, for follow up supervision

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project Attributes Low Inttermidate High Power sources Low manual labor Manual labors with hand Manual labors with hand tools for tools for honey honey harvesting, hydro or solar harvesting and energy extraction, purification, Technology Local spps of Local spps of Local spps of bushes/shrub, trees, bushes/shrub, trees, bushes/shrub, trees, crops for bee foraging and local crops for bee crops for bee foraging SPPs of bees are produced with foraging and local and local SPPs of bees modern bee hives. Other SPPS of bees are are produced with technologies such as queen produced transitional and modern excluder, honey extractor, traditionally with bee hives. Other foundation sheet press, hive tools, traditional bee technologies such as chisel, smoker, protective closes, hives. queen excluder, honey gloves and veil are used in privet or extractor, foundation in cooperatives at farm levels by sheet press, hive tools, the investors chisel, smoker, protective closes, gloves and veil are used in privet or in cooperatives. Level of income Low(5*6*60)=1800 Moderate birr 54500 Medium to high, 70 000.00 Resources Local bee breeds Local bee breeds for Local bee breeds for honey and for honey and wax , honey and wax with wax with better beehives+ capital+ labor, containers better beehives+ credit+ land+ trained man power labor labor +professional water Natural sources Natural sources + Natural sources + supply of water supply of water during always from pure water sources drought season. with proper watering troughs+ feeds Land use and feeding Bee forge Lands for bee forage Land for bee forge production and system production lands production and Small for large scale bee keeping in bee production with land for medium scale combining with all land cover types free foraging bee production with especially with forest, shrub/bush, system transitional and modern cultivated and closure areas. bee hives + other natural foraging and artificial feeds supply.

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Table 21 Poultry production LUT6 description

Attributes Low level of Intermediate level of inputes High level of inputes inputes

Produce and products They are mainly produce for egg and meat (to sell off springs and eggs and then for household consumption), In Amhara Regional State, productivity and reproductive of poultry are indicated as 98% off take, 1.5 kg live weight in six months, 1.3gk carcass weight, 107, 75 and 60eggs per layer per year for exotic, package and local chicken respectively are produced (RHSES, 2003). Nutrition Traditional, free Human food left over, millet, maize, Formulated ration based on their age, range sorghum, wheat, etc. are supplied. sex, and objective of production. + management, no Better shelter, water and standard feeders and waterers shall be proper shelter, managements are also provided for supplied water. but it shall exotic and cross breeds. be improved Health/services/diseases Low vaccine, Intermediate vaccine for Newcastle Intermediate vaccine for Newcastle and treatment, and other diseases is provided for other diseases is provided for exotic and services at the exotic and Crosse breeds. Treatment Crosse breeds. Treatment also will be nearby clinic; but also will be provided as the cases arise provided as the cases arise by mobile or it shall be at local at the nearby clinic and mobile or outreach services from the private or under cluster outreach services sites(0-5Km) government institutions(at 0 Km form(2-6Km) distances)

Market orientation Subsistence Subsistence production plus commercial sell of surplus products production+ commercial sell of surplus products (chicken and eggs) at local and distance some for local (Young chicken and eggs)for local markets for breeding, consumption, and market market and traders. processing of egg and meat

Capital intensity Very low only for Low; but better than the traditional High (for exotic breeds+ feeds purchase start-up capital with credit on accessible terms for + health services + shelter.)=12400 with and health exotic breeds+ feeds purchase + health 100 chicks and 28400 with 100 layers services services + shelter.= 6188 for broiler to grow 50 chicks and 10450 for capital& recurrent for 50 layers

Labour intensity No as such Low family labour only for Trained man power + professional considerable management purposes. manager and health care worker labour

Power sources No Manual labours with hand tools for Human labour, hydro power, solar feed, egg etc .management.

Technology Local spps of Local SPPs Of chicken+ improved Local best breed (Tillili)+ Improved chicken, breeds with better feed and breeds+ medicaments+ vehicles medicament supplementations.

Level of income Low Moderate,10800 from meat and 24000 Medium to high;19200 birr from meat from layers from 500 and 43200 from layers from100

Resources Local best Local poultry breeds+ exotic breeds Exotic breeds for meat and egg from poultry breeds for meat and egg+ capital Andasa, Kombolcha and other sources+ for meat and labour+ professionals+ land from the egg+ some places towns. water From human From human water sources Pure and permanent piped water with water sources standard waterers

Land use and feeding Small scale Land for shelter and Small scale Land for enter prise establishment; system poultry poultry production with proper feed Confined modern poultry production at production with and management shall be produced at small urban land areas for egg and meat traditional free with small areas production at medium and large scale range grazing level shall be conducted at small areas. with no land

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3.3.4 Forestry

3.3.4.1 Production forestry

This is primary object of producing maximum quantity of timber; fuel wood and other forest produce either commercial or industrial purpose. In this forestry system, the greater concern is production and economic returns. The methods of tree plantation for production can vary from large commercial and industrial forest plantations to small community or social forests, implemented by community and/or individuals. In production forestry plantation products include timber, poles, pulpwood, fuel wood, and non-timber products such as incense, resins, oil, forage.For the purpose of this the following LUTs are recommended under the major title forestry sections as production forestry.

Commercial forests

Commercial forests are considered a business enterprise. Generally Forests may be classified into different groups. In a commercial forest, the goal is to get the most possible timber, fuel, wood and other forest products. Similarly Industrial forestry aims at producing raw material required for industry. The main problem of the study area for establishing industries is the absence of availability of such forests that can sufficiently supply raw woods for manufacturing industries. The basin is agroecologically suitable for establishing commercial-industrial forests. In the future, establishment of such forests will also create conducive environments for establishing wood manufacturing industries.For this purpose; the folowing spp are identified and filterd for land suitabliry analysis.

Timber production; Cordia africana,Cupresus Lusitanica,Pinus patula, Pinus radiata are the most important spp.This tree species selected for production of timbers, used for manufacturing Lumbers and other construction woods, and they are fast growing, depending on the quality of the product needed by the owner their rotation period reach 7 to 45 years. Also can be managed using from improved intermediate level of management to high level of management system.

Pulp and fibber wood: High Land Bamboo ( Yushania alpine),Eucalyptus globules, Pinus patula,Pinus radiate Eucalyptus grandis are the most important spp: These tree species are uses for production of pulp woods in paper manufacturing industries and uses for producing chip woods for manufacturing Chipboards, Ply woods, Particle

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woods/boards. The rotation period of these species for the purpose of production of pulp and fibber wood is reach 8-15years. They can be managed using improved intermediate level of management to high level of management system.

Cordia Africana

C. africana is adapted to sufficiently warm areas with an altitude ranging from 900 to 2400 m a. s. l. and a rainfall range of 700 to 2000 mm per year. In Ethiopia, it grows in a wide range of agro-ecological zones, though its habitats are mainly montane forest ecosystems (http://www.uni-geottingen.de).It is often found in woodland and brush in warm moist areas, and along river banks (Palgrave 1988).It is normally resistant to termites. It is frost tender Planted near dwellings, around fields and pastures, and as a shade tree.Moderate to slow growing.C. africana has a rotation of 35 to 45 years. It produces seed from August to September (ICRAF 1992).The tree usually has poor form and a short bole.Germination from seed appears to be erratic but once started the tree grows fast and well. It can reach 7 to 8 m in 7 years (Palgrave 1988) and can tolerate pollarding, lopping, and coppicing.

Often found in cropland where it is managed for shade. C. africana is favored as a shade tree for coffee because of its short bole. It provides very good mulch and can be used in other mixed cropping systems on cropland, pastureland, or rangeland to improve microclimatic conditions. C.africana's sweetly scented flowers are very attractive to honey bees and are known for their high quality honey production. The wood is light, yet durable, moderately soft, fairly straight-grained, and relatively termite and fungus resistant. It works and finishes easily (Watkins 1960). The wood is used to make grain mortars, water containers, utensils, tool handles, furniture, beehives, containers for local brew, and shingles.

Cupressus lusitanica

Cupressus lusitanica is an evergreen tree, 35 m high, with a dense, conical crown. Branches spread out widely but terminate in pendulous branchlets. Its trunk is short, 70 cm in diameter. Bark on trunk is reddish brown, exfoliating in long, narrow strips, eventually becoming roughened by the development of many short cracks. Branchlets covered with small, decussate, adpressed, acute, sessile, scale leaves with flexed tips.

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C. lusitanica is found in seasonally moist to permanently moist climates, with annual precipitation typically between 1000 and 1500 mm and a dry season lasting not more than 2-3 months. It also occurs in very moist climates with annual precipitation up to 4000 mm. It is not generally damaged by occasional snow or brief periods of frost, but there are significant differences in this among provenances. It cannot withstand water logging. C. lusitanica flourishes in deep, moist, well-drained, fertile loams of neutral to slightly acidic reaction.

C. lusitanica is a good source of firewood. The white wood saws cleanly and has straight fine grain, it is a good raw material for sawmills or wood manufacturing industries, for production of lumber. In addition to that the secondary products from Cupressus stand and the by-products extracted from sawmilling can be used as supplementary input for the production of particle board or medium density fiber board it is good source of construction wood and pulp wood and is used for furniture, poles and posts. Trees are suitable as wind breaks, the beautiful tree can be planted in amenity areas. It is well grown as a live fence used as boundary or barrier or support.

The fast-growing conifers can be planted on land that has been cleared by burning, to improve rooting conditions and eliminate potential competitors. In general, the seedlings should be planted at 2 x 2 or 3 x 3 m; close spacing is preferable to prevent strong branches from developing. As C. lusitanica gives only limited protection against soil erosion, pure stands on slopes or erosion-prone sites should be under planted with other suitable species. Weeding is an absolute must during the 1st years. Pruning is practiced so that trees yield high-quality, knot-free saw logs. Pruning should be done when trees are 3 years old, with 3 further pruning at 6, 9 and 13 years of age in a 25-30 year rotation. Trees grown for high-quality timber should be pruned to 30% of their stem height every 3 years without diminishing volume growth. Thinning is prescribed before each pruning. In early years, individual trees should show an annual height increment of 1.2-1.5 m (2 m in exceptional cases). Trees produce poles after 10 years and general-purpose timber after 20 years. They need to be protected from fire and rodent attack.

Pinus patula

Pinus patula grows to a height of 30 m or more and attains a diameter at breast height of up to 1.2 m. Bole straight and cylindrical, sometimes forked, producing 2 or more stems.

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When grown at wide spacing, the crown tends to spread. The crown may also be rounded or spire like. Young bark is characteristically a reddish-orange color and is scaly. The mature bark is grey-brown and vertically ridged. Often found in pure dense stands, but the occurrence is discontinuous, and now over much of its range it grows only in areas inaccessible to agriculture (Orwa et al.2009). Most provenances of P. patula are found in cloud forest environments on well drained soils between 1500 m and 3100 m altitude ( Dvorak and Donahue 1992) but is most common at elevations of 2100 m to 2800 m (Perry 1991). Mean annual temperature: -10-28 deg. C, Mean annual rainfall: 1 000-2 000 mm, the common soil features include acidity and good moisture supply. In the east African highlands, it is found on young fertile volcanic soils and on mature leached infertile soils derived from basement complex on other sites in East and South Africa (Orwa et al.2009).

P. patula produces excellent fuel wood. The species is used in the commercial manufacture of pulp, for example in the Usutu Paper Mill in Swaziland and in several mills in South Africa. The wood is suitable for particle board manufacture and gives a board of good strength, does not appreciably retard the setting of cement and can be used satisfactorily for making wood-wool slabs and boards. When tapped, P. patula yields an oleoresin, which is distilled to give turpentine, and rosin which is used in, for example, paint and batik industries. Medicine: Pine-leaf oil is sometimes used for medicinal baths, and the seeds may be consumed locally.

Initial spacing for P. patula in most countries is from about 2.4 m to 2.75 m. Generally for saw logs, closer spacing is recommended for knot free wood. Wider spacing is recommended on poorer sites. Saw log schedules in current use are designed to produce some 250 trees/ha with a mean dbh of 45 cm at a rotation of 45 years.

For pulp and paper wood production projects, the rotations periods recommended 25 years and spacing about 2-2.5 m.

Pinus radiate

Pinus Radiata is a versatile, fast-growing, medium-density softwood, very suitable for a wide range of end-uses. Its silviculture is highly developed, being built on a firm foundation of over a century of research, observation and practice. It is often considered a model for growers of other plantation species. For radiata pine forest plantations,

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commercial objectives for the production of wood, fibre and fuel generally dominate, but the forester should always take into account wider societal values.

Pinus radiata is the most productive and widely planted introduced conifer. Its mean annual increments (MAIs) range from 12 to 34 m3 per ha per year for merchantable volume, but these country averages do not indicate upper limits to the growth rates of the species. In the New Zealand permanent sample plot data set, the single greatest MAI for total net volume was 52 m3 per ha per year at age 24 (Shula, 1989). Commercial plantations require a minimum annual rainfall in the range 600–750 mm. In temperate locations that are unlikely to have seasonal water deficits, the optimal average annual rainfall is 1 500–2 000 mm (Kirschbaum and Watt, 2011). Rainfall and rooting depth interact strongly (Figure 2.2) because they influence root-zone water storage (Jackson and Gifford, 1974; Watt et al., 2008a, 2010).

In its natural mainland California habitat, radiata pine grows on a range of soils and parent materials but, in general, the best growth occurs on deep sandy loams derived from marine sediments and with a thick duff layer (McDonald and Laacke, 1990).Most sites are on slopeing ground and are reasonably well drained. There may be a clay layer at 50– 85 cm, which assists in moisture storage. Pine radiata has proved adaptable to a wide range of soils, from recently formed sand-dunes and volcanic soils to older leached red earths and podzols (Turner and Lambert, 1986). Mycorrhizal roots exploit this layer. The soils are generally acid to strongly acid.

Soil depth, texture, drainage characteristics and soil moisture storage have all been found to be important determinants of radiata pine growth because they influence soil moisture and nutrient storage (Madgwick, 1994; Gerding and Schlatter, 1995; Romanya and Vallejo, 2004; Watt et al., 2008a). The species prefers deep, well-drained soils. The interaction of rooting depth with rainfall is on soils greater than 60 cm in depth, volume increment increases with rainfall. On shallow soils, in contrast, water logging results in decreased growth when rainfall exceeds 1 500 mm. Radiata pine plantations can have a positive effect on soil stability (O‘Loughlin, 2005). Radiata pine root systems give mechanical reinforcement to the soil, while their evapo transpiration can dry the soil, enabling it to absorb more rain before it becomes saturated. The size of the root system increases as stands age.

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Highland Bamboo

Bamboo is applicable in a variety of engineering fields including landscape, civil and chemical engineering. ‗Bamboo is a strong raw material for construction. Its tensile strength is 28,000 per square inch versus 23,000 for steel. It is an essential structural material in earthquake architecture‘ (Oscar H. L, 2003). The fact that bamboo is flexible and lightweight enables the structures to ‗‘dance‘‘ in earthquakes. This has been proven in Limon, Costa Rica, only the bamboo houses from the National Bamboo Project stood after their violent earthquake in 1992. Bamboo is a landscape design element providing shades, wind break, acoustical barriers and aesthetic beauty for the human environment. The physical and environmental properties of bamboo make it an exceptional economic resource for a wide range of uses and for poverty reduction. Bamboo particularly highland bamboos are becoming popular as an excellent substitute for wood in producing bamboo floors, panels, plywood, particleboard, Tooth pick, incense sticks etc… It is widely used whole for construction and scaffolding, used as roofs and walls of houses, used as fencing, used as domestic and agricultural implements, such as water containers, baskets, trays, mats, etc, used as livestock shelters and temporary dwellings, used as parts of traditional houses, durable mats for building construction & fencing material.

Bamboo can offer innumerable opportunities for environmental improvement by sequestration of carbon (absorb up to 12 tones/ha), lowering light intensity and offering protection against ultraviolet rays, yielding 35% more oxygen than equivalent stand of trees and working as a natural environmental cleansing system. Bamboo is the fastest growing canopy for the re-greening of degraded areas. It holds 100 tones of water per hectares. Because of its critical element in the balance of oxygen/carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, bamboo acts as an atmospheric and soil purifier. Bamboo can be a substitute for wood-base fiber in the future. It can substitute wood in nearly all its uses and can help avoid future shortages and hardships caused by deforestation. Bamboo is an exquisite component of landscape design. Its anti-erosion properties create an effective watershed, forming a kind of soil bundle along river banks (binds 6m3 of soil), deforested areas and in places prone to earthquake and landslides.

Eucalyptus globulus

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Eucalyptus globulus ssp is a large to very large evergreen tree, 40-55 (max. 60) m tall, with straight, massive trunk 0.6-2 m in diameter; narrow, irregular crown of large branches and drooping aromatic foliage; crown of open-grown trees broadly rounded or irregular with branches nearly to the ground; bark smooth‘s, mottled grey, brown, and greenish or bluish, peeling in long strips, at base becoming grey, rough and shaggy, thick and finely furrowed; root system deep and spreading. Altitude range from 0-3 100 m, Mean annual temperature: 12-18 deg. C, Mean annual rainfall 500-1 500 mm. It does not occur naturally on strongly calcareous or strongly alkaline soils. Best development is on deep, sandy clay soils, but good growth is also attained on clay-loams and clay soils, providing they are well drained.

The flowers are a source of nectar that provides good honey. In Portugal, honey farms thrive near many plantations of E. globulus ssp. Honey with a distinctive flavor like muscatel grapes. E. globulus provides good firewood with an oven-dry calorific value of about 19 900 kJ/kg. It burns freely, leaves little ash and carbonizes easily for good charcoal. It is one of the better Eucalyptus species for papermaking and is widely used for pulp. In Spain, a good quality pulp, mostly bleached, is made from the sulphite, sulphate or bisulphite process. Important fiber products include fiber board and particle board.

The wood is very hard and strong, with medium texture. It seasons poorly, is difficult to work and nail but takes a high finish. It is used for light construction, plywood, utility poles, piles, tool handles and even railway sleepers. Some of the important wood products include parquet, cooperage, low-grade veneer, furniture and various types of sawn timber. The timber requires special care in sawing and drying because of high incidence of spiral grain. The leaves are valuable for the extraction of eucalyptol, commercially important eucalyptus oil. A yield of 2750 kg of leaves/ha can be expected. The oil content is 1% of the air-dry weight of the leaves, and the oil normally contains 62% cineole. Medicine: The oils are used as an inhalant with steam and other preparations for relief of colds and influenza symptoms. Because of the refreshing odor of the oil and its efficiency in killing bacteria, it is also an antiseptic. It helps to treat lung infections, gastrointestinal ulcers and angina. Its wide-spreading and dense root system is very useful in erosion control. It is valuable tree for windbreaks and shelterbelts. E. globulus ssp. has served well in land reclamation, including reclaiming swamps. It is an attractive ornamental with large, dark green, glossy adult leaves, glaucous and bluish juvenile leaves and stems, and showy

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flowers and fruits.Boundary or barrier or support: In its juvenile form, E. globulus ssp. is seldom browsed by cattle, sheep or goats, which gives it an advantage over most other species where fencing is not practicable.

3.3.4.2 Tree management

The species is easy to establish, is generally of good stem form, grows fast, closes canopy rapidly, coppices vigorously and is wind firm. Coppicing should be at a height of 10-20 cm above the ground; usually at least 3 and occasionally more coppice harvests are obtained. Growth and yield figures vary. In north western Spain, 1 fertilized plot is reported to produce 70 cubic m/ha per year. However, increments of 30 cubic m/ha per year are frequent, and of 20 cubic m/ha per year are average. The rotations used depend principally on the site and the desired product. E. globulus ssp. is commonly grown on rather short rotations of 8-12 years or 10-15 years to produce pulpwood, fuel wood or posts. Undesirable shoots are cut back during the 1st 2 years after sprouting. Frosts are particularly damaging to seedlings and saplings of 1-2 years, but larger plants are moderately resistant to light frost.

Eucalyptus Grandis

Eucalyptus grandis attains a height of 45-55 m, usually with an excellent trunk and a wide-spreading, rather thin crown; most of the bark and branches are smooth, white or silvery, sometimes greenish, rough on lower stem, smooth above, debark easily. In its natural range, E. grandis grows in tall, open forest in sheltered valleys and on hill slopes, often in pure or almost pure stands, sometimes in mixed forests. In the southern part of its natural range, it is found on flats and lower slopes of deep, fertile valleys and at the edge of rainforests. It grows on altitude range from 0-2 700m, Mean annual temperature range from -1 to 40 deg. C and Mean annual rainfall: 100-1800 mm. E. grandis needs a deep, free-draining soil, and does best on fertile loam or clay-loam soils, but it will also perform well on lighter sandy soils, provided these are deep enough.

E. grandis blossoms regularly and sometimes heavily but usually provides only small honey surpluses. The tree‘s main nectar value is as a supporting species. The honey is amber and strongly flavored but rather thin. Large quantities of E. grandis wood are used for charcoal, for iron smelting, for example in Brazil. The firewood is used for domestic purposes. E. grandis has been used for manufacturing sulphate pulp, for example in

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Brazil, Uruguay, South Africa and Angola. The wood has been used for fence posts, building, transmission and telephone poles, boxes and hooks. It is especially used for boat building, flooring, for manufacturing plywood, paneling and general construction. It can also be used for sawn timber but has tendency to split. Intercropping: Soya bean (Glycine max) inter planted with E. grandis as part of an agroforestry research project suppressed weeds without adversely affecting E. grandis survival and growth. Maize and sorghum have also been found compatible with E. grandis.

For pulpwood, fuel wood and timber for mining, a 6 to 10 year rotation is common. In most countries, no thinning is done on these short rotations. In Zambia, for industrial plantations, an 8-year rotation is used with thinning at the ages of 2 and 5 years. In the same country, a 4-year rotation without thinning is used for production of small wood for domestic purposes. Thinning should be done to 3 stems per stump. In Uganda, with initial spacing of 2.4 x 2.4 m to 3 x 3 m, a 7- to 8-year rotation is sufficient to produce trees of 15-20 cm diameter at breast height, the preferred size for tobacco curing. In India, a 9- year rotation is used with initial spacing of 3 x 3 m. For saw logs, a rotation of 30 years is recommended with thinning at ages 7, 11 and 15 years, leaving a final stocking of 250 stems/ha. The use of boron to reduce die-back and improve the growth rate is essential. For most types of products, 1 seedling rotation, followed by at least 2 coppice rotations, is common practice. Under natural conditions, E. grandis bears heavy seed crops every 2- 3 years. A fully mature tree can produce 2 kg of seed annually.

Construction, Fuel Wood and Charcoal forestry

Eucalyptus camaldulesis, E.globules, E.gradiles and high land bambo tree species are fast growing, currently very important in the developing construction industries of the region. They are also selected due to availability of market and to generate income for the local community. Bamboo and its products can substitute almost all wood and wood products in the construction industries particularly in the hotel industry. They are also importantly used as fuel wood and charcoal making. It is managed by low to intermediate improved management system with local family labor

Eucalyptus Camaldulensis

Eucalyptus camaldulensis commonly grows to 20 m tall, occasionally reaching 50 m, with a trunk diameter of 1 (max. 2) m; in open formations has a short, thick bole and a

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large, spreading crown; in plantations has a clear bole of 20 m with an erect, lightly branched crown; bark smooth, white, grey, yellow-green, grey-green or pinkish grey, shedding in strips or irregular flakes; rough bark occupies the 1st 1-2 m of the trunk. Altitude: 0-1500 m, Mean annual temperature: 3-22 to 21-40 deg. C, Mean annual rainfall: 250-2500 mm Soil type: Grows best on deep, silty or loamy soils with a clay base and accessible water table. Eucalyptus camaldulensis tolerates water logging and periodic flooding. It is one of the species found to be most tolerant to acid soils.

E. camaldulensis is a major source of honey, producing heavy yields of nectar in good seasons. The honey is light gold and of reasonable density with a distinctive flavor. It has been marketed as a straight line for several years. It crystallizes readily. The tree is particularly valuable for building up bee populations, especially when pollen from the ground flora is available to provide variety. The firewood is suitable for industrial use in brick kilns but is not preferred for domestic use because it is too smoky and burns too fast. However, it makes good-quality charcoal. It is used for pulp and paper production. It is also planted for hardboard, fiber board and particleboard. Because of its great strength and good durability, the wood is suitable for many structural applications, for example, railway sleepers, poles, posts, floorings, wharves, ship building and heavy construction. The density of the wood is 900-980 kg/cubic m at 12% mc. In Pakistan, it is a raw material for the chipboard industry. Estimates show that in 1993, 800 tons of raw materials were from this species (Charles and Naughton, 1994). The bole yields a gum that can be used as a dye. Some tropical provenances of E. camaldulensis are rich in 1,8- cineole leaf oil and are potential commercial sources of medicinal-grade eucalyptus oil. The oils are used as an inhalant with steam and other preparations for relief of colds and influenza symptoms. Because of its refreshing odor and its efficiency in killing bacteria, the oil is also used as an antiseptic. The bole has some potential for shiitake mushroom (Lentinus edodes) cultivation.

E. camaldulensis is widely planted for shade and shelter. In Sudan it is planted to protect crops from blowing sand. Ornamental: Its graceful form is attractive for avenues and gardens. It is practicable by judicious trimming to shape it to the requirements. With its light crown, E. camaldulensis is well suited for growing in arable fields. Intercropping maize with trees planted at 5 x 5 m gives satisfactory yields.

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Seedling growth may exceed 3 m per year for well-adapted provenances on favorable sites. Spacing varies with management system, from community planting around homes, villages and roads to closely spaced commercial plantations, and depends on the end products required. Application of 100 g of NP or NPK (3:2:1) fertilizer to each tree at planting to assist establishment and early growth is common. Poor competition ability with weeds and the development of an open crown necessitate frequent weeding, up to 3 times a year, until the canopy closes 3-5 years after planting. A thinning of less than 700 stems/ha at 5 years provides posts, poles, fuel wood and pulpwood, leaving the better trees for the production of other products, such as sawn timber after 10 years.

3.3.4.3 Agroforestry

Agroforestry refers to land-use systems in which trees are grown on the same land as agricultural crops and/or animals, either in a spatial arrangement or a time sequence,and in which there are both ecological and economic interactions between the tree and non- tree components. Agroforestry components refer to the three elements of a land-use system, the tree ( woody perennial), herb (agricultural crop or pasture plants) and animal. The first two are always present, the last sometimes. Growing trees on farms can provide farmers with food, fodder, income and medicine as well as environmental benefits such as enriching the soil, retaining water, fixing carbon and generating biomass. The following spps are potentially selected for land evaluation for establishing farm forestry project is to atain optimal productivity service of the land.

On farm Agrisilviculture:Cordia africana,Gravilia robusta, Ficus thunninghii, Highland bamboo are selected with physiological land use requirments as that of production forestry . This system is encompass, scattered trees, wood lot and boundary tree plantation and management on farmlands. In the system the recommended species are commonly found and practiced in most parts of the basin. Crops are combined with shrubs/trees on the same unit of land for higher or better-sustained production of annual crops, fodder, and wood. The system has potential to get supplementary products timber, forage fuel and construction woods, and they have also Soil improving value.

: Scattered tree growing in pastureland with proper management like Ficus thunninghii,Acacia species. This is an agroforestry system where range crops and/or animals and trees are combined for better production of grasses and fodder. In the basin

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Silvopastoral practices can be practice on sloping ground by growing grasses and trees/shrubs together, for conserving soil and make land productive. This also can be practiced on shrub land, woodland and forest lands.

Homestead agroforestry:Cordia africana,Ficus thunninghii,Lowland fruits (mango, papaya),Eucalyptus species,Highland fruit (Apple),Peach trees(coke) are selected as representative SPP. The main objective of selecting homestead plantation is to satisfy basic fuel, construction wood and forage requirement of the local community and to facilitate subsistent market system for fruit, fuel, and construction materials.

Agroforestry systems are not taken as a unit land use type; they are interacting or integrating with other LU like crop, grassland, range crops, shrub, forest, .The management system of Agroforestry practices is simple and can be manage by the individuals or family labor but it requires clear understanding of the methods of arrangement of Agroforestry components and also about the competitive nature of trees with other land use such as crop and grass lands.

Acacia Albida

Leaves and pods are used as fodder during the rainy season, a time when few other sources of browse are available. It is reported that cattle carrying capacity can double on land with numerous A. albida trees. Since leaves are retained during the hot season it provides valuable shade. It is estimated that a mature tree can supply up to 135 kg per year of seed pods (Watkins 1960). A decoction of the bark or root is used for coughing, fever, and diarrhea and the gum, bark, and leaves are used for diarrhea, hemorrhage, and colds. Fruits are eaten to control diarrhea. The bark is sometimes used to clean teeth and is believed to contain fluorine (FAO 1988).

A. albida is important as a source of nitrogen, and fallen leaves are important sources of humus. It is a good species to use in agroforestry for its ability to improve the soil because it drops its leaves at the beginning of the rainy season, providing nutrients to newly established crops. Since it is leafless at this time, shading of crops is not a problem.

The fairly dense wood is frequently attacked by fungus, borers, and termites sod is not as highly valued as that of other Acacias, even though the wood is used for housing construction and fence posts. It is also used for firewood and charcoal, though in some

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areas it is not highly regarded. The wood has a calorific value of 4700 kcal per kg dry wood (Webb 1984).

A. albida is a deciduous tree, and drops its leaves at the onset of the rainy season. The leaves rapidly decompose to release nutrients at the time when young plants most need them. The tree remains leafless and does not cast enough shade to adversely affect crop grown beneath (Forest Division 1984).

In 8 to 10 years Acacia albida can exceed 10 m in height and 10 cm in diameter dbh. Its lifespan is between 80 and 100 years. Wide spacing of at least 5×5 m, up to 10×10 m, is recommended to allow for intercropping with agricultural crops such as sorghum, cowpeas, or millet at a density of 100 trees per hectare. Pruning in the second year, to about half the tree's height may be needed to control low wide horizontal branching

Acacia Seyal

Acacia seyal is a small to medium-sized tree, growing to 17 m tall and 60 cm in diameter at breast height; It normally prefers heavy, clayey soils, stony gravely alluvial soils or humic soils. crown is umbrella shaped, resembling that of A. tortilis. A characteristic feature of the tree is its rust-colored powdery bark; Food: Gum talha from A. seyal is eaten when fresh, although it has slightly acid taste. It is also mixed with pulp from the fruit of Balanites aegyptiaca to make syrup.

Fodder: The bark is extensively used for feeding cattle, sheep and goats during the dry season. When fresh, it is smooth and relatively soft. Thick branches are lopped and animals browse the bark and eat the leaves. The pods and leaves are nutritious and palatable to livestock. The feed value crude protein content is 11-15 % in leaves and 15- 24 % in fruits. Digestible protein is 8-12 % in leaves and 13-15 % in fruits, which have a high digestibility. Leaves, pods and flowers are a major source of early dry-season fodder for sheep and goats over much of Africa.

Its yellow fragrant flowers yield a white-coloured honey with mild aroma. A. seyal var. seyal is an important source of rural energy as both firewood and charcoal. Trees managed on a 10-15 years rotation yield 10-35 cubic m/ha of fuel wood a year. A. seyal gum (talha gum) is darker and inferior in quality to that of A Senegal (gum arabic). However, it forms 10% of the Sudanese gum exported to India and Europe. The gum is

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edible when fresh, with a slightly acidic taste. The bark, leaves and gums are used for colds, diarrhea, hemorrhage, jaundice, headache and burns. A bark decoction is used against leprosy and dysentery, is a stimulant and acts as a purgative for humans and animals. Exposure to smoke is believed to relieve rheumatic pains.

Grevillea Robusta

Grevillea robusta is a deciduous medium-sized to large tree 12-25 (max.40) m tall; crown conical, dense, with branches projecting upwards. Bole straight, branchless for up to 15 m, up to 80 (max. 120) cm in diameter, usually without buttresses; bark fissured, sometimes pustulate, dark grey to dark brown, inner bark reddish-brown.

G. robusta provides abundant quantities of leaf mulch, which may accumulate to a depth of 30-40 cm. This thick layer protects the soil and maintains soil temperature. The leaves and twigs are apparently rich in aluminum. Ornamental, its majestic height, attractive shape and beautiful foliage make G. robusta an ideal tree for landscaping of private and public gardens. The cut leaves are used in flower arrangements, and young plants are grown as indoor pot plants in Europe. A deep rooting system causes little interference with shallow-rooted crops, and it can be successfully intercropped with banana, tomato and other agricultural crops.

Moderate to fast growing, when climate and soil are suitable and weed competition is not severe, annual height and diameter increments of at least 2 m and 2 cm, respectively, are usually achieved for the 1st few years in row planting on farms. Annual height increments of 3 m have been observed at the most favorable sites. G. robusta regrows well after complete defoliation following pruning and pollarding, which can be carried out repeatedly to yield wood and to regulate shading and competition with adjacent crops. It is characterized by root suckering, hence it is a good candidate for management under coppice rotation; it responds well to pollarding, lopping and pruning. A plant density of 800-1200 trees/ha is recommended for plantations. Some control of competing vegetation is required for the 1st 1-2 years after planting. Seedlings are normally planted at a spacing of 2.5-3 x 3-4 m. The relatively open canopy of G.robusta makes it less suitable for areas with erosion hazard. It also easily regenerates naturally, especially in agricultural fields.

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3.3.4.4 Environmental forestry

Similarly application of environmental Forestry in the sub watershed is categorized in to three groups according to the purpose of implementation; conservation forest, protective forest and Recreation forestry. Mostly conservation forest and protection forest plantation are interchangeable and confusing, but for this study they are defined as two different measures as follows:- Protection Forest

A tree planting activity proposed mainly aiming to protect the land against erosion, the wearing of topsoil due to flooding; rehabilitate degraded lands and preventing desertification in the sub basin. Tree plantation will maintain productivity of land and store water reserves or enriches ground water potential of the sub watershed. Mutually can satisfy wood and forage demand of the community. For the rehabilitation of gully Ficus thunninghii sop like Cordial africana,Gravilia, Acacia seyal, Susana susban,Tree lucern, Leucaena leucocephala and Highland Bamboo are recomended according to thier suitablity. How ever for the purpose of farmland protection alley cropping and bund plantation Susbania susban Tree lucern, Lucenea leucocephala, Moringa oleifera, Ficus thunninghii and Millettia ferruginea are recomended.

Conservation Forest

Measures concerned with the protection and preservation of forest land and forest resources is named conservation forest. This LUT is proposed mainly targeting to protect and manage existing natural forests or woodlands for provision of environmental service. In the system, forest regeneration expected to be ensured by natural mechanisms and also can be enhanced by enrichment plantations according to physiological requirements of Olea africana, Podocarpus falcatus, Acacia albida, Albezia gommifera, Juneperus procera, Ficus vasta and Ficus sur folowing land suitability assessment process. Recreational Forest

It is a forestry activity maintaining forests for recreation activities such as bird-watching, cycling, horse-riding, camping etc. Traditionally in Ethiopia in particular the region main function of forests is considered only as wood production, but the recreational and tourism functions of forests and woodlands were not given emphasis, they are more important in tourism industries. In particular, their benefits for economic development,

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health and well-being and quality of life. During field survey, accesses are observed for implementing recreational forests either on the existing potential stands or developing by enrichment plantation on potential areas.

Table 22: Tree/shrub species in the traditional agro-ecological zones A g r o - e c o l o g i c a l z o n e Species Dega W/Dege Kola Cordia Africana √ Cupressus lusitanica √ √

Pinus patula √ √

Pinus radiate √ Highland bamboo √ √

Eucalyptus globulus √ √

Eucalyptus grandis √ E. camaldulensis √ √

Acacia albida √ Acacia seyal √ Grevillea robusta √ √

Sesbania sesban √ √

Tree lucerne √ √

Pegeon pea √ √ √

Ficus thunninghii √ √

Moringa oleifera √ √ Leucaena leucocephala √ √ The symbol (√) shows that the particular species is suitable for the designated agro- ecological zone.

3.3.5 Irrigation System

Surface, sprinkler and drip irrigation systems were identified for land evaluation and determination of land use requirements.

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3.3.5.1 Surface irrigation

Surface irrigation is the oldest and most common method of applying water to croplands. Also referred to as ―flood irrigation‖, the essential feature of this irrigation system is that water is applied at a specific location and allowed to flow freely over the field surface and thereby apply and distribute the necessary water to refill the crop root zone. This can be contrasted to sprinkle or drip irrigation where water is distributed over the field in pressurized pipes and then applied through sprinklers or drippers to the surface.

Surface irrigation has evolved into an extensive array of configurations which can broadly be classified as: (a) basin irrigation, (b) border irrigation, (c) furrow irrigation, and (d) wild flooding. The distinction between the various classifications is often subjective.

Table 23: A general comparison of surface irrigation methods Selection Criteria Furrow Irrigation Border Irrigation Basin Irrigation Necessary Low Moderate to High High Development Costs Most Appropriate Rectangular Rectangular Variable Field Geometry Amount and Skill High labor and high Moderate labor Low labor and of Labor Inputs skill required and high skill moderate skill required Required required Land Leveling Minimal required but Moderate initial Extensive land leveling and Smoothing needed for high investment and required initially but efficiency. regular smoothing smoothing is less Smoothing needed is critical critical if done regularly periodically Soils Light to moderate Moderate to heavy Moderate to heavy texture soils textured soils textured soils Crops Row crops Solid-stand crops Solid-stand crops Water Supply Low discharge, long Moderately high High discharge, short duration, frequent discharge, short duration, infrequent supply. duration, supply infrequent supply Climate All, but better in low All, but better in All rainfall low to moderate rainfall Principal Risk Erosion Scalding Scalding Efficiency and Relatively low High with blocked- High Uniformity ends Source: Ross and Hardy(1997)

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3.3.5.2 Sprinkler irrigation

In the sprinkler method of irrigation, water is sprayed into the air and allowed to fall on the ground surface somewhat resembling rainfall. The spray is developed by the flow of water under pressure through small orifices or nozzles. The pressure is usually obtained by pumping. With careful selection of nozzle sizes, operating pressure and sprinkler spacing the amount of irrigation water required to refill the crop root zone can be applied nearly uniform at the rate to suit the infiltration rate of soil.

3.3.5.3 Drip irrigation

Drip irrigation is defined as a method of micro-irrigation wherein water is applied at the soil surface as drops or small streams through emitters. Discharge rates are generally less than 2 gallons per hour (7.6 l/h) for single-outlet emitters and 3 gallons per hour per 3.3 feet (11.4 l/h/m) for line source emitters(USDA, 2012).Drip irrigation is one of the methods of irrigation that saves water and fertilizer. In drip irrigation method, water drips slowly to the roots of the plants either onto the soil surface or directly onto the root zone through a network of valves, pipes, tubing and emitters. The process is completed in narrow tubes so that water is given directly to the root of the plant. Drip irrigation is also termed as localized irrigation or micro irrigation.

3.3.5.4 Pond Farming

Farm ponds have great potential to improve agricultural water security through the capture, storage, and provision of water for irrigation in all areas of suitable soil for irrigation. Farm ponds can also supply a water source for frost protection, recharge groundwater, and provide a wide range of additional economic and environmental benefits.

Ponds can be filled by rainfall, as is common with farm and ranch ponds that are sited at a low point and serve to collect runoff from higher in the watershed. Alternatively, farm ponds can be filled with tail water from irrigation, which can then be recycled. Ponds can also be filled by diverting water from streams at peak winter flows, offsetting water withdrawals during the dry season when higher instream flows are needed.

Ponds can recharge groundwater, which keeps more water in the system for longer, providing greater quantities for use in the watershed and allowing seepage into streams

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later into the dry period. Devoting more land to ponds in valleys that are overdrafting groundwater would help minimize impacts and would contribute positively to overall watershed management.

Ponds can also be used to trap, filter, and store tail water from irrigation. Sediment can be settled and returned to the fields; water can be re-used in subsequent irrigations, reducing the need to divert or pump more irrigation water. Pumping from a pond uses much less energy than pumping groundwater. A common approach is to construct a smaller sediment trap that then flows into a pond.

Ponds are important for smallholder growers, fish farming, even for landscape beautification. Their usefulness as irrigation and watershed management tools have not been sufficiently appreciated or exploited in the developed country, probably because farmers have largely been able to rely on organized irrigation and their reservoirs to store and deliver irrigation water. As water supplies become more uncertain, it will behoove farmers to make more concerted efforts to institute on-farm ponds.

Table 24: Irrigation scheme and its description Irrigation Scheme Types Attribute Small scale (Seleshi, 2003) Medium Scale Large Scale Level of Require strict control and Moderate amounts More likely to have water higher degrees of of management farmer controlled manageme management effort are needed (demand) schedules. nt Greatest flexibility in operation System Reproducible, affordable improve Improve productivity benefits/fu and participatory productivity and and reduce nction reduce vulnerability vulnerability to to climactic climactic volatility volatility Use of People‘s participation in Skilled man power Highly skilled man mechaniza design, implementation, for operation of the power for operation of tion monitoring and evaluation. system and the system and messionary messionary Operation Culturally feasible: Simple Fixed or improved Fixed or improved s technology can be adopted water control and water control and (from water harvesting – diversion structures diversion structures irrigation type / crops / trees - harvesting) Market Subsistence Subsistence with Commercial with orientation subsidiary subsidiary subsistence commercial Capital A reduced level of initial Capital intensive Highly capital

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Irrigation Scheme Types Attribute Small scale (Seleshi, 2003) Medium Scale Large Scale intensity capital cost intensive Labor A significant percentage of A significant Group of committee Intensity the specified group percentage of the and/or scheme staff community must specified group, participate at all phases community, committee and/or scheme staff Technical Mechanisms should be The irrigators and The respected technical knowledg provided to make the respected bodies persons should have e and project sustainable and should have very very high knowledge attitudes replicable. Projects should good knowledge about the operation and not die when funding about the operation maintenance stops. and maintenance Scale of <200 ha farms/units 200-3000ha >3000 ha farms/units operations farms/units Land Local water users' Water users' Mostly state tenure(Ha association association/irrigation enterprises gos et al., cooperatives or state 2009) Infrastruct Access to facilities, Access to facilities, Access to facilities, ure pesticides and improved pesticides, improved pesticides, improved seed material seed material and seed material, market market outlets outlets and adjacent road access Relative RWH, FWH, GWH, River RWH (Spate), GWH River water Diversion/Pumping and (Multiple Wells), Diversion/Pumping and supply Micro Dams River Large Dams Diversion/Pumping and Small Dams *Rain Water Harvesting, ** Flood Water Harvesting, "Ground Water Harvesting

3.3.6 Fishing

The use of water bodies for fisheries primarily by collection. Management of the natural ecosystem is mainly by controls over methods of fishing and quantity of offtake, although such controls may be substantial. There may be degradation of the ecosystem by excessive offtake.Includes fishing from rivers, lakes and ponds. Artificial water bodies are also included, provided that these constructed other than for the primary purpose of fishing like water storage for irrigation or other uses.

3.3.6.1 Culture fisheries

This is the use of water bodies for fisheries with substantial management of the aquatic ecosystem. Includes both the creation of aquatic environments like fish ponds and the

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active management of existing environments to improve production (fish farming).The sub basin has some what good potentialities for aquaculture development but temperature may be the major limiting factor. By using technologies, it is possible to modify the environmental factors. Potential fish spices for this basin are Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)

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Table 25Demonstration culture fisheries at three levels of management Attributes Low Intermidate Low

Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), African catfish (Clarias gariepinus) can be used for fish culture development (FAO, 1984). Introduction of any new spp. to this sub-basin is forbidden by law. Because if new spp. introduced, it will join the natural system, it can affect those endemic fish species as well the whole ecosystem in the basin. Generally speaking, tilapias can efficiently Produce utilize natural food and yields of 3 000 kg per hectare can be sustained in well- and fertilized ponds without any supplemental feed (http://www.nile- products tilapia/fertilizers-and-fertilization/en/). Nutrition Only natural Natural feeds are Natural feeds are produced in feeds are produced in pond pond fertilization of pond and produced in the fertilization of pond some supplementation pond and and some fertilization of supplementation Market Producespond for sell Commercial sell commercial sell products to local market products (semi processed and frozen fish ) for for the dwellers processed and frozen standardized hotels and other and merchants fish ) for standardized market places and exports hotels and other market places including exports Capital Low which is Intermediate with credit Somewhat high with credit on intensity about 2500 ETB on accessible terms for accessible terms for modern fishing tool, shop, and fishing tools, shop, modern transport and storage transport system and refrigerators. It is refrigerators. It is estimated estimated that about that about 32000ETB 29000ETB Labor Low local and Low local and one or Somewhat higher local and a intensity family labor can more person can do it skilled man power can be used be used for very larege farm. Power Manual labors Manual labors with Modern fishing tools and sources hand tools, vehicles for fastest transport system with transport, electric refrigerators power for refrigerators Technology Local fish spp. Transportation and Transportation and using heat and local mesh using heat generating generating technologies and technologies modern fishing system Level of Low Moderate High income Land small land Medium land Relatively large land holdings

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3.3.6.2 Capture fisheries

In Lake Tana, there are 28 fish species out of which 21 are endemic. Species mainly Labeobarbus, Tilapia, Cat fish and V. beso are commercially important and have a potential to give good production. In Tana sub basin fisheries are means of the livelihood of many fishers.These fisheries in turn give great economy for the Country.

Table 26: Descriptions of Capture fisheries at three levels of management Attribute Low Intermidate High Produce The fish fauna families are: Cichlidae, Clariidae, Cyprinidae and. Cyprinidae and is the largestfamily (Abebe Getahun and Eshete Dejen2012). Except, products Balitoridae the rest are commercially important. Fishes here produced from Lake Tana, wetlands, rivers, large dams (Koga) and in the feature it can be from new dam, is under construction Rib, Megech and others that will be constructed) and streams. According to Abebe Getahun and Eshete Dejen (2012), only Lake Tana has annual maximum sustainable yield which is about 7000- 15000 tons of fish and according to the BoFED (2011), 5000 tons of fish is estimated to be produced from the rivers, ponds & dams. It is true that the productivity and the production will be increased if there is protection, conservation and buffering of natural habitats and if there is modern fishing system. Nutrition Only natural Only natural feeds Well managed ecosystem/ in some feeds are are produced in this case there may be an introduction produced in this water bodies are of feeds e.g. in the dam based on water bodies. utilized ecosystem approach. Market Produces for sell Commercial sell commercial sell products to local market products (semi processed and frozen fish ) for for the dwellers processed and standardized hotels and other and merchants frozen fish ) for market places and exports standardized hotels and other market places Capital Low Intermediate with Somewhat high with credit on intensity credit on accessible accessible terms for modern fishing terms for fishing tools, shop, modern transport tool, shop, transport system and refrigerators and storage refrigerators Labor Low local using Low local using reed Low local with modern boats( intensity reed boats boats and motor motor boats) boats Power Manual labors Manual labors with Modern fishing tools and fastest sources with reed boats hand tools and or/ transport system with refrigerators motor boats for fishing and vehicles for transport, electric power for refrigerators

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Attribute Low Intermidate High Technology Local fish spp. Motor boats for Restocking of local fish species, and local mesh fishing and vehicles modern fishing system for transport Water body Communal Communal lake, Owner ship of lake, rivers, streams, holding lake, rivers, rivers, streams, wetlands and dams for cooperatives streams, wetlands and dams fishers with time and place of wetlands and for cooperatives and delineation. dams for individual fishers cooperatives and with time and place individual of delineation. fishers Level of Low Moderate High income Land use Fish production Fish production Using gillnets, having > 8cm mesh and fishing with traditional Traditional size, modern fishing boats and system (extensive); (extensive); fishing tools, area enclosure for fishing with with recommended, biodiversity conservation, with recommended time, place, mesh recommended time and place. mesh size. size and motor boats in communal water bodies imputes Fishing All parts All parts except All parts except breeding sites and sites and breeding sites and time (Lake shore wetlands, Rivers time time (Lake shore and streams) depending on the wetlands, Rivers and species type and some are not well streams) depending understood where they bread. on the species type.

3.3.7 Tourism

The lists of tourism land utilization types are obtained based on various sources that include, general potential tourist attraction area locations(Historic Tourist Attraction Resource Locations, Cultural Tourist Attraction Resource Locations,Natural Tourist Attraction Resource Locations and Recreational Tourist Attraction Resource Locations) ,specific tourist attraction resources(palaces and/or castles, Battle Fields, Slave Trading Centres, Archaeological Sites, Caves,Bridges,Monuments, Churches, and Monasteries,Mosques, Synagogues, Kimants‘ Praying Sites,Agaws‘ Buirial and Praying Site,Wholly Waters, Rivers, Water Falls, Lakes and Dams, Natural Forests,Mountains Plateaux, Special Cultural Sites and Lodge sites).

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4.13.1 Products and benefits

The products of tourism can be defined as the combination of tourist attractions and the tourism industry (Weaver and Opper Mann, 2000). However, since, the aim of this paper is defining and describing tourist attraction resources, the tourism industry is not going to be dealt with. Therefore the general tourist attraction resources areas and the specific tourist attraction sites of Lake Tana Sub Basin are defined and described the proceeding fashion.

3.3.7.1 Natural tourist attraction resources

The natural tourist attraction resources of an area can be its ―[topographies and] landscapes, lakes, forests, parks, beaches, caves, waterfalls, climates, unique and endangered species, birds, reptiles, and other animals. Biodiversity and nature in general can be big tourism attractions‖ (Gutierrez et al., 2005:28). It can be said that Lake Tana Sub Basin has got all kinds of these tourist attraction resources.

From natural tourist attraction resources sightseeing, camping, traditional boating, photography, recreation, and research tourism, health tourism, Zoos, Safari Zoo, Botanical Gardens, Animal, and Bird Watching, Sightseeing, Watching Towers or Mama, and Tree Climbing and Photography, Park, Biosphere Reserve, wild life sanctuaries, etc can be developed and promoted. In addition Local Tour guides and scout services, Local Transport Services (Mule, Donkey, etc) can also be potential areas.

3.3.7.2 Historic and heritage attractions

Before going to deal with historic and heritage sites, for the sake of a clear understanding, it is better to discuss briefly the difference among past, history, and heritage. The concept of past refers to all that has ever happened, but all past events and objects are not heritage. The existence of the past as an objective reality is not a precondition for the creation of heritage. It is not the past that produced the present or poses the conditions for the future. But the way we think about it the way in which we deal with it. Both history and heritage conceive and used the past more or less in similar ways, and they have more common characters, but, that does not mean that they are fundamentally similar understandings. History and heritage transmits different things to different audiences. History is something to be written, learned, and remembered through learning or oral tradition. But heritage refers to memorial remains of physical and spiritual values or material and immaterial achievements and essential elements

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project of the past and present human society to be visited. History and heritage are closely related. For instance, heritage serves history as a fundamental source of information.

A historic site or heritage site is an official location where pieces of political, military, cultural, or social history have been preserved. Historic sites are usually protected by law, and many have been recognized with the official national historic site status. A historic site may be any building, landscape, site or structure that is of local, regional, or national significance. Historic sites may be thought of in three broad categories: documentary sites: primary objective is to document a specific historic event or a specific person or group, representative sites": primarily focused on representing a historical period or way of life, aesthetic sites: focused on history of art or conceptions of beauty. A Heritage site is the evidence of the past, such as historical sites, buildings, and the unspoilt natural environment, considered collectively as the inheritance of present-day society (the Oxford Pocket Dictionary of Current English, 2009). A UNESCO World Heritage Site is a place (such as a forest, mountain, lake, island, desert, monument, building, complex, or city) that is listed by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) as of special cultural or physical significance. The list is maintained by the international World Heritage Programme administered by the UNESCO World Heritage Committee, composed of 21 UNESCO member states which are elected by the General Assembly.

According to UNESCO a cultural or a natural site must be of "outstanding universal value" and meet at least one of the ten criteria to be inscribed in the UNESCO world heritages sites list as either cultural or natural property. For the sake spatial data analysis and compilation this category of tourist attraction resources include “Historic and heritage attractions include forts, castles, museums, churches, mosques, temples, distinctive architecture, archaeological sites, monuments, memorials, burial grounds, birthplaces/homes of famous people, early settlements, historic town centres and districts, landmarks, missions, shrines, churches, historic tours, and interpretation as well as if culturally acceptable, sacred places can also be considered‖ (Gutierrez et al., 2005:28). From these resources heritage and historic tourism, research, and educational tourism can be developed and promoted.

3.3.7.3 Cultural tourist attraction resources

According to Gutierrez et al. (2005:28) ―cultural tourist attraction resources include traditional lifestyles, rituals, religious ceremonies, festivals, large events, chieftaincies, arts and crafts, music, dances, traditional cuisine, and local economic activities such as fishing, farming and

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3.3.7.4 Recreational activities

Recreational activities are the results of both natural and cultural tourist attraction resources. From these resources Boat Recreation i.e. traditional Papyrus Tankua and Motorized Boating and recreation, Sea Angling /Recreational Fishing/Angling trekking, hiking, biking, Mountain Climbing /Mountaineering, Camping Site, Cooking Utensils and other tour equipments renting, music, Horse Riding and other Traditional Sporting and other Games, dances, White Water Rafting/River Rafting/Rafting, Scuba Diving and Snorkelling, Paragliding/Parachuting wildlife viewing, bird watching, Beaching, picnicking, sunbathing, relaxing, swimming, and playing sports and games can be developed and promoted‖ (Gutierrez et al., 2005:28).

4.13.2 Castles and Palaces

A castle is a type of fortified structure built in Europe and the Middle East during the Middle Ages by nobility. Scholars debate the scope of the word castle, but usually consider it to be the private fortified residence of a lord or noble. This is distinct from a palace, which is not fortified; from a fortress, which was not always a residence for nobility; and from a fortified settlement, which was a public defence–though there are many similarities among these types of construction. Usage of the term has varied over time and has been applied to structures as diverse as hill forts and country houses. Over the approximately 900 years that castles were built, they took on a great many forms with many different features, although some, such as curtain walls and arrow slits, were commonplace.

A palace is a grand residence, especially a royal residence or the home of a head of state or some other high-ranking dignitary, such as a bishop or archbishop. Castles or palaces identified during the study as LUS include; Gafat, Aringo, Semerneha, Hagere Sellam, Dejjazmach maru, Debsan Gihimb, TadraFasilaDas, RasAsgadir, Merew abakiros.

Monuments

A monument is a type of structure that was explicitly created to commemorate a person or important event, or which has become important to a social group as a part of their remembrance of historic times or cultural heritage, or as an example of historic architecture. BoEPAU Land Utilization Types and Their Environmental Requirements Draft Final Report ADSWE Page 118

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The term 'monument' is often applied to buildings or structures that are considered examples of important architectural and/or cultural heritage. Monuments identified during the field work for LUT include; Mussolini, Gragn Burial Site, etc.

Archaeological Sites

An archaeological site is a place (or group of physical sites) in which evidence of past activity is preserved (either prehistoric or historic or contemporary), and which has been, or may be, investigated using the discipline of archaeology and represents a part of the archaeological record. Sites may range from those with few or no remains visible above ground, to buildings and other structures still in use. Anthropology is the study of humans, past and present, that draws and builds upon knowledge from the social sciences and biological sciences, as well as the humanities and the natural sciences. Archaeological sites identified during the field work for LUT include; MushiraDinga, GilgeSembu, and Kurtiya.

CAVES

A cave or cavern is a hollow place in the ground, especially natural underground space large enough for a human to enter. Caves form naturally by the weathering of rock and often extend deep underground. The word "cave" can also refer to much smaller openings such as sea caves, rock shelters, and grottos. Among the caves that were identified as LUTs during the field work Seit Kuma Nib Cave, Seit Kuma Sanka Cave, Seit Kuma Bata Cave can be mentioned.

BRIDGES

A bridge is a structure built to span physical obstacles such as a body of water, valley, or road, for the purpose of providing passage over the obstacle. There are many different designs that all serve unique purposes and apply to different situations. Designs of bridges vary depending on the function of the bridge, the nature of the terrain where the bridge is constructed and anchored, the material used to make it, and the funds available to build it. Bridges identified as LUTs during the field work include Goba Bridge, and Natural Bridge.

4.13.2 Unique and endangered Biodiversity Areas

Biodiversity, also called biological diversity, the variety of life found in a place on Earth or, often, the total variety of life on Earth. A common measure of this variety, called species richness, is the count of species in an area. Colombia and Kenya, for example, each have

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Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project more than 1,000 breeding species of birds, whereas the forests of Great Britain and of eastern North America are home to fewer than 200. Acoral reef off northern Australia may have 500 species of fish, while the rocky shoreline of Japan may be home to only 100 species. Such numbers capture some of the differences between placesthe tropics, for example, have more biodiversity than temperate regions but raw species count is not the only measure of diversity. Furthermore, biodiversity encompasses the genetic variety within each species and the variety of ecosystems that species create. Among the very biodiversity hotspot areas Guna is extremely endangered one. In Guna there is a sever interference of deforestation, over grazing, settlement, agricultural development and expansion, etc. So the case of Guna is very critical and it requires immediate attention should be given and measures should be taken to save the area from complete damage.

3.3.7.5 Lodge sites

According to the Zikre-Hig Regulation No.80/2010 of ANRS ‗‗Lodge shall mean a commercial institution having been built up taking into account the natural beauty and cultural values of its surrounding and thereby engaged in providing to consumers with accommodations, foods, beverages and other services for sale‖.

From the definition it is obvious that the primary service products of a lodge are bedding, eating, and drinking services to guests or tourists. However the service products of a lodge may include other services such as Tour & Travel Operations, Tourism Information, Shopping & Personal Services, Money exchange, Medical Facilities & Services, Postal Services, Gas oil service stations, Service Laundries, etc (Inskeep, 1999). It also can provide some pleasing activities by developing some recreational activities thereby becoming a resort lodge (Inskeep, 1999) Apart from the economic benefits since the proposed lodge should adhere to the principles of sustainable and/or tourism development principles, it also brings about socio cultural and environmental benefits. Among the principles of sustainable tourism contribution of a lodge to conservation of natural resources can be mentioned. Hence, if a lodge properly adheres the principles of sustainable and/ ecotourism, it becomes to be named as eco lodge.

According to their location hotels can be grouped in to resorts hotels, sub urban hotels, floatels, down town hotels, and motels. Since the purpose of this paper is to identify suitable locations for resorts, the other categories are not going to be dealt with. Hence a resort hotel or lodge is a type of hotel located either on mountainous and plateau, near to lakes, rivers, sea, beach, etc. it is primarily designed for holiday makers. Resort hotels are located in areas with

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4.13.3 Benefits

The development and promotion of tourist attraction products and services will definitely bring about all rounded and multi dimensional benefits to the economy, socio-culture, and physical environment. Among the benefits creation of employment opportunities, income generation, foreign currency, a high level of multiplier effect in the economy, facilitation of the development and expansion of other sectors of the economy, conservation, promotion of both natural and cultural resources thereby all rounded sustainable development can be mentioned.

Specifically historic and heritage sites are often maintained for members of the public to be able to visit. Visitors may come out of a sense of nostalgia for bygone eras, out of wishing to learn about their cultural heritage, or general interest in learning about the historical context of the site. Many sites offer guided tours for visitors, conducted by site staffs that have been trained to offeran interpretation of life at the time the site represents. A site may also have a visitor centre with more modern architecture and facilities, which serves as a gateway between the outside world and the historic site, and allows visitors to learn some of the historical aspects of the site without excessively exposing locations that may require delicate treatment. A heritage comprises legendary arTeffacts, history, cultural relics and monuments of our forefathers that are being preserved for generations yet unborn to learn from the past-be it good or bad.

Historic and heritage resources of a country are aesthetic pleasure and subject of scientific investigation. They have tremendous importance to facilitate study and to disseminate general knowledge and new ideas. Such possessions could, therefore, be presented as potentials of primary historical sources in shaping the history and culture of the society. Well preserved historic and heritage resources have economic, socio-cultural, historical, and political values.

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Historic and heritage resources‘ economic benefit should be assured while they become magnets of tourist attractions, facilitate investment and sustainable economic development and create job opportunity. Demonstrating socio-cultural interactions, social and cultural changes and continuing and maintaining traditional values are their socio-cultural functions. As their historical values they provide indispensable source of information. Heritage properties also play a key role in developing a nation-wide sense of identity and/or preventing identity crisis as well as in promoting cultural and social interactions in a community.

Tourism makes use of manual and animal labor for the interpretation of tourist attraction sites, and for the transportation of tourists from place to place as well as for loading and unloading of luggage in tourist attraction areas. This is so due to the fact that the service products of tourism are preferred when they are delivered to tourists manually or in animal power. For instance local tourist guides, and scouts are used to interpret tourist attraction sites and to safeguard them as well as horses and mules can be used to transport tourists and their luggage from place to place. Actually it uses automobiles, airplanes, ships, boats, buses, etc to transport tourists if the distance is felt to be very long and tiresome. In addition it uses gasoil fuel and electric power to cook food and beverages in tourist hospitality institutions like, lodges, hotels, restaurants, fast food outlets, etc. But the thing is when compared to other production sectors of an economy; say for example manufacturing industry, mechanized agriculture, etc, it uses less power and mechanization there by creating small amount of pollution to the environment. That is why tourism is named as ―Smokeless Industry‖.

The material inputs for the development of tourist attraction sites emanate from so many sectors of an economy including from the cottages, manufacturing and processing industries. It also uses crop, livestock, forestry, and other agricultural products.

The technical processes and practices employed in the management and development of tourist attraction resources include research and study, development processes and activities, marketing and promotion, proper customer handling, feedback gathering, control and supervision. The research and study processes and activities deal with the identification of tourist attraction resources, selecting the appropriate types of tourism to be developed and identifying the proper development approaches to be followed, the required tourist facilities, infrastructure and amenities to be developed, the potential market groups to be targeted for promotion, etc. The development processes and activities include awareness creation to the local community and other concerned bodies, developing and expanding the required tourist

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It is obvious that almost all aspects of tourist attractions are created and developed solely for commercial purposes. Of course there are attractions whose primary purpose is not commerce; say for example strictly protected areas and nature reserves. However, even these places are expected to benefit the local community or concerned bodies economically, socio- culturally or environmentally at least indirectly. Hence it can be said that tourist attractions are highly commercial.

The capital intensiveness of tourist attraction resources depend on the type the attraction to be developed and its technology employment, and on the quantity and type other input requirements. As witnessed by many research journals, books and other documents, however, when compared to other investment alternatives most of the time it is low capital intensive. This is one of the very attractive parts of tourism development for investors, governments, and other concerned bodies. Even it can be developed without or with almost no cots due to the fact that it can coexist with development sectors; say for example, agriculture, forestry, industry, or any other sectors of an economy and it uses infrastructures developed for other sectors of an economy.

The hotel and tourism sector is labor intensive by its nature. According to World Tourism Organization (WTO) Statistical Bulletins, tourism is the first in the world in terms of labor intensiveness and employment creation and the second in income next to oil. As part and parcel of the broader tourism industry the attractions sector absorbs and creates more labor force and employment. Hence as part and parcel of the broader tourism industry the attractions sector creates an immense amount of employment opportunities for almost all of the parts of a certain society; including the youth, females, the well educated and not well educated. So it is

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The level of technical knowledge and attitude referring to the level of general knowledge and technical education and receptiveness to innovation and change is concerned; it depends on the type of tourist attraction i.e. for recreational, natural, cultural as well as historic and heritage variation occurs in their response to these changes. However, it is well known that the very products of tourism are, most of the times, technology free i.e. the products and services of tourism would be more preferable and attractive if they are delivered to users traditionally i.e. without or little technology influence.

There is also a great variation in the scale of operations of tourist attractions; i.e. a huge difference in the amount of land for the operation of a big national park and a specific cultural center.

The economic attributes of tourist attractions can be explained by sources of revenue they generate. Say for example, an eco tourism site may generate its income from entrance fees, admission fees (museum photography, etc), user fees (parking, camping, visitor center, boat use, shelter use, etc), licenses and permits (for private tourism firms to operate on protected areas), tour operators, guides, transport providers and other users, royalties and sells revenue from sales of souvenirs, concession fees from souvenir shops, leases and rent fees from charges for renting or leasing park property or equipment, voluntary donations including cash in kind, gifts and labor, often received through friends of the park groups.

Land tenure (use rights) may be a very important consideration in determining the availability of land for tourism development (Inskeep, 1999 and Gutierrez, 2005). Land tenure categories may include private and government or public lands, free ownership or lease hold, communal or individual ownership, and soon (Inskeep, 1999). So as to avoid land tenure becoming one of the barriers to development of tourism, information can be obtained from the local government offices; such as Mayors, and Municipalities, etc. In many regions land tenure issues are often the results of a lack of records, unclear titles, or disputes over government control (Gutierrez, 2005). Caution must be taken to respect existing land rights such as those of the local indigenous populations. The important challenges will be to first define how tourism development may contribute to better protecting and managing biodiversity and

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Hence the land that may be required for a tourist attraction development possesses the same characteristics as the general tourism development as attractions are part and parcel of the broader tourism industry.The other very interesting aspect of tourism development is that its ability to use infrastructures that are developed for the other sectors of an economy. For instance it can use roads that are built to transport agricultural products to their markets. For this level of management of tourism trekking routes in remote areas, walkways in and around tourist attraction sites may be built with little or no expense at all.The infrastructure requirements of a tourist attraction site include, among others, access roads, electric and water supply, etc. However if the attraction is supposed to provide some kind of adventure, it may not require that much comfortable roads; rather a paved pedestrian road, walk way or trekking route may be required. Unlike the other sectors‘ LUTs, it doesn‘t require to be located in the nearby vicinities of a processing factory, its existing and potential markets, etc. This is so due to the fact that the products and services of a tourist attraction or tourism industry are not transported to its consumers; rather the consumers come to the productions and service delivering place. This is one of the very attractive parts of a tourist attraction resource and tourism investment for investors, promoters, and even for governments. This is completely different from the production of palm oil which is needed to be close to a factory for rapid processing after harvest and the need for a textile industry to be located near to cotton growing areas and/or farms.

Table 27: Hierarchical Definition of Tourism Land Utilization Types (LUTs) at Different Levels of Management Attribute Low Intermediate High Productio Products and services Products and services of This level of management of n systems of tourism are being tourism at this level would be tourism involves all the full produced and produced and delivered to tourism development delivered to tourists in tourists in somehow better components in all of its tourism a usual way i.e. ways than its low level of development processes. Its without involving the management but not as its high processes range from Research very basic and full level of management. In other and study to proper customer processes of tourism words all the full processes of handling through provision of development i.e. tourism development (stated in attractions, quality research and study, section 1.1) would not be accommodation, transportation, development of realized from A to Z. In and amenities by development

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Attribute Low Intermediate High (attractions, addition all the full components activities augmented by proper accommodations, of tourism (stated in section marketing and promotion transportation, and 1.1) would not be incorporated strategies and activities amenities, awareness in the development processes of formulation and creation and trainings), tourism. For instance there may implementation. In other words marketing and be somehow good start in this level of tourism promotion activities as awareness creation and training management paves the way well as proper delivery but a severe problem for... and can be said customer handling. In may arise in marketing and sustainable tourism. other words this level promotion. Another example Sustainable tourism deals with of management in may be the local community all of the sustainable tourism can be said and resource owners may be development dimensions i.e. mass tourism. Mass aware of the benefits of the economy, socio-culture, and tourism does not tourism; but the government the environment. incorporate the may neglect its responsibility principles of especially in carrying out sustainable tourism marketing and promotion. development. Market Most of the time the Some activities of marketing Proper marketing research is orientatio marketing and and promotion are carried out. undertaken at this level. Based n promotion activities For instance leaflets may be on the marketing research occur through word of prepared and distributed to appropriate marketing mouth. No marketing tourists in public holidays, strategies and promotion strategies are designed religious ceremonies, etc. activities would be designed and no aggressive and implemented so as to promotion activities attract suitable target markets. are carried out. Power Tourism uses animal Tourism uses animal and Tourism uses animal and source and manual labor for manual labor for the manual labor for the the transportation of transportation of tourists from transportation of tourists from tourists from place to place to place as well as for place to place as well as for place as well as for loading and unloading luggage. loading and unloading luggage. loading and unloading For instance horses and mules For instance horses and mules luggage. For instance can be used to transport tourists can be used to transport tourists horses and mules can and their luggage from place to and their luggage from place to be used to transport place. Actually it uses place. Actually it uses

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Attribute Low Intermediate High tourists and their airplanes, ships, boats, buses, airplanes, ships, boats, buses, luggage from place to etc to transport tourists if the etc to transport tourists if the place. Actually it uses distance is felt to be very long distance is felt to be very long airplanes, ships, boats, and tiresome. and tiresome. buses, etc to transport tourists if the distance is felt to be very long and tiresome. Labor Tourism is number It creates an immense amount It creates an immense amount intensity one in its rank in the of employment opportunities of employment opportunities world in terms of for almost all of the parts of a for almost all of the parts of a employment creation certain society; including the certain society; including the and high labor youth, females, the well youth, females, the well intensiveness. Hence it educated and not well educated educated and not well educated. creates an immense amount of employment opportunities for almost all of the parts of a certain society; including the youth, females, the well educated and not well educated. Capital One of the very It requires low level of It requires low level of intensity attractive parts of investment capital in investment capital in tourism development comparison with other sectors‘ comparison with other sectors‘ is its low level of investment options of an investment options of an capital intensiveness in economy. However in economy. This level of tourism its investment process; comparison with low level of management, as described in so it requires low level management of tourism this the aforementioned sections, of investment capital level may require more capital involves the full process of in comparison with as the preparation of leaflets for tourism development i.e. other sectors‘ promotion may incur a certain research and study, building investment options of amount of cost. various supra and an economy. infrastructures and amenities,

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Attribute Low Intermediate High designing and implementing appropriate marketing and promotion strategies and activities as well as proper customer handling. Hence it is obvious that these development processes incur a cost though very low compared to other development activities in other sectors. Land The small and The small and fragmented At this level large and holdings fragmented parcels of parcels of lands as they are or consolidated lands may be lands as they are can in a somehow combined required for the establishment be attractions for manner can be tourist of protected areas such as tourists. So private and attractions. To do so creating national parks, nature reserves, communal ands found awareness, and delivering some strictly protected areas, etc. Or in a certain society can kind of skill improvement large and consolidated lands be tourist attractions or trainings for the local may be required to provide they can be used as community, as well as them for investors of tourist places for the organizing the local community accommodations and other establishment of in an association may be hospitality institutions like, tourist supra and required. lodges, resorts, camping sites, infrastructures, and or for the development of other amenities through tourist attractions. creating awareness for the local community. Technolo It is well known that It is well known that the very It is well known that the very gy the very products of products of tourism are, most of products of tourism are, most employed tourism are, most of the times, technology free i.e. of the times, technology free and input the times, technology the products and services of i.e. the products and services of required free i.e. the products tourism would be more tourism would be more and services of preferable and attractive if they preferable and attractive if they tourism would be are delivered to users are delivered to users more preferable and traditionally i.e. without or traditionally i.e. without or attractive if they are little technology influence. little technology influence. delivered to users

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Attribute Low Intermediate High traditionally i.e. without or little technology influence.

Income Tourism is the second As this level involves Since this is the highest level of level income generator in intermediate level of tourism tourism development global income development process this level management, it incorporates accounts. Hence it of tourism development the whole processes of tourism brings about much management brings about a development by taking in to better amount of moderate amount of income to consideration all components of income to almost all almost all parts of a society i.e. tourism. Hence it brings about parts of a society i.e. the youth, the females, males, more income to almost all parts the youth, the females, well educated and not well of a society i.e. the youth, the males, well educated educated ones which is more females, males, well educated and not well educated that the low level of and not well educated ones that ones. But low income management and less than the the low and intermediate levels compared to its high level of management of of tourism development intermediate and high tourism. management. level of management. Infrastruct The other very As consumers of tourism As consumers of tourism ure interesting aspect of products and services travel to products and services travel to requireme tourism development products, compared to other products, compared to other nts is that its ability to use sectors of an economy in which sectors of an economy in which infrastructures that are case products are expected to case products are expected to developed for the be transported to consumers, be transported to consumers, other sectors of an not much expensive not much expensive economy. For instance infrastructures such as trekking infrastructures such as trekking it can use roads that routes, walkways, and routes, walkways, and are built to transport infrastructures built for other infrastructures built for other agricultural products sectors of an economy may be sectors of an economy may be to their markets. For used that may incur little or used that may incur little or this level of cost at all. cost at all. management of tourism trekking routes in remote areas,

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Attribute Low Intermediate High walkways in and around tourist attraction sites may be built with little or no expense at all.

3.3.8 Other Land Utilization types

3.3.8.1 Settlement

Land adjacent to buildings or houses, the use of which is directly linked to them;includes house gardens used for recreation Subdivisions of settlement include residential settlement;land used for residence: houses, flats/apartments, etc. Includes, gardens where these are primarily for leisure. Excludes gardens, which are primarily for agricultural production (e.g. 'home gardens', allotments), commercial settlement Land used for shops (retail and wholesale), warehouses, and other commercial or trade activities. Excludes land used for transport and port facilities, Industrial settlement factories and associated land used for the production of industrial goods. Includes processing of agricultural products, other than on-farm preparation for storage or marketing and settlement infrastructure land directly used, or providing the means of use, for transport and settlement services.

3.3.8.2 Wind farm

A wind farm energy facility, or wind farm, is a group of wind turbines in the same location used for production of electric power. Individual turbines are interconnected with a medium voltage reticulation system and communications network. A large wind energy facility may consist of a few wind turbines to about 100 individual wind turbines, and cover an extended area of hundreds of square kilometres, but the land around the turbines may be used for agricultural or other purposes.

3.3.8.3 Solar Energy

Solar energy is one type of renewable energy sources that ideal for remote areas than diesel or grid connection systems.

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Solar radiation; it is the main factor for the use of radiation from the sun as the source of energy. Solar radiation that is required for the generation of energy in a given area is around 5 kwh/m² / day on average (Aklilu Dalelo)

3.3.8.4 Water harvesting

Rainwater harvesting is the accumulation and deposition of rainwater for reuse on-site, rather than allowing it to runoff. Uses include water for garden, water for livestock, water for irrigation, water for domestic use with proper treatment, and indoor heating for houses etc. In many places the water collected is just redirected to a deep pit with percolation. The harvested water can be used as drinking water as well as for storage and other purpose like irrigation.

Rainwater harvesting provides an independent water supply during regional water restrictions and in developed countries is often used to supplement the main supply. It provides water when there is a drought, can help mitigate flooding of low-lying areas, and reduces demand on wells which may enable ground water levels to be sustained. It also helps in the availability of potable water as rainwater is substantially free of salinity and other salts.

The concentration of contaminants is reduced significantly by diverting the initial flow of run- off water to waste.[1] Improved water quality can also be obtained by using a floating draw- off mechanism (rather than from the base of the tank) and by using a series of tanks, with draw from the last in series. The stored rainwater may need to be analyzed properly before use in a way appropriate to ensure its safe use

The quality of collected rainwater is generally better than that of surface water. Contamination is always possible by airborne dust and mists, bird feces, and other debris, so some treatment may be necessary, depending on how the water will be used.Rainwater harvesting systems can be installed with minimal skills. The system should be sized to meet the water demand throughout the dry season since it must be big enough to support daily water consumption. Specifically, the rainfall capturing area such as a building roof must be large enough to maintain adequate flow. The water storage tank size should be large enough to contain the captured water.

Rain water harvesting is possible by growing fresh water flooded forests without losing the income from the used /submerged land.[2] The main purpose of the rain water harvesting is to utilize the locally available rain water to meet water requirements throughout the year without

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Aproachs: instead of using the roof for catchment, the Rain Saucer, which looks like an upside down umbrella, collects rain straight from the sky. This decreases the potential for contamination and makes potable water for developing countries a potential application.[3] Other applications of this free standing rainwater collection approach are sustainable gardening and small plot farming.[4]A Dutch invention called the Groasis Waterboxx is also useful for growing trees with harvested and stored dew and rainwater.

3.4 Combination of land utilization types

Land utilization types necessitate environmental requirements expressed in terms of land qualities and land characteristics. As per the FAO land evaluation framework, there are numerous environmental requirements used to measure suitability of land for specific land utilization types, however, not all of them are equally important to evaluate the suitability of land for specific land utilization types. Moreover, from the limited time available and complexity of land evaluation, it is difficult to evaluate large number of land utilization types. Therefore, it is highly essential to limit the number of land utilization types through combination based on similarity of most important environmental requirements.

Hence, this study combined land utilization types based on similarity of climatic requirements (LGP and thermal) in the first place and topography and soil correspondingly till there are species and varieties deserve special other characteristics. The combination also considered the experiences of different cropping systems in the study area. Accordingly, all LUTs were combined to 38 LUTs. Moreover, selection of leading land utilization type or crop and order of priority were based on seniority of physical, economic, social and environmental suitability and preferences.

LUTs combination proceeded in two steps. First combination was made within the sectors and second intersectoral combination.

3.4.1 Combination within sector

3.4.1.1 Crop

A total of 25 land utilization types were described but for evaluation these LUTs were combined to 12 combined LUTs.

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3.4.1.2 Livestock

In this agricultural production system raring of livestock for their value are selected for land suitability evaluation. Therefore; cattle production including fattening and dairy as (L1), Sheep and goat production (L2), Poultry production (L3) and apiculture as (L4) were combined for evaluation purpose in livestock production sub sector.

3.4.1.3 Forage

These LUTs are basically production of feed for animals either from natural pasture or improved forage development strategies. 13 Forage LUTs were described but for evaluation they were combined in to 9 LUTs: Natural pasture (FD1), Cowpea (FD2) representing Common vetch and oat, Alfalafa (FD3) with Stylo were combined for the purpose of land suitability evaluation; the other were consider as it is without combination as Napier grass (FD4), Sesbania (FD5), Tree Lucerne (FD6), Clover (FD7), Chibeha (FD8) representing Pigeon Pea and Rhodes grass(FD9).

3.4.1.4 Forest

Production forestry, Environmental forestry (conservation and protective forest) and Recreational forestry were identified general forest production sub sector. Howeve, Cordia africana(F1), Cupressus lustanica (F2),Pinus patula (F3), Pinus radiate(F4),Highland bamboo(F5),Eucalyptus globulus(F6),Eucalyptus grandis(F7), Eucalyptus camaldulensis(F8), Acacia albida (F9), Acacia syal(F10) and Gravillea Robusta(F11) specific forest LUTs are propose for land suitability evaluation.

3.4.1.5 Irrigation

In planning an irrigation scheme there are four main questions: where is to be, how much water is available, how much irrigable land, and will it pay? The first is answered through soil and hydrological survey, linked by qualitative evaluation. The second question requires quantitative hydrological studies, the third special purpose soil survey. Therefore, in this study in addition to assessing, how much water is available; how much irrigable land(command area) is there was answer considering irrigable systems as major LUTs using Terrain and soil assessment method. However crops combinations in association with irrigation system were identify in irrigation crop/forage production LUTs including sugarcane, lowland maize, food and malt barley, mango, Alfalfa,and Rhodes grass at intermediate and high level of

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3.4.1.6 Fishing

There may be degradation of the ecosystem by excessive off take Includes fishing from rivers, lakes and ponds. Artificial water bodies are also included, provided that these constructed other than for the primary purpose of fishing like water storage for irrigation or other uses. The sub basin has somewhat good potentialities for aquaculture development but temperature may be the major limiting factor. By using technologies, it is possible to modify the environmental factors. Culture fish in Tana sub basin are means of the livelihood of many fishers.

3.4.1.7 Tourism

For the purpose of land suitability analysis and mapping of the tourism development potential as a land use alternative in the propos land use plan the general tourist attraction value (Natural attraction value, Cultural attraction value, Historic and heritage attraction value, Recreational attraction value), with specific tourist Attraction Sites (Castles, Palaces, Archaeological Sites, Caves, Bridges, Monuments, Unique and Endangered Biodiversity Areas) were consider as one LUT named as tourist attraction potential(T1) and Lodge Sites as(L2) second LUT in this sector were consider in land evaluation process.

3.4.2 Intersectional Combinations

Generally in Tana sub basin project after complete list of LUTs in each sector identifying most relevant land utilization types through proper identification, selection and combination of existing and new and the land best suited that able to optimize the use of available potentials and overcome constraints; develop land requirement rating tables for land suitability evaluation . On the basis of the step wised process this report gives identified, described and selected 38 land utilization types taken as the land use basis of the evaluation. Of these LUTs 12 LUTs 5 rain fed cropping, 7 LUTs from irrigation agriculture,4 LUTs from primary livestock feed resources and 5 secondary livestock LUTs, including Apiculture,6 LUTs from forest and 2 LUTs Tourism , 2 LUTs from fishery and 1 for settlement ,wind farm and solar farm are respectively identifying in the study areas.

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Table 28: Combinations of LUTs for land suitability evaluation

Management Farming

Level system

S/N

Code Evaluated LUT Combine d Lo w Me diu m Hi gh Rai n Irri gat ion Irrigation system Haricot bean, soya Low land surfac CC1 bean, Low land √ √ √ √ √ Maize e 1 Sorghum Finger millet, High CC2 Teff √ √ √ √ 2 land sorghum, Enset 3 CC3 Rice √ √ √ √ surfac CC4 Malt barley √ √ √ √ √ 4 e Durum wheat, High surfac CC5 Bread wheat √ √ √ √ √ 5 land maize e Grass pea, P.pea, ,Saspania, Black CC6 Chick pea cumin, fenugreek, √ √ √ √ cow pea, 6 vetch,clover Carrot, potato, surfac CC7 Food barley Garlic, Head √ √ √ √ e 7 cabbage, Rye, oat Field pea, Lentil, CC8 Faba bean √ √ √ √ 8 Niger seed, Avocado, citrus CC9 Mango fruit, coffee, banana, √ √ √ √ Drip 9 papaya Tomato, sweet CC10 Onion potato , cassava, √ √ √ √ Drip 10 Pepper Sprink CC11 Sugar cane √ √ √ √ 11 ler High land CC12 √ √ √ √ 12 fruits Apple,plum,peach Natural grass and FD1 N.Pasture √ √ √ 13 shrub land 14 FD2 Alfalfa √ √ 15 FD3 N.Grass √ √ 16 FD4 R.Grass √ √ C.africana F1 for timber √ √ 18 production 19 F2 E.globulls C.lustanica,P.radiate √ √ 20 F3 H.bamboo P.patula,G.robusta √ √ E.camaldule F4 E.grandis √ √ 21 sis 22 F5 A.albida F.thunmshi, A.seyal √ √ 23 F6 Treelucern √ √

24 L1 Cattle fattening,dairy √ √ √

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Management Farming

Level system

S/N

Code Evaluated LUT Combine d Lo w Me diu m Hi gh Rai n Irri gat ion Irrigation system Production Sheep L2 goat Production √ √ √ 25 Production Poultry L3 √ √ √ 26 Production 27 L4 Apiculture √ √ √ Culture FF1 √ √ 28 fishery Capture FF2 √ √ √ 29 fishery Surface Irsu √ √ 30 irrigation Drip Irdr √ √ 31 irrigation Sprinklerirri Irsp √ √ 32 gation serious WH ponds,SSD,Aquacult √ √ 33 Farm pond ure Natural,Historical, cultural and √ Tourism recreationalattraction 34 T1 potential s

35 T2 Lodge Lodge, resort. √ Social institutions (School, market, √ 36 D1 Settlement kebelle centers.)

37 D2 Wind farm √

38 D3 Solar farm √

3.5 Land use requirements

3.5.1 Requirements for crop production, Forage and forest trees development

Having described the land utilization types the next step was to define the requirements for their successful operation which are land use requirements. For each land utilization type it is necessary to establish: the conditions which are best for its operation; the range of conditions which are less than optional but still acceptable; conditions which are unsatisfactory; and condition which are impossible.

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The first group of land use requirements is those related to the physiological requirements of the LUTs. Next, there are requirements arising from the management specification for the land utilization type, e.g. for mechanization where this is involved. Finally it is necessary for the land utilization type to be operable on a sustained basis, the effects of any possible erosion or soil degradation were considered. The three sets of land use requirements related to the efficient functioning of a land utilization type are: the physiological requirements of the crop or crops; management requirements: those related to the technology of management systems; and conservation requirements: for the avoidance of land degradation.

FAO 1983 and FAO guidelines on forestry lists down different LQs to be considered in land suitability evaluation. By no means will all of these qualities be relevant for assessing suitability for a given LUTs. Often three or four account for most of the variations in output. Thus, few of these LQs are found to be pertinent in suitability evaluation of identified LUTs in the project area. The recognition of these LQs is largely based on the LURs of LUTs. Relevant LQs also include those that create yield differences amongst mapping units. It also considered the available database in hand and local physical and socio-economic conditions.

. From such points of view, the recognized relevant LQs in the study area are included in table below. The table includes the diagnostic criteria or factors as explained. These diagnostic factors are land characteristics considered in evaluating a LQ to meet the LURs of LUTs.

The considered LQs include; temperature regime, moisture availability, oxygen availability, nutrient availability, rooting conditions and workability, erosion hazard, potential for mechanization and toxicities. In addition to these access to road and market are included for forest trees development

The LQs are rated by defining the severity level of LURs for selected LUTs. Ratings are categorized as highly suitable (s1), moderately suitable (s2), marginally suitable (s3) and not suitable (n). The ratings have been established based on national and local research findings, field experiences as well as considering discussions made with farmers and local agricultural experts.

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Table 29: Land qualities and symbols for suitability evaluation for rain-fed farming Land quality Symbol Diagnostic factors Symbol Temperature regime c Mean growing season temperature (oC) Tg Moisture availability m Length of growing days lgp Oxygen availability w Soil drainage (class) w Nutrient availability and n Topsoil organic matter content (%) som retention soil reaction ( pH) pH Topsoil phosphorus (ppm) P Topsoil total N (%) N Rooting conditions and r Effective soil depth (cm) sd workability Top soil texture (class) tex Stoniness (class) sto Mechanization Potential k Slope angle (%) slp Stoniness ( class) sto Degradation hazard e Slope steepness (%) slp Toxicity x salinity (mmhos/cm) ec Alkalinity (ESP %) esp

Temperature Regime (c)

Temperature regime (c) influences temperature requirements of crops. Temperature determines the rate of plant growth through its effect on the rates of photosynthesis and increase in leaf area that determine the rate of biomass accumulations. A very low temperature (<6.5oC) causes plants growth to cease, and hence a delay in growth seasons. Occurrence of frost due to low temperatures in the growing season could kill plants. The same is true in very high temperature conditions. Adverse effects of high temperatures occur for most crops above 35 0 c but it may extend up to 400 c for some forage plants. Thus, Land suitability rating of temperature requirement in relation to temperature regime for the LUTs is considered. Temperature regime can be formulated in various ways. In this study, it is partly formulated as mean temperature during the growing season. This rating is done considering the local crop patterns distribution, in consultation with agronomists and the temperature requirements of the crop in particular. For evaluation of forest trees annual mean temperature was considered.

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Moisture Availability (m)

Moisture is one of the most important land qualities, as all plants are affected by moisture availability. Plants are affected by moisture availability through the effect of moisture stress on growth, and the possible death of the crop through drought. Crops vary considerably in their response to moisture stress. In annual crops, the most likely period for complete crop failure through drought is during emergence and establishment before a deep rooting system has been established, in perennial, the problem is during the dry period.

Moisture availability is affected by climate, soil, landforms and hydrology. The initial determinant is the ratio between rainfall and potential evapotranspiration. Climatically- determined moisture deficiency is modified by soil moisture storage, being lower for sandy and/or shallow soils and higher for deep loam or well-structured clays. Further modifications are caused by valley flower situations receiving runoff, by seepage site, or by the presence of groundwater within rooting range.

Moisture availability to a crop can be assessed in different ways related to the scale of land suitability evaluation. In this study, mean annual rainfall, growing season rainfall and duration of the agro-climatic growing period are employed in evaluating water availability.

Rain fall

Rain fall distributions on a daily, weekly, or monthly basis (rather than annual total rainfall) are required to predict patterns of pasture growth. Anywhere in the tropics moisture deficits are the most limitation to pasture production .The amount of moisture that should be available for good growth and development of plants are however very different between natural vegetation for extensive grazing and crops. Natural pasture is better adapted to variable rain fall, surviving longer drought periods and making more efficient use of whatever moisture is available (FAO, 1991). Being the range of rain fall is given from 500 to 1500mm; 1000mm rain fall is taken as the best for natural grazing land pasture development for natural pasture.

Length of Growing Period

The growing period is the period of the year when both moisture and temperature conditions are favorable for plant growth (FAO, 1996 AEZ).Growth periods are those in which average precipitation equals or exceeds 50 percent of the potential evapo- tranpiration; an allowance is made for an extension of the growing period due to stored soil moisture, which for most soil

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Oxygen Availability (w)

Crops need to take oxygen through their roots, whose availability is reflected in subsoil saturation conditions or soil drainage. Excess rain, shallow ground water table, texture and topography affect drainage. Limited drainage negatively affects oxygen availability to a crop. Conversely, excessive drainage results in drought. These conditions are reflected in soil morphology. Therefore, presence of available oxygen can be evaluated by considering some of the soil morphological characteristics. The soil drainage class and a presence of mottles are good indicators of availability of oxygen in soil. In this study drainage class is employed in evaluating oxygen availability and in determining the oxygen requirement of LUTs.

Soil depth

Soil factors include both physical (depth, texture and structure) and chemical (adequate nutrient supply and soil acidity) which have significant effect on the growth as well as productivity of pastures. A wide variety of toxic substances may be found in the soil. Very small amounts of some substances that are normally toxic are essential for good plant growth, but excesses can cause poisoning to livestock. Soil depth is an essential land quality in pasture production since that gives roothold for the plant and provides a store of water. To evaluate the natural pasture productivity efficiency greater than 20 cm depth of soil is taken as an optimum for natural pasture.

Soil pH

Among common toxicities found in poorly drained areas is linked with potentially acid sulphate soils, and where pH value is low and falls below 3.0 that effectively kills many forage species (FAO, 1991). As of soil acidity, a pH value of about 4 is the lower value and does not necessarily inhibit plant growth. Extreme high pH values which are more than 8 affect the supply of essential nutrients to vegetation. So the best pH value is taken as 4 for natural pasture.

Nutrient Availability (n)

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Nutrient availability refers to the capacity of the soil to supply crops with nutrients. It determines supply of nutrient requirement at optimum levels and ratios at any time in the crop-growing season. Both quantity and optimum availability of crop nutrients are important in due considerations of nutrient availability.

Nutrient availability was assessed by; quantities of total nitrogen and available phosphors present in the topsoil. Besides, soil reaction as indicators of nutrient availability was considered. SOM also affects nutrient supply to plants. It may supply all N and much of the P requirements. SOM content is a good indicator of natural fertility of soils.

The nutrient availability can be evaluated in considering some or all of these specific LCs, such as discussed in this section. Taking into consideration of the general situations of the study area, the impact of nutrient availability in influencing nutrient requirement are assessed through contents of topsoil P, N and SOM and pH value. Furthermore, the capacity of the soil to retain nutrient is considered in certain cases to assess nutrient availability.

Rooting Conditions and Workability (r)

Rooting condition is more fully expressed as conditions for the development of an effective plant rooting system. Foothold for roots, which referred primarily to the function of roots in holding the plant in place and further function of extracting moisture and nutrients is restricted by effective soil depth and root penetration resistance. The effective soil depth is a depth to a root limiting horizon, such as rock, gravel, hardpan or toxic layer. Rooting condition is evaluated through land characteristics of effective soil depth and of texture characteristics. These follows considering the rooting depth requirements of the respective crop considered in the study.

Land workability is the ease with which the soil and/or land can be cultivated or tilled. It determines workability requirement (FAO, 1983). In the present study this refers to the limitation of tillage by machineries, ox-drawn implements and/or hand tools. Workability is related to soil texture, structure, consistence, bulk density, gravel and stone and landform characteristics. The soil properties also interact. A clayey soil associated with coarse blocky structure increases tillage difficulties. Soils with hard, sticky and plastic consistence are difficult to work. The hard dry consistence reduces plough penetrability and becomes cloudy. A very wet clayey soil will puddle, becomes sticky and plastic reducing its ease of workability. From these considerations, workability is evaluated by considering topsoil texture. Landform is considered in other aspects of LQs, it is not considered in evaluating

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Erosion Hazard (e)

Water erosion hazard can be a serious problem in the semi-arid zone like that of the present study area. Therefore, in the present land suitability evaluation erosion hazard indicator are included in the list of LQs (FAO, 1983). Susceptibility of land to physical loss of soil by water erosion is affected by interrelated factors such as climate, soil type, vegetation cover and management practices and landform. Soils having low infiltration rates accelerate rates of erosion. Infiltration is related to soil texture, structure, SOM level, soil depth, slope gradient and land cover.

Erosion hazard is evaluated in terms of slope steepness and susceptibility of land mapping units to water erosion. The land mapping units are rated in expressing erosion hazard considering their susceptibility to water erosion effected by slope.

Limitation (x)

Crop production is limited by a number of adverse soil, climatic and landform characteristics. These include occurrence of floods, frost, excess of salts and toxicity. The presence of excess salt and sodium are respectively indexed by electrical conductivity and ESP, is likely be a problem in crop production in some parts of the study area. However, presence of soil toxicity, frost and flood is unlikely to occur in the study area. Therefore, limitation in the present evaluation is assessed in terms of excess salts (subdivisions: salinity and sodicity/ or alkalinity) using electrical conductivity of the saturation extract and exchangeable sodium percentage respectively.

Potential for Mechanization (k)

This quality refers to conditions of the land which specifically affect mechanized agricultural operations. It is distinct from workability, which refers to ease of cultivation by any kind of implements. The conditions of land which act as limitations to mechanization are slope, poor drainage conditions, rock hindrances, stoniness or extreme shallowness of the soil and the presence of heavy clays. Micro relief may sometimes add an extra impediment to mechanization such as termite mounds or many gullies. In this study, being applicable to a

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Table 30: Factor rating table for rain fed Teff production at low level of management Suitability rating LQ LC Unit S1 S2 S3 N Mean 7.5-10;25- c (0 c) 12.5-.0-20 10-12.5;20-25 <7.5;>27 temperature 27 m LGP Days 120=150 90-120:180 65-90: <65:>210 w Soil drainage Class W,M I P,S E,V Eff. soil depth Cm >50 25-50 15-25 <15 r Soil texture Class SiL-Si, SL,L SCL, SC, SiCL LS,C S, HC Stoniness A N,V,F,C M A D e Slope angle (%) 0-8 8-15 15-30 >30 Soil reaction pH 5.5-8.0 8-8.5 4.5-5.5 <4.5, >8.5 n Organic matter (%) ≥3 2-3 1-2 <1 Top soil N (%) ≥0.2 0.1 -0.2 0.05-0.1 <0.05 Top soil P Ppm ≥10 5-10 3-5 <3

Table 31: Ratings table for Rain fed Teff production at medium level of management Suitability range/factor rating LQ LC Unit S1 S2 S3 N c Mean temperature (0 c) 12.5-.0-20 10-12.5;20-25 7.5-10;25-27 <7.5;>27.0 m LGP Days 120-150 90-120;150- 75-90;170- <75;>180 170 180 w Soil drainage Class W,M,I P S E,V r Eff. soil depth Cm >50 25-50 15-25 <15 Soil texture SiL-Si, Class SCL,SC,SiCL LS,C S, HC SL,L Stoniness Abundance N,V,F,C M A D e Slope angle (%) 0-15 15-30 30-45 >45 n Soil reaction pH 5.0-8.0 4.5-5;8.0-8.5 4.0-4.5 <4.0, >8.5

Organic matter (%) >2 1-2 0.5-1 <0.5

Top soil N (%) ≥0.05 0.03 -0.05 0.01-0.03 <0.01 Top soil P ppm ≥5 3-5 1-3 <1

Table 32: Rating table for Rain fed Teff production at high level of management

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LQ LC Unit Suitability range/factor rating S1 S2 S3 N c Mean (0 c) 12.5-.0-20 10-12;20-25 7.5-10,25- <7.5;>27 temperature 27 m LGP Days 120-150 90-120;150- 75-90;170- <75;>180 170 180 w Soil drainage Class W,M,I,P S E,V - r Eff. soil depth Cm >50 25-50 15-25 <15 Soil texture Class SiL-Si, SL,L SCL,SC,SiCL LS,C S, HC k Slope gradient (%) 0-8 8-12 12-16 >16 Stoniness Abundance N,VF,F,C M A D

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Table 33: Ratings table for Rain fed low land maize production at low level management Land use Land Unit Suitability range/factor rating requirement characteristics S1 S2 S3 N Temperature Mean (0 c) 26-35.0 35.0-40.0 22.0-26.0 <22.0;>40.0 regime temperature Growing LGP Day 105-150 150-180 180-210 <85:>210 period Oxygen Soil drainage Class W M S,I V-P,E availability Rooting Effective soil Cm >100 50-100 30-50 <30 condition & depth workability Soil texture SiL-Si, Class SCL,SC,SiCL LS,C S, HC SL,L Stoniness Abundance N,V,F,C M A D Topography Slope gradient (%) 0-8 8-15 15-30 >30

Soil fertility Soil reaction pH 5.5-6.5 5.0-5.5;6.5-7.0 7.0-8.0 <5,>8.0

Organic matter (%) >3 2-3 1-2 <1

Top soil N (%) ≥0.5 0.2 -0.5 0.1-0.2 <0.1 Top soil P Ppm ≥15 10-15 5-10 <5

Table 34: Factor Rating for Rain fed low land maize production at medium level of management LQ LC Unit Rating S1 S2 S3 N c Mean (0 c) 26-35.0 35.0-40.0 22.0-26.0 <22;>40 temperature m LGP Day 105-150 90-105 85-90 <85 w Soil drainage Class W,M I,S P V-,E r Effective soil Cm >100 50-100 30-50 <30 depth Soil texture Class SiL-Si, SL,L SCL,SC,SiCL LS,C S, HC Stoniness Abundance N,V,F,C M A D e Slope (%) 0-8 8-15 15-30 >30 gradient n Soil reaction pH 5.0-6.5 6.5-7.5 7.5-8.5 <5,>8.5

Organic (%) >2 1-2 0.5-1 <0.5 matter Top soil N (%) ≥0.05 0.03 -0.05 0.01-0.03 <0.01 Top soil P Ppm ≥5 3-5 1-3 <1

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Table 35: Factor Rating for Rain fed low land maize production at high level of management LQ LC Unit Suitability range/factor rating S1 S2 S3 N c Mean temperature (0 c) 26-35.0 35-40 22.0-26.0 <22;>40 m LGP Day 105-150 90-105 85-90 <85 w Soil drainage Class W,M,I S,P E,V - r Effective soil depth Cm >100 50-100 30-50 <30

Soil texture Class SiL-Si, SL,L SCL,SC,SiCL LS,C S, HC Stoniness A N,V,F,C M A D e Slope gradient (%) 0-8 8-15 15-30 >30 k Slope gradient (%) 0-8 8-12 12-16 >16

Stoniness A N,VF,F C M A,D

Table 36 Requirement Ratings for Rain fed food barley production at low level management L LC Unit Suitability rating Q S1 S2 S3 N c Mean (0 c) 10-18 7.5-10;18-25 5-7.5 <5;>25 temperature m LGP Day 120-146 80-120;146-180 70-80 <70;>180 w Soil drainage Class W M, S I V, P, E r Eff. soil Cm >100 50-100 30-50 <30 depth Soil texture SiL-Si, Class SCL,SC,SiCL LS,C S, HC SL,L Stoniness A N,V,F,C M A D r Slope (%) 0-8 8-15 15-30 >30 gradient n Soil reaction pH 5.5-8.0 8.0-8.5 4.5-5.5 <4.5; >8.5 Organic (%) >3 2-3 1-2 <1 matter 0.05- Top soil N (%) ≥0.4 0.1 -0.4 <0.05 0.1 Top soil P ppm ≥10 5-10 2-5 <2

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Table 37: Requirement Ratings for Rain fed food barley production: medium level management LQ LC Unit Suitability range/factor rating S1 S2 S3 N c Mean (0 c) 10-18 7.5-10;18-25 5-7.5 <5;>25 temperature m LGP Day 120-146 80-120 70-80 <70 Drainage Soil drainage Class W,M S,I P,E V r Eff. soil depth Cm >100 50-100 30-50 <30

Soil texture Class SiL-Si, SL,L SCL,SC,SiCL LS,C S, HC Stoniness (%) 0-10 10-15 15-40 >40

Topography Slope gradient (%) 0-8 8-15 15-30 >30

Soil fertility Soil reaction pH 5.0-8.0 4.5-5.0 4.0-4.5 <4.0; >9.0 8.0-8.5 8.5-9.0 Organic matter (%) >2 1-2 0.5-1 <0.5 Top soil N (%) ≥0.03 0.02 -0.03 0.01-0.02 <0.01

Top soil P Ppm ≥4 3-4 1-3 <1

Table 38: Requirement Ratings for Rain fed food barley production: high level management LQ LC Unit Suitability range/factor rating S1 S2 S3 N Temperature Mean (0 c) 10-18 7.5-10;18-25 5-7.5 <5;>25 regime temperature Growing period LGP Day 120-180 180-210 210-250 Drainage Soil drainage Class W,M,I S,P E,V - Rooting Eff. soil depth Cm >100 50-100 30-50 <30 condition & Soil texture SiL-Si, workability Class SCL,SC,SiCL LS,C S, HC SL,L Stoniness Abundance N,V,F,C M A D

Topography Slope gradient (%) 0-8 8-15 15-30 >30

Potential for Slope gradient (%) 0-8 8-12 12-16 >16 mechanization Stoniness abundance N,VF,F C M A,D

Table 39: Requirement Ratings for Rain fed malt barley production: low management level Land use Land Unit Suitability range/factor rating requirement characteristics S1 S2 S3 N

Temperature Mean (0 c) 10.0-17.5 7.5-10;17.5- 5.0-7.5;20.0- <5.0;>22.5 regime temperature 20.0 22.5

Growing period LGP Day 130-180 180-210 >210 Drainage Soil drainage Class M, W S I V, P, E

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Land use Land Unit Suitability range/factor rating requirement characteristics S1 S2 S3 N

Rooting Eff. soil depth Cm >100 50-100 25-50 <25 condition & Soil texture SiL-Si, workability Class SCL,SC,SiCL LS,C S, HC SL,L N,V,F, Stoniness A M A D C

Topography Slope gradient (%) 0-15 15-30 30-45 >45

Soil fertility Soil reaction pH 5.0-7.0 4.5-5.0 - <4.5; >8.0 7.0-8.0 Organic (%) >2 1-2 <1 - matter Top soil N (%) 0.2-0.5 0.1 -0.2 0.05-0.1 <0.05

Top soil P Ppm ≥10 5-10 2-5 <2

Table 40: Requirement Ratings for Rain fed malt barley production : medium management level Land use Land Unit Suitability range/factor rating requirement characteristics S1 S2 S3 N Temperature Mean (0 c) 10.0-17.5 7.5-10;17.5- 5.0-7.5;20.0- <5.0;>22.5 regime temperature 20.0 22.5 Growing period LGP Day 130-180 120-130;180- 90-120 <90;>200 200 Oxygen Soil drainage Class M, W S I V, P, E availability Rooting Eff. soil depth Cm >100 50-100 25-50 <25 condition & Soil texture SiL-Si, workability Class SCL,SC,SiCL LS,C S, HC SL,L Stoniness Abund N,V,F,C M A D ance Topography Slope gradient (%) 0-15 15-30 30-45 >45

Soil fertility Soil reaction pH 4.5.-7.0 7.0-8.0 4.0-4.5;8.0- <4.5; >8.5 8.5 Organic matter (%) >1 <1 - - Top soil N % ≥0.03 0.02 -0.03 0.01-0.02 <0.01

Top soil P Ppm ≥4 3-4 1-3 <1

Table 41: Requirement Ratings for Rain fed malt barley production: high management level Land use Land Unit Suitability range/factor rating requirement characteristics S1 S2 S3 N Temperature Mean (0 c) 10.0-17.5 7.5-10;17.5- 5.0-7.5; <5.0;>2 regime temperature 20.0 20.0-22.5 2.5 Growing period LGP Day 130-180 120-130;180- 90-120 <90;>20 200 0 Oxygen Soil drainage Class M, W S I V, P, E availability Rooting Eff. soil depth Cm >100 50-100 25-50 <25 condition & Soil texture SiL-Si, workability Class SCL,SC,SiCL LS,C S, HC SL,L

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Abundanc Stoniness N,V,F,C M A D e

Potential for Slope gradient (%) 0-8 8-12 12-16 >16 mechanization Stoniness abundance N,VF,F C M A,D

Table 42: Requirement Ratings for Rain fed bread wheat production: low management level Land use Land Unit Suitability range/factor rating requirement characteristics S1 S2 S3 N Temperature Mean (0 c) 15.0-20.0 12.5-15.0; 23- <10;>25 regime temperature 20.0-23 25;10.0-15

Growing period LGP Day 130-180 180-210 >210 Ox. availability Soil drainage Class W M I, S V, P, E Rooting condition Eff. soil depth cm >100 50-100 25-50 <25 & workability Soil texture SiL-Si, Class SCL,SC,SiCL LS,C S, HC SL,L Stoniness Abundance N,V,F,C M A D

Topography Slope gradient (%) 0-8 8-15 15-30 >30

Soil fertility Soil reaction pH 5.5-7.5 7.5-8.5;4.5-5.5 4.0-4.5 <4.0; >8.5 Organic (%) >3 2-3 1-2 <1 Matter Top soil N (%) ≥0.5 0.2 -0.5 0.1-0.2 <0.1

Top soil P ppm ≥15 10-15 5-10 <5

Table 43: Requirement Ratings for Rain fed bread wheat production: medium management level LQ Land Unit Suitability range/factor rating characteristics S1 S2 S3 N Temperature Mean (0 c) 15.0-20.0 12.5-15; 20.0-23 23-25;10.0- <10;>25 regime temperature 15 Growing LGP day 120-150 100-120;150-170 90-100;170- <90;>180 period 180 Ox.availability Soil drainage class W,M I,S P V, E Rooting Eff.Soil depth cm >100 50-100 25-50 <25 condition & workability Soil texture Class SiL-Si, SL,L SCL,SC,SiCL LS,C S, HC Stoniness A N,V,F,C M A D

Topography Slope (%) 0-8 8-15 15-30 >30

Soil fertility Soil reaction pH 4.5-8.0 4.0-4.5;8.0-8.5 - <4.0; >8.5 Org.Matter (%) >2 1-2 <1 - Top soil N (%) ≥0.05 0.03 -0.05 0.01-0.03 <0.01

Top soil P ppm ≥5 3-5 1-3 <1

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Table 44: Requirement Ratings for Rain fed bread wheat production: high management level Land use Land Unit Suitability range/factor rating requirement characteristics S1 S2 S3 N Temperature Mean (0 c) 15.0-20.0 12.5-15; 20- 23-25;10.0- <10;>25 regime temperature 23 15

Growing period LGP day 120-150 100-120;150- 90-100;170- <90;>180 170 180 Oxygen Soil drainage class W,M I,S,P V,E - availability Rooting Effective soil cm >100 50-100 25-50 <25 condition and depth workability Soil texture SiL-Si, Class SCL,SC,SiCL LS,C S, HC SL,L Stoniness Abundance N,V,F,C M A D

Potential for Slope gradient (%) 0-8 8-15 15-20 >20 mechanization Stoniness abundance N,VF,F C M A,D

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Table 45: Requirement Ratings for Rain fed Paddy rice production: low management leve Land use Land Unit Suitability range/factor rating requirement characteristics S1 S2 S3 N Temperature Mean (0 c) 20-35 15-20;35-40 10-15 <10;>40 regime temperature Growing period LGP day 90-135 80-90;135- 65-80 <65 150 Oxygen Soil drainage class I,P,V M - W,E,S availability Rooting Effective soil cm >50 30-50 25-30 <25 condition & depth workability Soil texture SiL-Si, SCL,SC,SiC Class LS,C S, HC SL,L L Stoniness A N,V,F,C M A D

Topography Slope gradient (%) 0-2 2-5 5-8 >8

Soil fertility Soil reaction pH 5.5-7.5 4.5-5.5;7.5- 3.5-4.5 <3.5,>8.5 8.5 Organic (%) >3 2-3 1-2 <1 matter Top soil N (%) >0.5 0.2 -0.5 0.1-0.2 <0.1

Top soil P ppm ≥15 10-15 5-10 <5

Table 46 Requirement Ratings for Rain fed rice production: medium management levelLand LQ Land Unit Suitability range/factor rating characteristics S1 S2 S3 N c Mean temperature (0 c) 20-35 15-20;35-40 10-15 <10;>40 Growing LGP day 90-135 80-90;135-150 65-80 <65 period Oxygen Soil drainage class I,P,V M - W,E,S availability r Effective soil depth cm >50 30-50 25-30 <25 Soil texture SCL, SC, Class SiL-Si, SL,L LS,C S, HC SiCL Stoniness A N,V,F,C M A D

Topography Slope gradient (%) 0-2 2-5 5-8 >8

Soil fertility Soil reaction pH 4.5-8.5 3.5-4.5 3.0-3.5 <3.0, >8.5

Organic matter (%) >2 1-2 0.5-1 <0.5 Top soil N (%) >0.05 0.03 -0.05 0.01-0.03 <0.01

Top soil P ppm ≥5 3-5 1-3 <1

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Table 47: Requirement Ratings for Rain paddy fed rice production: high management level Land use Land Unit Suitability range/factor rating requirement characteristics S1 S2 S3 N Temperature Mean (0 c) 20.0-35.0 15-20;35-40 10-15 <10;>40 regime temperature Growing period LGP day 90-135 80-90;135- 65-80 <65 150 Oxygen Soil drainage class I,P,V M W E,S availability Rooting Effective soil cm >50 30-50 25-30 <25 condition & depth workability Soil texture SiL-Si, Class SCL,SC,SiCL LS,C S, HC SL,L Stoniness Abundance N,V,F,C M A D

Topography Slope gradient (%) 0-5 5-8 8-15 >15

Potential for Slope gradient (%) 0-8 8-15 15-20 >20 mechanization Stoniness abundance N,VF,F C M A,D

Table 48: Requirement Ratings for Rain fed Faba bean production: low management level Land use Land Unit Suitability range requirement characteristics S1 S2 S3 N Temperature Mean (0 c) 10-22.5 7.5-10;22.5- 25-27 <10;>27 regime temperature 25 Oxygen Soil drainage class W M,S E V, I,P availability Rooting Effective soil cm >50 30-50 20-30 <20 condition & depth workability Soil texture SiL-Si, Class SCL,SC,SiCL LS,C S, HC SL,L Stoniness Abundance N,V,F,C M A D

Topography Slope angle (%) 0-8 8-15 15-30 >30

Soil fertility Soil reaction pH 6.0-7.0 5-6;7-8.5 4.5-5 <4.5, >8.5 Organic Matter (%) >2 1-2 0.5-1 <0.5 Top soil P ppm ≥10 5-10 1-5 <1

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Table 49: Requirement Ratings for Rain fed Faba bean production: medium management level Land use Land Unit Suitability range requirement characteristics S1 S2 S3 N Temperature Mean (0 c) 10-22.5 7.5-10;22.5- 25-27 <10;>27 regime temperature 25 Growing period LGP day 100-170 90-100 75-90 <75 Oxygen Soil drainage class W,M S,I P V, E availability Rooting Effective soil cm >50 30-50 20-30 <20 condition & depth workability Soil texture SiL-Si, Class SCL,SC,SiCL LS,C S, HC SL,L Stoniness Abundance N,V,F,C M A D

Topography Slope angle (%) 0-8 8-15 15-30 >30

Soil fertility Soil reaction pH 5.0-6.0 4.5-5;6-8.5 - <4.5, >8.5 Organic Matter (%) 1-2 0.5-1 0.25-0.5 <0.25 Top soil P ppm ≥4 3-4 1-3 <1

Table 50: Requirement Ratings for Rain fed Faba bean production: high management level Land use Land Unit Suitability range requirement characteristics S1 S2 S3 N Temperature Mean (0 c) 10-22.5 7.5-10;22.5- 25-27 <10;>27 regime temperature 25 Growing period LGP day 100-170 90-100 75-90 <75 Oxygen Soil drainage class W,M S,I,P - V, E availability Rooting Effective soil cm >50 30-50 20-30 <20 condition & depth workability Soil texture SiL-Si, Class SCL,SC,SiCL LS,C S, HC SL,L Stoniness Abundance N,V,F,C M A D

Topography Slope angle (%) 0-8 8-15 15-30 >30

Potential for Slope gradient (%) 0-8 8-15 15-20 >20 mechanization Stoniness abundance N,VF,F C M A,D

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Table 51: Requirement Ratings for Rain fed Chick pea production: low management level LQ LC Unit Suitability range S1 S2 S3 N Temperature Mean (0 c) 15-27 12-15;27-30 10-12;30- <10;>32 regime temperature 32 Growing period LGP day 90-150 80-90;150- 70-80;170- <70 170 185 Oxygen availability Soil drainage class W,M I S V, P, E Rooting condition Effective soil cm >60 40-60 25-40 <25 & workability) depth Soil texture SiL-Si, Class SCL,SC,SiCL LS,C S, HC SL,L Stoniness Abundance N,V,F,C M A D

Topography slope angle (%) 0-8 8-15 15-30 >30

Soil fertility Soil reaction pH 6.0-8.0 5.5-6;8.0-9 5.0-5.5;9- <5 10.5 Organic (%) >2 1-2 0.5-1.0 - Matter Top soil P ppm ≥10 5-10 1-5 <1

Table 52: Requirement Ratings for Rain fed Chick pea production: medium management level LQ LC Unit Suitability range S1 S2 S3 N Temperature Mean (0 c) 15-27 12-15;27-30 10-12;30-32 <10;>32 regime temperature Growing period LGP day 90-150 80-90; 150-170 70-80;170-185 <70 Oxygen availability Soil drainage class W,M I S V, P, E Rooting condition Effective soil cm >60 40-60 25-40 <25 & workability) depth Soil texture SiL-Si, Class SCL,SC,SiCL LS,C S, HC SL,L Stoniness A N,V,F,C M A D

Topography slope angle (%) 0-8 8-15 15-30 >30

Soil fertility Soil reaction pH 6.0-8.0 5.5-6.0 5.0-5.5 <5 8.0-9.0 9.0-10.5 Organic (%) 1-2 0.5-1 0.25-0.5 <0.25 Matter Top soil P ppm ≥4 3-4 1-3 <1

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Table 53: Requirement Ratings for Rain fed Chick pea production: high management level LQ LC Unit Suitability range S1 S2 S3 N Temperature Mean (0 c) 15-27 12-15;27-30 10-12;30-32 <10;>32 regime temperature Growing LGP day 90-150 80-90;150-170 70-80;170- <70 period 185 Oxygen Soil drainage class W,M I,P V E,S availability Rooting Effective soil cm >60 40-60 25-40 <25 condition & depth workability) Soil texture SiL-Si, Class SCL,SC,SiCL LS,C S, HC SL,L Abundanc Stoniness N,V,F,C M A D e

Topography slope angle (%) 0-8 8-15 15-30 >30

Potential for Slope gradient (%) 0-8 8-15 15-20 >20 mechanization Stoniness abundance N,VF,F C M A,D

Table 54 Requirement Ratings for irrigated Sugar cane production: low management level Land Quality Diagnostic factor Unit S1 S2 S3 N Annual Mean < 15 Temperature Regime temp. for growing 0 c 20-35 17-20 15-17 period Oxygen Availability Soil drainage class class W,M,I E,S,P V - Soil OM % >3 2-3 1-2 <1 5.0-5.5 4.0-5.0 <4.0 Soil Reaction PH 5.5-8.0 8.0-9.0 9.-10 >10.0 Top soil N (%) ≥0.5 0.1- Soil fertility 0.2 -0.5 <0.1 0.2

Top soil P ppm ≥10 5-10 2-5 <2

Eff. soil depth cm >100 75-100 50-75 <50 Rooting Condition and workability Stoniness A N,V,F,C M A D

Salinity(EC) mmhos/cm <4 4-6 6-10 >10 Toxicities Sodicity (ESP) % 0-8 8-12 12-15 >15 Erosion Hazard Slope steepness % 0-5 5-8 8-15 >15

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Table 55: Requirement Ratings for irrigated Sugar cane production at medium management level Land Diagnostic factor Unit S1 S2 S3 N Quality Tem. 15-18 < 15 mean temprature 0 22-35 18-22 Regime 35-40 > 40 Ox.Availabil Soil drainage class W,M,I E,S,P V - ity Soil OM % >3 2-3 1-2 <1 5.0-5.5 4.0-5.0 <4.0 Soil Reaction PH 5.5-8.0 8.0-9.0 9.0-10.0 >10.0 Soil fertility Top soil N >0.05 0.03 -0.05 0.01-0.03 <0.01 ≥0.05

Top soil P ≥5 3-5 1-3 <1 ≥5

Rooting Eff. soil depth cm >100 75-100 50-75 <50 Condition Soil texture Class SiL-Si, SL,L SCL,SC,SiCL LS,C S, HC and Stoniness A N,V,F,C M A D workability mmhos Salinity(EC) <8 8-10 10-15 >15 Toxicities /cm Sodicity/Alkalinity (ESP) 0-12 8-12 12-15 >15 Erosion Slope steepness % 0-5 5-8 8-15 >15 Hazard Potential for Slope steepness % 0 - 2 2 - 5 5 - 8 > 8 mechanizati abunda N,VF,F,C M A D Stoniness on nce

Table 56: Requirement Ratings for irrigated Sugar cane production at medium management level LQ LC Unit S1 S2 S3 N 15-18 < 15 Annual Mean c temprature 0 c 22-35 18-22 35-40 > 40 Effective soil depth Cm >100 75-100 50-75 <50 Soil texture Class SiL-Si, SL,L SCL,SC,SiCL LS,C S, HC r Stoniness A N,V,F,C M A D Salinity(EC) mmhos/cm <8 8-10 10-15 >15 x Sodicity/ ESP) % 0-12 8-12 12-15 >15 e Slope steepness % 0-5 5-8 8-15 >15 Slope steepness % 0 - 5 5 - 8 8- 15 > 15 abundance N,VF,F,C M A D K Stoniness

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Table 57: Requirement Ratings for irrigated Onion production: low management level LQ LC Rating

Unit S1 S2 S3 N

annual Mean 16-18 13-16 <13 c (0 c) 18-26 temperature 26-30 30-35 >35 w Soil drainage Class MW,W S E,I V,P

Effective soil depth Cm >30 25 - 30 20 - 25 <20

Stoniness Abundance N,V,F,C M A D 5.5-6.0 5-5.5 <5.0 Soil reaction pH 6.0-6.8 6.8-7.5 7.5-8.0 > 8.0 Organic matter (%) ≥ 4 2-4 1-2 <1 n >0.5 0.2 -0.5 0.1-0.2 <0.1 Top soil N

>15 10-15 5-10 <5 Top soil P

Salinity(EC) mmhos/cm 0-2 2-4 4-8 >8 x Toxicities ESP % 0-10 10-15 15-30 > 30 e Slope steepness % 0-8 8-15 15-30 30-209

Table 58: Requirement Ratings for irrigated Onion production at medium management level LQ LC Factor rating

Unit S1 S2 S3 N

16-18 13-16 <13 c Mean temperature (0 c) 18-26 26-30 30-35 >35 w Soil drainage Class MW,W S E,I V,P SiL-Si, Soil texture Class SCL,SC,SiCL LS,C S, HC SL,L r Effective soil depth Cm >30 25 - 30 20 - 25 <20

Stoniness Abundance N,V,F,C M A D 4.5-5.5 5.5-7.5 <4.5 Soil reaction pH 5.5.0-7.5 7.5-8.0 7.5-8.5 > 8.5 n Organic matter (%) > 2 1-2 0.5- 1 <0.5 Top soil N % >0.05 0.03 -0.05 0.01-0.03 <0.01 Top soil P ppm >5 3-5 1-3 <1 Salinity(EC) mmhos/cm 0-2 2-4 4-8 >8 x Toxicities ESP % 0-15 15-20 20-30 > 30 e Slope steepness % 0-8 8-15 15-30 > 30

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Table 59: Requirement Ratings for irrigated Onion production: high management level LQ LC Factor rating

Unit S1 S2 S3 N

Mean 16-18 13-16 <13 c (0 c) 18-26 temperature 26-30 30-35 >35 w Soil drainage Class MW,W S E,I V,P SiL-Si, Soil texture Class SCL,SC,SiCL LS,C S, HC SL,L r Eff. soil depth Cm >30 25 - 30 20 - 25 <20 Stoniness A N,V,F,C M A D e Slope steepness % 0-8 8-15 15-30 > 30 Slope steepness % 0 - 2 2 – 5 5 - 8 > 8 k Stoniness abundance N,VF,F,C M A D

Table 60: Requirement Ratings for irrigated Mango production at low management level LUR Factor Rating L LC Unit S1 S2 S3 N Q c Annual Mean 0 c 20-24 17-20 15-17 0-15 Temp w Soil drainage Class W, S, E M I V, P class n Soil OM % >3 2-3 1- 2 < 1 Reaction PH 5.5 - 7.5 5.0 – 5.5;7.5 - 4.5 – 5; 8.0-8.5 < 4.5;> 8.0 8.5 Top soil N (%) ≥0.5 0.2 -0.5 0.1-0.2 <0.1 Top soil P ppm >15 10-15 5-10 <5 r Eff. soil depth Cm 100-250 90-100 75.90 < 75 Soil texture SiL-Si, Class SCL,SC,SiCL LS,C S, HC SL,L Stoniness Ae N,V,F,C M A D x Salinity(EC) mmho <4 4-8 - > 8 s/cm ESP % 0 - 7 7 - 13 13 - 15 > 15

Table 61: Requirement Ratings for irrigated Mango production at medium management level LUR Factor Rating LQ LC Unit S1 S2 S3 N c Mean 0 c 24.0 – 35.0 22-24; 35 17.5 - 22;38 – 40 < 17.5;> temperature – 38 40 w Soil drainage Class W, S, E,M I - V, P class n Soil OM % >2 1-2 0.5- 1 < 0.5

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Reaction pH 4.5 - 7.5 4.0 – 4.5; 8.0-8.5 < 4.0;> 7.5 -8 8.5 Top N (%) ≥0.05 0.03 -0.05 0.01-0.03 <0.01 Top P ppm >5 3-5 1-3 <1 r Effective soil Cm >150 100 - 150 90-100 < 90 depth Soil texture SiL-Si, SCL,SC,S Class LS,C S, HC SL,L iCL Abund Stoniness ance N,V,F,C M A D x Salinity(EC) mmhos 0 - 4 4 – 8 8-15 > 15 /cm ESP % 0 - 7 7 – 13 13 - 15 > 15

Table 62: Requirement Ratings for irrigated Mango production at high management level LUR Factor Rating LQ LC Unit S1 S2 S3 N c Mean 0 c 24.0 – 35.0 22 - 24;35 – 17.5 - 22;38 – < 17.5;> temperature 38 40 40 w Soil drainage Class W, S, E,M I - V, P class Effective soil Cm >150 100 – 150 90-100 < 90 r depth Soil texture SiL-Si, SCL,SC,SiC Class LS,C S, HC SL,L L

Stoniness A N,V,F,C M A D k Slope steepness % 0 - 8 8 – 10 10 - 15 > 15 Stoniness A N,VF,F C M A,D

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Table 63: Requirement Ratings for irrigated high land fruits production: low management level LUR Factor Rating LQ LC Unit S1 S2 S3 N c Mean Temp 0 c 10.0-17.5 7.5- 5.0-7.5;20.0-22.5 <5.0;>22 10;17.5- .5 20.0 w Soil Class W, S, E M I V, P drainage class n Soil OM % >3 2-3 1- 2 < 1 Soil PH 5.5 - 7.5 5.0 – 4.5 – 5; 8.0-8.5 < 4.5;> Reaction 5.5;7.5 -8.0 8.5 Top soil N (%) ≥0.5 0.2 -0.5 0.1-0.2 <0.1 Top soil P ppm >15 10-15 5-10 <5 r Effective Cm 100-250 75-100 60-75 < 60 soil depth Abund Stoniness ance N,V,F,C M A D x Salinity(EC) mmhos <4 4-8 - > 8 /cm ESP % 0 - 7 7 – 13 13 - 15 > 15

Table 64: Requirement Ratings for irrigated high land fruits production: Medium management level LUR Factor Rating LQ LC Unit S1 S2 S3 N c Mean 0 c 10.0-17.5 7.5-10;17.5- 5.0-7.5;20.0- <5.0;>22 temperature 20.0 22.5 .5 w Soil drainage Class W, S, E,M I - V, P class n Soil OM % >2 1-2 0.5- 1 < 0.5 Reaction pH 4.5 - 7.5 4.0 – 4.5; 7.5 - 8.0-8.5 < 4.0;> 8 8.5 Top N (%) ≥0.05 0.03 -0.05 0.01-0.03 <0.01 Top P ppm >5 3-5 1-3 <1 r Effective soil Cm >150 100 – 150 90-100 < 90 depth Soil texture SiL-Si, Class SCL,SC,SiCL LS,C S, HC SL,L Stoniness A N,V,F,C M A D x Salinity(EC) mmhos/c 0 - 4 4 – 8 8-15 > 15 m ESP % 0 - 7 7 – 13 13 – 15 > 15

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Table 65: Requirement Ratings for irrigated high land fruits production: high management level LUR Factor Rating LQ LC Unit S1 S2 S3 N c Mean 0 c 10.0-17.5 7.5-10;17.5- 5.0-7.5; <5.0;>22.5 temperature 20.0 20.-22.5 w Soil drainage Class W, S, E,M I - V, P class Eff. soil depth Cm >150 100 – 150 90-100 < 90 r Soil texture SiL-Si, Class SCL,SC,SiCL LS,C S, HC SL,L Stoniness A N,V,F,C M A D k Slope steepness % 0 - 8 8 – 10 10 - 15 > 15 Stoniness A N,VF,F C M A,D

Table 66 Environmental requirements of natural pasture production at low level of management LQ LC Unit Suitability Class S1 S2 S3 N Soil characters Soil Depth cm >20 18-20 15-18 <15 Existing land cover Cover types class 5,8,6 4 3, 2, 1, 7 Nutrient Organic matter % > 3 3-Feb 2-Jan < 1 Land cover class 1(Built-up area); 2 (Cultivated land);3 (Forest land);4 (Bush and shrub land);5 (Grass land); 6 (Wetland); 7 (Water body) and 8 (Afro alpine and sub-afro-alpine vegetation) Table 67: Rating table for natural pasture production at intermediate level of management LUR/LQ LC Unit Suitability Class S1 S2 S3 n Soil characters Soil Depth Cm >20 18-20 15-20 <15 Slope Slope % 0-16 16-30 30-45 >45 Existing cover Cover class class 5,8,6 4 3, 2, 1, 7 SOM SOM % >2.5 2-2.5 2-Jan < 1

Table 68: Rating table for natural pasture production at high level of management LUR LC Unit Suitability Class S1 S2 S3 N Rooting condition Soil depth cm >20 18-20 15-20 <1 Slope Slope % 0-30 30-45 45-60 >60 Land cover Cover class class 5,6,8 4 4,2,1 7 SOM SOM % > 2 1.5-2 1-1.5 < 1

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Table 69: Rating table for Alfalfa production at low level of management Range of suitability LQ LC Unit S1 S2 S3 N c Growing period 0 c 20-24 18-20 16-18 0-16 temperature 34-35 35-36 > 36 m Growing period mm 400-1175 1175-1500 100-2275 < 100 rainfall e slope % 0-5 5-15 15-30 n Salinity/sodicity pH 6.5-8 6-6.5 5-5.5 < 5.5 8-8.5 8.5-9 > 9 r Soil depth Cm > 50 30-50 15-30 < 15 n SOM % > 3 2-3 1-2 < 1

Table 70: Rating table of Alfalfa production at intermediate level of management LQ LC Un Range of suitability it S1 S2 S3 N Temperature Mean 0 c 22-34 20-22 18-20 <18 regime temperature 34-35 35-36 > 36 Moisture Amount of m 400-1175 300-400 100-300 <100 availability rain fall m 1175-1500 1500-2500 > 2500 Topography/slope Land form % 0-5 08-May 16-Aug > 16

Soil reaction Salinity/sodic pH 6-8.5 5.5-6 5-5.5 <5 ity 8.5-9 9-9.5 > 9.5 Rooting condition Effective soil Cm > 50 30-50 15-30 < 15 depth SOM SOM % >3 03-Feb 02-Jan < 1

Table 71 Rating table for Alfalfa production at high level of management Range of suitability LQ LC Unit S1 S2 S3 N Temperature regime Mean temperature 0 c 22-34 20-22 18-20 Below 18 34-35 35-36 > 36 Moisture availability Amount of rain fall mm 400- 300-400 100-300 < 100 1175 1175-1500 1500-2500 > 2500 Topography/slope Land form % 0-8 16-Aug 16-30 > 30 Soil reaction Salinity/sodicity pH 9-May 5-5.5 4.5-5.5 < 4.5 9-9.5 9.5-10 Over 10 Rooting condition Eff. soil depth cm > 50 30-50 15-30 < 15

Org. matter Organic matter % > 3 3-Feb 2-Jan < 1

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Table 72: Rating table for Napier grass production at low level of management Range of suitability LQ LC Unit S1 S2 S3 N Temperature Mean 0 c 30-35 27-30 25-27 Below 25 regime temperature 35-37 37-40 Over 40 Moisture Rain fall mm Over 600 500-600 400-500 Below 400 Topography/slope Slope % 0-2 2-5 5-8 Over 8 Soil reaction Salinity/sodicity pH 5.5-7 5-5.5 4.5-5 Below 4.5 7-7.5 7.5 Over 8 Rooting condition Eff. soil depth Cm over 30 20-30 15-20 Below 15 Organic matter Organic matter % Over 3 2-3 1-2 Below 1 content

Table 73: Rating table for Napier grass production at intermediate level of management Range of suitability LQ LC Unit S1 S2 S3 N Temperature Mean temp. 0 c 30-35 27-30 25-27 Below 25 regime 35-37 37-40 Over 40 Moisture Rain fall mm Over 600 500-600 400-500 Below 400 availability Topography/slope Land form % 0-5 5-8 8-16 Over 16 slope Soil reaction Salinity/sodicity pH 5-8 4.5-5 4-4.5 Below 4 8-8.5 8.5-9 Over 9 Rooting condition Effective soil Cm depth over 30 20-30 15-20 Below 15 Organic matter Organic matter % Over 3 2-3 1-2 Below 1 content

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Table 74 Rating table for Napier grass production at high level of management Range of suitability LQ LC Unit S1 S2 S3 N Temperature regime Mean temperature 0 c 30-35 27-30 25-27 Below 25 35-37 37-40 Over 40 Moisture availability Amount of rain fall mm > 600 500-600 400-500 Below 400 Topography/slope Slope slope 0-8 16-Aug 16-30 Over 30 Soil reaction Salinity/sodicity pH 9-Apr 3.5-4 , 9-9.5 3.5-4, 9.5-10 Below 3.5, >10 Rooting condition Eff, soil depth Cm over 30 20-30 15-20 Below 15 Organic matter content Organic matter % Over 3 3-Feb 2-Jan Below 1

Table 75 Requirement table for Rhodes grass at low level of management Range of suitability LQ LC Unit S1 S2 S3 N Temperature regime Mean temperature 0 c 15-40 15-Dec 12-Oct < 12 40-42 42-45 over 45 Moisture availability Rain fall mm 600-900 450-600 350-450 Below 350 900- 1000- over 1150 1000 1150 Topography/slope Slope % 0-2 5-Feb 8-May Over 8 Soil reaction Salinity/sodicity pH 5.5-7 5-5.5 4.5-5 Below 4.5 7-7.5 7.5-8.5 Over 8.5 Rooting condition Effective soil Cm Over 50-100 25-50 Below 25 depth 100 Organic matter Organic matter % Over 3 3-Feb 2-Jan Below 1 content

Table 76: Rating table for Rhodes grass production at intermediate level of management

Range of suitability LQ LC Unit S1 S2 S3 N Temperature Mean 0 c 15-40 12-15 10-12 < 12 regime temperature 40-42 42-45 > 45 Moisture Rainfall mm 600- 450-600 350-450 <350 availability 900 900- 1000-1150 > 1150 1000 Topography/slope Slope % 0-5 5-8 8-16 >16 Soil reaction Salinity/sodicity pH 5-8 4.5-5 4-4.5 Below 4 8-8.5 8.5-9 Over 9 Rooting condition Eff. soil depth Cm > 100 50-100 25-50 Below 25 Organic matter Organic matter % Over 3 2-3 1-2 Below 1 content

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Table 77: Rating table for Tree Lucerne production at low level of management

Range of suitability LQ LC Unit S1 S2 S3 N Temperature regime Mean 0 c 15-27 13-15 11-13 < 11 temperatur 27-29 29-30 > 30 e Moisture availability Rainfall mm 600-1000 500-600 400-500 < 400 1000-1100 1100-1200 > 1200 Topography/slope Slope % 0-2 2-5 5-8 > 8 Soil reaction Salinity/so pH 4-8.5 3.5-4 3-3.5 < 3 dicity 8.5-9 9-9.5 > 9 Rooting condition Eff. soil Cm > 100 50-100 25-50 < 25 depth Organic matter Organic % >3 3-2 2-1 < 1 content matter

Table 78: Rating table for Tree Lucerne production at intermediate level of management Table 79:Growth requirement of Cordia Africana at Low level of management Range of suitability LQ LC Unit S1 S2 S3 N Temperature Mean 0 c 15-27 13-15 11-13 Below 11 regime temperature 27-29 29-30 over 30 Moisture Rainfall mm 600- 500-600 400-500 < 400 availability 1000 1000- 1100-1200 > 1200 1100 Topography/slope Slope % 0-5 5-8 8-16 Over 16 Soil reaction Salinity/sod pH 3.5-9 3.25-3.5 3-3.25 Below 3 icity 9-9.5 9.5-10 Over 10 Rooting condition Eff. soil Cm > 100 50-100 25-50 Below 25 depth Org. matter Or. matter % >3 3-2 2-1 Below 1 LUR/LQ LC Unit Factor rating S1 S2 S3 N m Mean annual Mm 700- 2000-2300 2300- >2500 Rainfall 2000 2500 Mean c temperature 0c 16-22 13-16; 22-24 8-13 <8 e Steepness % 0-10 10-15 15-30 >30 r Effective soil Cm >100 75-100 75-50 <50 depth w water logging drainage R W S E Soil type Texture class L, CL, SiCL,SiL LS, S Si,SC,SiC,C,HC SCL,SL Source: ADSWE adopted from Azene Bekel and Orwa et al (2009)

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Table 80:Growth requirement of Cordia Africana at intermediate level of management LUR/LQ LC Unit Factor rating S1 S2 S3 N m Mean annual Mm 700-2000 2000-2300 2300- >2500 Rainfall 2500 c Mean temperature 0c 16-22 13-16; 22-24 Aug-13 <8 e Steepness % 0-10 10-15 15-30 >30 r Effective soil depth Cm >100 75-100 75-50 <50 w water logging drainage R W S E Soil type Texture class L, CL, SiCL,SiL LS, S Si,SC,SiC,C,HC SCL,SL Accessibility Road network Distanced all 1 02-Apr 5 >10 availability weathered road (KM) Market availability km <200 200-400 400-600 >600 Source: ADSWE adopted from Azene Bekel and Orwa et al(2009

Table 81: Growth requirement of Cordia Africana For a high level of management Factor rating LUR/ LQ LC Unit S1 S2 S3 N m Mean annual Mm 700-2000 2000-2300 2300- >2500 Rainfall 2500 c Mean temperature 0c 16-22 13-16; 22-24 Aug-13 <8 e Steepness % 0-10 10-15 15-30 >30 r Effective soil depth Cm >100 75-100 75-50 <50 w water logging drainage R W S E Soil Texture class L, CL, SiCL,SiL SCL,SL LS, S Si,SC,SiC,C,HC Access Road network Distance From all 02-4 5--10 10--15 >15 ibility availability weathered road (KM) Market availability km <200 200-400 400-600 >600 Source : ADSWE adopted from Azene Bekel and Orwa et al (2009)

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Table 82: growth requirement of Cupressus lusitanica for Low level of management Land Diagnostic factors Unit Factor rating use/requirement / land quality S1 S2 S3 N

m Mean annual Rainfall Mm >1000 1000- 800- <500 800 500

18-- >27 or c Mean temperature 0c 12-18 23 23-27 <10 e Steepness % 0-8 12-15 15-35 >35 r Effective soil depth cm >100 100- 75-50 <50 75 w water logging W S R, V E Soil Texture SL, SiL, SiCL, L, SCL, LS, SC, HC,S, CL Si SiC, C Source: ADSWE, 2014; Adopted from Orwa et al.2009and Azen bekel Tesema , 2007 Table 83: Growth requirement of Cupressus lusitanica for intermediate level of management) LUR/LQ LC Unit Factor rating S1 S2 S3 N1 m Mean annual Rainfall Mm >1000 1000-800 800-500 <500 >27 or c Mean temperature 0c 12-18 18—23 23-27 <10 e Steepness % 0-8 8-15 15-35 >35 r Effective soil depth cm >100 100-75 75-50 <50 w water logging W S R, V E Soil type Texture SL, SiL, SiCL, L, LS, Si SC, SiC, HC,S, SCL, CL C Accessibility Road network availability Distance 1 02-4 5 >10 From all weathered road (KM) Market availability km <200 200-400 400-600 >600 Source: ADSWE (2014), adopted from Orwa et al (2009) and Azen Bekel (2007)

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Table 84: Rating table of Cupressus lusitanica at high level of management LUR-LQ LC Unit Factor rating S1 S2 S3 N1 m Mean Mm >1000 1000-800 800-500 <500 annual Rainfall Mean c temperature 0c 12-18 18—23 23-27 >27 or <10 e Steepness % 0-8 8-15 15-35 >35 r Effective cm >100 100-75 75-50 <50 soil depth w water W S R, V E logging Soil type Texture SL, SiL, SiCL, L, SCL, LS, Si SC, SiC, C HC,S, CL Accessibility Road Distance From all 02-4 5--10 10--15 >15 network weathered road availability (KM) Market availability km <200 200-400 400-600 >600

Source: ADSWE (2014), adopted from Orwa et al (2009) and Azen Bekel (2007) Pinus patula

Table 85: growth requirement of Pinus patula for Low level of management LUR-LQ LC Unit Factor rating S1 S2 S3 N1 m Mean Rainfall mm >1000 900-1000 500-900 <500 c Mean temperature 0c <16 16-20 20-24 >24 e Steepness % 0-15 15-30 30-60 >60 r Effective soil depth cm >50 30-50 20-30 <20 w water logging drainage W R, S V E Source: ADSWE, 2014; Adopted from Orwa et al.2009 and Azen bekel Tesema, 2007

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Table 86: growth requirement of Pinus patula For Intermediate level of management Land use Diagnostic factors Unit Factor rating /requirement/ land quality S1 S2 S3 N1 m Mean Rainfall mm >1000 900-1000 500- <500 900 c Mean 0c <16 16-20 20-24 >24 temperature e Steepness % 0-15 15-30 30-60 >60 r Effective soil cm >50 30-50 20-30 <20 depth w water logging drainage W R, S V E Accessibility Road network Distance 1 02-4 5 >10 availability From all weathered road (KM) Accessibility Road network Distance 1 02-4 5 >10 availability Fromall weathered Accessibility Road network Distance 02-4 5--10 10--15 >15 availability From all weathered road (KM) Market availability km <200 200-400 400- >600 600 Source: ADSWE, 2014; Adopted from Orwa et al.2009 and Azen bekel Tesema, 2007

Table 87: growth requirement of Pinus patula for a high level of management Land use Diagnostic Unit Factor rating /requirement factors S1 S2 S3 N1 / land quality m Mean Rainfall mm >1000 900-1000 500-900 <500 c Mean 0c <16 16-20 20-24 >24 temperature e Steepness % 0-15 15-30 30-60 >60 r Effective soil cm >50 30-50 20-30 <20 depth w water logging drainage W R, S V E Accessibility Road network Distance From 2-4 5—10 10--15 >15 availability all weathered road (KM)

Market availability km <200 200-400 400-600 >600 Source: ADSWE, 2014; Adopted from Orwa et al.2009 and Azen bekel Tesema, 2007

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Table 88: Factor rating table of Podocarpus falcatus at Low level of management LUR- Factor rating LQ LC Unit S1 S2 S3 N1 m Mean annual Mm >1000 1000- 800-500 <500 Rainfall 800

>27 or c Mean temperature 0c 12-18 18--23 23-27 <10 e Steepness % 0-8 8-15 15-35 >35 r Effective soil depth cm >100 100-75 75-50 <50 w water logging W S R, V E Soil type Texture SL, SiL, SiCL, L, SCL, LS, Si SC, SiC, HC,S, CL C

Source: ADSWE, 2014; Adopted from Orwa et al.2009 and Azen bekel Tesema, 2007

Table 89: Factor rating table of Podocarpus falcatus at intermediate level of management Factor rating LUR-LQ LC Unit S1 S2 S3 N1 m Mean annual Mm >1000 1000- 800- <500 Rainfall 800 500 >27 or c Mean temperature 0c 12-18 18--23 23-27 <10 e Steepness % 0-8 8-15 15-35 >35 r Effective soil cm >100 100-75 75-50 <50 depth w water logging W S R, V E Soil type Texture SL, SiL, SiCL, LS, Si SC, HC,S, L, SCL, CL SiC, C Accessibility Road network Distance From 1 2-4 5 >10 availability all weathered road (KM) 200- 400- Market availability km <200 400 600 >600 Source: ADSWE, 2014; Adopted from Orwa et al.2009 and Azen bekel Tesema, 2007

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Table 90: Rating table of Podocarpus falcatus at high level of management LUR-LQ LQ Unit Factor rating S1 S2 S3 N1 m Mean Mm >1000 1000-800 800- <500 annual 500 Rainfall >27 Mean 23- or c temperature 0c 12-18 18—23 27 <10 e Steepness % 0-8 15- 8-15 35 >35 r Effective cm >100 100-75 75- <50 soil depth 50 w water W S R, E logging V Soil type Texture SL, SiL, SiCL, L, LS, Si SC, HC,S, SCL, CL SiC, C Accessibility Road Distance From 2-4 5--10 10-- >15 network all weathered 15 availability road (KM) Market availability km <200 200-400 400- >600 600 Source : ADSWE, 2014; Adopted from Orwa et al.2009 and Azen bekel Tesema, 2007

Table 91: growth requirement of High land bamboo for Low level of management LUR-LQ LC Unit Factor rating S1 S2 S3 N1 m Mean Rainfall mm >1000 900-1000 500-900 <500 c Mean temperature 0c <16 16-20 20-24 >24 e Steepness % 0-15 15-30 30-60 >60 r Effective soil depth cm >50 30-50 20-30 <20 w water logging drainage W R, S V E Source: ADSWE, 2014; Adopted from Orwa et al.2009 and Azen bekel Tesema, 2007

Table 92: growth requirement of High land bamboo for intermediate level of management

LUR-LQ LC Unit Factor rating S1 S2 S3 N1 m Mean Rainfall mm >1000 900- 500- <500 1000 900 c Mean temperature 0c <16 16-20 20-24 >24 e Steepness % 0-15 15-30 30-60 >60 r Effective soil depth cm >50 30-50 20-30 <20 w water logging drainage W R, S V E Accessibility Road network Distance From all 1 2-4 5 >10 availability weathered road (KM) Market availability km <200 200- 400- >600 400 600 Source: ADSWE, 2014; Adopted from Orwa et al.2009 and Azen bekel Tesema, 2007

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Table 93: growth requirement of High land bamboo For High level of management Factor rating LUR-LQ LC Unit S1 S2 S3 N1 m Mean Rainfall mm >1000 900- 500- <500 1000 900 c Mean temperature 0c <16 16-20 20-24 >24 e Steepness % 0-15 15-30 30-60 >60 r Effective soil depth cm >50 30-50 20-30 <20 w water logging drainage W R, S V E Accessibility Road network Distance From all 2-4 5--10 10--15 >15 availability weathered road (KM) 200- 400- Market availability km <200 400 600 >600 Source: ADSWE, 2014; Adopted from Orwa ET al.2009 and Azen bekel Tesema, 2007

Table 94: growth requirement of Eucalyptus globules for Low level of management Land use/requirement / Diagnostic factors Unit Factor rating land quality S1 S2 S3 N m Mean annual Mm >1000 1000- 800-500 <500 Rainfall 800 Mean >27 or c temperature 0c 12-18 18--23 23-27 <10 e Steepness % 0-8 8-15 15-35 >35 r Effective soil cm >100 100-75 75-50 <50 depth w water logging W S R, V E Soil type Texture SL, SiL, SiCL, L, LS, Si SC, HC,S, SCL, CL SiC, C Source : ADSWE, 2014; Adopted from Orwa et al.2009and Azen bekel Tesema ,2007 Table 95: growth requirement of Eucalyptus globules For Intermediate level of Management LUR-LQ LC Unit Factor rating S1 S2 S3 N m Mean annual Mm >1000 1000- 800- <500 Rainfall 800 500 Mean >27 or c temperature 0c 12-18 18--23 23-27 <10 e Steepness % 0-8 8-15 15-35 >35 r Effective soil cm >100 100-75 75-50 <50 depth w water logging W S R, V E Soil type Texture SL, SiL, SiCL, LS, Si SC, HC,S, L, SCL, CL SiC, C Accessibility Road network Distance From 1 2-4 5 >10 availability all weathered road (KM) Market availability km <200 200- 400- >600 400 600 Source: ADSWE, 2014; Adopted from Orwa et al.2009 and Azen bekel Tesema, 2007

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Table 96: growth requirement of Eucalyptus globules for high level of management Land use/requirement Diagnostic Unit Factor rating / land quality factors S1 S2 S3 N m Mean annual Mm >1000 1000- 800- <500 Rainfall 800 500 Mean >27 or c temperature 0c 12-18 18--23 23-27 <10 e Steepness % 0-8 8-15 15-35 >35 r Effective soil cm >100 100- 75-50 <50 depth 75 w water logging W S R, V E Soil type Texture SL, SiL, LS, SC, HC,S, SiCL, L, Si SiC, SCL, CL C Accessibility Road network Distance From all 2-4 5--10 10--15 >15 availability weathered road (KM) Market availability Cm <200 200- 400- >600 400 600 Source: ADSWE, 2014; Adopted from Orwa et al.2009and Azen bekel Tesema, 2007

Table 97: growth requirement of Eucalyptus grandis For Low level of Management LUR-LQ LC Unit Factor rating S1 S2 S3 N m annual Rainfall mm 1200-2500 900-1200 250-900 <250 c Mean temperature 0c 18-40 16-18 11-16 <11 e Steepness % 0-15 15-30 30-50 >50 r Effective soil depth cm >100 75-100 50-75 <50 Oxygen availability water logging - W R , S V E Source : ADSWE, 2014; Adopted from Orwa et al.2009and Azen bekel Tesema, 2007

Table 98: growth requirement of Eucalyptus grandis For Intermediate level of Management LUR-LQ LC Unit Factor rating S1 S2 S3 N m annual Rainfall mm 1200- 900- 250- <250 2500 1200 900 c Mean temperature 0c 18-40 16-18 11-16 <11 e Steepness % 0-15 15-30 30-50 >50 r Effective soil depth cm >100 75-100 50-75 <50 Oxygen water logging - W R , S V E availability Accessibility Road network Distance From 1 2-4 5 >10 availability all weathered road (KM) Market availability km <200 200- 400- >600 400 600 Source: ADSWE, 2014; Adopted from Orwa et al.2009and Azen bekel Tesema, 2007

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Table 99: growth requirement of Eucalyptus grandis for high level of management LUR-LQ LC Unit Factor rating S1 S2 S3 N m annual mm 1200-2500 900- 250- <250 Rainfall 1200 900 Mean 16- 11- c temperature 0c 18-40 18 16 <11 e Steepness % 0-15 15- 30- >50 30 50 r Effective soil cm >100 75- 50- <50 depth 100 75 Oxygen water logging - W R , S V E availability Accessibility Road network Distance From all 2-4 5--10 10-- >15 availability weathered road (KM) 15 Market availability km <200 200- 400- >600 400 600 Source: ADSWE, 2014; Adopted from Orwa et al.2009and Azen bekel Tesema, 2007 Table 100: Growth requirement of Eucalyptus camaldulensis at intermediate level of management LUR-LQ LC Unit Factor rating S1 S2 S3 N m annual Rainfall mm 1200-2500 900- 250-900 <250 >2500 1200 Mean c temperature 0 c 23-40 20-23 15-20 >40 or <10 Topography Altitude mt 1000-1800 0-1000 1800-2000 <0&.>2000 e Steepness % 8—15 15-30 30-60 >8 and >60 r Effective soil cm >100 50--100 50-25 <25 depth Oxygen water logging - R W S E availability Soil type Texture class L,SCL- Si,CL-C HC,S,LS,SL L,SCL- SiCL SiCL Accessibility Road network km 1 2-4 5 >10 Market Availability km <200 200-400 400-600 >600 Source: ADSWE( 2014), Orwa et al(2009) and Azen Bekel( 2007)

Table 101: Rating of the growth requirement of Acacia albida Low level of management LUR_LQ LC Unit Factor rating S1 S2 S3 N1 N2 m Mean annual mm >900 600-900 400-600 <300- Rainfall c Tg 0c 20-42 15-20 6-15 >42 or <6 e Steepness % <15 15-30 30-50 >50 r Effective soil depth Cm >100 75-100 50-75 <50 w Condition of water - W R S, V E logging Soil type texture class L,CL,SIL, SiCL,SiL, SCL,SL,LS,S SiC,SC,Sic,C,HC

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Table 102: Growth requirement table of Acacia Seyal production with low level of management Factor rating LUR_LQ LC Unit S1 S2 S3 N m Mean annual mm >900 600-900 400-600 <300- Rainfall c Tg 0c 20-42 15-20 6-15 >42 or <6 e Steepness % <15 15-30 30-50 >50 r Effective soil depth Cm >100 75-100 50-75 <50 w Condition of water - W R S, V E logging Soil type texture class L,CL,SIL, SiCL,SiL, SCL,SL,LS,S SiC,SC,Sic,C,HC

Table 103: growth requirement of G.robusta for Low level of management LUR-LQ LC Unit Factor rating S1 S2 S3 N1 m Mean Rainfall mm >1000 900-1000 500-900 <500 c Mean temperature 0c <16 16-20 20-24 >24 e Steepness % 0-15 15-30 30-60 >60 r Effective soil depth cm >50 30-50 20-30 <20 w water logging drainage W R, S V E Source: ADSWE, 2014; Adopted from Orwa et al.2009 and Azen bekel Tesema, 2007

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Table 104: growth requirement of G.robusta for intermediate level of management LUR-LQ LC Unit Factor rating S1 S2 S3 N1 m Mean Rainfall mm >1000 900- 500- <500 1000 900 c Mean temperature 0c <16 16-20 20-24 >24 e Steepness % 0-15 15-30 30-60 >60 r Effective soil depth cm >50 30-50 20-30 <20 w water logging drainage W R, S V E Accessibility Road network Distance From all 1 2-4 5 >10 availability weathered road (KM) Market availability km <200 200- 400- >600 400 600 Source: ADSWE, 2014; Adopted from Orwa et al.2009 and Azen bekel Tesema, 2007

Table 105: growth requirement of G.robusta For High level of management Factor rating LUR-LQ LC Unit S1 S2 S3 N1 m Mean Rainfall mm >1000 900- 500- <500 1000 900 c Mean temperature 0c <16 16-20 20-24 >24 e Steepness % 0-15 15-30 30-60 >60 r Effective soil depth cm >50 30-50 20-30 <20 w water logging drainage W R, S V E Accessibility Road network Distance From all 2-4 5--10 10--15 >15 availability weathered road (KM) 200- 400- Market availability km <200 400 600 >600 Source: ADSWE, 2014; Adopted from Orwa ET al.2009 and Azen bekel Tesema, 2007

3.5.2 Requirements for Livestock Production

Nutrition requirement:

The productivity of livestock mainly is determined by their genetic potential which is influenced by nutrition, health and environmental factors such as temperature and humidity. One among many land qualities relevant to livestock production to evaluate the land is livestock nutrition which can be assessed both in terms of quantity and quality. Common feed resources identified in the study are natural grazing and /or browsing, crop residues and in some extents improved forages. In general, a domestic livestock requires a daily dry matter intake of 2.5% of its live weight for maintenances.

Based on FAO(1984) with in the wetter predominantly arable farming areas, up to 80% of the annual herbage biomass can be consumed without determinant to long term sustainable yields. Then to maintain 1TLU, for a year 2.55ton of annual biomass production is necessary from the pasture land.

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Climatic factors:

Extreme climatic conditions including very high and low temperatures, intense solar radiation, prolonged rain fall, high relative humilities, and strong winds and slope can cause undue hardship to livestock. Temperature is important climatic factor for livestock production. Domestic animals are homothermous i.e. their body temperature remains constant or nearly constant with irrespective of the environment in which they live. In general, the body temperature is between 36.5 and 420 c (Pagot, 1992). Rainfall is another critical factor which directly related with moisture to enhance or to reduce the development of herbages, however with regarded to livestock it is not such critical issues to crate chill or cold effect on the livestock so as to take as a separate factor. Accessibility of forage livestock can be inhibited by steep slopes, stones, and rock out crops, dense vegetation, flooding and other land uses blocking the movement of livestock.

Infrastructural requirements:

Land characteristics like location and accessibility of water are the major important in livestock production analysis. The main sources of water in the basin for livestock are identified to be rivers, streams, lakes, marshes, spring, wells and ponds. Livestock have different amount of water quantity and watering time intervals based on temperature, type of feed and class of livestock.

Table 106: Cattle Production LUT Environmental Requirements at low level of management LUR/LQ LC Unit Suitability Class S1 S2 S3 N c T 0 c 15- 27.5-27.95;12- 27.95-30.40; >34;<10 27 15 10-12 e S % 0-20 20-30 30-40 >40 a Distance Km 0-8 8-9 9-10 >10 a Distances Km <5 5-8 8.10 >10 a Distances Km 0-15 15-25 25-30 >30 Feed cover class 5,6,8 2,1,4 4 7 availability Major land cover class; 1(Built-up area); 2 (Cultivated land); 3 (Forest land); 4 (Bush and shrub land); 5 (Grass land); 6 (Wetland); 7 (Water body) and 8 (Afro alpine and sub-afro- alpine vegetation)

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Table 107: Cattle Production LUT Environmental Requirements at Intermediate level of management LUR/LQ LC Unit Suitability Class S1 S2 S3 N Thermal zone Tem. 0 c 15- 27.5-27.95 27.95-30.40; >34; 27 12-15 10-12 <10 Topography Slope % 0-20 20-30 30-40 >40 Water points Distance Km 6-8 8-9 9-10 >10 Vet clinics Distances Km <5 5-8 8.10 >10 Mark. access Distances Km 12- 15-15.5 15.5-16 >16 15 Feed Cover class 5,6, 2,1 3, 4 7 availability class 8

Table 108: Cattle Production LUT Environmental Requirements at high level of management S.No LUR LC Unit Suitability class n S3 S2 S1 S2 S3 n 1 Thermal zone temp 0 c <10 10- 12- 15- 27.5- 27.95- >34 12 15 27 27.95 34 2 Topography slp % 30- 40-60 60-70.. >70 40 3 Water Distance Km <=5- 1-1.5 1.5 >2 Accessibility 1 4 Vet clinics Distances Km <1.5 1.5-2 2-3 >3 5 Market Distances Km <50 50-100 100-150 >150 accessibility 6 Feed sources Distances Km For dairy <60 60-120 120-200 >200

Table 109: Environmental Requirement of Sheep production at medium level of management Suitability Class S.No LQ LC Unit S1 S2 S3 n 1 Thermal Tem.e 0 c 13- 27.5-27.95 27.95-34 & >34 & < zone 27.5 & 12.5-13, 12-12.5 12 2 Topography slope % 0-40 40-43 43-44 >44 3 Water points Distance Km 4-6 6.7 7-8 >8 4 Vet clinics Distances Km 4-6 6.7 7-8.. >8 5 Market Distances Km <7 7-9 9-10 >10 accessibility 6 Feed Land Cover class 5,6,8 2,1 3, 4 7 availability class

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Table 110 Environmental Requirement of Sheep production at medium level of management S.No LQ LC Unit Suitability Class S1 S2 S3 N 1 Thermal Tem. 0 c 13- 27.5- 27.95- >34 & zone 27.5 27.95 34 & <12 & 12.5- 12- 13 12.25 3 Topography slope % <=40 40-41 41-42 >42

4 Water Distance Km <=4 4- 4.5 4.5-5.. >5 points 5 Vet clinics Distances Km <=4 4- 4.5 4.5-5.. >5

6 Market Distances Km <=10 10-13 11-15.. >15 accessibility

7 Feed cover type 5,6,8 2,1 3, 4 7 availability

Table 111 Environmental Requirement of Sheep production at medium level of management S.N Suitability Class o LQ LC Unit S1 S2 S3 n 2 temperature 0 c 13-27.5 27.5-27.95 27.95-34 >34 & & 12.5 -13 & 12- <12 12.25 3 Topography slope % 0-40 40-41 41-42 >42 4 Water Distance Km 0.5-1 1-1.5 1.5-2 >2 points 5 Vet clinics Distances Km 0.5-1 1-1.5 1.5-2 >2 6 Market Distances Km 1-60 60-80 80-120 >120 accessibility 7 Feed Distances Km 1-50 50-85 85-100 >100 Resources

Table 112 Requirement for poultry production at low level of management S.No LQ LC Unit Suitability Class S1 S2 S3 n

1 Thermal zone Temperature 0c 13-24 24-30, 11-13 30-35, 10-11 >35, <10 2 Topography slope % 1-10 10-12 12-13 >13 3 Water point Distances Km <0.5 0.5-1 1-1.5 >1.5 4 Health center Distances Km <1 1-1.5 1.5-2 >2 5 Market Distances Km <=10 10-11 11-12 >12 6 Feed Distances Km <=10 10-11 11-12 >12 resources

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Table 113 Environmental requirement for poultry production medium level of Management Suitability Class LQ LC Unit N S3 S2 S1 S2 S3 n Thermal zone Temperature 0 c <6 6-8 8-13 13-24 24-30 30-35 >35

Topography Slope % 1-5 5-7 7-8 >8 Water point Distances Km <1 1.5-2 2-2.5 >2.5 Health center Distances Km <1 1.5-2 2-2.5 >2.5 Market Distances Km <10 10-15 15-25 >25

Table 114 Environmental requirement for poultry production high level of management

S.No LQ LC Unit Suitability Class n S3 S2 S1 S2 S3 n 1 Thermal Temperature 0 c <4 4- 7- 13-24 24- 30- >35 zone 7.. 13.. 30 35 2 Topography Slope % 1-2 2-3 3-4 >4 3 Water point Distances Km <2 2.- 2.5- >3 2.5 3 4 Health center Distances Km <1 1.5-2 2- >2.5 2.5 5 Market Distances Km <=20. 20- 30- >40 30.. 40 6 Feed Distances Km <=50 50- 60- >70 resources 60 70 Table 115 Rating Land Use Requirements for Apiculture production LC Unit Rang of suitability LQ LC S1 S2 S3 N Bee forage Distance from cover WL, forest, shrub, Bush, Built up Exposed availability built-up Types CL land, riverine grass area, surface areas(KM) woodland/bush land land marsh area Thermal Mean tem. 0 c 16-27 27-29 14-15 >29 & Zone & 15- <15 16 Rainfall Rainfall mm 700-1200 1200- 1250- >1300 & regime 1250 & 1300 & <600 650- 600-650 700 market Distance km <10 10-40 40-80 >80 Water Distance km <1 1-2 2-3 >3 availability

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3.5.3 Irrigation

3.5.4 Requirements for Irrigation systems evaluation

Irrigation command area; Suitability evaluation of irrigation land utilization types (systems potentials) were based on the information‘s of sufficiency of water for irrigation and soil tertian factors. This was obtained from the soil terrain and water resources assessment report organized from the present field survey assessment report of sub basin.

The type of classification has been made before suitability evaluation is delineation of provisionally irrigable land based on water and soil terrain factors. Separate classifications, first of 'provisionally-irrigable' land and later of 'irrigable' land may be required at successive stages of the evaluation. In the early stages of irrigation investigations, the amount of water available for irrigation and the exact locations to which water can be economically transported trough given soil and terrain conditions are often uncertain. The suitability of the land must therefore be classified on condition that water can be supplied to it. Only later, when the studies of water supply systems and economics are completed will it be certain whether the land can be irrigated or not. In this study, land for which the supply is not yet assured and for which land development costs and benefits are unclear, is classified as 'provisionally-irrigable', and land that could be supplied with water under a project plan is 'irrigable'. One of the main advantages of the 'provisionally-irrigable' classification is that it contributes, early in the study, to the formulation of the project plan, and to the separation of land that is suitable for irrigation, and the appropriate irrigation system to be implemented.

The essential requirements of evaluating irrigation land utilization types (crops) were categorized as site characteristics, topography, soil, climate, water, drainage, present land use and cover, environmental health and socio economic condition of the community.

Site Characteristics

This requires data which includes, location and access, potential water supplies within or outside the project, main climatic characteristics, relief (landform) and major soil features, population and growth rate, standard of living and social value, basis of the present economy, economic infrastructure (road, service and market), government

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Topography

Topography is often a major factor in irrigation evaluation as it influences the choice of irrigation method, drainage, erosion, irrigation efficiency, costs of land development, size and shape of fields, labor requirements, range of possible crops, etc. Four aspects of topography which have a special bearing on irrigation suitability are: slope, micro relief, macro relief and position. Slope may affect the following factors: intended methods of irrigation, erodibility and erosivity, cropping pattern, mechanization problems, exposure to wind, etc.

Relief

Minor surface undulations and irregularities of the land surface, with differences in height between crest and trough ranging from 4-5 cm in flat lake plain areas to 4-5 m in areas of wind-blown sand. Estimates of grading and leveling requirements will depend on whether surface, overhead or drip irrigation techniques are used. The information required for an assessment of land grading costs includes: cut and fill, the total volume of earth moved, the depth of cut, distance of transport, soil conditions and desired precision of the final grading and type of equipment available. These factors should be related to whether a local contractor with simple equipment is to be used, or whether an international tender will invite contractors with modern sophisticated equipment to undertake the task. Topsoil depth and subsoil quality may limit the amount of grading that is advisable, or greatly increase the cost if it is necessary to conserve and later respread the topsoil. Some sub soils are unproductive at first, but gradually rehabilitate with irrigation and fertilizer or organic matter applications. In contrast, coarse sands, gravels or layers rich in lime or gypsum (or exchangeable aluminum may never respond to irrigation after severe truncation.

Permanent topographic features where slopes change frequently in gradient and direction may influence the choice of irrigation method, field sizes and shape, and land development costs. Field sizes and shape need to be evaluated, especially for gravity and surface irrigation and for mechanized farming.

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Command area Position; the elevation and distance of the water source often affect the 'irrigable' land area in gravity schemes. The area commanded may be increased by pumping, or by constructing tunnels, inverted siphons and other structures through natural or man-made barriers, or by reservoir construction. Topographic data are often used in evaluating the infrastructural alternatives and their land development costs. Topographic data are also required in the case of flood hazard and the design of flood protection measures and for the design of surface or subsurface drainage.

Soil Properties

This includes physical, chemical and mineralogical properties of soils. The important physical of soils includes effective soil depth, presence of organic or histic horizon, grain size distribution, soil structure and porosity, infiltration rate, hydraulic conductivity, available water holding capacity (FC and PWP), plastic and liquid limits and soil strength and linear extensibility (swell and shrink). Soil reaction (pH), carbon and nitrogen, gypsum and calcium carbonate, EC, Soluble salts (Na, Ca, Mg, Cl, So4, CO3 and HCO3 ), CEC total exchangeable bases and base saturation, ESP and SAR, exchangeable cations (Na, Ca, Mg, K), available phosphorus, and total contents some important elements (P, K, Mg, Na, Cu, Mn, Zn, B, Fe, Al, As, Ni, Cr etc) were important soil chemical properties for irrigation. Besides, mineralogical properties like sand silt fraction, clay fraction and iron and aluminum oxides, calcium and magnesium carbonate and gypsum are still essential.

Climatic Condition

Solar radiation, temperature, relative humidity, evapo-transpiration, wind speed and direction, storm incidence, precipitation and rainfall condition of the study area (command area) were critical to evaluate irrigation land utilization types.

Water availability

Volume of water available (rainfall deficit map) for irrigation and total demand as well as quality of water was assessed to decide and evaluate land utilization types. This land quality was produce in hydrology report of this project.

Present Land Cover

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The present land cover condition of the study area is important to enrich information about land development for mechanized irrigation.

Sensitivity to degradation

The is an important condition to related the irrigation land utilization types against environmental consequences(salinity and Sodicity) and decide to select and implement land environmental friendly irrigation development with minimum risk.

Table 116: Partial suitability classes and factor rating for surface irrigation Factor Rating LQ LC Unit S1 S2 S3 N Oxygen Soil W(3), VP(7) class I(5), S(2), P(6), availability(w) drainage M(4) E(1), Soil 60- cm >120 100-120 <60 depth 100 Water C; SiC; retention(m) Soil SCL; SiL; L; class SC; LS;SL S, HC texture SiCL: Si CL S, LS, Soil Topsoil SL, class CL,SiC,SC,SiCL SCL,C HC workability(r) texture Si,L, SiL EC dS/m) <4 4-8 8-12 >12 Toxicity (z) ESP (%) <10 10-15 15-20 >20 Water application Slope % 0-5 5-8 8-16 > 16 management(w)

Table 117: Partial suitability classes and factor rating for drip irrigation Critical limits LQ LC S1 S2 S3 N Water SCL; SiL; C; SiC; retention(m) Texture class _(m) L; CL; LS;SL S,HC SC;CL SiCL: Si Depth (cm) >75 50-75 30-50 <30 (_water Topography (Slope <8 8-16 16-30 >30 aplication % )(_water aplication Oxygen Aeration (Drainage W(3), VP(7) I(5), S(2), P(6), availability(w) class) M(4) E(1), Toxicity (z) Salinity(EC) in < 4 4 - 8 8 - 12 > 12 dS/m) Sodality (ESP) (%) < 10 10 - 15 15 - 20 > 20 4.0 - 4.5 4.5 - 5.0 & < 4.0 Reaction(pH) 5.0 - 8.5 & 9.0 - 8.5 - 9.0 &> 9.2 9.2

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Table 118 : Partial suitability classes and factor rating for sprinkler irrigation Critical limits Land qualities S1 S2 S3 N C; SiC; SCL;SiL;L;CL;SiCL:Si LS;SL; S,HC Texture class SC; CL

Depth (cm) >85 50 - 85 30 - 50 <30 Topography (Slope <8 8-15 15-30 >30 % ) VP(7) Aeration (Drainage W(3), M(4) I(5), S(2), P(6), class) E(1), Salinity(EC in < 4 4 - 8 8 - 12 > 12 dS/m) Sodicity (ESP) < 10 10 - 15 15 - 20 > 20 4.0 - 4.5 & 9.0 < 4.0 &> Reaction(pH) 5.0 - 8.5 4.5 - 5.0 & 8.5 - 9.0 - 9.2 9.2

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Tourism development Factors for selecting an area as a tourism development center should be comprehensive and measurable. These include three main categories, biophysical features, socioeconomic and socio cultural characteristics (Zarkesh, Almasi and Taghizadeh, 2011). However for the sake of creating conducive situation, these factors are again grouped in to two categories as spatial and non spatial criteria.

The spatial criteria are associated with the bio-physical resources while non spatial criteria are associated with intangible values of specific tourist attraction resources. The biophysical resources features include land form, slope gradient, proximity distances from lakes and rivers as well as specific attraction site. The non spatial criteria include values for tourism attraction potential as cultural, historic, heritage, natural as well as availability of market for the tourism services. Using these groups of criteria, the tourism development potential of the basin will be identified and mapped. Based on these potentials suitable sites for lodge construction will be identified. In addition specific tourist attraction sites LUTs for protection from other development activities will be identified.

Bio-physical features

Slope Gradient; Slope is the cause for appearance of non uniform topography in a certain area. It forms various land features on the surface of the earth such as rugged topographies, mountains, heals, etc. These land features in turn create attractive scenic/aesthetic values for that topography. So these scenic/aesthetic land features would be the main motivators of tourists to visit the area. It is obvious that as slope increases the aesthetic/scenic values of an area also increases.

River proximity: It is obvious that rivers are among the natural tourist attraction resources of an area. The belongingness of rivers to an area decreases as distance increases from rivers. So this phenomenon is described in terms of their suitability levels for tourism development.

Lake proximity: It is obvious that lakes are among the natural tourist attraction resources of an area. The belongingness of lakes to an area decreases as distance increases from lakes. So this phenomenon is described in terms of their suitability levels for tourism development.

Land cover: existing land cover is among the very important tourist attraction resources of an area. Because it contains among others the forest lands, cultivated lands, built up areas, water

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Site Value

The non spatial factors include cultural value, historic and heritage value, natural value as well as availability of market of specific tourist destination site.

Natural Value: this value of natural tourist attractions is evaluated in terms of its aesthetic or scenic value, biodiversity value, and uniqueness which are briefly discussed in the proceeding paragraphs. Aesthetic or scenic value: The attraction should be pleasing to the eye. Cleanliness, vibrancy of colors, and uniformity or contrasts in geological formations is among the aesthetic or scenic assets. For example, consider the rich greens of a healthy rainforest as opposed to the consistent patterns of agricultural fields, brightly, or mangrove lined lagoons with reflective waters versus brown-gray waters of a stagnant pond. Biodiversity value: The presence of varied plant and animal species is important to consider when evaluating attractions. Because biodiversity by itself attracts tourists that have varied purposes; including research, sightseeing, photography, bird watching, etc. Biodiversity areas should be conserved so as to struggle global warming and associated hazards. Uniqueness: Unique resources; for instance, Wail Ibex, Red Fox, a mountain lake or beach area will be a potential for drawing international or domestic visitors.

Historic and heritage value: The age, maintenance, the importance of the attraction in local, national, or international levels, its artistic or architectural importance, the magnitude of the attraction, its cultural importance are among the values of historic and heritage attractions that attracts niche and target tourism.

Cultural Value : measured by the social and cultural importance of the attraction to tourists. For example the traditional lifestyle of a vibrant culture, high quality arts and crafts considered unique to an area, traditional celebrations, dances and music would have a tremendous potential in attracting cultural niche, and target markets. The attraction should also be pleasing to the eye. Cleanliness, vibrancy of colors, distinct architectural or artistic values, and uniformity or contrasts in the built environment is among the aesthetic or scenic assets. Unique cultural assets should also be considered such as special cultural sites like Awuramba, Falasha Village, Agaw, etc.

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Recreation Value: this is measured by an activity of leisure, leisure being discretionary time. The "need to do something for recreation" is an essential element of human biology and psychology. Recreational activities are often done for enjoyment, amusement, or pleasure and are considered to be "fun". Recreational activities can be communal or solitary, active or passive, outdoors or indoors, healthy or harmful, and useful for society or detrimental. A list of typical activities could be almost endless including most human activities, a few examples being reading, playing or listening to music, watching movies or TV, gardening, hunting, hobbies, sports, studies, and travel. Recreational activities can be developed from both natural and cultural resources.

Lodge site requirements

Proximity to tourist attraction resources; Resort lodges should be located within the maximum distances of 5km from tourist attraction resources. Lodges should be located in appropriate locations that do not create a problem on the attractions due to their existence and development processes. In addition they should not be too far from tourist attraction resources. Because if they are too far by the time the tourist wants to visit and enjoy the attractions he/she may become too tired.

Proximity to access roads: The resort lodge should be located within a maximum distance of 5km from a major road. Lodges should be located in areas that are complemented by access roads. This is used to avoid unnecessary tiredness of tourists and for the easy transportation of goods required by the lodge.

Proximity to urbanized settlement areas; It should not be located within 3km from urbanized area. It is recommended that the tourist site is not within 3km from urbanized area to avoid urban noise and congestion and create a serene environment and to obtain various services which might not be supplied by the resort lodge investor easily, and with reasonable price; like public safety, postal services, electric power supply, telecommunication, various information, car rentals, tour and travel operation, other eating and drinking establishments, money exchange and banking, medical facilities and services, gas oil service stations, shopping and personal services.

Proximity to farm village or rural settlements: It should be located within 2.7km from settlement points. The other settlements include rural areas that may have very unique cultural

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values that may not be available in urbanized areas. In addition some services such as security by police, first aid medical services, etc may be available in these settlements. So the resort lodge site should be located near to these areas so as to enable its guests/tourists enjoy these cultural values.

Proximity to perennial rivers or Lakes: The resort lodge should be located within 2km from a water body or water bodies such as lakes are very important tourist attractions. So it is recommended that the tourist site should be at a walking/trekking distance (2km) to a water body.

Slope gradient: As the slope gradient of an area increases its venerability to flood increase and its cost of construction increases to make the area plain for construction. Then as slope increases its suitability for construction such as a lodge decreases.

Table 119: Factor rating table for Tourist Attraction potential site Identification LQ/LC Unit Rating class

S1 S2 S3 N Land forms class LL, TE, TH, TM, SV, SH, M, SP, SE, LP, LD, LV TV Regional Slope class W,R,V U,T G,F,S

River proximity m <2000 2000-4000 4000- 6000 >6000

Lake proximity m <2000 2000-4000 4000- 6000 >6000 Land cover class 2, 3, 6, 10, 17 11, 12, 13,16 1, 5, 7,8, 9, 14, 4,18 15 Site Value Natural Value 2.4-4 1.6-2.4 0.5-1.6 <0.5 Historic Value 2.4-4 1.6-2.4 0.5-1.6 <0.5 Cultural Value 2.4-4 1.6-2.4 0.5-1.6 <0.5 Recreational Value 2.4-4 1.6-2.4 0.5-1.6 <0.5 Source; Tewodros, 2010; Gutierrez et al., 2005, and Rushmore, 2002; Pareta, 2013

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Table 120: Factor rating table for resort lodge site assessment LQ/LC Unit Rating class S1 S2 S3 N Proximity to tourist km 1 – 2.5 2.5 - 4 4 – 5 >5.0;<1 attraction sites Proximity to access roads km 1 – 2.5 2.5 - 4 4 - 5.0 >5.0;<1 Proximity to Urban centers km 5 - 6 4 - 5 3- 4 < 3;>6 Proximity to rural village km 1 – 2.5 2.5 - 4 4 – 5 >5.0;<1 Proximity to perennial km 0.5 - 0.67- 1.33- >2.0;<0.5 water body 0.67 1.33 2.0 Slope % <5 5-15 15-30 >30 Land Forms class LP,LL SH M LD,LV,SV,SP,SE,TE,TH,T M,TV Regional Slope class G,F U,R S V,T,W Land cover class 8, 9, 16 1,3, 7, 5, 11, 2, 4, 6, 10,12, 13, 17, 18 15, 14 Sources: Gutierrez et al., (2005); Rushmore (2002),Tewords,(2010); Pareta( 2013); Zarkeshet

al., (2011); Macdonald( 2000); Surendran et al.,( 2003); Inskeep (1991); Drumm(2004)

3.5.5 Fish farming requirements

3.5.5.1 Culture fishery

Fish ponds are built on land either by excavating the soil or by building embankment structures. When the pond is made by excavating, the following land qualities (slope, frequency of flooding, depth of water table, clay content of the soil, organic matter content and Stoniness) for which its suitability can be rated and should be considered.

Organic matter content of soils: high organic matter in soils will increase oxygen demand as bacteria break down organic matter. In addition, the breakdown of organic matter can increase ammonia concentrations, which is toxic; high organic loading of source water, will increase nutrient and bacterial levels, thereby increasing need for aeration and leading to increased ammonia concentrations. This elevated organic matter and associated ammonia in source water can reduce daily pond feeding rates (Andrew, 2007).Organic soils > 12% or excessive hums are not good for pond aquaculture and should be avoided. Soils with less organic matter are known as mineral soils which is good for pond construction (Hajek and Boyd, 1990).

Flooding hazard; ponds should be located in areas free of flood influence to reduce the incidence of high organic soils as sediment to the pond. Therefore, ponds should be located in areas where no flooding (FAO, 1998).

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Water holding capacity of soil ; clay content is important factor as to hold water, but mineral content can impact water pH, hardness and alkalinity, which affect plankton productivity. The soil should contain a layer that is impervious and thick enough to prevent excessive seepage. Soils made of clay or silt clay is excellent for ponds; sandy clays are usually satisfactory. Coarse-textured sands and sand gravel mixtures do not hold water well and are unsuitable for ponds. If there is poor soil over a portion of the pond bottom, you can sometimes make it impervious by importing and compacting a good-quality clay soil or by incorporating betonies clay into the pond bottom. However, sealing pond bottoms can be very expensive. Stoniness of soils also enhances seepage. If the composition of the soil is coarse, as in sandy soils, a great amount of water will be lost by seepage (FAO, 1998).

Topography: the topography, determines the ultimate construction cost of the pond more than any other single factor(Hajek and Boyd,1990). Large commercial fish farms are typically built on flat land. Topography mainly slopes of 0-2% is best for pond construction. Extensive earth moving (high tech) may be required on land with slopes greater than these; increasing construction costs. Some innovative farmers use terracing - stair-stepping - for pond layouts in hollows or on land with slopes greater than 2%. However, the economics of that method should be carefully examined.

Level of water table; when the level of water is very close to the surface, it is difficult to drain and to avoid dilution of the pond from the ground water. The wall of pond also will not be firm or stable to remain as it is (Hajek and Boyd1990).

As level of management varies some of these factors can be corrected or modified to the lower level of impacts. Therefore, for fish culture there are three levels of managements on environmental requirements rating in the following tables.

Table 121: Environmental requirements rating for Fish culture (LUT1) low level of management Land use Requirement Factor Rating Land Diagnostic Unit S1 S2 S3 N Quality factor Topography Slope % <2 2-5 5-8 >8 Flood Frequency of No None Rare/ common/ Flooding influence flooding occasional frequent Water Clay content % >35(clayey) 18- <18 ( Too sandy holding of the soil 35(Loamy) sandy /silty,excessive capacity /silty)

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Dilution of Depth of water m >0.76 0.31-0.76 <0.76 Hard to drain; the pond table dilution Oxygen Organic matter % <4 4-12 >12 Excessive depilation content hums Seepage Stoniness % <25 25-50 >50 Very stony Thermal Mean Monthly 0 c 23.3- 32.6 18.7 - 23.3 12.6-18.7 <12 ;>32.6 requirement Daytime Temperature (MMDT)) Source Hajek and Boyd (1990); Andrew (2007); FAO (1998), Kaptesky ( 1994) Note : Regression analysis of Mean Monthly Water Temperature (MMWT) over Mean Monthly Daytime Temperature (MMDT)(Kaptesky, 1994). MMWT = -6.35+1.3XMMDT

Table 122 Environmental requirements rating for Fish culture (LUT1) at intermediate level of management Land Quality Diagnostic factor U S1 S2 S3 N nit Topography Slope % <5 5-8 8-11 >11 Flood Frequency of N None Rare/ common/ Flooding influence flooding o occasional frequent

Water holding Clay content of % >35(cla 18-35 <18( Too sandy/ silty, capacity the soil yey) (Loamy) sandy/silty) xcessive Dilution of the Depth of water m >0.76 0.31-0.76 <0.76 Hard to drain; pond table dilution Oxygen Organic matter % <4 4-12 >12 Excessive hums depilation content Seepage Stoniness % <25 25-50 >50 Very stony Thermal Mean Monthly 0 19.4- 14.8– 19.4 8 -14.8 <8 requirement Daytime c 28.7 Temperature (MMDT)) Source: Hajek and Boyd (1990); Andrew (2007); FAO (1998 Source, (Kaptesky, 1994) Note : Regression analysis of Mean Monthly Water Temperature (MMWT) over Mean Monthly Daytime Temperature (MMDT) (Kaptesky, 1994). MMWT = -6.35+1.3XMMDT Table 123: Factor rating table for culture fishery at low level of management Factors Rating LQ LC Un S1 S2 S3 N it Cost of Slope construction % <2 2-5 5-8 >8 Flood hazard Flooding cla Flooding No Rare/ common/ frequency ss ne occasional frequent

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Water holding Clay content % >35 18-35 <18 Too sandy/silty, capacity excessive Dilution of the Depth of water >0. Hard to drain; M 0.31-0.76 <0.76 pond table 76 dilution Oxygen Organic matter Excessive hums % <4 4-12 >12 depilation content Seepage Stoniness % <25 25-50 >50 Very stony Source . :Hajek and Boyd (1990); Andrew (2007); FAO (1998)

Table 124: Factor rating table for culture fishery at medium level of management Factors Rating LQ LC un S1 S2 S3 N it Construction Slope % <5 5-8 8-11 >11 Flood Frequency of N None Rare/ common/ Flooding influence flooding o occasional frequent

Water holding Clay content of % >35(cla 18- <18( Too sandy/silty, capacity the soil yey) 35(Loamy sandy/silty) excessive ) Dilution of the Depth of water m >0.76 0.31-0.76 <0.76 Hard to drain; pond table dilution Oxygen Org. matter % <4 4-12 >12 Excessive hums depilation content Seepage Stoniness % <25 25-50 >50 Very stony

Source: Hajek and Boyd (1990); Andrew (2007); FAO (1998)

It is the most intensive management system which can result the highest return. It is known that, fish pond can be either concrete or earthen. The difference is the cost of production. It does not always mean that high level management is high profit; in this case, there will be cost for concrete construction. Factors that limit production will be corrected by this concrete; the remaining limiting factors will be slope and flooding.

Table 125: Environmental requirements rating for Fish culture (LUT1) at high level of management Land use Requirement Factor Rating Land Quality LC Unit S1 S2 S3 N Construction Slope % <6 6-8 8-11 >11 Flood Frequency of number None Rare/ common/ Flooding influence flooding occasional frequent Road access Road Kind/ Main Accessories feeder No road at proximity type road all Source: FAO (1998)

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3.5.5.2 Capture fishery

The following land qualities should be considered to rate the requirments of capture fishery.

Water transparency

Turbidity of water restricts light penetration and limit photosynthesis is which is the resultant of several factors as suspended mater, dispersion of plankton and organic matters (Anita and Pooja, 2013). Mostly sediment from catchment source of water body due to unwise utilization of land resources reduce sunlight penetration, which will disrupt biological production like photosynthesis even fishing system (American Public Health Association, 1992). Temperature

Fish are poikilotherm organisms and assume approximately the same temperature as their surroundings. The temperature of the water affects the activity, behavior, feeding, growth and reproduction of all fishes. Metabolic rates in fish double for each 18ºF rise in temperature. The higher the water temperature is, the greater the biological activity. However fishs have a preferred temperature range. Literatures put different optimum water temperature ranges for the species. Although different fish species have different range of temperature tolerance, tropical fishes cannot survive when water temperature is around 10 0 c -12 0 c or less (Shammi and Bhatnagar, 2002). Dissolved Oxygen ; is by far the most important chemical parameter in aquatic life. Low- dissolved oxygen levels are responsible for more fish kills, either directly or indirectly as fishs require oxygen for respiration. The amount of oxygen consumed by the fish is a function of its size, feeding rate, activity level and temperature. Even though it varies according to species and life stage, DO levels below 3 mgl-1 are stressful to most aquatic organisms and levels 5 to 6 mgl-1 are usually required to perform their biological like cloudy functions (Campbell and Wildberger, 1992).

PH of water; natural or slightly alkaline (pH 7-8) water is more productive for fishing than acid water. pH below 4.5 or above 9 is particularly injurious and unproductive (Shammi and Bhatnagar, 2002).

TDS; high concentrations in total dissolved solids (TDS) of water have several effects, as it decrease the amount of light that can penetrate the water, thereby slowing photosynthetic

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Table 126: Factor rating table for capture fisheries at low levels of management Factors Rating Unit S1 S2 S3 N LQ LC Watertransparenc Turbidity NTU 24-15 8-15 -- <8,>24 y

Thermalrequirem Water mean 0C 23.9 - 18-23.9 10 -18 <10;>36 ent temperature 36 Acidity pH pH 7-9 6-7 4.5-6 <4.5 or > 9 Oxygenavailabilit DO mgl- 6-9 5 -6 3-5 <3;>9 y 1 Water TDS mgl- 64- 1279- 1918- <64;>319 Conductivity 1 1279 1918 3197 7 Source: Shammi and Bhatnagar, 2002; Campbell and Wildberger, 1992;American Public Health Association, 1992; Anita and Pooja, 2013.

.

3.5.6 Other development Land Utilization

3.5.6.1 Settlement

There are many factors that can influence where settlements locate within the basin. The site of a settlement is the actual land that the settlements are built upon. The situation is the location of a settlement in relation to the things that are around it. Factors that influence the location of a settlement include availability of resources ( potable water for human and livestock, potential grazing land, service centers, farmlands, industries) , physical factors as flooding risk, land sliding.

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Table 127: Factor rating table for settlement site selection Rating classes LQ LC Unit S1 S2 S3 N

Access to potable water distance Km < 1.5 1.5-2 2-2.5 > 2.5

Access livestock water distance Km <3 3-7 5-7 >7

Proximity to lake and 800- distance m >1000 500-800 <500 marsh land 1000

Water Flooding hazard class W0(V,R) W1(W) W2(S) W3(E) logging

15-30; Topography Slope % 8-15 30-45 >45 0-8

Proximity to kebele center

Proxmity to built-up area

60- Soil character Soil depth cm 30-60 20-30 >100 100,<20

Free of prime productive I, II, Land class class IV VI, V III,VII land VIII

Source - Adapted from ADSWE, 2003; GTP, 2010, FAO, 1984and Friedrich Zur Heide,2012

3.5.6.2 Wind farm

Factors affecting the location of a wind farm can be categorized as being; physical factors,social factors and economic factors with effective force of the wind at a particular location, frequently expressed relative to the elevation above ground level over a period of time. It is common to think that the most important factor when looking for a location to site a wind farm is the wind resource but this is just the first among many factors that must be consider.

Wind speed: as a general rule, wind generators are practical if the minimum average windspeed is 4.5 m/s or greater. An 'ideal' location would have a near constant flow of non- turbulent wind throughout the year with a minimum likelihood of sudden powerful bursts of wind.The average wind intensity per annum should be around 6.0 m/s (at hub height), or better(http://webcache.googleusercontent.com).

Site location; location under consideration should first of all be wind - intensive during the whole year. Usually this is guaranteed on open land without forests or high hills within a

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Access to grid connection; overhead, or buried cables, over a great distance, are an expensive undertaking, therefore nearby national grid connection center is important (If necessary to connect to national grid). It is also necessary to consider that heavy loads have to be moved to the proposed windfarm area. The road access must be prepared to carry a load of approximately 12 tones.

Altitude and terrain; the wind blows faster at higher altitudes because of the reduced influence of drag of the surface and lower air viscosity. The increase in velocity with altitude is most dramatic near the surface and is affected by topography, surface roughness, and upwind obstacles such as trees or buildings. Typically, the increase of wind speeds with increasing height follows awind profile power law, which predicts that wind speed rises proportionally to the seventh root of altitude. Doubling the altitude of a turbine, then, increases the expected wind speeds by 10% and the expected power by 34%(http://webcache.googleusercontent.com).

Environmental and aesthetic value:certain windfarm sites may have significant environmental and aesthetic impact, since the turbines are visible for great distances,impacts on wildlife, including migratory animals. Wind project proponents may face opposition from area residents concerned about sound level, light flicker, appearance, and the other impacts of wind turbine placement(http://webcache.googleusercontent.com).

Table 128: Factor rating for wind farm potential assessment Requirement S1 S2 S3 N Wind Speed > 6.5 4.5- 6.5 3.5- 4.5 <3.5 Roughness 0.1 0.1- 0.14 0.14 - 0.2 >0.2 Air Density >96% 90 – 95 % 80 - 90 % <80% Hill effect (Slop) <8 % 8-20 % 21-35 % >35 % Distance from Road <1 km 1-3 km 3.1-6 km >6 km Distance from Air Port >5 km 5-4 km 4-3 km <3 km

Rating class LC Unit Source S1 S2 S3 N Annual mean Wind speed m/s >6 <6 Elevation M Land form Class Area availability for 20 Ha turbines Away from Villages Access to grid lines Access to road Access to settlement Access to urban centers

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3.5.6.3 Solar energy

Solar energy is one type of renewable energy sources that ideal for remote areas than diesel or grid connection systems.

Solar radiation; it is the main factor for the use of radiation from the sun as the source of energy. Solar radiation that is required for the generation of energy in a given area is around 5 kwh/m² / day on average (Aklilu Dalelo)

Table 129 Factor rating of solar energy LUTs requirements Land quality Land Unit Suitability classes characteristics S1 S2 S3 N Solar energy Radiation Kwh/m²/day > 6.1 5.1- 4.25- < 4.25 potential insolation 6.1 5.1

Free from Capability class class Class Class Class I, capability IV VI II, III, V classes and VII

Source: Aklilu Dalelo, Adapted from ADSWE, 2003

3.5.6.4 Pond Farming

Soil type For construction of farm pond, the soils must have low hydraulic conductivity with minimum seepage and percolation so that water can be retained for longer time in a farm pond. Soils with a low infiltration rate are most suitable for construction of pond. The black soils have good potential for rain water harvesting without lining as the seepage losses are minimum. The seepage losses are more in sandy soils and their mixed textures and they require lining for storing water for more time.The soils having outcrops and stones must be avoided for digging farm ponds. The soil profile depth must be investigated before digging of the pond. The soils having good depth of >1 m, free of stones, low Ph, Ec and ground water level may be chosen for site selection for farm pond. Soil depth The depth of soil is important where rain water harvesting systems are proposed.Deep soils have the capacity to store harvested water for longer duration. Soils havingmore than 1m are ideal for construction of farm ponds. More the depth of soil, thedepth of farm pond will be more and reduces the evaporation losses. Topography

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The topographic features of the farm catchment area may vary from place to placeand proposed land for pond construction must have minimum earth excavation sothat cost can be reduced with increased storage. Depending upon the capacity of thefarm pond, the contour survey is conducted to determine the slope, drainage patternwithin farm. Catchments property The drainage area which produces surface runoff for storage in farmponds, is very important from hydrology point of view. The structure must getfilled at least once in the season so that the farmers can use the water for criticalirrigation during dry spells. The characteristics of a catchment that directly affectthe runoff yield are the slope of the area, infiltration of the soil, vegetation, landuse and shape of the catchment. Water availability Excess runoff water must be available for harvesting as runoff (mm) in basin represented by rainfall and runoff coefficient. Proximity to perennial river flow (water body)

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Table 130: Factor rating table farm pond site selection Rating classes LQ LC Unit S1 S2 S3 N VL( 0 to L( 0.125 M( 0.375 to Infiltration rate 0.125 to 0.375 H( > 0.75 cm/hr) 0.75 cm/hr) cm/hr) cm/hr) Hydraulics class D C B A soilgroup Water holding Clay capacity of loam, silty clay soil Sand, loamy Soil loam, Sandy Silt loam or class sand, or sandy texture sandy clay loam loam loam clay, silty clay, or clay Soil depth cm >100 50 - 100 30 - 50 <30 Potential Slope % <25 25 - 35 35 - 40 >45 irrigable Land land class I, II, III IV, V VI, VII VIII capability Runoff class H M L VL Water Runoff availability (Rainfall mm deficit) Source: Reddy K. S., Manoranjan Kumar., Rao, K.V., Maruthi, V., Reddy, B.M.K., Umesh B., Ganesh Babu R., Srinivasa Reddy K., Vijayalakshmi and Venkateswarlu, B. (2012). Farm Ponds: A Climate Resilient Technology for Rainfed Agriculture; Planning, Design and Construction. Central research Institute for Dryland Agriculture

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4 RFERENCE

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (1983). Guidelines: land evaluation for rain-fed agriculture. Soils Bulletin 52, Rome, Italy. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (1984). Land evaluation for forestry. Forestry paper 48, Rome, Italy. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (1985). Guidelines: land evaluation for irrigated agriculture. Soils Bulletin 55, Rome, Italy. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (1991). Guidelines: land evaluation for extensive grazing. Soils Bulletin 58, Rome, Italy.

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5 APPENDICES

5.1 Guideline of Identification and Selection of Land Utilization Types

Identification of Land Utilization Types

The complete lists of land utilization types were obtained:

Reviews of sub basin inception report; Reviews of existing land cover report; Reviews of existing land use characteristics report; Consulting and using knowledge of local experts and the community Refer government preferences Using reference materials and study documents Such land utilization types obtained so, a complete list of present land utilization types and new once can be organized better in going through the following basic questions for the responsible personals and institutions in the area (the selection of appropriate target group is entirely left for the responsible experts):

What are the present land uses? What are the benefits and services and its productivity? What farming or use techniques are used? How is the input utilization (species, practices and management)? Apparent agro-climatic suitability? What are the possible land utilization types from other areas? Market and development demand? What demand is not satisfied in the locality? What are the potentials and problems? What are the suggestions by local and government objectives in the area (Food security, export, may be from woreda administration)? What are the basic demands of people in the area? etc. In this regard, and going through alternative identification processes, land utilization types can be identified from different sectors and newly introduced once along with sources of information and coverage (wide, medium, small and very small) and importance can be identified and illustrated as given as under:

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Crop land utilization types: Draft land utilization types short brief descriptions and illustration and sources of information

1. 2. Livestock land utilization types: Draft land utilization types short brief descriptions and Illustration and sources of information

1 2. Forest land utilization types: Draft land utilization types short brief descriptions and illustration and sources of information

1. 2. Irrigation land utilization types: Draft land utilization types short brief descriptions and illustration and sources of information

1.

2.

Other land utilization types: Draft land utilization types short brief descriptions and illustration and sources of information: Infrastructure such as road, local and governmental institutions, water points, schools, churches, mosques, DA centre and farmer training sites, research stations and nursery sites, settlements, rivers, streams and gullies, rock out crops and barren lands, rural and urban towns, mining sites, etc

1.

2.

After short description and full identification of present and new land utilization types in the area; the next step that will be conducted is rough selection or first phase filtering of land utilization types from the long list. The first phase screening can be performed based on the systematic and intellectual exercise based on the following agendas:

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Agro-climatic suitability; Do local agronomists/other experts believe the growth or implementation is possible or not; Is there any known reason why or why not; Market demand at a reasonable price; Does the identified land utilization types cover the whole sub basin area; Does government wish to expand the cultivation or expansion of these land utilization types or not; and Do the community prefer it or not; if not for what reason etc. After such rough screening assessments, each identified land utilization types can be presented along with reasons of acceptation or rejection in each sector as below:

Crop land utilization types: Acceptation and rejection information preferably with orders in terms of priority in importance and coverage

1.

2.

Livestock land utilization types: Acceptation and rejection information preferably with orders in terms of priority in importance and coverage

1.

2.

Forest land utilization types: Acceptation and rejection information preferably with orders in terms of priority in importance and coverage

1.

2.

Irrigation land utilization types: Acceptation and rejection information preferably with orders in terms of priority in importance and coverage

1.

2.

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Other land utilization types: Acceptation and rejection information preferably with orders in terms of priority in importance and coverage

1.

2.

DESCRIPTION AND DEFINITION OF LAND UTILIZATION TYPES

At (semi-) detailed scales, land utilization types are defined in more detail by a set of technical specifications with regard to crop or tree species involved as well as socioeconomic, management and conservation aspects by means of selected key attributes that serve to differentiate land areas from the point of view of land evaluation, i.e., that can be expressed as land use requirements with critical values in the study area, or serve to limit the land use options.

Accordingly, the description and definition checklists are: based on three major categories as:

Land use purpose (products or other benefits and services); Attributes related to operation sequence or technology used (use of power /mechanization, material inputs, cropping characteristics, and operations and their timing); and Context attributes or socio-economic attributes at farming system (market orientation, capital intensity, labor intensity, technical knowledge and attributes, scale of operation, economic attributes, land tenure and infrastructure). Hence, the preliminary screened and accepted land utilization types are described in each sector as given below:

Crop land utilization types: Full descriptions and definitions based on key attributes

1.

2.

Livestock land utilization types: Full descriptions and definitions based on key attributes

1

2

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Forest land utilization types: Full descriptions and definitions based on key attributes

1.

2.

Irrigation land utilization types: Full descriptions and definitions based on key attributes

1.

2.

Other land utilization types: Full descriptions and definitions based on key attributes

1.

2.

DISAGGREGATE OR HIERARCHICAL DEFINITION OF LAND UTILIZATION TYPES

From the individual description of and definition of land utilization types there may be several similar land utilization types with slight variations in management and other matters. For ease of handling the land evaluation easily, organizing them in a convenient hierarchy or more commonly a matrix based on some ad oc classification is required. Hence, the initial definition and description can be organized against each key attribute as given below:

Crop land utilization types: organization of full descriptions in different level of management (low, intermediate and high as defined by the expert)

Attribute Crop land utilization types s LUT 1 LUT 2 LUT 3

Lo Intermediat Hig Lo Intermediat Hig Lo Intermediat Hig w e h w e h w e h

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Livestock land utilization types: organization of full descriptions in different level of management (low, intermediate and high as defined by the expert)

Attribute Livestock land utilization types s LUT 1 LUT 2 LUT 3

Lo Intermediat Hig Lo Intermediat Hig Lo Intermediat Hig w e h w e h w e h

Forest land utilization types organization of full descriptions in different level of management (low, intermediate and high as defined by the expert)

Attribute Crop land utilization types s LUT 1 LUT 2 LUT 3

Lo Intermediat Hig Lo Intermediat Hig Lo Intermediat Hig w e h w e h w e h

Irrigation land utilization types: organization of full descriptions in different level of management (low, intermediate and high as defined by the expert)

Attribute Irrigation land utilization types s LUT 1 LUT 2 LUT 3

Lo Intermediat Hig Lo Intermediat Hig Lo Intermediat Hig w e h w e h w e h

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Attribute Irrigation land utilization types s LUT 1 LUT 2 LUT 3

Lo Intermediat Hig Lo Intermediat Hig Lo Intermediat Hig w e h w e h w e h

Other land utilization types organization of full descriptions in different level of management (low, intermediate and high as defined by the expert)

Attribute Other land utilization types s LUT 1 LUT 2 LUT 3

Lo Intermediat Hig Lo Intermediat Hig Lo Intermediat Hig w e h w e h w e h

Selection of Land Utilization Types

After hierarchical arrangements and full description of land utilization types, final selection of land utilization types is a critical step in implementing land suitability evaluation mainly based on three basic considerations?

Is it the most important land utilization types to the pre-defined objective or in every perspective (productivity, market, food value etc);

To cover a wide range of natural environments in the sub basin (coverage and is all areas of the sub basin covered by the selected land utilization types); and

Compatibility of land utilization types with the overall situation of the sub basin whether for the newly introduced once or the existing land utilization types.

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In general it performs the following sequences of steps:

A. Assessing local problems and needs for land use changes

Identifying key land use problems in the area concerned, in each sector

Key problems of crop production in order of priority

1.

2.

Key problems of livestock production in order of priority

1.

2.

Key problems of forest production in order of priority

1.

2.

Key problems of irrigation agriculture in order of priority

1.

2.

Key problems of the area apart from the above sectors in order of priority

1.

2.

N.B. Problems of land use can be summarized as under to avoid duplications:

1.

2.

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Assessing the requirements and needs of interest groups ("stakeholders") that will use the LE results directly or indirectly, and can alleviate land use problems identified earlier in each sector

Requirements and needs of interested groups to alleviate crop production problems

1.

2.

Requirements and needs of interested groups to alleviate livestock production problems

1.

2.

Requirements and needs of interested groups to alleviate forest production problems

1.

2.

Requirements and needs of interested groups to alleviate irrigation agriculture problems

1.

2.

Requirements and needs of interested groups to alleviate other problems

1.

2.

N.B. needs and requirements of land use can be summarized as under to avoid duplications:

1.

2.

B. Selection of land uses from a list of ''possible'' uses

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Determine whether the land uses reduce the problems or satisfy the needs identified under "A‖ from the possible uses described in different level of management; if not either upgrade or reject.

A rough assessment is made of the agro-ecological suitability of the crop, pasture and tree species in the list that are selected to meet problems and satisfy needs; select those s1 and s2 from the expert‘s knowledge, literature as per the needs of the expert and pre-defined criteria

Problems, requirements and needs identified in "A‖ are listed together with desirable "values‖ of key attributes. As far as possible, the problems, requirements and needs should be specified per interest group and per AEZ.

Requirements and needs of interested groups and desirable values to alleviate crop production problems

AEZ/Interest groups Problems Desirable values of key attributes

Requirements and needs of interested groups and desirable values to alleviate livestock production problems

AEZ/Interest groups Problems Desirable values of key attributes

Requirements and needs of interested groups and desirable values to alleviate forest production problems

AEZ/Interest groups Problems Desirable values of key attributes

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AEZ/Interest groups Problems Desirable values of key attributes

Requirements and needs of interested groups and desirable values to alleviate irrigation agriculture problems

AEZ/Interest groups Problems Desirable values of key attributes

Requirements and needs of interested groups and desirable values to alleviate other problems

AEZ/Interest groups Problems Desirable values of key attributes

N.B. needs and requirements of land use and desirable values can be summarized as under to avoid duplications:

Desirable values of key attributes (demand) are compared with the actual values (supply) of the key attributes of suitable land utilization types. This is done in the form of a matrix in which the relevance of the key attributes of the land utilization types is indicated qualitatively, e.g. by - (negative), 0 (no distinct influence, e.g. LUT will not improve the situation as exist under the present land use), + (positive), or ++ (very positive). Those + and ++ values are selected for further analysis

Crop production

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Desirable values Agro-ecologically suitable and positively influencing LUTs

LUT1 LUT2 LUT3 LUT4 LUT5 LUT6 LUT7 LUT8 LUT9

Livestock production

Desirable values Agro-ecologically suitable and positively influencing LUTs

LUT1 LUT2 LUT3 LUT4 LUT5 LUT6 LUT7 LUT8 LUT9

Forest production

Desirable values Agro-ecologically suitable and positively influencing LUTs

LUT1 LUT2 LUT3 LUT4 LUT5 LUT6 LUT7 LUT8 LUT9

Irrigation production

Desirable values Agro-ecologically suitable and positively influencing luts

LUT1 LUT2 LUT3 LUT4 LUT5 LUT6 LUT7 LUT8 LUT9

Others

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Desirable values Agro-ecologically suitable and positively influencing luts

LUT1 LUT2 LUT3 LUT4 LUT5 LUT6 LUT7 LUT8 LUT9

Those+, ++, +++ marks are selected for further analysis

C. Reducing the number of land uses by a "filtering" process

After the preliminary selection, it is desirable to restrict the number of land utilization types for consideration in the land evaluation by a "f1ltering"process based on the following criteria:

Do local agronomists, range managers or foresters believe that the land utilization types are good options for the area? Are there any reasons why not (e.g. diseases)?; Can the seasonal and peak labor required by the land utilization types be met by the available labor force?; Is there a market demand, at a reasonable price and price stability?; Are land tenure conditions such that the introduction of the land utilization type is likely to be a success?; Is the land utilization type acceptable to farmers and does it fit in the present or (near) future farming systems?; Are input supply, extension, credit, transport and processing facilities for the land utilization type adequate at present or can these facilities be made available during the implementation of the land utilization type?; are there indications that the land utilization type is socially acceptable (social acceptability will make successful introduction of the land utilization type easier) and based on the capacity to alleviating problems and addressing felt needs of stakeholders, for instances differences in productivity, market value etc. Productivity of products and services differences; and Environmental impact

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By this evaluate each LUT by the selected target group and identify by X and V for each parameters and weighted values

Crop production

Filtering Agro-ecologically suitable and positively influencing luts

LUT1 LUT2 LUT3 LUT4 LUT5 LUT6 LUT7 LUT8 LUT9

1

2

Livestock production

Filtering Agro-ecologically suitable and positively influencing luts

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Forest production

Filtering Agro-ecologically suitable and positively influencing luts

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Irrigation agriculture

Filtering Agro-ecologically suitable and positively influencing luts

BoEPAU Land Utilization Types and Their Environmental Requirements Draft Final Report ADSWE Page 215

Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project

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Filtering Agro ecologically suitable and positively influencing luts

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Summary

Filtering Agro -ecologically suitable and positively influencing luts

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BoEPAU Land Utilization Types and Their Environmental Requirements Draft Final Report ADSWE Page 216

Tana Sub-basin Land Use Planning and Environmental Study Project

5.2 Glossary

A land utilization type in forestryconsists of technical specifications in a given physical, economic and social setting

In the context of irrigated agriculture, a land utilization type refers to a crop, crop combination or cropping system with specified irrigation and management methods in a defined technical and socio-economic setting.

In the context of rain fedagriculture, a land utilization type refers to a crop, crop combination or cropping system with a specified technical and socioeconomic setting.

Land Use Requirement(LUR): a condition of the land necessary for successful and sustained implementation of a specific Land Utilization Type

Land Utilization Type(LUT): A kind of land use described or defined in a degree of detail greater than that of a major kind of land use.

Major Kind of Land Use: A major subdivision of rural land use, such as rain fed agriculture, irrigated agriculture, grassland, forestry, recreation, annual crops, perennial crops, swamp rice cultivation, forest plantation, or natural forests.

Partial Suitability: is the degree of suitability of land for a given land utilization type with reference to a single land quality or land characteristics

BoEPAU Land Utilization Types and Their Environmental Requirements Draft Final Report ADSWE Page 217