Studies on IPMPolic y in SEAsi a Two Centuries of Plant Protection in Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand Promotor: Prof. Dr. J.C. Zadoks, Emeritus hoogleraar in de ecologische fytopathologie Jan H.M.Oudejans Studies onIP MPolic y in SEAsi a Two Centuries of Plant Protection in Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor, op gezag van de rector magnificus van de Landbouwuniversiteit Wageningen, Dr. CM. Karssen, in het openbaar te verdedigen op vrijdag 26 februari 1999 des namiddags te vier uur in de aula van de Landbouwuniversiteit te Wageningen Coverphoto: Farmers'drawings of natural enemies at Farmer Field School graduation day in S Cotabato, Mindanao, March 7th, 1995. Photo byauthor STUDIES ON IPM POLICY IN SEASIA . TWO CENTURIES OF PLANT PROTECTION IN INDONESIA, MALAYSIAAN D THAILAND. Oudejans, J.H.M. Thesis Landbouwuniversiteit Wageningen - With ref., with summary in Dutch. Subject headings: Integrated Pest Management/pesticides/Southeast Asia ISBN 90-5808-019-6 (thesis) ISBN 90-5782-020-X ISSN 0169 345 X Distribution: Backhuys Publishers, P.O.Box 321,230 0 AH Leiden, the Netherlands. Telephone: +31-71-5170208 Fax: +31=71-5171856 E-mail: [email protected] All rights reserved Printed in the Netherlands by Ponsen & Looijen Wageningen Disclaimer: Mention of company names and commercial products does not imply the endorsement of Wageningen Agricultural University. IV BIBLIOTHEEK LANDBOUWUNIVERSITETT WAGENINGEN Author's abstract Integrated Pest Management (IPM) became a widely supported approach in the control of pests and diseases in crops. This study describes IPM policy and imple­ mentation, a.o. by the FAO Inter-Country Programme for the Development and Application of IPM in Rice in San d SEAsia , in Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand. A brief description of agricultural development in the three countries serves to understand their priorities in crop production and protection, the origin of their institutions, their main pest and disease problems and their achievements in the public and private sectors. Examples demonstrate the ingenuity of colonial research in solving major obstacles in estate agriculture.A compariso n of methods of pest management in pre-World War II agriculture without synthetic pesticides with modern IPM technology reveals some essential differences. In SEAsi a in the 1960s, large scale intensification programs in rice production onth e basis of Green Revolution technology led to serious outbreaks of secondary pests and virus epi­ demics. The Regional and National IPM programmes induced a political commit­ ment to IPM in Indonesia and Malaysia. Large scale IPM training following the FFS extension method had reached about 1 million Indonesian farmers by 1996. Theeffec t ofth e FAOIP M programmes onth e pesticide markets ofth e three coun­ tries is evident in Indonesia, but not in Malaysia and Thailand. Preface This study evolved in the course of the past three years, a period of learning and reflection. It deals with the experiences which marked my career in developing countries and in Europe. Over the years, I met with many inspiring people who taught me new ideas and helped me to never lose my curiosity. I had an adventur­ ous careertha t allowed met o seeagricultura l practices inal lbu t onecontinent . The study might be seen as an end-of-career effort of sharing experience and as a token of gratitude to the people of SEAsi a for the hospitality bestowed upon me. Of great value for the research has been my supervisor at the Wageningen Agricultural University, Dr. J.C. Zadoks, emeritus professor of ecological phy­ topathology who, as an IPM expert and former member of the FAO/UNEP Panel for Integrated Pest Management, became personally acquainted with the envi­ ronment and pest problems of SE Asia. Professor Zadoks showed me new per­ spectives of Pest Management and ways to lead my manifold impressions into effective grooves of thought. His detailed, accurate and demanding commentaries enabled me to write this dissertation. My sincere thanks got o Mr.Ewou d Pierhagen (M.Sc), director ofth e Division of International Affairs, Ministry of Agriculture, Nature Management and Fisheries, The Netherlands, for his generous encouragement since the time I left my position in his division to write this book. The facilities and support provided by Mr. Pierhagen were crucial for the successful completion of the study. A grateful acknowledgement goes to Dr. Hans-Jurgen Schonlau and Annik Dollacker (M.Sc), Bayer AG, Business Group Crop Protection, Monheim, Germany, for providing a detailed analysis of the pesticide markets in three SE Asian countries covering 16 years. By confiding in me and giving professional advice, Dr. Schonlau and Mrs. Dollacker made a substantial contribution to this study. I mention with respect the inspiring work of Dr. Peter E. Kenmore, at the time Chief Administrator of the FAO Inter-Country Programme for the Development and Application of Integrated Pest Control in Rice in San d SE Asia. I thank Prof. Mohd. Yusof Hussein, Dean, Faculty of Agriculture, Universiti Pertanian Malaysia, for his hospitality in enabling my study in Malaysia. Aspecia l word ofthank s goes to Bram van Weeren for his invaluable help with computer technology and art work. I also appreciated the support given by Liesbeth and Ab Lycklama-Oudejans, Ticia and Mauke van der Haer-Rueb during the final weeks. Last but in no way least, Ithan k with all my heart my beloved wife, Ansje, for her ever lasting confidence and patience. VII Contents Author's abstract V Preface VII Abbreviations and acronyms XV Chapter 1. Introduction: From Paradise to Paradigm 1 1.1. Rationale 1 1.2. Serving two masters? 1 1.3 Crop protection: need and realisation in SEAsi a 2 1.4. The introduction of synthetic pesticides 3 1.5. The development of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) 4 1.6. The appearance of donors 4 1.7. Inter-Country and National IPM Programmes in SEAsi a 6 1.8. Organisation ofth e book 6 Chapter 2. Development of agriculture in Indonesia 9 2.1. Introduction 9 2.2. Early history 11 2.3. Arrival of European contenders in Indonesia 13 2.3.1. The Portuguese and the English 13 2.3.2. The Dutch 13 2.3.3. Agricultural commodity trade under the VOC 14 2.3.3.1. Cloves 14 2.3.3.2. Coffee 15 2.3.3.3. Sugar 15 2.3.4. Decline of the VOC 15 2.3.5. Dutch and British administration between 1800 and 1816 16 2.4. Agriculture in the Dutch East Indies between 1816 and 1870 17 2.4.1. Restoration of the Dutch administration 17 2.4.2. The Cultuurstehel 17 2.4.3. The rise of private estate agriculture 20 2.4.4. The state of indigenous agriculture (bevolkingscultuur) 21 2.5. Scientific development in agriculture between 1870 and 1945 21 2.5.1. The beginning of agricultural research 21 2.5.2. Private research stations 22 2.5.3. Establishment of the Department ofAgricultur e 24 2.5.4. Development of peasant and smallholder agriculture 26 2.5.5. Food production by farmers 27 IX 2.5.6. Research for peasant and smallholder agriculture 27 2.6. Rice production in Independent Indonesia, 1946-present 28 2.6.1. Food production after World War II 29 2.6.2. Agricultural research since Independence, 1949 29 2.6.3. Policy development, rice and other food crops 30 2.6.3.1. Rice production and the National Five-year Plans, 1950-70 30 2.6.3.2. Intensification efforts in rice production 31 2.6.3.3. The Bimas-Inmas programs, 1965-1967 32 2.6.3.4. The Bimas GotongRoyongprogram, 1968-1970 33 2.6.3.5. Pest surveillance and emergency control operations 37 2.6.3.6. Achievement of self-sufficiency in rice 37 2.6.3.7. Developments since 1970 39 2.7. Export commodity production, colonials times to present 40 2.7.1. Sugarcane 41 2.7.2. Tobacco 44 2.7.2.1 'Principalities' tobacco 44 2.7.2.2. Deli tobacco 45 2.7.3. Coffee 45 2.7.4. Cacao 46 2.7.5 Oil palm 47 2.7.6. Development of the para-statal estate sector 47 2.8. Discussion, Indonesia 48 2.9. Conclusions, Indonesia 50 Chapter 3. Development of agriculture in Malaysia 59 3.1. Introduction 59 3.2. Early Malay history 60 3.3. Arrival of European contenders in Malaysia 62 3.3.1. The Portugese, the Dutch and the English 62 3.3.2. Agriculture before 1815 62 3.4. Agriculture in Peninsular Malaysia between 1815-1914 63 3.4.1. British administration 63 3.4.2. Development of Chinese enterprise 63 3.4.3. Beginning of civil turmoil 64 3.4.4. The British take-over 65 3.4.5. Establishment of export oriented agriculture 65 3.4.5.1. Sugarcane 66 3.4.5.2. Coffee 66 3.4.5.3. Rubber 67 3.4.5.4. Oil palm 68 3.4.6. The state of indigenous agriculture 68 3.4.7. Establishment of a Department ofAgricultur e 68 X 3.5. Advancement in agriculture between 1914 and 1957 69 3.5.1. Impact of World War I 69 3.5.2. Development of the agricultural services 70 3.5.2.1. Privately funded research 70 3.5.2.2. Publicly funded research 70 3.5.2.3. Strengthening of the agricultural services 71 3.5.3. The fateful decades, 1930-1950 73 3.5.3.1. The great economic depression 73 3.5.3.2. Second World War and the reconstruction 73 3.6. Agriculture in independent Malaysia, 1957-present 74 3.6.1.