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Geological Society of America Special Papers

The system controlling the composition of clastic sediments

Mark J. Johnsson

Geological Society of America Special Papers 1993;284; 1-20 doi:10.1130/SPE284-p1

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The system controlling the composition of clastic sediments

Mark J. Johnsson* U.S. Geological Survey, 345 Middlefield Road, MS 999, Menlo Park, California 94025

ABSTRACT The composition of clastic sediments and rocks is controlled by a complex suite of parameters operating during pedogenesis, erosion, transport, deposition, and burial. The principal first-order parameters include source rock composition, modification by chem- ical weathering, mechanical disaggregation and abrasion, authigenic inputs, hydrody- namic sorting, and diagenesis. Each of these first-order parameters is influenced to varying degrees by such factors as the tectonic settings of the source region, transporta- tional system and depositional environment, climate, vegetation, relief, slope, and the nature and energy of transportational and depositional systems. These factors are not independent; rather a complicated web of interrelationships and feedback mechanisms causes many factors to be modulated by others. Accordingly, processes controlling the composition of clastic sediments are best viewed as constituting a system, and in evaluat- ing compositional information the dynamics of the system must be considered as whole.

INTRODUCTION

Sedimentary rocks are our principal sources of information utilized as clues to their source regions. Compositional data concerning past conditions on the Earth's surface. Clastic rocks have been used to chart orogenic progression, unroofing, and may preserve detritus from orogenic settings now obscured by most recently, plate tectonic evolution. tectonic overprinting, dismemberment or erosion. At times, the The composition of clastic materials does not, however, composition of such clastic materials provides the only available correlate on a one-to-one basis with source rock composition, clues to the composition of long-eroded source rocks, and thus is implying that factors other than source rock composition also are an invaluable tool in paleogeologic reconstructions. Indeed, clas- important in determining the ultimate composition of clastic sed- tic sediments provide us with our only windows into Earth's iments. During the formation of clastic rocks, material passes earliest past—the oldest geologic materials on Earth are detrital through several evolutionary stages, including pedogenesis, ero- zircons from Archean sandstones (Compston et al., 1985; Comp- sion, transport, deposition, and burial. Processes acting on sedi- ston and Pidgeon, 1986; Liu et al, 1992; Mueller et al, 1992). ment composition during this evolution include chemical Accordingly, there is a long history of the use of composi- weathering, physical breakdown, abrasion, hydrodynamic sort- tional data from clastic sediments to evaluate the nature of the ing, modification by authigenic inputs and, in the case of lithified terranes from which they were derived. This history extends back sedimentary rocks, burial diagenesis. Erosion and sedimentation to the time of Hutton, who concluded that "if this part of the are essentially partitioning processes whereby the components of earth which we now inhabit had been produced, in the course of the source rock are differentially preserved. If the materials time, from the materials of a former earth, we should, in the eroded from a group of source rocks were in physical and chemi- examination of our land, find data from which to reason, with cal equilibrium, then their proportions in the resulting sediment regard to the nature of that world . . ." (Hutton, 1785, p. 23). In would be dictated merely by their abundance in the source rocks the ensuing two centuries, hundreds of studies have been under- and by hydrodynamic sorting effects operating during transport taken in which clastic rocks, particularly sandstones, have been and deposition. However, mineral phases differ in chemical and physical stability and accordingly are modified by physical and chemical weathering in different ways. The effects of physical and chemical weathering processes are in turn controlled by such •Present address: Department of Geology, Bryn Mawr College, Bryn Mawr, parameters as climate and relief of source terrain, distance of Pennsylvania 19010-2899.

Johnsson, M. J., 1993, The system controlling the composition of clastic sediments, in Johnsson, M. J., and Basu, A, eds., Processes Controlling the Composition of Clastic Sediments: Boulder, Colorado, Geological Society of America Special Paper 284.

1 2 M. J. Johnsson transport, time spent in transport, and energy of the transporta- tion analysis. Chemical data of individual phases are commonly tional and depositional environments. Finally, the sediment is acquired through use of the electron microprobe, backscatter likely to experience further compositional modification during scanning electron microscopy, energy-dispersive spectral analysis diagenesis. All of these factors, rarely easily separated, are impor- and, indirectly, through cathodoluminescence. Finally, "composi- tant in establishing the composition of clastic sediments. tion" may be taken broadly to include detailed information Modifications that occur during transport and deposition about sediment components, such as varieties of quartz grains, tend to obscure information regarding parent materials, but U-Pb dating of individual zircon grains, and stable isotope signa- may, at the same time, provide a wealth of information concern- tures of the bulk sediment. ing the environment in which sediment was formed. Modifica- Effects of methods tions subsequent to deposition may provide clues to the diagenetic environment of a sedimentary basin. For these reasons, While between-sample variations can be adequately de- the processes modifying sediment composition both prior to and scribed by any definition of composition, comparisons among following deposition are currently the focus of much interest, and data sets require scrupulous attention to the methods employed in a picture is beginning to emerge relating sediment composition to collecting compositional data (Zuffa, 1985). This is particularly environmental conditions in addition to source rocks. An under- important when applying previously derived provenance models standing of these processes and how they interact is desirable for to new data sets (Ingersoll, 1990). the development of more refined provenance interpretation Irrespective of other factors affecting overall sediment com- schemes, to provide a basis for evaluating past environmental position, composition is strongly correlated with grain size. Ob- conditions, and to evaluate the roles of erosion and sedimentation viously, shales and sandstones derived under identical conditions within the tectonic and hydrologie cycles. The goal of this paper from identical source rocks are markedly different in composition is to provide an overview of the system regulating the composi- simply because clay minerals make up the bulk of finer grain sizes tion of clastic materials and to suggest potential feedback mecha- and detritus consisting principally of primary minerals is found in nisms operating within that system. coarser fractions. More subtle is the effect of grain size within the sand fraction; numerous studies have demonstrated a strong de- CONCEPTUAL BASELINE pendence of sand composition on grain size (e.g., Fiichtbauer, 1964; Boggs, 1968; Odom et al„ 1976; Basu, 1985a; Cather and What is composition? Folk, 1991; Savage and Potter, 1991). Since grain-size effects can obscure meaningful trends in Sediment composition can be defined in many ways, de- samples, a means of normalizing for grain size must be achieved if pending on the nature of the sediment and on the questions samples are to be compared. In unconsolidated sands, normaliza- addressed by the study. Perhaps most basic is a definition based tion may be achieved by restricting analysis to a particular grain on the relative abundance of the elements or their oxides in the size that has been isolated by sieving. In sandstones, such a proce- bulk sample. This approach is especially valuable when making dure is impractical, so an effort is generally made to collect sam- comparisons between sediment composition and the composition ples of nearly identical grain size (most commonly, the medium of solid or dissolved weathering products, but it is of limited size fraction, 0.25-0.50 mm). Another means to help normalize utility in studying sedimentary rocks because whole-rock analyses for compositional dependence on grain size is to adopt point- include both detrital and diagenetic components. Mineralogical counting conventions such that sand-size (>63 /urn) subgrains composition provides an alternate measure. In shales, in which within larger polymineralic grains are assigned to the category of composition is routinely evaluated through x-ray diffraction, the subgrain rather than to the category of the larger fragment mineralogical composition is the standard measure of composi- (Gazzi, 1966; Dickinson, 1970; Gazzi and Zuffa, 1970). In fact, tion. In sandstones, however, fine-grained minerals within poly- no point-counting technique can correct for actual variation of mineralic grains present identification difficulties (Boggs, 1968). monomineralic grains with grain size (Ingersoll et al., 1984; Furthermore, schemes defining sandstone composition on the Decker and Helmold, 1985). The Gazzi-Dickinson method, basis of either elemental or mineralogical compositions ignore the however, by assuming that polycrystalline components will dis- textural information available in thin section. Accordingly, sand- aggregate into constituent grains, provides improved clustering of stone composition is most commonly defined on the basis of data obtained from sandstones of diverse grain sizes and places an grain type, a procedure that includes a great deal of textural increased emphasis on provenance (Ingersoll et al., 1984). More information as well. traditional methods, in which the entire detrital grain is used to The pétrographie microscope and the x-ray diffractometer arrive at grain classification (Suttner and Basu, 1981, 1985) em- thus remain the principal tools for the evaluation of the mineral- phasize the textural and compositional information found in lithic ogical composition of sandstone and shale composition. Bulk fragments, and place emphasis on paleoenvironmental conditions chemical data may be collected by a wide variety of techniques, during erosion and transport. Clearly, the point-counting method including traditional atomic and plasma absorption and emission adopted depends on the goals of the study (Ingersoll et al., 1984, spectroscopic techniques, x-ray fluorescence, and neutron activa- 1985a,b; Decker and Helmold, 1985; Suttner and Basu, 1985; The system controlling clastic sediments 3

Zuffa, 1985), but Zuffa (1985) demonstrated that significantly terms of tectonic setting, suggesting that sandstone composition disparate results are obtained by different point-counting proce- could be used to infer ancient tectonic setting as well. In 1970, dures. Furthermore, sampling scale can affect the interpretation of Dickinson formulated a classification scheme making possible compositional data. Ingersoll (1990) pointed out that provenance quantitative evaluation of sandstone composition. Dickinson and interpretation schemes such as those of Dickinson and Suczek his coworkers, as well as other researchers, next used this classifi- (1979) or Dickinson (1985), derived as they are from mean cation scheme to relate sandstone composition to the tectonic values representing many data sets, are not applicable to data sets environments of source terranes (e.g., Dickinson and Rich, 1972; representing regions on the scale of drainage basins or individual Crook, 1974; Schwab, 1975; Dickinson and Suczek, 1979; Dick- mountains. inson, 1982; Dickinson et al., 1983a). Sand composition shows a particularly strong correlation with provenance among sands of SYSTEM APPROACH TO CLASTIC COMPOSITION modern arc-trench systems (e.g., Harrold and Moore, 1975; In- gersoll and Suzcek,1979; Moore, 1979; Dickinson and Valloni, Parameters influencing the composition of clastic sediments 1980; Valloni and Maynard, 1981; Enkeboll, 1982; Maynard are intimately interrelated; to fully understand what information et al., 1982; Valloni and Mezzadri, 1984; Yerino and Maynard, is contained within composition data, all such parameters must be 1984; Valloni, 1985; Gergen and Ingersoll, 1986; Packer and considered together. Thus, a system approach is advocated, where- Ingersoll, 1986; Cawood, 1991; Pirrie, 1991), probably because of the steep slopes, short transport times and distances, and rapid by an emphasis is placed on the interrelationships among sedimentation rates usually associated with such regions. Narrow parameters influencing composition and on their feedback ranges of sand composition were successfully correlated with mechanisms. equally specific tectonic settings, and in some cases spatial The study of parameters affecting sediment composition and changes in sand composition could be related to derivation from how they interact tends to be highly uniformitarianistic. Given different sources (Enkeboll, 1982; Johnsson, 1990). the difficulties inherent in establishing past values for many of these variables, sedimentary penologists have turned to modern In 1979, Dickinson and Suczek formalized the correlation sediments and the principles of comparative sedimentology to of sandstone composition with tectonic setting by examining pet- cast light on these questions. It must be borne in mind, however, rographic data from 88 sandstone suites reported in the that modern systems may be atypical of past Earth surface condi- literature. By plotting the means of each suite on various ternary tions in a number of ways. Of particular significance may be the diagrams, distinct clusterings emerged. They found that these effects of Pleistocene glaciation and of anthropogenic perturba- clusters correlated with the tectonic environment of the inferred tion of erosion and soil production rates. source terranes. Three main categories were recognized: continen- tal block, magmatic arc, and recycled orogen. The limits of these SOURCE ROCK CONTROLS ON categories on the most frequently used ternary diagrams (QtFL SEDIMENT COMPOSITION and QmFLt) were refined by Dickinson et al. (1983a) and Dick- inson (1985). This work has since seen broad application in the Sediment composition is obviously strongly controlled by interpretation of the tectonic evolution of sedimentary basins on a the composition of the rocks from which the sediment is derived. regional scale (e.g., Graham et al., 1976; Dickinson et al., 1979, Under many conditions, sediment composition correlates well 1986; Schwab, 1981; DeCelles, 1986; Lawton, 1986; Girty, with the composition of source rocks. Because source rock com- 1987; Dorsey, 1988; Dumoulin, 1988; Jett and Heller, 1988; position is in turn controlled to a great degree by tectonic setting, Ingersoll et al., 1990; Ingersoll and Dickinson, 1990; Graham an attempt has been made to classify sands and sandstones on the et al., 1991; Ridgeway and DeCelles, this volume; Devaney and basis of the tectonic environment of the source terrain. The mod- Ingersoll, this volume). ern movement in this direction was foreshadowed by Krynine Although the groupings on the ternary diagrams as first (1941a-c; 1942) when he linked stratigraphic variations in sand- defined by Dickinson and Suczek (1979) and later refined by stones with progressing geosynclinal evolution. Krynine envi- Dickinson (1985) do correlate remarkably well with tectonic sioned the upper portion of the Earth's crust to be divisible into environment, important exceptions and misclassifications can an upper layer of dominantly sedimentary rocks, a middle layer occur. Molanaroli et al. (1991) have shown that the 1983 refine- composed of metamorphic rocks, and a lower layer of plutonic ment (Dickinson et al., 1983a) correctly classifies only 74% of the rocks. He reasoned that these layers would give rise to quartzose samples from which the provenance model was defined. These sands, lithic arenites, and arkoses, respectively, and that such a misclassifications, as well as much of the scatter within groupings, succession of sands would reflect progressive unroofing of the probably relate to the use of diverse methods (Wolf, 1971; Mack, source terrane during orogenesis. 1984; Zuffa, 1985; Ingersoll, 1990), sediment recycling (Blatt, 1967), and transport of sediment across tectonic boundaries Correlation with tectonic setting (Mack, 1984; Velbel, 1985; Saccani, 1987), as well as to factors With the advent of the plate tectonic model, it was noted modifying sediment during transport, deposition, and diagenesis that the global distribution of rock types could be explained in (Suttner, 1974; Johnsson, 1992). 4 M. J. Johnsson

Attention has turned more recently to the use of bulk chem- ments may be modified by environmental factors has led to the ical data, rather than the petrographic identification of framework use of specific sediment components, rather than overall composi- grains, to classify sandstones by tectonic setting (e.g., Bhatia, tion, as indicators of provenance. Most obvious is the use of an 1983, 1985; van de Kamp and Leake, 1985; Bhatia and Crook, unusual component that fortuitously is found in a clastic sequence 1986; Roser and Korsch, 1986, 1988; Argast and Donnelly, and may constitute a unique tracer, such as the lawsonite and 1987). Chemical analyses can be performed to greater precision "blue sodic amphibole" encountered in the Alpine molasse of that petrographic modal analyses, and are certainly easier to per- France (Mange-Rajetzky and Oberhànsli, 1982). Even the prin- form, but the textural information that is frequently critical to the cipal sandstone constituents, however, may provide provenance interpretation of provenance is lost. Furthermore, authigenic clues that are little affected by weathering and diagenetic proc- material such as cement is included in bulk-chemical analyses, esses. These include plagioclase composition (Pittman, 1970; such that different diagenetic histories may make sediment from Trevena and Nash, 1979, 1981; Maynard, 1984), feldspar twin- similar tectonic settings appear compositionally distinct. Never- ning (Helmold, 1985; Devaney and Ingersoll, this volume), inclu- theless, the bulk-chemical approach may prove useful in instances sions and vesicles in quartz (Folk, 1974), nature of quartz where the influence of weathering or diagenesis has destroyed the polycrystallinity and undulose extinction (Blatt and Christie, original phases; if the sediment behaved as a closed system, ele- 1963; Folk, 1974; Basu et al, 1975; Arribas et al, 1985; Basu, mental ratios may be relatively unaffected even when phases have 1985b; Girty et al, 1988; Johnsson et al, 1991), opaque mineral reequilibrated to the diagenetic environment (Argast and Don- texture and composition (Reizebos, 1979; Molinaroli and Basu, nelly, 1987). 1987, this volume; Basu and Molinaroli, 1989, 1991; Grigsby, 1990, 1992), and composition of the heavy mineral suite (van Petrofacies Andel, 1959; Reizebos, 1979; Morton, 1985; Statteggar, 1987; Hurst and Morton, 1988; Morton et al, 1989; Morton, 1991; The concept of sedimentologic "petrofacies"—facies defined Grigsby, 1992). in terms of sediment composition rather than lithology—was More recently, attention has turned to dating of individual introduced in the early 1970s by workers studying the Great detrital grains as an aid in provenance discrimination. Such tech- Valley Group in California (Gilbert and Dickinson, 1970; Swe niques offer a fundamentally new type of information than has and Dickinson, 1970; Mansfield, 1971; Dickinson and Rich, previously been applied to provenance studies: that of time. 1972). In northern California, petrofacies are much more later- Fission-track dating of apatite and zircon (Baldwin et al, 1986; ally persistent than are lithofacies based on grain size and bedding Hurford and Carter, 1991), 40Ar-39Ar dating of amphiboles, style (Dickinson and Rich, 1972). Consideration of clastic sedi- micas, and feldspars (Kelly and Bluck, 1989), and U-Pb dating of mentary packages based on their compositional similarity rather zircons (Compston et al, 1985; Compston and Pidgeon, 1986; than on gross lithologic character has proven useful both in the Drewey et al, 1987; Liu et al.,1992; Mueller et al, 1992; Rain- evaluation of source regions and their evolution over time, and in bird et al, 1992), and even quartz (Hemming et al, 1990, 1991; regional correlation—especially where biostratigraphic control is McLennan et al, this volume) have each provided important poor (e.g., Stanley, 1976; Ingersoll, 1978,1983,1990; Dickinson constraints on provenance. As more precise dating techniques et al., 1982, 1983b; Thornburg and Kulm, 1987; Ingersoll et al, become available, better detrital age distributions will allow not 1990; Ingersoll and Dickinson, 1990; Short and Ingersoll, 1990; only for less ambiguous provenance determinations, but also for Ingersoll and Cavazza, 1991). the development of mixing models important to understanding Nevertheless, petrofacies do not provide an unambiguous the evolution of the crust. window on tectonic setting and source rock composition any Further attention is being directed at the distribution of trace more than any other aspect of compositional information. Petrof- elements, particularly the rare earth elements, as constraints on acies may reflect not only similarities in source rock, but in any of provenance. Rare earth element distributions appear to be partic- the factors influencing sediment composition (Suttner, 1974; ularly sensitive to tectonic setting (e.g., Balashov et al, 1964; Suttner and Dutta, 1986; Johnsson et al., 1991). Furthermore, Bhatia, 1985; Cullers et al, 1987; McLennan, 1989; McLennan petrologically defined facies do not necessarily imply common et al, 1990, this volume; Floyd et al, 1991; McCann, 1991; provenance. Johnsson et al. (1991), for example, defined a McLennan and Taylor, 1991; Milodowski and Zalasiewicz, quartz-arenite petrofacies among modern sands of the Orinoco 1991; Girty et al, this volume). An advantage of using rare earth River drainage basin that was the result of diverse source rock element distributions to evaluate provenance is that they are usu- and chemical weathering controls on sand composition: composi- ally concentrated in finer grain sizes; thus shale fragments and tional similarity in these sands did not reflect similar provenance, matrix material in sandstones can be evaluated with the same set tectonic setting, or transportation history. of criteria as shales. Furthermore, because most of the rare earth elements are relatively immobile during chemical weathering and Assessing provenance diagenesis (Nesbitt, 1979; Nesbitt et al, 1980; Humphris, 1984; Maksimovic and Panto, 1991), provenance information may not The extent to which the overall composition of clastic sedi- be lost even after considerable alteration of framework grains. The system controlling clastic sediments 5

147Sm decays to 143Nd with a half-life of 1.063 * 10" yr, appears to be controlled primarily by climate (precipitation and providing another rare earth index of provenance. Because the temperature) and vegetation (particularly the nature and activity lighter Nd is segregated from Sm during crustal differentiation, of organic acids). The duration of weathering is controlled by the Nd-Sm "model age" is generally taken to indicate the time of many factors, including relief, slope, sediment storage prior to fractionation of crustal material from the mantle (McCulloch and ultimate deposition, and sedimentation rate. Complicated feed- Wasserburg, 1978; Taylor and McLennan, 1985; DePaolo, back mechanisms occur among many of these parameters. 1988). In practice, Nd-Sm systematics are generally expressed in terms of tNd> the chondrite-normalized ratio of radiogenic 143Nd Mechanisms of chemical weathering to non-radiogenic l44Nd, a quantity that increases with increased time since derivation from the mantle. Because of the refractory A large body of experimental data has been amassed regard- nature of Nd, 6Nd and Nd-Sm model ages appear to be nearly ing the mechanisms of weathering at an atomic scale, but a tho- immune to chemical weathering or diagenesis (Awwiller and rough review of these data is beyond the scope of this review. The Mack, 1989, 1991; McLennan et al, 1989). Furthermore, since mechanisms of protonation, complexation, and dissolution have model ages do not reflect crystallization times, but rather the time been explored by laboratory dissolution studies (e.g., Berner, of extraction from the mantle reservoir, closed system metamor- 1978; Eggleton and Buseck, 1980; White, 1983; Holdren and phism and even melting will not affect model ages (DePaolo, Speyer, 1985; Schott and Berner, 1985; Wollast and Chou, 1988). The Nd-Sm age of a sediment thus records the mean age 1985), and through atomic scale imaging with scanning tunneling of the crustal components from which it is derived, and has been and atomic force microscopy (e.g., Hochella, 1988,1990; Johns- used to help constrain tectonic provenance in both sandstones son et al, 1992). Studies of the surface textures of minerals from and shales (Michard et al, 1985; Andre et al, 1986; Frost and soils, including quartz (Crook, 1968; Douglas and Piatt, 1977; Winston, 1987; Frost and Coombs, 1989; Todd, 1989; Basu Darmody, 1985; Brantley et al, 1986a,b), feldspars (Berner and et al, 1990; McLennan et al, 1990; Evans et al, 1991; Floyd Holdren, 1977; Nixon, 1979; Velbel, 1986), and mafic minerals et al, 1991; Graham et al, 1991; Linn et al, 1991; Ross et al, (Berner et al, 1980; Berner and Schott, 1982; Velbel, 1984a, b, 1991). See McLennan and others, this volume, for a thorough 1989) indicate that mineral dissolution is controlled largely by review of rare earth element geochemistry and its application to crystallographic imperfections, especially dislocations. Despite provenance studies. the progress made in understanding the mechanisms of weather- ing, applying laboratory data to nature has remained difficult. CHEMICAL WEATHERING CONTROLS ON Mineral breakdown rates do not necessarily control rates of natu- ral weathering where slope processes and tectonic controls appear SEDIMENT COMPOSITION to be more important (Stallard, 1988). Possibly for this reason, laboratory dissolution rates vastly exceed natural weathering rates Most minerals found in rocks were formed under different (Pages, 1973; Velbel, 1992). temperature, pressure, and chemical conditions than those at the Earth's surface. Goldich (1938) showed that the common silicate minerals form a weathering stability series analogous to the Bow- Intensity versus duration of chemical weathering en's reaction series: minerals that crystallize at higher tempera- during pedogenesis tures (e.g., olivine, amphiboles, pyroxenes, and calcium plagio- clase) are markedly less stable under chemical weathering Weathering intensity. Even before leaving the source area, conditions than minerals that crystallize at lower temperatures chemical weathering processes act on the composition of detrital (e.g., sodium plagioclase, potassium feldspar, micas, and quartz). material during pedogenesis. Clastic sediments generally are not In general, nonsilicate minerals such as carbonates, sulfides, sul- produced directly from the bedrock, but instead represent re- fates, and halides are more susceptible to chemical weathering worked soils. than are the silicate minerals. The effect that chemical weathering Chemical weathering reactions take place in the presence of has on sediment composition is to deplete sediments of the more water, and the intensity of chemical weathering is controlled to unstable minerals, causing a relative increase in the proportion of a large extent by the quantity and composition of water in the more stable minerals. Rock and mineral textures have strong the weathering environment. Climate plays a leading role in effects on the level of alteration produced by chemical weather- determining the quantity of water entering the weathering en- ing. Fractures in bedrock, which can serve as conduits for fluids, vironment through precipitation, and the correlation of climate become important loci for weathering. On a microscopic scale, with chemical weathering intensity has been long-established mineral cleavages play a similar role. Polymineralic grains are (e.g., Woolnough, 1930; Krynine, 1936; Basu, 1976; Potter, particularly susceptible to chemical weathering because the 1978a; James et al, 1981; Mack, 1981; Suttner and Basu, 1981). boundaries between the mineral subgrains serve as efficient con- Tropical environments, for example, may be characterized by duits for water. chemical weathering so intense that the nature of the source rock The degree of alteration attained depends both on the inten- cannot be determined from sediment composition; quartz arenites sity and the duration of the weathering. Intensity of weathering may result from the weathering of diverse rocks such as granites, 6 M. J. Johnsson schists, and gneisses (Potter, 1978a; Franzinelli and Potter, 1983; plagioclase may be indicative of climate. Citing the relative stabil- Johnsson et al., 1988, 1991). In more temperate areas, chemical ity of potassium feldspars over plagioclase, he proposed that, weathering may be less intense; on the North Carolina Piedmont, although plagioclase will usually be more altered than orthoclase Mann and Cavaroc (1973) were able to distinguish sands derived in temperate climates, heavy leaching in a low-relief setting char- from igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary sources. In arid acterized by heavy nonseasonal rains and subtropical tempera- environments, a generally good correlation exists between source tures could reverse this relationship. These predictions were not, rock composition and sediment composition (Girty et al., 1988). however, borne out by Johnsson et al., (1991) from just such an Climatic differences in weathering intensity across the United environment in southern Venezuela. The use of feldspar as a States have been graphically demonstrated by Meirding (1981), paleoclimatic indicator was also questioned by James et al. who discovered systematic differences in the weathering of mar- (1981), who showed that there is a broad overlap in the level of ble tombstones. alteration of detrital feldpar from wet and dry climates, and that The effects of weathering intensity on sediment composition the amount of alteration of feldspar probably is an inadequate are perhaps best evaluated by comparing sediment produced paleoclimatic indicator, perhaps because the duration of weather- from similar parent material, under identical transport/deposi- ing may have as large a role as climate. These authors did find, tional regimes, but under different climatic regimes. This ap- however, that the types of feldspar alteration products may show proach was adopted by Basu (1976) and Suttner and Basu some climatic dependence. (1981). These authors concluded that sands derived from granitic The effects of vegetation on weathering intensity are com- rocks in a semi-arid environment were compositionally distinct plex. Probably most important is the release of CO2 by the decay from sands derived from similar rocks in a humid/temperate of organic matter in soils to form H2CO3, a powerful reactant environment, although factors other than climate may also have during weathering. In addition, plants have evolved organic acids varied between their study areas (e.g., Heins, this volume). that are released through root mycorrhizae specifically to dissolve Within regions underlain by a similar suite of source rocks, soil particles, aiding root penetration in soils. Such acids may Breyer and Ehlmann (1981) showed that local variations in pre- increase weathering rates in the upper levels of soils (Knoll and cipitation can have a profound impact on sediment composition, James, 1987), but probably more important are the much more and Johnsson and others (this volume) show how such variations abundant humic and fulvic acids. These organic acids, produced in sediment composition reflect different weathering processes in through the degradation of more complex organic materials, have the soils from which they were derived. been shown to greatly increase mineral dissolution rates (Eck- Such studies have provided a baseline for the use of compo- hardt, 1985; Krumbein and Dyer, 1985; Stumm et al., 1985; sitional data to infer paleoclimatology in clastic rocks. For exam- Bennett and Siegel, 1987; Hansley, 1987; Mast and Drever, 1987; ple, Baker (1978) and Baker and Penteado-Orellana (1978) Bennett et al., 1988; Hinman, 1990). Jackson and Keller (1970) inferred a changing climate to be the cause of temporally chang- showed that lichens could accelerate the weathering of bare basalt ing sandstone compositions in Colorado River deposits in Texas. surfaces on Hawaii through chelation of metals. Vegetation may Suttner and Dutta (1986) quantitatively used framework miner- also increase weathering rates by increasing soil capacity to hold alogy to evaluate changing paleoclimatic conditions during the water and thereby enhancing soil/water interaction. Perhaps as deposition of sandstones produced from crystalline basement. important as these direct effects, however, are the complex effects In addition to overall framework mineralogy, particular sed- vegetation may have on slope stability. On steep slopes, vegeta- imentary components have been proposed as paleoclimatic indi- tion may reduce erosion over short time intervals (Moore, 1984). cators. Feldspar has long been regarded as particularly sensitive to Vegetation may, however, increase weathering rates by anchoring climatic variability, and Krynine (1950) suggested that the pres- soils on otherwise bare surfaces. Soil moisture and organic acids ence of unaltered feldspars could be used as a criterion for the will then accelerate bedrock decomposition, leading to instability, recognition of arid climates. Further, the coexistence of fresh and landslides, and a new cycle of soil accumulation (Stallard, 1985). weathered feldspar may indicate humid weathering conditions: Because the nature and extent of vegetation on the Earth's fresh feldspar could be eroded from canyon walls and buried surface has changed dramatically over geologic time, the effect of prior to significant alteration, while more altered feldspars could vegetation on weathering may have been much different in the be the product of weathering in soil profiles on the interfluves. past. Pre-Silurian chemical weathering (e.g., before the advent of Damuth and Fairbridge (1970) attributed Pleistocene arkoses on widespread vascular land plants) was almost certainly slower the South American continental shelf to a less intense chemical than at present (Basu, 1981a,b; Graustein and Velbel, 1981; weathering environment corresponding to an arid climate during Knoll and James, 1987). Basu (1981b) suggested that uptake of the last glacial maximum. Following the arguments of Krynine potassium and other nutrient elements by plants might have low- (1950), however, these arkoses could equally well have been ered their activity in soil waters, promoting chemical weathering derived from lower, less mature soil horizons in response to of phases containing such elements. Nutrient elements may be deeper downcutting of the Amazon and its tributaries during the cycled back into the soil by throughfall or decay, however, and a sea-level lowstand at the last glacial maximum. Todd (1968) nearly closed system may cycle nutrients through the biosphere proposed that the amount of weathering of orthoclase relative to without involving soil minerals at all (Graustein and Velbel, The system controlling clastic sediments 19

1981). Stallard (1985,1988) pointed out that the extent of chem- Incompletely chemically weathered residual detritus is greatly ical weathering in the tributaries of the Amazon River, as meas- enriched in resistant phases, especially quartz. Relatively immo- ured by the concentrations of dissolved major ions in surface bile elements, such as Fe and Al, may be retained in soils in the waters, show no correlation with vegetation. Nevertheless, the form of pisolitic horizons or lateritic crusts (Stallard, 1985; ultimate source of potassium and other nutrient elements must be Johnsson and Stallard, 1989). Weathering in low-relief regions of soils, and potassium, which is removed from the soil-biosphere tropical climate may lead to such extreme chemical weathering system through runoff, must be replenished by mineral weather- that nearly monomineralic quartz arenites are produced, regard- ing (Basu, 1981a). less of the composition of the bedrock (Potter, 1978a,b; 1984; Weathering duration. Equally as important as the inten- Franzinelli and Potter, 1983,1985; Johnsson et al., 1988,1991). sity of chemical weathering in determining sediment composition Under weathering-limited conditions, where potential sediment is the amount of time over which weathering occurs. The greatest transport rates exceed the rate at which weathering can gener- effects of chemical weathering occur in environments that are ate loose material, detritus spends much less time in the soil characterized not only by intense chemical weathering, but also profile. Under these conditions, weathering products are incom- by long duration of weathering. pletely leached, cation-rich phases, and immobile elements do The effects of weathering duration were vividly demon- not accumulate in the soil. Residual detritus consists of a varied strated by Barton (1916) in his classic study of archeologically suite of unstable phases, and the proportions of these phases dated granitic materials in Egypt. Conversely, the level of altera- reflect the composition of the bedrock (Johnsson, 1990; tion of granitic materials, as expressed by the thickness of weath- Johnsson et al., 1991). ering rinds on cobbles, the degrees of pitting of cobbles and the level of grusification, is now a standard method for dating glacial Chemical weathering during transport and deposition deposits (e.g., Birkeland, 1964, 1973; Porter, 1975; Burke and Birkeland, 1979; Birkeland et al., 1980; Chinn, 1981; Colman In most large depositional systems, the amount of time sed- and Pierce, 1981; Colman, 1982). iment spends in transport is probably insignificant compared to During pedogenesis, the duration of weathering is controlled time spent in temporary storage in alluvial sequences such as by a complex set of factors, of which physiography is particularly floodplains, point bars, and terraces. Fluvial sediment is stored in important (Carson and Kirkby, 1972; Stallard and Edmond, such deposits through lateral and vertical accretion, and pre- 1983; Stallard, 1985, 1988; Grantham and Velbel, 1988; Johns- viously deposited sediment is reincorporated into river bedload son and Stallard, 1989; Johnsson et al., 1991). Erosion can be during meander growth, channel migration, and avulsion. The viewed in terms of transport-limited and weathering-limited de- result is a net replacement of younger, freshly eroded sediments nudation regimes. Material loosened by weathering moves by older, previously stored material. When sediments are stored downslope by transport processes. If the transport processes re- in alluvial sequences in an intense weathering environment, pro- moving weathered material from an area are potentially more found alteration of sediment composition may result (Rolfe and rapid than the weathering processes generating the material, then Hadley, 1964; Krook, 1969; Macaire, 1986; Savage et al., 1988; erosion is said to be weathering limited. If, in contrast, the maxi- Johnsson and Meade, 1990; Morton and Johnsson, this volume). mum weathering rate exceeds the ability of transport processes to This process gives rise to first-cycle quartz sands in the Venezue- remove material, then erosion is said to be transport limited. lan Andean foreland basin (Johnsson et al., 1988, 1991). Mills Only recently have the implications of weathering-limited and Wagner (1985) used differential weathering of stored allu- versus transport-limited denudation regimes become apparent to vium to chart changes in the history of the New River, an ap- those studying chemical weathering and its products. Stallard proach advocated by Retallack (1986) for the study of ancient (Stallard and Edmond, 1983,1987; Stallard, 1985,1988; Stallard rivers as well. et al., 1991) tracked differences in chemical weathering reactions Vegetation plays a major role in stabilizing fluvial systems by examining the dissolved load of tropical rivers draining areas (Evans, 1991), and is important in determining the extent to of contrasting erosional regimes. These concepts have since been which material is stored in alluvial sequences and the rate at extended to the solid products of weathering (Johnsson et al., which it is reincorporated into river bedload. As the nature and 1988, 1991; Johnsson and Stallard, 1989; Stallard et al., 1991). extent of vegetation evolved over geological time, its effects on Weathering products have a much longer time to react with the fluvial dynamics and on the extent of alluvial storage likely soil and ground waters under transport-limited conditions. Ex- evolved as well (Schumm, 1968). posed to the weathering environment for long periods of time, Sediment is ultimately deposited in a depositional setting soils are extensively leached and weathering products are corre- where it is buried and isolated from the weathering environment. spondingly poor in soluble cations. The extent to which leaching The rapidity with which sediment is isolated from weathering proceeds also depends on the composition of the weathering may be important in determining its composition, especially fluids, particularly with respect to Eh conditions (Retallack, where exposure to the weathering environment has been brief 1990), but leaching will in any case be greater than in during pedogenesis and transport. Wascher et al. (1947) and weathering-limited erosion regimes with similar fluid conditions. Leighton and Willman (1950) noticed a positive correlation be- 8 M. J. Johnsson

2 tween calcium carbonate content and sedimentation rate in Mis- C03 in limestones and dolostones, and organic carbon in sissippi Valley loess deposits, and attributed this correlation to sedimentary rocks (Berner et al, 1983; Lasaga et al, 1985; Berner dissolution of calcium carbonate when sedimentation rates were and Lasaga, 1989). sufficiently slow to allow weathering to proceed during deposi- According to the Berner-Lasaga-Garrels model, CO2 is ab- tion. Conversely, Krynine (1935, 1936, 1941b,c) suggested that sorbed from the atmosphere by plants through photosynthesis rapid sedimentation rates overwhelm the effects of climate in and stored in the soil in the form of organic matter; there it reacts determining the amount of weathering undergone by a sediment, with water to form H2CO3. Chemical weathering reactions in- even in the tropics. This conclusion is supported by Ruxton volving H2CO3 release HC03 and soluble metallic cations, (1970) and Basu (1985a), who found modern fluvial sands to be including Ca. These weathering products are transported by exceptionally quartz-poor in tropical, high-relief settings in ground and river waters to the ocean, where marine zoo- and Papau. Such settings have been shown by Milliman and Meade phytoplankton utilize the Ca and HCO3 to precipitate tests con- (1983) to be sources for a disproportionate amount of sediment sisting of CaCC>3, which ultimately sink and accumulate to form reaching the world ocean, suggesting that tropical environments new carbonate rocks. The biological precipitation of CaCC>3 re- characterized by only minor chemical weathering may be particu- leases CO2 into the ocean and, because the ocean and atmosphere larly important in the geologic record. maintain a balance through gas exchange, this CO2 ultimately is released back into the atmosphere, completing the cycle. The Role of slope stoichiometry of the weathering reactions of carbonate minerals dictates that carbonate weathering results in no net loss of atmo- Slope is an important variable controlling the duration of spheric CO2. However, only half the CO2 consumed from the weathering during pedogenesis, transport, and deposition. During atmosphere during silicate weathering is returned to the atmo- each of these processes, steep slopes work to reduce the time sphere subsequent to marine precipitation of CaCC>3. A balance sediment is exposed to weathering (Stallard, 1985, 1988; Retal- is maintained through the release of CO2 from the sedimentary lack, 1990). Steep slopes correlate with rapid downslope trans- reservoir during metamorphism of carbonate and silicate miner- port rates, favoring weathering-limited erosion conditions. Steep als; CO2 released by these reactions enters the atmosphere princi- canyons afford little opportunity for alluvial storage, decreasing pally through volcanic eruptions. The rate of volcanic degassing transport times and limiting sediments exposure to chemical of CO2 is controlled by plate tectonics; variations in global sea- weathering during transport. Finally, steep slopes generally tend floor spreading rates control long-term temporal variations in to lead to high sedimentation rates in adjacent sedimentary ba- volcanism associated with the creation and destruction of oceanic sins, limiting the exposure of sediments to weathering in the crust at mid-ocean ridges and subduction zones, respectively. depositional environment. Sediments will be least affected by Chemical weathering largely determines the rate of CO2 chemical weathering in tectonically active areas where rapid up- consumption from the atmosphere. Thus, variations in the inten- lift not only maintains steep slopes but also continually brings a sity of chemical weathering and tectonism govern the level of fresh supply of unweathered bedrock to the surface. dissolved CO2 in the atmosphere and ocean. Because the reser- voir of carbon in the atmosphere is small relative to the fluxes Chemical weathering, the carbon cycle, among reservoirs, even small variations in these fluxes can have a and sediment composition profound effect on the concentration of atmospheric CO2. Owing to the importance of CO2 as a greenhouse gas, such variations in The role of mineral weathering in the global cycling of atmospheric CO2 may be a dominant control on temperatures at carbon is of interest because CO2 is a primary determinant of the the Earth's surface over geologic time. Thus the system control- intensity of chemical weathering and, at the same time, is an ling the composition of clastic sediments is intimately linked with important greenhouse gas. CO2 allows short-wavelength solar the carbon cycle: chemical weathering, itself strongly influenced radiation to enter the atmosphere but traps most of this energy by climate, plays an important role in determining global climate. when it is reradiated as heat at longer wavelengths. The level of The composition of clastic sediments provides a detailed record atmospheric CO2 is thus an important control on secular varia- of chemical weathering through geologic time. Clastic sediments tion in global climate. Berner, Lasaga, and Garrels have modeled may thus provide a means of directly observing long-term the modern carbon cycle and estimated partitioning among var- changes in the intensity of chemical weathering, providing a bet- ious carbon reservoirs through geologic time (Berner et al, 1983; ter understanding of the interactions among the atmosphere, hy- Lasaga et al, 1985; Berner and Lasaga, 1989); for alternate views, drosphere, and biosphere over geologic time. see Volk (1987) and Tans et al. (1990). Sedimentary rocks represent the largest reservoir of car- TRANSPORT CONTROLS ON bon, containing more than 1,500 times the carbon found in SEDIMENT COMPOSITION the atmosphere, ocean, and biosphere combined (Berner et al, 1983; Lasaga et al, 1985; Berner and Lasaga, 1989). This sedi- In addition to further chemical weathering, a number of mentary carbon reservoir is divided roughly equally between other processes may act on sediment composition during trans- The system controlling clastic sediments 9 port and deposition. These processes—which include abrasion, cal weathering could be presumed to be slight. These authors mechanical breakdown, hydrodynamic sorting, and mixing noted a dramatic decrease in lithic fragment abundance and an effects—are commonly especially difficult to separate in nat- increase in feldspar abundance between the first- and second- ural systems. cycle sands, which they explained by the mechanical breakdown of lithic fragments. Mechanically weak and strongly foliated lithic Abrasion and mechanical breakdown fragments were most severely affected. Cather and Folk (1991) examined various size fractions of volcaniclastic sands in an arid Kuenen's classic tumbler and flume experiments (Kuenen, environment, and demonstrated that sedimentary components 1955,1956,1959, 1960,1962,1964) suggest that, while abrasion were redistributed between different size fractions, rather than during fluvial transport may be important in rounding gravel and quantitatively removed, through mechanical breakdown. cobble-size material, it does not result in a significant reduction in Finally, emphasis should be placed on the interrelated na- angularity or a volumetric loss of softer constituents in sand. ture of the processes of physical and chemical weathering. Just as These experimental results have recently been more rigorously abrasion opens fresh mineral surfaces to chemical weathering, quantified by Osborne et al. (this volume). Mechanical abrasion steadily increasing the ratio of surface area to mineral volume, does appear to be important, however, in rounding eolian and particles which are more severely weathered are more susceptible beach sands (Kuenen, 1960,1964), and perhaps in quantitatively to abrasion (Bradley, 1970). Such a feedback mechanism makes removing less mechanically stable components, especially lithic separation of the two processes difficult. fragments (Dutta and Zhou, this volume) from eolian deposits. In many fluvial systems, eolian transport of sediment is an important Sorting and mixing effects and commonly overlooked process (Johnsson et al, 1991) implying that mechanical breakdown may be of more impor- When different grain sizes differ markedly in composition, tance in fluvial systems than is commonly believed. hydrodynamic sorting may be of paramount importance in de- In natural systems, results are somewhat ambiguous. This is termining local sediment composition (Garzanti, 1986). Hydro- largely due to the difficulty of separating the effects of chemical dynamic sorting is responsible for drastic differences in composi- weathering during protracted alluvial storage, mechanical break- tion between the suspended load and bedload of most rivers down, and hydrodynamic sorting. Some workers have found (cf. Koehnken, 1990; Johnsson et al, 1991); the former typically downstream enrichment of durable minerals relative to less resist- is dominated by clay minerals and monomineralic silt grains, ant materials to be insignificant (Russell, 1937; Pollack, 1961; whereas the latter usually consists of more varied primary miner- Breyer and Bart, 1978), while others have noted increases in als and lithic fragments. Within the bedload, compositional sort- quartz/feldspar ratios (Mackie, 1896; Martens, 1931; Plumley, ing resulting from density differences is most pronounced where 1948; Hayes, 1962), reduction of unstable lithic fragments (Cam- rapid changes in current velocity occur, such as on point bars, eron and Blatt, 1971; Shukis and Ethridge, 1975), increase in transverse bars, and behind obstructions. Local concentrations of zircon, tourmaline, and rutile relative to other heavy minerals dense minerals may drastically affect local sediment composition, (Hubert, 1962), and progressive downstream destruction of less but the overall composition of the material within the system is mechanically stable plagioclase grains (Pittman, 1969). In a study not quantitatively changed (Garzanti, 1986). of a short, high-gradient stream in northwestern Italy, McBride Overall sediment composition does, of course, vary as a and Picard (1987) compared the outcrop areas of different rock result of addition of new sources, such as incoming tributaries in a types with corresponding percentages of different grain types in fluvial system. Secondary sources may carry sediment of different stream sediments, and found that more durable rock types were provenance and history than that of the principal source, thus overrepresented in the sediments. Estimates of source rock abun- complicating interpretation of compositional information. Co- dance based on the composition of sands in beach environments lumbia River sands, for example, show a downstream reduction similarly may be in error (Picard and McBride, this volume). in the quartz/feldspar ratio, coupled with an increase in grain Garzanti (1986) called on mechanical breakage of feldspar along size; this clearly suggests that the effects of downstream dilution cleavages or twin planes to explain the elimination of feldspar or sorting overwhelm any abrasion or chemical weathering ef- from coarser grain sizes and its accumulation in finer grain sizes fects operating in that river (Kelley and Whetten, 1969; Whetten over time in deltaic sandstones of northern Italy. The effect chem- et al, 1969). ical weathering may have played in this process was not, how- Subsequent to deposition, sediment may be subjected to ever, immediately addressed. significant modification in the depositional environment. Me- The fact that most of the less durable constituents common chanical and chemical weathering continue to be of great in fluvial sands are also chemically the least stable makes the importance prior to final burial. Davies and Ethridge (1975) effects of mechanical erosion and abrasion difficult to separate suggested that composition reflects characteristics of the deposi- from the effects of chemical weathering. Slatt and Eyles (1981) tional environment; they found that recent and ancient fluvial, addressed this problem by examining first- and second-cycle gla- deltaic, and beach sands could be distinguished on the basis of cial sands in Arctic environments, where the influence of chemi- composition alone. Kairo and others (this volume) show a corre- 10 M. J. Johnsson lation between framework composition and depositional setting able, which tends to force diagenesis toward closed system reac- within the Fountain and Minturn Formations (Pennsylvanian of tions and which minimizes the importance of external chemical Colorado). These authors attribute compositional differences controls on diagenesis. Accordingly, diagenetic reactions in shales among depositional environments to mechanical disaggregation are potentially valuable indicators of the physical controls on and hydrodynamic sorting. Such studies suggest that framework diagenesis. The transformation of smectite to illite, through var- composition, perhaps coupled with studies of grain-size distribu- ious "mixed layer" intermediaries, for example, is relatively well tion, may aid in interpretation of depositional environments in calibrated to diagenetic temperature (e.g., Hower et al., 1976; ancient sedimentary rocks of more ambiguous setting. Hower, 1981; Nadeau and Reynolds, 1981; Pollastro, 1985; Bethke and Altaner, 1986; Pollastro and Barker, 1986; Inoue DIAGENETIC CONTROLS ON et al, 1990; Freed and Peacor, 1992). SEDIMENT COMPOSITION Cementation of clastic rocks is a direct result of reprecipita- tion of constituents that are dissolved by diagenetic pore waters. Following burial, clastic sediments are likely to be subjected Cementation "stratigraphy" can thus be used to evaluate chang- to an entirely different set of modification processes. Burial dia- ing diagenetic conditions. Because much cementation may take genesis commonly results in the destruction of feldspar and lithic place within the reach of meteoric waters (Longstaffe, 1984), grains, dissolution of unstable phases, the growth of authigenic authigenic mineralogy and cementation history may provide phases, and cementation (Scholle and Schluger, 1979; McDonald clues to the climatic conditions prevailing during early diagenesis and Surdam, 1984). Like chemical weathering, the principal (Dutta and Suttner, 1986). Diagenesis is also linked with tectonic changes to sediment composition brought about by burial dia- setting, through the control tectonics may exert on the thermal genesis result from reequilibration of original phases to their cur- structure of, and fluid flow within, the upper crust (Siever, 1979). rent chemical and physical environment. Much greater variability exists in diagenetic environments than in weathering environ- RECYCLING ments, however, because of correspondingly greater temperature and pressure ranges. Accordingly, progressive diagenetic altera- About 66% of the Earth's land surface is covered by sedi- tion results in a more complex set of compositional modifications mentary rock (Blatt and Jones, 1975) and, because sedimentary as compared to chemical weathering. rocks supply a disproportionate volume of detritus, perhaps as In coarse clastic rocks, diagenesis may result in a net remov- much as 80% of the material within the global sedimentary sys- al of unstable constituents through dissolution in an open system, tem has been derived from preexisting sedimentary rocks (Blatt or in a rearrangement of constituents through a dissolution- and Jones, 1975; Garrels, 1986). Clastic sedimentary rocks that precipitation mechanism in a closed system. Perhaps the best have already been processed through the system described above studied aspect of sandstone diagenesis is the creation of "second- are unique source rocks for subsequent sediments in that their ary porosity" through the dissolution of unstable framework composition has been "premodified" according to the tectonic, constituents (principally feldspar) in an open system (e.g., Bj

- Tectonic setting o> source region Source-Rock Composition

_ Composition of water I involved in weathering * Intensity -Climate •

Chemical Soil res- - "V Vegetation Weathering idence time- ZJ— Duration Alluvial storage ; : Slope- - Sediment load : J of rivers Sedimentation rate

Subsidence rate —Tectonic setting of depositional environment

Relief Intensity Energy of system Mechanical Breakdown

Duration ^Transport - distance "" 1 Hydrodynamic . Sorting Geothermal gradient -

Maximum temperature Burial temperature Burial depth Duration ^

Composition of pore waters

Figure 1. Schematic representation of the system controlling the composition of clastic sediments. Arrows indicate parameters that exert influence on each other. but nonetheless are depleted in the more mobile phases or ele- tonic setting suggests that, in addition to controlling the global ments (Johnsson et al., 1991). distribution of rock types, tectonic setting also influences some of The effect of recycling on the composition of clastic sedi- the other parameters controlling sediment composition. Most ments is thus to complicate the detrital compositional signal by notable among these is slope; active tectonism is responsible for overprinting environmental influences on composition from suc- maintaining steep slopes, and in intense chemical weathering en- cessive sedimentary cycles. In the process, sediments tend to be vironments, where differences in source rock composition may be progressively depleted in labile elements. In addition, the tectonic obliterated by chemical weathering, the role of tectonic setting in imprint on sand composition may be passed on through succes- controlling sediment composition may lie as much in the mainte- sive sedimentary cycles, even as tectonic settings change (Graham nance of steep slopes as in the control of dominant rock types. et al, 1993). Processes operating during erosion, transport, deposition, and burial are intimately interlinked, creating a complex web of SYNTHESIS feedback mechanisms within the system controlling the composi- tion of clastic sediments (Fig. 1). For example, as discussed The composition of clastic rocks is thus controlled by a above, the duration of chemical weathering may be extended by complex suite of factors. The fact that an empirical correlation temporary storage of sediment on alluvial plains. The extent to nonetheless exists between sediment composition and plate tec- which such storage occurs depends, however, on the sediment 12 M. J. Johnsson load of the river; which is in turn dependent on source rock spathic sandstones in the Iberian Range (Spain): Significance of quartz types: composition, tectonism in the source area, and climate. The Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 55, p. 864-868. amount of reworking of stored alluvium depends on the stability Awwiller, D. N, and Mack, L. E., 1989, Diagenetic resetting of Sm-Nd isotope systematics in Wilcox Group sandstones and shales, San Marcos Arch, of the fluvial system, again dependent on the sediment load of the south-central Texas: Transactions—Gulf Coast Association of Geological river, but also influenced by the extent of stabilization by vegeta- Societies, v. 39, p. 321-330. tion (itself controlled by climate) and the geometry of the alluvial Awwiller, D. N, and Mack, L. E., 1991, Diagenetic modification of Sm-Nd system. Finally, the ultimate limit of storage, before sediments are model ages in Tertiary sandstones and shales, Texas Gulf Coast: Geology, removed from the fluvial system by deep burial, is controlled by v. 19, p. 311-314. Baker, V. R., 1978, Adjustment of fluvial systems to climate and source terrain in the sedimentation rate within the alluvial system. This rate is tropical and subtropical environments, in Miall, A. D„ eds., Fluvial sedimen- determined not only by the sediment influx, but also by the tology: Canadian Society of Petroleum Geologists Memoir 5, p. 211-230. tectonic environment of the alluvial system and the ultimate dep- Baker, V. R., and Penteado-Orellana, M. M„ 1978, Fluvial sedimentation condi- ositional environment. Altering any of these parameters— tioned by Quaternary climatic change in central Texas: Journal of Sedimen- tectonics in the source area, alluvial system or depositional tary Petrology, v. 48, p. 433-451. setting, source rock composition, climate, vegetation, or physiog- Balashov, Y. A., Ronov, A. B., Migdisov, A. A., and Turanskaya, N. V., 1964, The effect of climate and facies environment on the fractionation of the rare raphy—affects other parameters within the system. A similar earth elements during sedimentation: Geochemistry International, v. 1, web of interrelationships could be constructed for other processes p. 951-969. discussed above that affect sediment composition (Fig. 1). Baldwin, S. L., Harrison, T. M., and Burke, K., 1986, Fission track evidence for A firm understanding of the controls on clastic composition the source of accreted sandstones, Barbados: Tectonics, v. 5, p. 457-468. Barton, D. C., 1916, The disintegration of granite in Egypt: Journal of Geology, is a prerequisite to accurate interpretation of provenance. In addi- v. 24, p. 382-393. tion, potentially valuable information concerning the sedimentary Basu, A., 1976, Petrology of Holocene fluvial sand derived from plutonic source environment may be obtained if the interactions among these rocks: Implications to paleoclimatic interpretation: Journal of Sedimentary processes can be understood. Information about ancient climate, Petrology, v. 46, p. 694-709. vegetation, and the geometry and nature of the fluvial system are Basu, A., 1981a, Reply to Comment on "Weathering before the advent of land plants: Evidence from unaltered K-feldspars in Cambrian-Ordovician are- all contained in the composition of clastic materials. nites": Geology, v. 9, p. 505-506. Basu, A., 1981b, Weathering before the advent of land plants: Evidence from ACKNOWLEDGMENTS unaltered K-feldspars in Cambrian-Ordovician arenites: Geology, v. 9, p. 132-133. My research into the system regulating the composition of Basu, A., 1985a, Influence of climate and relief on compositions of sands released at source areas, in Zuffa, G. G., ed., Provenance of arenites: Dordrecht, clastic sediments has been supported by the U.S. Geological Sur- D. Reidel, p. 1-18. vey, Princeton University, the National Science Foundation Basu, A., 1985b, Reading provenance from detrital quartz, in Zuffa, G. G., ed., (Grant EAR-8407651 to R. F. Stallard, and Grant EAR- Provenance of arenites: Dordrecht, D. Reidel, p. 231-248. 8616904 to R. F. Stallard and N. S. Lundberg), the Smithsonian Basu, A., and Molinaroli, E., 1989, Provenance characteristics of detrital opaque Tropical Research Institute, the Venezuelan Ministry of the En- Fe-Ti oxide minerals: Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 59, p. 922-934. Basu, A., and Molinaroli, E., 1991, Reliability and application of detrital opaque vironment and Renewable Natural Resources, the Geological So- Fe-Ti oxide minerals in provenance determination, in Morton, A. C., Todd, ciety of America, the American Association of Petroleum S. P., and Haughton, P.D.W., eds., Developments in sedimentary prove- Geologists, and Sigma Xi. The idea that the composition of clastic nance studies: Geological Society of London Special Publication 57, sediments was controlled by an interrelated system of parameters, p. 55-65. and the potential feedback mechanisms among these parameters, Basu, A., Young, S. W., Suttner, L. J., James, W. C., and Mack, G. H„ 1975, grew out of many years of valuable conversations with individu- Re-evaluation of the use of undulatory extinction for polycrystallinity in detrital quartz for provenance interpretation: Journal of Sedimentary Petrol- als too numerous to list. Special acknowledgment, however, must ogy, v. 45, p. 873-882. be given to A. Basu, G. D. Girty, R. V. Ingersoll, P. A. Johnsson, Basu, A. R., Sharma, M., and DeCelles, P. G., 1990, Nd, Sr-isotopic provenance N. S. Lundberg, R. H. Meade, R. F. Stallard, L. J. Suttner, and and trace element geochemistry of Amazonian foreland basin fluvial sands, M. A. Velbel, each of whom was instrumental in the development Bolivia and Peru: Implications for ensialic Andean orogeny: Earth and of the ideas expressed here. The manuscript benefitted from criti- Planetary Science Letters, v. 100, p. 1-17. Bennett, P., and Siegel, D. I, 1987, Increased solubility of quartz in water due to cal reviews by A. Basu, R. V. Ingersoll, and W. C. 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