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Nederlandse Samenvatting Cover Page The handle http://hdl.handle.net/1887/26115 holds various files of this Leiden University dissertation. Author: Liew, Thor Seng Title: The evolution of shell form in tropical terrestrial microsnails Issue Date: 2014-06-18 Nederlandse Samenvatting Nederlandse Samenvatting De Mollusca vormen een belangrijk fylum van het dierenrijk. De eerste mollusken verschenen gedurende het Cambrium, en heden ten dage is het, na de Arthropoda, in omvang het tweede dierlijke fylum met meer dan 100 000 recente soorten (Bieler, 1992; Brusca and Brusca, 2003). De klasse Gastropoda neemt 80% van de recente soorten van de Mollusca voor haar rekening. Ondanks deze soortenrijkdom is een gegeneraliseerde schelpbouw bij slakken gehandhaafd vanwege behoudende ontwikkelingsprocessen. Alle huisjesslakken groeien in één richting doordat de mantelrand schelpmateriaal toevoegt aan de mondrand. De groeisnelheid van de schelp kan variëren. Deze ontogenese van de schelp, of eigenlijk deze ontogenese van de mondopening, veroorzaakt de algemene spriraalvorm van schelpen. De feitelijke vorm van de spiraal kan echter variëren door verschillen in de aspecten van deze mondopening-ontogenese, met name de snelheid en richting van het afzetten van schelpmateriaal om de mondopening, de grootte en vorm van de mondopening (d.w.z. de mantelrand), en de totale duur van de schelp-ontogenese. De interactie tussen deze ontwikkelingsparameters heeft een grote variatie in schelpvormen veroorzaakt. Taxonomen en evolutiebiologen proberen nu de evoluie van deze veelheid van vormen te karakteriseren en te begrijpen. De variabiliteit in schelpvorm is een van de hoekstenen van de taxonomie van de Gastropoda. Gewoonlijk is de variabiliteit van de schelpen van soorten van hetzelfde genus vrij gering, en taxonomen beschrijven soorten vaak op basis van subtiele verschillen van de kenmerken van de schelp, zoals de grootte, de verhouding van de hoogte tot de breedte, de richting van de winding, de sculptuur van het schelpoppervlak, of de morfologie van de mondopening. De soorten van verscheidene genera van landslakken, zoals Plectostoma en Opisthostoma (Diplommatinidae), vertonen echter een grotere variatie in schelpvormen. Deze grotere variatie is voornamelijk te danken aan de laatste winding, die bij sommige soorten onregelmatig gebogen is (van Benthem Jutting, 1952; Vermeulen, 1991; Vermeulen, 1994). Dergelijke verschillen vormen een uitdaging voor het nauwkeurig beschrijven en vergelijken van de schelpen, omdat het bepalen van homologiën en synapomorfiën bij deze schelpen problematisch is (van Benthem Jutting, 1952). In Hoofdstuk 2 worden de niet-Borneose soorten van Plectostoma, die meer variatie in schelpvorm vertonen dan de Borneose soorten, gereviseerd. De schelpkenmerken worden getaxeerd op basis van ontwikkelingshomologieën, genetische en 3D-morfometrische gegevens. Dit leidt ertoe dat het subgenus Plectostoma de status van zelfstandig genus krijgt, gebaseerd op de genetische en oecologische gegevens. Dit hoofdstuk suggereert dat er meer biologisch informatieve schelpkenmerken kunnen worden verkregen als men de schelp beschouwt als een versteende ontogenie dan wanneer men de schelp opvat als een vast geometrisch voorwerp. In Hoofdstuk 2 wordt voorts aangetoond dat de schelpvormen van Plectostoma en de verschillende mondopening-ontogeneses op een kwalitatieve manier kunnen worden geanalyseerd en vergeleken. Het bljft echter onbekend hoe veranderingen in het ontogenese- 7 Nederlandse Samenvatting profiel van de mondopening een specifieke schelpvorm veroorzaken. De situatie wordt gecompliceerd door het feit dat de grootte en vorm van een schelp ook nauw verbonden zijn aan de groeisnelheid van de schelp. Er zijn maar weinig onderzoeksgegevens bekend over hoe het mondopening-ontogeneseprofiel en de groeisnelheid van de schelp samen de vorm van de schelp bepalen. Dit is omdat groei en vorm moeilijk gelijktijdig te kwantificeren en te bestuderen zijn. Daarom wordt in Hoofdstuk 3 geprobeerd dit hiaat op te vullen door te onderzoeken hoe groei en vorm veranderen gedurende de ontogenese van één speciale soort, Plectostoma concinnum. Bij deze soort bestaat de schelp uit drie delen: de regelmatig gewonden spiraalfase, de insnoeringsfase die de overgang vormt naar de laatste fase, die van de afwijkend gewonden tuba. Er wordt een nieuw gedefinieerde ontogenese-as gebruikt waarmee gelijktijdig de verbanden tussen en de veranderingen in groeisnelheid en het profiel van de mondopeningsontogenese kunnen worden geanalyseerd. Er wordt aangetoond hoe de veranderingen in de mondopeningontogenese-profielen met betrekking tot vorm van de mondopening, grootte en groeirichting, en de veranderingen in groeisnelheid, verbonden zijn met verschillende schelpvormen gedurende verschillende perioden van de schelp-ontogenese. Met andere woorden, de schelpvorm kan gekwantificeerd worden als een mondopeningsontogenese-profiel. Dit hoofdstuk benadrukt ook het feit dat, hoewel plausibele functies van mantelrand en de columellaire spier opgemaakt kunnen worden uit de registratie van mondopeningsontogenese-profielen vastgelegd in een schelp, het toch van belang is de anatomie en werking van deze organen te bestuderen om de onderliggende mechanismen die de profielen veroorzaken te begrijpen. De resultaten van Hoofdstuk 3 benadrukken ook de beperkingen van de traditionele lineaire meting en de geometrische morfometrie bij de kwantificatie van de schelpvorm. Hoewel deze kwantificatiemethoden meetbare vormverschillen tussen schelpen kunnen opleveren, kunnen deze verschillen nauwelijks rechtstreeks vanuit het aspect van mondopeningsontogenese worden afgeleid. Lineaire metingen enerzijds leveren de absolute grootte van een schelp maar kunnen de vorm van de gewonden schelp niet bevatten. Geometrische morfometrie (GM) anderzijds, levert informatie over de vorm van een schelp door homologe punten, lijnen of oppervlakten te vergelijken. Echter kunnen deze homologieën, of ze nu betrekking hebben op de ontwikkeling, de evolutie of de geometrie, niet universeel worden gedefinieerd voor verschillende schelpvormen en voor verschillende onderzoeken. Geometrische morfometrie werd ontwikkeld door Bookstein (1977, 1980) die het idee van Thompson (1917: Hoofdstuk 17, ெOn the theory of transformations, or the comparison of related form”) formaliseerde. Ironisch genoeg heeft Thompson (1917) schelpvormen niet met zijn eigen methode vergeleken, terwijl recente biologen GM snel hebben geadopteerd om schelpvormen te vergelijken. In plaats daarvan gebruikte Thompson een logarithmische spiraal benadering, wat er op kan duiden dat hij zich bewust was van de beperkingen van de aanpak van schelpvorm analyse met GM. Met het oog op deze beperkingen werd een methode om de slakkenhuisvorm te kwantificeren, te visualiseren en te analyseren ontwikkeld in Hoofdstuk 4. Het zou niet mogelijk geweest zijn om deze methode, die is gebaseerd op ideeën van theoretische 8 Nederlandse Samenvatting modellering van de schelpvorm en uit Hoofdstuk 3, te ontwikkelen zonder de ontwikkeling van moderne technologie van grafische apparatuur voor computers, flexibele 3D software voor modellering, en 3D scanning instrumenten. Om te beginnen werd de topologie van de schelp herzien in overeenstemming met de mondopeningsontogenese. Vervolgens werden de mondopeningsontogenese-profielen afgeleid uit berekening van de baan van de mondopeningsgroei, de vorm van de mondopening en de ontogenese-as. Tenslotte werden de overeenkomsten tussen schelpvormen bepaald door hun mondopeningsontogenese-profielen te vergelijken. De onderliggende veranderingen in mondopeningsontogenese-profielen die de verschillen tussen schelpvormen hebben veroorzaakt kunnen met deze methode onderzocht worden. Daarenboven kan het netwerkmodel van de hertopologiseering worden gebruikt voor functioneel-morfologische analyse en voor de evaluatie van theoretische modellen van schelpen. Bovendien kan de similariteitsmatrix voor schelpen gebaseerd op de mondopeningsontogenese-profielen geanalyseerd worden samen met andere afstandsmatrices zoals fylogenetische afstand, geografische afstand of milieu-afstand. Nadat de groei en vorm van morfologisch gevariëerde en ongewone schelpen geanalyseerd werd in de twee voorafgaande hoofdstukken worden nu de functionele aspecten van de meer opvallende eigenschappen van de schelpen van Plectostoma-soorten onderzocht, zoals daar zijn de geprononceerde radiale sculptuur en de vervormd-gedraaide tuba. Over het algemeen genomen dienen de schelpen van landslakken voor bescherming tegen predatie en uitdroging. Van zeeslakken is bekend dat schelpkenmerken gelijkend op die van Plectostoma een functie hebben om predatie tegen te gaan (Vermeij, 1993; Allmon, 2011). Daarom wordt in Hoofdstuk 5 onderzocht of deze eigenschappen van de Plectostoma-schelp aanpassingen kunnen zijn die dienen als verdediging tegen een van haar bekende predators namelijk de naaktslak Atopos. Atopos naaktslakken hebben twee strategieën om hun prooi te overmeesteren, namelijk naar binnen dringen door de mondopening van de schelp en een gat boren in de schelp. Op deze manieren vallen ze Plectostoma concinnum, P. cf. ornatum, P. fraternum en andere, nauw verwante, soorten aan in Sabah, Maleisisch Borneo. Het gedraaide tubadeel van de schelpen van deze slakken is een effectieve verdediging tegen een aanval door middel van binnendringen via de mondopening. Echter, als de naaktslak er niet in slaagt via de mondopening binnen te dringen, zal ze overgaan op de strategie van het boren in de schelp, die meer energie
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