Ancient) Bodies: the Potters’ Sensory Experiences and the Firing of Red, Black and Purple Greek Vases

arts

Article Bringing Back the (Ancient) Bodies: The Potters’ Sensory Experiences and the Firing of Red, Black and Purple Greek Vases

Sanchita Balachandran 1,2

1 The Johns Hopkins Archaeological Museum, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA; [email protected] 2 Department of Near Eastern Studies, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA

Received: 27 March 2019; Accepted: 27 May 2019; Published: 4 June 2019

Abstract: The study of Athenian black-figure and red-figure ceramics is haunted by nearly a thousand “hands” of the artisans thought to be responsible for their painted images. But what of the bodies attached to those hands? Who were they? Given the limited archaeological and epigraphic evidence for these ancient makers, this study attempts to recover their physical bodies through the ceramics production process—specifically the firing of vessels—as a communal activity potentially including a large cast of participants including craftsmen and craftswomen, metics, freed people and slaves. Using an experimental archaeology approach, I argue that we can begin to approach the sensory experiences of ancient potters and painters as they produced all the colored surfaces (and not only images) that endure on Greek vases. I propose a four-stage sensory firing in combination with the three-stage chemical firing process known for the production of Athenian ceramics, suggesting that each stage—and the colors produced at each stage—had their own “sensory signatures.” Examining extant vases with this awareness of the bodily experience of their ancient makers has the potential to bring back these ancient bodies, moving us beyond the limiting narrative of a single hand wielding a paint brush.

Keywords: Greek ceramics; Athens; ceramics production; red-ﬁgure; black-ﬁgure; sensory experience; potters

1. Introduction Disembodied hands haunt the study of the ancient black-figure and red-figure Greek ceramics made in ancient Athens between 625 and 325 BCE. Of the extant figure-decorated vessels from this time period, nearly a thousand “hands” of the artisans responsible for their images have been identified by scholars of Greek vase painting, either through painted inscriptions or characteristic painting styles (Arrington 2017; Hurwit 2015; Williams 2017). But what of the bodies attached to those hands? The archaeological record is as yet fragmentary for these ancient craftspeople despite estimates that a significant percentage of the Athenian population may have been involved in the ceramics industry (Sapirstein 2013; Stissi 2012, 2016). The epigraphic record, both funerary inscriptions and “signatures” on pots themselves, tells us little about the lives of these workers. Furthermore, the ancient literary sources, so dismissive of the people who had to work with their bodies to earn a living, provide little detail about the experience of the low-status, often resident foreigner (metic) populations they derided (Dembin 2018; Hedreen 2016; Kamen 2013; Kasimis 2018; Kennedy 2014; Langdridge-Noti 2015). With the existing evidence so limited and freighted with censure, how can we begin to see the daily experience of the potters and painters from their own perspectives? The most enduring trace of the ancient potters’ and painters’ existence remains the ceramics they made and yet, our understanding of these surfaces has been limited to either the images or signatures painted or inscribed on them,

Arts 2019, 8, 70; doi:10.3390/arts8020070 www.mdpi.com/journal/arts Arts 2019, 8, 70 2 of 24 which often assumes a single maker with a recognizable “hand.” But what of the surfaces of Greek vases as a whole, the shades of red, black and purple that make the images and text legible and the whole bodies of the people who made them? This paper argues that we have not fully considered the surfaces that the ancient Greeks potters and painters made as evidence of these makers’ skill and embodied experience. Moving beyond the painted line as the marker of a single craftsman at work, I look to the firing of Greek ceramics as the key moment in the communal production process, one in which all of the work involved in throwing and painting an easily mutable clay object literally crystallized into its durable and indelible final form. The firing was responsible for the production of the range of colors—the reds, oranges, shades of black and brown and also the purples—for which Greek vase painting is renowned.1 These colors are iron compounds formed under specific temperature and environmental conditions and are chemically reproducible in an experimental archaeology approach. As will be described in this paper, such an approach to the firing of Athenian ceramics offers otherwise unknowable insights into the ancient production process. The firing is an intensely sensory experience, with specific senses heightened at different stages as different colors are being made on the vessels inside the kiln. The colored surfaces of vases therefore have not only a particular chemical, physical and artistic signature but also a “sensory signature.” It is by considering these sensory cues that we may approach the bodies of ancient makers at work. As the Hellenistic poem “Kiln”2 demonstrates, the firing was the stage most fraught with physical danger and the potential for financial loss from an unsuccessful firing. Heightening this sense of instability is the fact that vessels were stacked inside the kiln and could not be seen for the entirety of the long, multi-hour firing. Sight, of at least the ceramics themselves, was occluded, requiring those who tended the kiln to be all the more attentive to other sensory cues—sound, touch, smell and even taste—to ensure a favorable outcome. Recent scholarship has begun to articulate the “multimodal” ways in which the senses operated in antiquity by exploring how ancient peoples’ sensory experience involved gaining information from multiple senses at the same time (Bradley 2015; Butler and Nooter 2018; Butler and Purves 2013; Day 2013; Hamilakis 2013; Purves 2018; Rudolph 2018; Squire 2016). While ancient philosophers assigned a hierarchy to the senses, with “sight and hearing ... given pride of place,” (Rudolph 2018, p. 1) over touch, smell and taste, this paper specifically considers a multimodal approach to the production of Greek ceramics, arguing that the surfaces and the vessels to which these surfaces belong must be approached with an attunement to all of their sensory aspects. While the material and physiological means by which sensory experiences were created may be reconstructed to some extent, the cultural and psychological factors framing those experiences are difficult to conjure because they were both individual- and context-specific. Here, I suggest that the chemical reliability of iron-rich clays and their color-bound oxidation states provide some of the material experience of potters tending a kiln but also allows us to better “see”—or rather also, hear, touch, smell and taste—the world of the ancient makers as they worked. Such a perspective insists on what Mark Bradley has called an “object -centered experience” (Bradley 2013, p. 132) of color, one that acknowledges a multi-sensory, synesthetic experience and contextually-contingent use of color in antiquity. While much of the extant ancient literature considers the color-experience of the consumers of color, such as the patrons using these vessels at the symposium, this paper insists on the color-experience of the producers of color. Doing so synaesthetically means imagining the potters’ world beyond an interest in only these peoples’ hands. Imagining these workers deploying all their senses also allows us to approach the colored surfaces of ancient Greek ceramics as having been produced through intentional interventions by the full bodies of their makers. Following Bradley:

1 This paper does not address “added colors” or other materials applied post-ﬁring. For these techniques, see Cohen(2006) and Lapatin(2008). 2 See the translation by Marjorie J. Milne, published in (Noble [1965] 1988, pp. 190–91). Arts 2019, 8, 70 3 of 24

Because of its close ties to objects in the environment rather simply to a part of the spectrum, the ancient color experience could tap into smell, touch, taste and even sound. For Greeks and Romans, color was a basic unit of perception, a source of information and knowledge and a tool for accurately understanding the world around them ... Using a single sense for all this was not always enough. (Bradley 2013, pp. 139–40)

Considering the making of color on ceramics as tied to an environment also raises an awareness of the firing of ceramics as both a communal and highly visible activity. Archaeological evidence from Athens and other sites in Greece suggests the clustering of ceramics workshops alongside major roads into and out of the populated center, both for ease of access by workers and patrons, as well as for safety reasons and concerns about pollution (Langdridge-Noti 2015; Sanidas 2013; Stissi 2012, 2016). The necessary external location of kilns also made the work of firing highly visible to passersby and other artisans involved in the ceramics industry. Firing itself likely required at least two, if not more bodies at work collaboratively and the relatively long duration of the firing—anywhere from six to ten hours—would have also made this communal work necessary and noticeable.3 To a more careful observer, the varied cadence of firing would also have been recognizable, as the production of different colors through different phases of the firing required different body movements and produced variations in flame and smoke that would have been seen and inhaled by those at work as well as by those passing them. Considering the firing from this expanded spatial and social perspective already forces us to take seriously the fact that these colorful ceramics were produced through specific interactions between their makers and their environment, both within and around the kiln, as well as beyond their workspaces. Even from a roadside perspective, it must have been clear that the kiln attendants relied on their bodies and their associated senses, something that was open to elite censure:

... the illiberal arts (banausikai), as they are called, are spoken against and are, naturally enough, held in utter disdain in our states. For they spoil the bodies of the workmen and the foremen, forcing them to sit still and live indoors and in some cases spend the day at the ﬁre. The softening of the body involves serious weakening of the mind. (Xenophon, Oikonomikos 4.2–3)4

Ancient elite anxieties about the baseness of the senses, the corresponding baseness of those who relied on them and their proximity to animals who, by their nature were more attuned to such cues, likely contributed to the lack of (ancient) interest in the bodies of the banausoi (the artisan class).5 But this disdain and disinterest has had lasting implications for the scholarship on Greek vases, ignoring the intellectual and experiential knowledge of these ancient makers and reducing their bodily labor to only their hands. This paper seeks to “bring back the ancient bodies,” but whose bodies? In addition to being disparaged as banausoi, a signiﬁcant percentage of this population was identiﬁed as resident foreigners (metics) (Kamen 2013; Kasimis 2018; Kennedy 2014). As it was illegal for metics to earn a living through landowning as was the Athenian ideal, images of them at work, often in craft activities, circulate perhaps as a kind of advertisement between 540 and 460 BCE (Chatzedemetriou 2005; Lewis 2010). The number of men depicted in various stages of ceramics production or named in inscriptions, has led to an assumption of primarily male craftsmanship and apprenticeship, even though at least three

3 While it would be physically possible to carry out a firing alone, it seems unlikely in an industry that had access to cheap labor, especially slave labor. 4 Cited in (Hedreen 2016, p. 4). 5 See Dembin(2018) and Hedreen(2016) for a summary of statements disparaging artisans. Arts 2019, 8, 70 4 of 24 women are depicted in tasks such as kneading clay6, possibly drawing7 and painting.8 Images have also been used to propose a hierarchy among the potters’ and painters’ workgroups9, though these assumptions cannot be verified through other evidence. We know nothing of the organization of staff or whether there was a need for there to be someone in charge of such a collaborative activity, though Dyfri Williams has suggested that, in the absence of the name for “kiln master,” an individual such as the bald man with a stick at a kiln in the Leagros Group hydria in Munich was responsible for oversight of the work.10 We also do not know how (or if) labor was divided among potters and painters and questions as to whether pots would have typically been fired by the potters who threw them or if firing was a specialized skill practiced by a only few key artisans in the Kerameikos remain unanswered. Additionally, while the few images of firing ceramics show only male bodies at work, the limited evidence and complete lack of corroborating skeletal evidence neither confirms nor denies the extent to which this was the case. Women potters and painters would have been as physically capable as their male counterparts in physically tending and supervising the firing of a kiln; the fact that we do not see them doing so perhaps says more about the fragmentary nature of the extant evidence than reality. The bodies at stake in this paper, therefore, must include not only male “masters” and their apprentices but also skilled craftswomen who fell into the metic tax category of autê autês kuria (“her own master”), who might well have subcontracted out their labor to other artisans or even overseen their own workgroups (Kennedy 2014). In addition to these bodies, we must also include the bodies of apprentices,11 most of whom would have begun their tutelage as children and may have been boys as well as girls, as well as the bodies of freed people and slaves.12 Imagining a firing as potentially including this larger cast of participants in motion, all focused on the collaborative work of successfully producing colorful ceramics, moves us beyond the limiting narrative of a single hand wielding a paint brush.

2. Chemically Bound Color: The Three-Phase Firing Despite early interest in the techniques by which ancient Greek ceramics and particularly their “black gloss” was made, this technological and increasingly specialized scientific literature has rarely been fully integrated into the art historical understanding of Greek vases.13 To quote W.D. Kingery whose landmark work first chemically characterized the surfaces of Greek ceramics, “the view that there was a single unchanging method of preparing Attic glosses and colors for painting pottery is much too simple” (Kingery 1991, p. 52). But recent findings14 demonstrating the flexibility and variability of ceramics production practices have had a limited impact on the vase literature, in part because the important work of Joseph Veach Noble continues to be the most accessible way to understand and teach ancient Greek ceramics production (Noble [1965] 1988). Noble’s enduring work describes painting images on clay pots with slip (a thinned clay), adding inscriptions in a thinned slip or slip mixed with iron-based pigments, followed by a single three-part firing process (Figure1) that includes an oxygen rich first phase, a second oxygen-poor reduction phase and a final re-oxidation phase, all at

6 See Penteskouphia Pinax, Berlin Antikensammlung, inv. F891. 7 See Athenian red-figure kalpis hydria in Vicenza, Banca Intesa inv. 2, attributed to the Leningrad Painter, dated to c. 470–450 BCE. I would argue that this figure may be drawing rather than painting based on extant evidence for drawing still visible on ceramics. See Balachandran(2018). 8 See black-figure Boeotian skyphos, Athens, National Museum, inv. No. 442., dated to 400–390 BCE. 9 Heilmeyer(2004) suggests that the term “workgroup” is more accurate for groups of people working together, while “workshop” suggests a physical location for their work. 10 Williams(2016). See the Leagros Group hydria, Munich Antikensammlung, inv. 1717. 11 See Hasaki(2012). Venit(1988) mentions three daughters who apprenticed with their painter fathers. 12 Williams(2009) mentions the late 6th century painter Lydos who signs a vase, “Lydos painted [me], being a slave.” 13 Saunders et al.(forthcoming) and Maniatis et al.(1993) provide a useful summary of past attempts to characterize black gloss. 14 Aloupi-Siotis(2008), Chaviara and Aloupi-Siotis(2016), Cianchetta et al.(2015a, 2015b), Gliozzo et al.(2004); Kingery(1991); Lühl et al.(2014); Maniatis et al.(1993); Schreiber(1999); Walton et al.(2013a, 2013b, 2015). It should be noted that there are some debates among these scholars regarding the chemical characterization and production technologies of ancient Greek ceramics. Arts 2019, 8, 70 5 of 24 different temperatures. While this process is still essentially true, it needs significant expansion if we are to recognize the virtuosity of the kiln workers’ expertise. Importantly, the replication experiments Artsreported 2019, 8, by x FOR Noble PEER and REVIEW conducted by potter and curator Fong Chow of the Metropolitan Museum5 of 24 of Art, were completed using an electric kiln, a piece of modern equipment which produces entirely whichdifferent produces sensory entirely cues than different ceramics sensory fired in cues a wood-fired than ceramics kiln. fired An electric in a wood-fired kiln also does kiln. not An have electric the kilnsame also degree does of not unreliability have the same inherent degree to a of wood unreli firedability kiln inherent and I would to a arguewood thatfired the kiln ancient and I potters’would argueability that to manage the ancient and respondpotters’ toability the unpredictability to manage and ofrespond the kiln to and the theunpredictability environment wasof the essential kiln and to thetheir environment sensory experience was essential of the firing.to their The sensory work presentedexperience here of the therefore firing. oTheffers work a markedly presented diff erenthere perspectivetherefore offers on ceramics a markedly production different to perspective the method on Noble ceramics put forward; production even to if the chemicalmethod changesNoble put in forward;the iron-rich even clay if the are chemical the same changes in both in an the electric iron-rich and wood-firedclay are the kiln, same the in kiln both attendants’ an electricexperience and wood-of producingfired kiln, the the kiln diff erentattendants’ colors isexperience not. of producing the different colors is not.

Figure 1. The single three-phase firing as described by J. V. (Noble [1965] 1988). Figure 1. The single three-phase firing as described by J. V. Noble ([1965] 1988). The exploration of the sensory signatures of the colored surfaces of Greek ceramics grows out of elevenThe subsequent exploration test of firings the sensory of approximately signatures of 200 the replica colored red-figure surfaces vasesof Greek and ceramics tiles in a grows custom-built out of elevenupdraft subsequent wood-fired test kiln firings15 sited of at approximately Baltimore Clayworks 200 replica (Figure red-figure2). 16 We vases did notand intend tiles in to aprecisely custom- 15 16 builtreplicate updraft the experience wood-fired of ancientkiln sited Athenian at Baltimore craftspeople, Clayworks particularly (Figure as we 2). did We not havedid not access intend to their to preciselyclay, as the replicateAthenian the clay experience source is asof yetancient unknown. Atheni17anFor craftspeople, our experiments, particularly we selected as we a commerciallydid not have 17 accessavailable, to their iron-rich, clay, as illitic the Athenian clay with clay a low source calcium is as content yet unknown.18, all characteristics For our experiments, identified inwe Athenian selected 18 aceramics. commercially Despite available, not having iron-rich, the “original” illitic clay, clay the with repeated a low preparation calcium content and firing, ofall pots characteristics in the same identified in Athenian ceramics. Despite not having the “original” clay, the repeated preparation and

15 See Hyleck et al. ( 2016 ). A description of the beehive shaped updraft kiln built for this project is available here: http: // 15 archaeologicalmuseum.jhu.edu See Hyleck et al. (2016). A/the-collection description/object-stories of the beehive/recreating-ancient-greek-ceramics shaped updraft kiln built/week-9-building-and-breaking for this project is available/. 16 The initial firing was the focus of the 2015 course “Recreating Ancient Greek Ceramics” co-taught by the author and potterhere: Matthewhttp://archaeologicalmuseum.jhu.edu/the-collectio Hyleck at Johns Hopkins University. A fulln/object-stories/recreating-ancient-greek-ceramics/ account of the project is available at the website: http: //week-9-building-and-breaking/.archaeologicalmuseum.jhu.edu/the-collection /object-stories/recreating-ancient-greek-ceramics/. The short film, Mysteries 16 of The the Kylixinitial(https: firing//vimeo.com was the /focus140393971 of the) also 2015 documents course this“Recreating course and Ancient the first firing.Greek Ceramics” co-taught by the 17 Itauthor is still unclearand potter whether Matthew there was Hyleck one preferred at Johns ancient Hopkins Athenian Univer claysity. source, A full though account the specific of the preferredproject is morphological available at and chemical characteristics of the clay used to make Athenian vases has been extensively studied by Aloupi-Siotis(2008), Chaviarathe website: and Aloupi-Siotis http://archaeologicalm(2016), Cianchettauseum.jhu.edu/the-collection/object et al.(2015b), Lühl et al.(2014) and Walton-stories/recreating-ancient-greek- et al.(2013b). The lack of a singularceramics/. “identifiable” The short clay film, source Mysteries suggests of thatthe Kylix potters (https://vimeo.com/140393971) may have mixed their clay to suit theiralso personaldocuments preferences this course even ifand there the were first particular firing. preferred clay deposits that were typically exploited. As all contemporary potters will attest, the choice of clay is the most fundamental and personal decision of any practitioner. 17 It is still unclear whether there was one preferred ancient Athenian clay source, though the specific preferred 18 We used Cedar Heights Redart 103 earthenware clay from Pittsburgh, PA, as our base clay for both vessels and slip. Iron oxidemorphological pigments purchased and chemical from Kremer characteristics Pigments, of NY, the were clay utilized used forto paintedmake Athenian inscriptions. vases has been extensively studied by Aloupi-Siotis (2008), Chaviara and Aloupi-Siotis (2016), Cianchetta et al. (2015b), Lühl et al. (2014) and Walton et al. (2013b). The lack of a singular “identifiable” clay source suggests that potters may have mixed their clay to suit their personal preferences even if there were particular preferred clay deposits that were typically exploited. As all contemporary potters will attest, the choice of clay is the most fundamental and personal decision of any practitioner. 18 We used Cedar Heights Redart 103 earthenware clay from Pittsburgh, PA, as our base clay for both vessels and slip. Iron oxide pigments purchased from Kremer Pigments, NY, were utilized for painted inscriptions.

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19 firingkiln with of pots the in same the workgroupsame kiln with of potters, the same painters workgroup and firing of potters, staff paintersover the and course firing of staff several19 over months the coursemade certainof several sensory months aspects made of certain the production sensory processaspects noticeableof the production and predictable. process noticeable These sensory and predictable.experiences These were documented sensory experiences along with were other documented aspects of along the firing with using other photography, aspects of the videography, firing using photography,handwritten firing videography, logs and handwritten temperature measurementsfiring logs and gatheredtemperature from measurements digital dataloggers gathered placed from at digitaldifferent dataloggers shelf heights placed inside at thedifferent kiln during shelf heights firing. The inside regular the kiln pace during of this firing. work alsoThe maderegular it possiblepace of thisto test work both also Noble’s made hypothesisit possible to for test firing both ceramics Noble’s as hypothesis well as recent for firing materials ceramics science as well evidence as recent that 20 materialssuggests morescience complex evidence firing that practices suggests (Figure more3). complexThough firing the scholarship practices (Figure has disagreed 3).20 Though on whether the scholarshipceramics were has fired disagreed only once on whether or twice, ceramics both the scientificwere fired data only and once our or own twice, experimental both the scientific work confirm data andthat our objects own were experimental and can be,work fired confirm more that than objects once and were that and the can results be, fired of these more multiplethan once firings and that are thevisually results indistinguishably of these multiple from firings those are objects visually that areindistinguishably only fired once. from While those the frequencyobjects that with are which only firedre-firings once. of While the same the objectfrequency took placewith inwhich antiquity re-firings is unknown, of the same craftspeople object took were place no doubt in antiquity aware that is unknown,slight imperfections craftspeople resulting were no from doubt a mis-firing aware that could slight be corrected imperfections in a subsequent resulting re-firing;from a mis-firing this type couldof “multiple be corrected firing” in would a subsequent likely not re-firing; leave anythis recognizabletype of “multiple wasters firing” and would attests likely to the not tremendous leave any 21 recognizableflexibility and wasters virtuosity and ofattests the kiln to the attendants’ tremendous practices. flexibilityThe and experimental virtuosity of process the kiln thus attendants’ made it practices.clear that21 while The theexperimentalchemistry involved process inthus producing made it red, clear black that and while purple the was chemistry not changeable, involved thein producingprocesses by red, which black one and might purple induce was the not same changeable, chemical reactionsthe processes were. by In which other one words, might there induce are many the sameways chemical to fire a pot reactions red, black were. and In purple.other words, there are many ways to fire a pot red, black and purple.

FigureFigure 2. KilnKiln sited sited at at Baltimore Baltimore Clayworks. Clayworks. This This design design was was based based on on a a kiln kiln built built by by Wissinger Wissinger and and KahnKahn and and described described in (W (Wissingerissinger and Kahn 2008).2008).

1919 Nearly Nearly all all vessels vessels and and tiles tiles were were made made and assembled and assemble primarilyd primarily by Matthew by Matthew Hyleck with Hyleck the assistance with the of assistance potter Camila of Ascher.potter PreparatoryCamila Ascher. drawings Preparatory on these surfaces drawings were carriedon these out bysurfaces Karun Pandian,were carried the author out and by Hyleck. KarunThe Pandian, objects werethe slipped (i.e., painted) by the author and Hyleck. Firings typically involved at least four participants, with Hyleck as the kiln master,author along and withHyleck. the author, The objects potters Ascherwere andslipped Anastassia (i.e., pa Sovolieva,inted) by materials the author scientist and Patricia Hyleck. McGuiggan Firings and typically classicist Rossinvolved Brendle. at least An additional four participants, four plates with prepared Hyleck in the as black the kiln figure master, technique along were with provided the author, by Eleni potters Aloupi-Siotis Ascher (Thetis and Authentics,Anastassia Ltd, Sovolieva, Athens, Greece)materials for scientist test firing. Patricia McGuiggan and classicist Ross Brendle. An additional four 20 Recentplates analysesprepared at thein the Getty black provide figure evidence technique that both were the pr Kleophradesovided by PainterEleni Aloupi-Siotis and the Berlin Painter(Thetis used Authentics, more complex, Ltd, multiple firing techniques. See Cianchetta et al.(2015a, 2015b), Maish(2008), Saunders et al.(forthcoming) and Walton et al. (Athens,2013a, 2013b Greece)). for test firing. 2021 Thus Recent far, analyses there is little at the evidence Getty of provide kiln wasters evidence specific that to multiple both the firings, Kleophrades suggesting Painter that more and complicated the Berlin multiplePainter firingsused maymore have complex, been a specializedmultiple firing practice. techniques. However, theSee regularCianch refiringetta et ofal. pots (2015a, to correct 2015b), firing Maish mistakes (2008), is to Saunders be assumed et andal. has(forthcoming) been raised by and Aloupi-Siotis Walton et(2008 al. (2013a,). Noble 2013b). considered re-firing ancient pots to correct ancient flaws, though he admitted that “this does raise the ethical and moral question as to whether it is proper to correct an error made by an ancient potter in 21 firing Thus hisfar, kiln there several is little thousand evidence years of ago” kiln( wastersNoble [1965] spec 1988ific ,to p. multiple 181). firings, suggesting that more complicated multiple firings may have been a specialized practice. However, the regular refiring of pots to correct firing mistakes is to be assumed and has been raised by Aloupi-Siotis (2008). Noble considered re-firing ancient pots to correct ancient flaws, though he admitted that “this does raise the ethical and moral question as to whether it is proper to correct an error made by an ancient potter in firing his kiln several thousand years ago” (Noble [1965] 1988, p. 181).

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Figure 3. Multiple pathways for producing red and black ceramics, as tested experimentally. Figure 3. Multiple pathways for producing red and black ceramics, as tested experimentally. Though the contemporary scholarship artistically, linguistically and temporally distinguishes Though the contemporary scholarship artistically, linguistically and temporally distinguishes between “black”-figure and “red”-figure vases, the origin of this terminology is likely more modern between “black”-figure and “red”-figure vases, the origin of this terminology is likely more modern than ancient.22 In fact, only in the painting stage of ceramics production is there any change to the than ancient.22 In fact, only in the painting stage of ceramics production is there any change to the overall manufacturing process between these two “types” of objects: the firing remains exactly the overall manufacturing process between these two “types” of objects: the firing remains exactly the same. Additionally, our current description of the surfaces produced through this process as “red” or same. Additionally, our current description of the surfaces produced through this process as “red” “black” also ignores the range of reds, oranges, browns, blacks and purples that decorate these surfaces, or “black” also ignores the range of reds, oranges, browns, blacks and purples that decorate these all of which are a direct result of variations in the chemical composition of iron compounds present. surfaces, all of which are a direct result of variations in the chemical composition of iron compounds For example, the color that might be described as “red” is likely either maghemite (gamma-Fe3+ O ) or present. For example, the color that might be described as “red” is likely either maghemite (gamma2 3 - alpha 3+ hematite3+ ( -Fe 2O3), while3+ the “black” is related to darker iron compounds such as magnetite Fe 22+O3) 3or+ hematite (alpha-Fe2+2O3), while the “black” is related to darker iron compounds such as (Fe Fe 2O4), hercynite (Fe Al2O4) or wustite (FeO), with other colors formed from mixtures of magnetite (Fe2+Fe3+2O4), hercynite (Fe2+Al2O4) or wustite (FeO), with other colors formed from these compounds.23 Furthermore, all of these compounds are formed under intentionally induced, mixtures of these compounds.23 Furthermore, all of these compounds are formed under intentionally distinct environmental and temperature conditions with specific sensory cues associated with them. induced, distinct environmental and temperature conditions with specific sensory cues associated Ancient potters utilized multiple strategies to manage the risk of the firing process. John with them. Papadopoulos has documented numerous ancient Athenian “test pieces” that were drawn out through Ancient potters utilized multiple strategies to manage the risk of the firing process. John spy-holes in kilns to identify what colors were being produced inside them during the firing.24 Papadopoulos has documented numerous ancient Athenian “test pieces” that were drawn out through spy-holes in kilns to identify what colors were being produced inside them during the

22 I am grateful to H. Alan Shapiro, David Saunders, Annette Giesecke, Jennifer Stager and Andrew Stewart (through Jennifer Stager) for their thoughts on whether the ancient Greeks themselves described or distinguished their own ceramics in this way. Shapiro suggested that these descriptive “categories” of objects perhaps developed in the 19th century scholarship and not in the ancient world. 23 22 See I am Cianchetta grateful etto al. H.(2015b Alan), GliozzoShapiro, et David al.(2004 Saunders), Lühl et, al. Annette(2014) and Giesecke, Maniatis Jennifer et al.(1993 Stager). Note and that Andrew there are someStewart disagreements in the scientiﬁc literature about the characterization of speciﬁc iron oxides, though there is consensus that black(through ironoxides Jennifer are onlyStager) formed for during their thethoughts reduction on phase. whether the ancient Greeks themselves described or 24 Seedistinguished Papadopoulos their(2003 own). Some ceramics of the painted in this plaques way. fromShapir Penteskouphiao suggested show that kilnsthese with descriptive delineated “categories” spy-holes (small of upside-downobjects perhaps “u” shapes) developed which in could the have19th beencentury opened scholarship to draw out and test not pieces. in the It is ancient unclear fromworld. the extant archaeological 23 evidence See Cianchetta how typical et al. this (2015b), feature Gliozzo was. See etHasaki al. (2004),(2002) Lühl for kiln et evidence.al. (2014) Ourand kiln Maniatis did not et include al. (1993). a spy-hole. Note that there are some disagreements in the scientific literature about the characterization of specific iron oxides, though there is consensus that black iron oxides are only formed during the reduction phase.

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Spy-holes may also have been used to look inside the kiln to see if materials with specific melting temperatures had become molten.25 Even with test pieces or highly sensitive temperature gauges (as in our case), contemporary potters continue to rely on sensory evidence such as the “complexion of the flame”26 shooting out of the kiln chimney or distinctive changes in smell to either mark or introduce transitions between different phases of the firing. This combination of visual and sensory attunement is essential to gauging the progress of the firing process and to correct potential mistakes before they resulted in the loss of an entire kiln load.27 I believe this was also true of ancient ceramics production. Ancient potters were likely not aware that they were producing “hercynite” black or “magnetite” black; rather, it was their senses that allowed them to be aware of when they were passing through what Ninina Cuomo di Caprio called “critical zones,” that is, phases of the firing we now recognize as chemical-physical transformations with irreparable consequences (Cuomo di Caprio 1984, p. 77). For the ancient potters, these “critical zones” were likely only gauged in shades of red and black. I will begin with a brief overview of the chemistry of a firing and the colors produced at different stages, based on published analyses of ancient Athenian ceramics.28 Figure4 illustrates a single three-stage firing using temperature data points from a test firing conducted in November 2016. The four different graphed lines correspond to the temperatures reached at each of the four different shelves inside the kiln, with the blue line (“saggar A”) referring to the lowest shelf just above the firebox while the orange line (“saggar D”) refers to the shelf at the top of the kiln nearest to the chimney. The variations in the graphed lines remind us that individual shelves (even within the same kiln) experience different micro-environments; thus the location of pots, that is, their position relative to the heat of the flame and their proximity to other pots, has significant consequences for the colors produced on their surfaces. As the firing begins, all the pots inside the kiln are red, including images and inscriptions that have been painted using slip and the slip/pigment mixture, respectively. As the heat rises, the kiln is filled with oxygen and all of the surfaces (including the slipped and inscribed areas) of the vessels became brighter shades of red and orange in this “oxidation” phase. The iron compounds produced during the higher temperatures of this oxidation phase are primarily hematite. After reaching an optimal temperature29, an organic substance—thought to perhaps be wet wood or in our case, olive pits and damp hedge clippings—is introduced into the firebox and any ports that allow oxygen into the kiln are closed up. This immediately induces a smoky environment inside the kiln as the fire is choked from a lack of oxygen, beginning the “reduction” phase. On the graph, this short phase begins at 1000 degrees and falls quickly to a low of 800 degrees, as the temperature inside the kiln plummets due to a lack of oxygen. During this phase, all of the ceramic surfaces turn black due to the formation of black iron compounds. Importantly, a thin layer of glass forms over only the slipped areas of the ceramics (Aloupi-Siotis 2008; Cianchetta et al. 2015a, 2015b; Maniatis et al. 1993); this layer not only provides the sheen seen on these areas when the firing is completed but also plays an important role in the subsequent “re-oxidation” phase. In this final phase, the firebox and chimney are re-opened,

25 Contemporary potters use “cone packs” with refractory materials that melt at specific temperatures or cones to gauge the temperatures reached over the course of the firing. Tonks(1908) suggested that the ancient Greeks might have used gold and silver like cone packs. 26 Matthew Hyleck, personal communication, 10/26/2018. Noble also notes this awareness on the part of potters (Noble [1965] 1988, p. 154). 27 Contemporary potters assume that one third of a kiln-load is likely to be lost or damaged beyond sale, even in a successful firing. 28 For recent scientific and technical studies, see Aloupi-Siotis(2008), Chaviara and Aloupi-Siotis(2016), Cianchetta et al. (2015a), Cianchetta et al.(2015b), Gliozzo et al.(2004), Kingery(1991), Lühl et al.(2014), Maniatis et al.(1993), Schreiber (1999), and Walton et al.(2013a, 2013b, 2015). It should be noted that none of our experimentally produced ceramics were subjected to scientific analyses to verify the different iron oxidation states mentioned in the published literature; however, this is an area of future research. 29 The optimal temperature to be reached depends on the clay being used. For the RedArt clay used in our firings, it was necessary to reach 1000 degrees Celsius to ensure reduction. This optimal temperature may have been somewhat different for Attic or Corinthian clays. Arts 2019, 8, 70 9 of 24

the reduction fuel is raked out, and new fuel is introduced as oxygen re-enters the kiln. Oxygen also diffuses into the unslipped surfaces of the pots, turning them from black to the iron reds maghemite and hematite. However, the slipped surfaces, that is, the black surfaces covered with a thin layer of glass, do not return to red as oxygen cannot diffuse through this vitreous layer. The painted inscriptions turn a combination of reddish-brown and purple as they were painted with a combination of slip and pigment. After a brief re-oxidation phase, the firebox of the kiln is closed up and the kiln allowed to cool over the course of approximately 48 h.30 An image of the wares produced in the November 2016 firing is shown in Figure5. Figure6 shows a cup before and after firing, with the added inscription “oxidation reduction.” It is therefore the mixtures of iron compounds on ceramics surfaces (and the presence of vitreous or non-vitreous surfaces created through painting and its firing) that produces the Arts 2019multi-colored, 8, x FOR PEER effect REVIEW we see on the finished objects. 9 of 24

Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 24

Figure 4. A graphic representation of the single three-phase firing sequence and some of the associated Figureinscription 4. A “oxidation graphic representation reduction.” It is of therefore the single the mixturesthree-phase of iron firing compounds sequence on ceramicsand some surfaces of the (andiron the oxides presence as suggested of vitreous in or the non-vitreous scientific literature. surfaces This created graph through resulted painting from data and gathered its firing) in athat associated iron oxides as suggested in the scientific literature. This graph resulted from data gathered producesNovember the multi-colored 2016 test firing. effect we see on the finished objects. in a November 2016 test firing.

As the firing begins, all the pots inside the kiln are red, including images and inscriptions that have been painted using slip and the slip/pigment mixture, respectively. As the heat rises, the kiln is filled with oxygen and all of the surfaces (including the slipped and inscribed areas) of the vessels became brighter shades of red and orange in this “oxidation” phase. The iron compounds produced during the higher temperatures of this oxidation phase are primarily hematite. After reaching an optimal temperature29, an organic substance—thought to perhaps be wet wood or in our case, olive pits and damp hedge clippings—is introduced into the firebox and any ports that allow oxygen into FigureFigure 5. 5.The The firedfired wareswares producedproduced inin thethe NovemberNovember 20162016 test firing.firing. The The black-figure black-figure plate plate was was the kiln areprovidedprovided closed by by up. Eleni Eleni This Aloupi-Siotis Aloupi-Siotis immediately of of Thetis Thetis induces Authentics,Authentics, a smoky Ltd.,Ltd., forfor environment test firingfiring in our inside kiln. the kiln as the fire is choked from a lack of oxygen, beginning the “reduction” phase. On the graph, this short phase begins at 1000 degrees and falls quickly to a low of 800 degrees, as the temperature inside the kiln plummets 30 due to aOur lack datalogger of oxygen. information During ends soonthis after phase, the temperature all of the fell ceramic below 800 surfaces degrees Celsius turn because black the due recording to the equipment formation was disconnected after this time. of black iron compounds. Importantly, a thin layer of glass forms over only the slipped areas of the ceramics (Aloupi-Siotis 2008; Cianchetta et al. 2015a, 2015b; Maniatis et al. 1993); this layer not only provides the sheen seen on these areas when the firing is completed but also plays an important role in the subsequent “re-oxidation” phase. In this final phase, the firebox and chimney are re-opened, the reduction fuel is raked out, and new fuel is introduced as oxygen re-enters the kiln. Oxygen also diffuses into the unslipped surfaces of the pots, turning them from black to the iron reds maghemite and hematite. However, the slipped surfaces, that is, the black surfaces covered with a thin layer of glass, do notFigure return 6. The to red same as cup, oxygen before cannot (left) and diffuse after (right through) firing. thisThe areasvitreous that turned layer. black The were painted slipped. inscriptions turn a combinationThe words “oxidation”of reddish-brown and “reduction” and purple were written as they in slip were mixed painted with a yellow with irona combination oxide pigment. of slip and pigment. AfterThis object a brief was re-oxidation fired only once. phase, the firebox of the kiln is closed up and the kiln allowed to cool over the course of approximately 48 hours.30 An image of the wares produced in the November 3. Sensorially Guided Color: The Four-Phase Firing 2016 firing is shown in Figure 5. Figure 6 shows a cup before and after firing, with the added Thus far, I have described color as chemically-bound but the remainder of this paper will consider what ancient kiln attendants might have experienced sensorially as they progressed through 29 Thethe optimal “critical temperature zones” of the to firingbe reached that produced depends thone thcolorse clay they being desired. used. TheFor successthe RedArt of a clayfiring used and in our firings,indeed it wasthe viability necessary of ato ceramics reach 1000 shop degrees depended Celsius on an to acute ensure awareness reduction. of theseThis optimalsensory cues.temperature Many may haveof thesebeen somewhatcues are fleeting, different requirin for Atticg all or the Corinthian more attunement clays. to events such as a brief change in the 30 Ourfire’s datalogger smell and information its triggering ends of tastesoon sensations, after the te themperature appearance fell and below disappearance 800 degrees of Celsius a whooshing because the recordingflame or equipment the sudden was and disc short-livedonnected sounds after thisinside time. the kiln. Becoming aware of these moments forces a recognition of “the collective significance of the senses as modes of communication and

information” (Bradley 2015, p. 9), something all the more critical when potentially saleable pots were obscured from view inside the kiln. While the sense of sight was crucial to the firing process, I wish to emphasize that the firing is a very sensory-intense experience requiring all of the senses to work in concert. Furthermore, I suggest that certain senses are heightened at particular stages of the firing and are therefore more directly associated with the production of certain colors. Based on experimental observations, I propose a sensory four-phase firing, in combination with a chemical three-phase firing (Figure 7). This four-phase firing includes: a warming/heating phase when touch and sound are essential and all vessels are a dull red; an oxidation phase when sound and sight are most relevant and the vessels are the bright red more associated with hematite; a reduction phase when smell and possibly taste are important for the production of the iron blacks and browns such as magnetite and hercynite; and a final re-oxidation phase when smell, taste and sound are associated with the production of a mixture of iron-oxidation compounds that are red, orange, brown, black and purple.

Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 24

inscription “oxidation reduction.” It is therefore the mixtures of iron compounds on ceramics surfaces (and the presence of vitreous or non-vitreous surfaces created through painting and its firing) that produces the multi-colored effect we see on the finished objects.

Arts 2019Figure, 8, 70 5. The fired wares produced in the November 2016 test firing. The black-figure plate was10 of 24 provided by Eleni Aloupi-Siotis of Thetis Authentics, Ltd., for test firing in our kiln.

FigureFigure 6.6. TheThe same cup, before ( leftleft)) and and after after ( (rightright)) firing. ﬁring. The The areas areas that that turned turned black black were were slipped. slipped. TheThe wordswords “oxidation”“oxidation” andand “reduction” were written in in slip slip mixed mixed with with a ayellow yellow iron iron oxide oxide pigment. pigment. ThisThis objectobject waswas ﬁredfired onlyonly once.once.

3.3. SensoriallySensorially GuidedGuided Color: The Four-Phase Four-Phase Firing Firing ThusThus far,far, I haveI have described described color color as chemically-boundas chemically-bound but thebut remainder the remainder of this of paper this willpaper consider will whatconsider ancient what kiln ancient attendants kiln attendants might havemight experienced have experienced sensorially sensorially as they as they progressed progressed through through the “criticalthe “critical zones” zones” of the of firing the firing thatproduced that produced the colors the colors they desired.they desired. The success The success of a firing of a andfiring indeed and theindeed viability the viability of a ceramics of a ceramics shop depended shop depended on an acute on an awareness acute awareness of these of sensory these sensory cues. Many cues. ofMany these cuesof these are fleeting,cues are requiringfleeting, requirin all the moreg all attunementthe more attunement to events suchto events as a briefsuch changeas a brief in change the fire’s in smell the andfire’s its smell triggering and its of triggering taste sensations, of taste thesensations, appearance the appearance and disappearance and disappearance of a whooshing of a whooshing flame or the suddenflame or and the short-lived sudden and sounds short-lived inside sounds the kiln. inside Becoming the kiln. aware Becoming of these aware moments of these forces moments a recognition forces ofa “therecognition collective of significance “the collective of the sensessignificance as modes of ofthe communication senses as modes and information” of communication (Bradley and2015 , p.information” 9), something (Bradley all the 2015, more p. critical 9), something when potentially all the more saleable critical pots when were potentially obscured saleable from view pots were inside theobscured kiln. While from theview sense inside of sightthe kiln. was While crucial the to sense the firing of sight process, was Icrucial wish to to emphasize the firing process, that the firingI wish is ato very emphasize sensory-intense that the experiencefiring is a very requiring sensory-inte all of thense senses experience to work requiring in concert. all Furthermore,of the senses to I suggest work thatin concert. certain Furthermore, senses are heightened I suggest that at particular certain senses stages are of heightened the firing at and particular are therefore stages more of the directly firing associatedand are therefore with the productionmore directly of certainassociated colors. with Based the onproduction experimental of certain observations, colors. IBased propose on a sensoryexperimental four-phase observations, firing, in combinationI propose a sensory with a chemical four-phase three-phase firing, in firing combination (Figure7 ).with This a four-phase chemical firingthree-phase includes: firing a warming (Figure/ heating7). This phasefour-phase when firing touch includes: and sound a warming/heating are essential and allphase vessels when are touch a dull red;and ansound oxidation are essential phase whenand all sound vessels and are sighta dull are red; most an oxidation relevant andphase the when vessels sound are and the brightsight are red moremost associatedrelevant and with the hematite; vessels are a reduction the bright phase red whenmore associated smell and possiblywith hematite; taste are a reduction important phase for the productionwhen smell of and the possibly iron blacks taste and are brownsimportant such for as the magnetite production and of hercynite; the iron blacks and a and final browns re-oxidation such phaseas magnetite when smell, and hercynite; taste and and sound a final are re-oxidation associated with phase the when production smell, taste of a and mixture sound of are iron-oxidation associated with the production of a mixture of iron-oxidation compounds that are red, orange, brown, black and compounds that are red, orange, brown, black and purple. purple. 3.1. Sensory Phase 1: The Touch and Sound of Dull Red Pots

Potters, if you pay me for my song, then I ask that you, Athena, hold your hand above the kiln. —“Kiln,” Life of Homer 14.1–14.31

It seems no coincidence that the poem “Kiln” begins with an invitation for Athena to come and hold her hand above the kiln. Not only does this suggest her blessing the potters’ enterprise but also gives us valuable insight into the potters’ environment at this first phase of the firing, the only phase when a hand—even that of a goddess—could be held safely above a kiln without being burned. This first part of the firing, beginning from ambient temperature and rising to above 500 degrees

31 I am grateful to Annette Giesecke for her translation. See West(2003, pp. 390–95), for the original Greek text. Arts 2019, 8, 70 11 of 24

Celsius, involves the slow heating of the kiln and the wares stacked inside it such that any residual moisture is slowly evaporated off without risking the explosion of still damp pots in the kiln stack. The gradual warming of the kiln is also particularly critical for ensuring the physical integrity of the kiln and thus the success of the entire firing. Steam released inside the kiln walls at this stage is vented through otherwise unnoticeable gaps and fissures in the wall and these openings must be patched and stabilized during this phase’s relatively low temperatures as the kiln will become too hot to touch in later stages. Touching the kiln is essential for assessing maintenance needs and this early part of the firing is characterized by a close physical interaction with the kiln: circling it, kneeling around it, pushing against its surfaces to check for points of weakness, reaching inside the firebox, and bending over the top of the chimney. (Figure8). This phase also involves developing a kind of choreographed placement and stoking of fuel in the firebox, possibly olive wood branches in ancient Athens or in our case, chopped up pine boards from shipping pallets. Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 24

Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEERFigureFigure REVIEW 7. 7.A A graphic graphic representation representation of the of the sensory sensory four-phase four-phase ﬁring firing sequence. sequence. 12 of 24

3.1. Sensory Phase 1: The Touch and Sound of Dull Red Pots Potters, if you pay me for my song, then I ask that you, Athena, hold your hand above the kiln.

—“Kiln,” Life of Homer 14.1–14.31 It seems no coincidence that the poem “Kiln” begins with an invitation for Athena to come and hold her hand above the kiln. Not only does this suggest her blessing the potters’ enterprise but also gives us valuable insight into the potters’ environment at this first phase of the firing, the only phase whenFigure a hand—even 8. Touching thatthe kiln of ain goddess—could the warming/heating warming/heating be phaseheld safelyas it vents above steam a kiln( leftleft) withoutand as fissures ﬁssures being and burned. This first crackspart of are the patched firing, (center beginning and right from). ambient temperature and rising to above 500 degrees Celsius, involves the slow heating of the kiln and the wares stacked inside it such that any residual moisture The ability of touch, especially with one’s hands, to probe and seek out the functional state of is slowly evaporated off without risking the explosion of still damp pots in the kiln stack. The gradual the kiln parallels the the recognition recognition by Greek Greek philosoph philosophersers that touch, though potentially misleading or warming of the kiln is also particularly critical for ensuring the physical integrity of the kiln and thus untrustworthy, provided otherwise unknowable truth ((PurvesPurves 20182018,, p. 2). Concerns over how and wherethe success touch tookof the place, entire that firing. is, its “unlocatability,”Steam released insimadede philosophers the kiln walls suspect at this this stage sense, is classifyingvented through itotherwise “as a ‘low’ unnoticeable sense, best fit forgaps the and farmyard, fissures bedroom in the orwall nursery, and becausethese openings it is the most must proximal be patched and and immediatestabilized ofduring the five this and phase’s because… relatively it is common low temperat to all creatures”ures as the (Purves kiln will 2018, become pp. 4–5). too But hot for to kiln touch in attendants,later stages. touch Touching was thelocated kiln atis essentialthe surface for ofasse thessing kiln. maintenance Despite what needs Alex and Purves this early calls part the of the “downgradingfiring is characterized of touch” byin antiquity,a close physical it was a interactionvital sense in with this firstthe kiln:phase circling of the firing, it, kneeling serving aroundas a it, criticalpushing way against to gauge its surfaces the viability to check of the for potters points’ ofmost weakness, permanent reaching and visible inside piece the firebox, of equipment. and bending Touchover the connected top of the the chimney. bodies of (Figure attendants 8). Thiswith phase their kiln, also echoinginvolves Purves’ developing observation a kind thatof choreographed the skin functionsplacement as anda “permeable stoking of border fuel inbetween the firebox, ourselves possib andly our olive world wood [in branchesa way] that in allows ancient feeling Athens to or in flowour case,freely chopped between upthe pineinside boar andds the from outside shipping of the pallets.body” (Purves 2018, p. 3). This kind of physical intimacy, however, is short lived, as the kiln soon becomes dangerous to touch. For example, the entry from the February 2016 firing log states that when the kiln was touched at 876 degrees Celsius during the oxidation phase, “Matt burned his finger on kiln wall.” The poem “Kiln” also alludes to the brief period in which touching the kiln is possible, as in its final lines, it warns that “whoever peeps over the top, may all his face be scorched” (West 2003, pp. 394–95). This early heating/warming phase is the only time when it would be feasible to even look over the kiln chimney, either with or without Athena’s favor. The second critical sense during this phase of the firing is hearing. Despite an ancient acknowledgement31 I am grateful to Annetteof the necessity Giesecke of for sound her translatio and its n.hi Seegher West status (2003, relative pp. 390–95), to smell, for taste the original and touch, Greek text. concerns about where sound is located, its ephemeral and invisible nature, and how more attuned animals are to sound than humans made it an untrustworthy sense (Butler and Nooter 2018). But the ears are impossible to close off from sound, because “the ear draws inward. It soaks up information” (Butler and Nooter 2018, p. 2). Therefore, actually hearing specific sounds suggests selectivity on the part of the listener. Considering the cacophony of sounds that must have invaded the kiln attendants’ ears in the Kerameikos, the ability to be acutely attuned to sounds inside the kiln was a cultivated and practiced skill. The early phase of the firing lasts between two to four hours and is characterized by the slow crackling of the fire as it slowly builds in the firebox with the regular and measured stoking of fuel under the chamber of stacked ceramics (Listen to Supplementary Multimedia File 1). Any auditory changes—typically fleeting—to this consistent rhythm can indicate potentially catastrophic damage to the kiln load. In the written log for the April 2015 firing, there were two short sounds at 11:29 and 11:31, at 430 degrees Celsius: “Bad sound in kiln, popping sound, MH [Hyleck] says it was probably a cone pack exploding.” When the kiln was opened post-firing, it was clear that the sound had been related to two tiles exploding because they had not been fully dried before firing; the resulting fragments had ricocheted against other pots and into the bottom of the kiln (Figure 9). In the July 2016 firing, a delicate “pop” at the relatively low temperature of 157 degrees Celsius raised a concern about “exploding wadding,” the small balls of refractory material that cushioned the different shelves of the stacking chamber. The significant consequences of this brief and delicate

Arts 2019, 8, 70 12 of 24 where touch took place, that is, its “unlocatability,” made philosophers suspect this sense, classifying it “as a ‘low’ sense, best fit for the farmyard, bedroom or nursery, because it is the most proximal and immediate of the five and because ... it is common to all creatures” (Purves 2018, pp. 4–5). But for kiln attendants, touch was located at the surface of the kiln. Despite what Alex Purves calls the “downgrading of touch” in antiquity, it was a vital sense in this first phase of the firing, serving as a critical way to gauge the viability of the potters’ most permanent and visible piece of equipment. Touch connected the bodies of attendants with their kiln, echoing Purves’ observation that the skin functions as a “permeable border between ourselves and our world [in a way] that allows feeling to flow freely between the inside and the outside of the body” (Purves 2018, p. 3). This kind of physical intimacy, however, is short lived, as the kiln soon becomes dangerous to touch. For example, the entry from the February 2016 firing log states that when the kiln was touched at 876 degrees Celsius during the oxidation phase, “Matt burned his finger on kiln wall.” The poem “Kiln” also alludes to the brief period in which touching the kiln is possible, as in its final lines, it warns that “whoever peeps over the top, may all his face be scorched” (West 2003, pp. 394–95). This early heating/warming phase is the only time when it would be feasible to even look over the kiln chimney, either with or without Athena’s favor. The second critical sense during this phase of the firing is hearing. Despite an ancient acknowledgement of the necessity of sound and its higher status relative to smell, taste and touch, concerns about where sound is located, its ephemeral and invisible nature, and how more attuned animals are to sound than humans made it an untrustworthy sense (Butler and Nooter 2018). But the ears are impossible to close off from sound, because “the ear draws inward. It soaks up information” (Butler and Nooter 2018, p. 2). Therefore, actually hearing specific sounds suggests selectivity on the part of the listener. Considering the cacophony of sounds that must have invaded the kiln attendants’ ears in the Kerameikos, the ability to be acutely attuned to sounds inside the kiln was a cultivated and practiced skill. The early phase of the firing lasts between two to four hours and is characterized by the slow crackling of the fire as it slowly builds in the firebox with the regular and measured stoking of fuel under the chamber of stacked ceramics (Listen to Supplementary Multimedia File 1). Any auditory changes—typically fleeting—to this consistent rhythm can indicate potentially catastrophic damage to the kiln load. In the written log for the April 2015 firing, there were two short sounds at 11:29 and 11:31, at 430 degrees Celsius: “Bad sound in kiln, popping sound, MH [Hyleck] says it was probably a cone pack exploding.” When the kiln was opened post-firing, it was clear that the sound had been related to two tiles exploding because they had not been fully dried before firing; the resulting fragments had ricocheted against other pots and into the bottom of the kiln (Figure9). In the July 2016 firing, a delicate “pop” at the relatively low temperature of 157 degrees Celsius raised a concern about “exploding wadding,” the small balls of refractory material that cushioned the different shelves of the stacking chamber. The significant consequences of this brief and delicate sound were not clear until the second sensory phase, described below. But at this first warming phase, the only hope was of pots reddening and remaining intact in the rising heat of the kiln. Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 24

Artssound2019 were, 8, 70 not clear until the second sensory phase, described below. But at this first warming phase,13 of 24 the only hope was of pots reddening and remaining intact in the rising heat of the kiln.

FigureFigure 9.9. The explosion of test tiles in the April 20152015 ﬁring.firing.

3.2.3.2. The Second Sensory Phase: The Soun Sound,d, Sight and Taste ofof BrightBright RedRed PotsPots TheThe transitiontransition from thethe firstfirst toto thethe secondsecond sensorysensory phasephase ofof thethe firingfiring isis initiatedinitiated byby increasingincreasing thethe amountamount andand speedspeed withwith whichwhich additionaladditional fuelfuel isis introducedintroduced intointo thethe firebox.firebox. TheThe decisiondecision toto significantlysignificantly raiseraise thethe temperaturetemperature ofof thethe kilnkiln in anticipation of the next sensory phase (the reduction) isis basedbased on onthe the lack lack of of sensory sensory cues cuessuch such small small sounds sounds or steam or steam emanating emanating from from inside inside the kiln. the Thekiln. jump The injump temperature in temperature is precipitated is precipitated by a sudden by a sudden acceleration acceleration in the in rate the of rate stoking of stoking the fire the which fire which gives thegives kiln the a kiln new a “voice.”new “voice.” The moreThe more gentle gentle crackling crackling sound sound of the of the fire fire in thein the first first warming warming phase phase is replacedis replaced by by a loud a loud whooshing whooshing sound sound (Watch (Watch Supplementary Supplementary Multimedia Multimedia File File 2), 2), with with the the ferocity ferocity of thisof this sound sound accompanied accompanied by by the the expulsion expulsion of of bright bright orange orange embers embers and and the the startling startling appearance appearance of of a brighta bright orange orange flame flame from from the chimney the chimney for the for first the time first in thetime entire in the firing entire (Figure firing 10). (Figure The suddenness 10). The andsuddenness regularity and (typically regularity around (typically 700 degrees around Celsius) 700 degrees with which Celsius) this flame with erupted which duringthis flame this erupted sensory phaseduring suggests this sensory that phase it might suggests have been that ait regularmight ha markerve been for a theregular kiln marker attendants. for the In kiln our firings,attendants. the wordsIn our “BRIGHTfirings, the ORANGE words “BRIGHT FLAME!!!” ORANGE written FLAME in capital!!!” letterswritten with in capital exclamation letters with marks exclamation appear in eachmarks of appear our eleven in each firing of logs. our Thateleven such firing a moment logs. That might such be representeda moment might in a ceramics be represented apprentice’s in a dedicatoryceramics apprentice’s plaque (Figure dedicatory 11) adds plaque credence (Figure to the 11 possibility) adds credence that such to the an eventpossibility was anthat important such an markerevent was for ancientan important artisans. marker Theauditory for ancient aspect artisans of orange. The flame’sauditory sudden aspect appearance of orange flame’s recalls thesudden way thatappearance sound was recalls closely the way intertwined that sound with was voice closely and intertwined speech and with how voice sound and mediated speech theand relationship how sound betweenmediated mortals the relationship and the divine. between In describing mortals and Odysseus the divine. hearing In Zeus’describing thunderclap Odysseus as an hearing omen, ButlerZeus’ andthunderclap Nooter note: as an omen, Butler and Nooter note:

inin the the hearing hearing of of voice, voice, prayer, prayer, thunder thunder and and speech, speech, an entire an entire dialogue dialogue is played is played out among out amongmortals mortalsand the divine. and the Each divine. sound Each or speech sound is or animated speech by is animatedthe motion by of thean underlying motion of ansignificance underlying to sounds, signiﬁcance whether to sounds, these sounds whether are theseostensibly sounds verbal are or ostensibly meterological. verbal The or meterological.sounds act as omens, The sounds bearers actof meaning as omens, in bearersa system of of meaning fate and inprophesy a system that of is fate as great and prophesyand unknowable that is as as great the music and unknowable of the spheres. as the Sound music can of themark spheres. our place Sound in canthe world mark our(as placeboth space in the and world time) (as but both it does space not and always time) guarantee but it does our not agency always (Butler guarantee and Nooter our agency. 2018, (p.Butler 7). and Nooter 2018, p. 7)

Arts 2019, 8, 70 14 of 24 Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 24 Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 24

Figure 10. The eruption and persistence of a bright orange flame from the chimney in the oxidation phase.Figure 10. The eruptioneruption and and persistence persistence of of a bright a bright orange oran ﬂamege flame from from the chimney the chimney in the in oxidation the oxidation phase. phase.

FigureFigure 11. Pinax, 11. Pinax, Penteskouphia, Penteskouphia, Corinth, Cori 575–550nth, 575–550 BCE, Berlin,BCE, Berlin, Staatliche Staatli Museen,che Museen, F616. Author’s F616. Author’s own image. ownFigure image. 11. Pinax, Penteskouphia, Corinth, 575–550 BCE, Berlin, Staatliche Museen, F616. Author’s own image. The lack of agency on the part of the listener is underscored by the fact that this phase of the firingThe is fraughtlack of withagency danger, on the as part an uncontrolled of the listener fire is could underscored not only by destroy the fact the that kiln this load phase but also of the The lack of agency on the part of the listener is underscored by the fact that this phase of the firingkiln,the is fraught environment with danger, and the as people an uncontrolled around it. fire The could “kiln not gremlins” only destroy described the kiln in load the poem but also “Kiln” the firing is fraught with danger, as an uncontrolled fire could not only destroy the kiln load but also the kiln,likely the made environment their appearance and the during people this around phase it. (West The 2003“kiln, pp.gremlins” 392–93). described The poem in speaksthe poem of “Sytrips “Kiln” kiln, the environment and the people around it. The “kiln gremlins” described in the poem “Kiln” likely(Smasher) made and their Smaragos appearance (Crasher) during and this Asbetos phase (West (Unquenchable) 2003, pp. 392–93).32 too and The Sabaktes poem speaks (Shake-to-Pieces) of “Sytrips likely made their appearance during this phase (West 2003, pp. 392–93). The poem speaks of “Sytrips (Smasher)and Omodamos and Smaragos (Conqueror (Crasher) of the Unbaked),” and Asbetos all potential (Unquenchable) hazards32 at thistoo phase.and Sabaktes33 As mentioned (Shake-to- in (Smasher) and Smaragos (Crasher) and Asbetos (Unquenchable) 32 too and Sabaktes (Shake-to- Pieces)the previous and Omodamos section, in the (Conqueror July 2016 firing, of the a poppingUnbaked),” sound all atpotential 157 degrees hazards Celsius at hadthis beenphase. the33 firstAs Pieces) and Omodamos (Conqueror of the Unbaked),” all potential hazards at this phase. 33 As mentionedindication that in the something previous had section, been dislodgedin the July from 2016 the firing, kiln stack;a popping a subsequent sound at rumbling 157 degrees sound Celsius at 544 mentioned in the previous section, in the July 2016 firing, a popping sound at 157 degrees Celsius haddegrees been Celsius the first was indication another that cause something for worry. had On be openingen dislodged the kiln, from it was the clear kiln thatstack; the a rumblesubsequent was had been the first indication that something had been dislodged from the kiln stack; a subsequent rumblingrelated to sound the entire at 544 kiln degrees stack leaning Celsius over was during another the cause firing for after worry. the wadding On opening on athe shelf kiln, had it was exploded, clear rumbling sound at 544 degrees Celsius was another cause for worry. On opening the kiln, it was clear thatseverely the rumble distorting was our related pots into somethe entire of the kiln stack stac (Figurek leaning 12). over during the firing after the wadding onthat a theshelf rumble had exploded, was related severe to thely distorting entire kiln our stac potsk leaning in some over of theduring stack the (Figure firing 12). after the wadding on a shelf had exploded, severely distorting our pots in some of the stack (Figure 12).

32 In his translation, West refers to Asbetos as “Overblaze,” rather than “Unquenchable” as in Milne’s translation in (Noble [1965] 1988) but both terms suggest a kiln grown too hot. See West(2003, p. 393). 33 Translation by Milne, as published in (Noble [1965] 1988, pp. 190–91).

32 In his translation, West refers to Asbetos as “Overblaze,” rather than “Unquenchable” as in Milne’s 32 translation In his translation, in (Noble West [1965] refers 1988 to) butAsbetos both termsas “O suggestverblaze,” a kiln rather grow thann too “Unquenchable”hot. See West (2003, as p.in 393). Milne’s translation in (Noble [1965] 1988) but both terms suggest a kiln grown too hot. See West (2003, p. 393). 33 Translation by Milne, as published in (Noble [1965] 1988, pp. 190–91). 33 Translation by Milne, as published in (Noble [1965] 1988, pp. 190–91).

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(a) (b)

FigureFigure 12. The 12. The leaned leaned over over kiln kiln stack stack (a); ( thea); the broken broken shelves shelve insides inside the the kiln kiln (b );(b and); and the the distorted distorted pots pots (c ,d). (c,d). Despite the anxiety inherent to this phase, it is also one of relative repose due to its long duration. We knowDespite nothing the anxiety of when inherent in the day to this firings phase, took it is place also one or even of relative if they repose were seasonaldue to its activities, long duration. but if peopleWe know began nothing working of when early in in the the day morning, firings thetook long place oxidation or even if phase they wouldwere seasonal offer an activities, opportunity but toif breakpeople for began a late-morning working early or midday in the morning, meal taken the kilnside. long oxidation No doubt phase there would were offer several an opportunity opportunities to tobreak eat during for a late-morning the extended or firingmidday process meal taken and it k isilnside. enticing No todoubt imagine there what were mightseveral have opportunities passed as ato snack—olives eat during the and extended bread or firing some process food specific and it is to enticing different to metics’imagine homelands? what might Werehave passed these foods as a sharedsnack—olives and if so, and did bread their taste or some bring food another specific sensory to different association metics’ to the homela oxidationnds? phase Were and these the foods firing ofshared bright and red if pots? so, did Kelli their Rudolph taste bring suggests another thatsensor “toy association taste was to to engage the oxidation in a complex phase and relationship the firing withof bright the flavors red pots? and Kelli substance Rudolph of thesuggests foods that consumed “to taste in was a cultural to engage and in environmentala complex relationship context with with allthe its flavors pleasures and andsubstance dangers” of the (Rudolph foods consumed 2018, p. in 6). a Taste,cultural then, and isenvironmental context-specific context and with communal all its aspleasures well as individual. and dangers” Rudolph (Rudolph reminds 2018, usp. 6). that Tast “thee, then, act of is eating context-specific has both selfish and communal and yet unifying as well tendencies”as individual. (Rudolph Rudolph 2018 reminds, p. 11) us and that that “the food act consumed of eating marked has both the selfish status, identityand yet andunifying even geographicaltendencies” origin(Rudolph of both 2018, its p. maker 11) and and that consumer food consumed (Boulay 2018 marked; Hitch the 2018 status,). As mostidentity of ourand firings even tookgeographical place in cold origin and of rainyboth its Baltimore maker and weather, consumer our (Boulay workgroup’s 2018; Hitch shared 2018). sensory As most experience of our firings of this took place in cold and rainy Baltimore weather, our workgroup’s shared sensory experience of this phase is associated with cups of soup laced with oyster crackers, greasy French fries and tumblers phase is associated with cups of soup laced with oyster crackers, greasy French fries and tumblers of of hot chocolate. But taste is a complex and intimate sense, requiring a material to be placed inside hot chocolate. But taste is a complex and intimate sense, requiring a material to be placed inside the the mouth and eventually becoming part of the taster’s body (Rudolph 2018). For our own firings, mouth and eventually becoming part of the taster’s body (Rudolph 2018). For our own firings, our our meals were linked to holding warmed (and warming) bowls of food, gulping hot beverages that meals were linked to holding warmed (and warming) bowls of food, gulping hot beverages that traveled down our throats and feeling our stomachs fill in anticipation of the upcoming, stressful traveled down our throats and feeling our stomachs fill in anticipation of the upcoming, stressful reduction phase. How then might we consider the bright orange-reds of Greek ceramics differently if reduction phase. How then might we consider the bright orange-reds of Greek ceramics differently we begin to imagine potters at their meals as these colors were being produced, snacking and perhaps if we begin to imagine potters at their meals as these colors were being produced, snacking and warming the outsides and insides of their bodies as the pots themselves warmed to bright red? perhaps warming the outsides and insides of their bodies as the pots themselves warmed to bright red?

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3.3. The Third Sensory Phase: The Smell and Taste of Black Pots In “Kiln,” the aim of the firing is that “the kotyloi and all the kanastra turn a good black ... be well fired and fetch the price asked.”34 The importance given to the “good” (deep? lustrous?) black on Greek pots has been a scholarly obsession since the eighteenth century, with much experimental and scientific work devoted to identifying how the “black gloss” was created (Saunders et al. forthcoming). Given the emphasis placed on this dark and shining surface, it might come as some surprise that the phase that produces this characteristic color is extremely short-lived, taking as little as 4% to 9% of the time of the entire firing.35 The dark iron compounds hercynite, magnetite and wustite can only be produced chemically between 1000 to 850 degrees Celsius and only in the absence of oxygen and this extremely tight temperature window demanded astonishing precision and coordination of the kiln staff. Once it was determined that the optimal temperature for beginning reduction had been reached36, all of the kiln workers would have been involved, either in introducing the organic material into the firebox or in sealing up the air vents leading into the kiln. Doing so in a synchronized manner would have been the most effective way to ensure that the atmosphere inside the entire kiln was as consistent as possible and that all of the pots were in turn becoming uniformly black. The coordinated movement of the closing up the kiln has two immediate consequences. First, as the ports are closed, flames shoot out from both the chimney and the firebox, the only time in the firing that this occurs (Figure 13). Two ancient apprentice potters’ plaques seem to show this precise moment (Figure 14) as flames lick the chimney and firebox edges, desperate for air. The other significant indicator of beginning reduction is the eruption of a sharp-smelling, gray, billowing smoke from these ports as the fire is choked. This dramatic moment (Watch Supplementary Multimedia File 3) assaults the nose, throat and eyes, causing people to cough and making eyes water. Here, then, is a clear example of how Greek philosophers conceived of how olfaction worked, that is, that the “smell-organ” was a “conduit between the inner body and the outside world,” and that this “nose ... extended down into the throat and back into the ear-canal, the eyes and the brain” (Bradley 2015, p. 3). As with the other senses, the elite anxiety about the veracity of smell and its association with animals was not likely a concern of potters who were dependent on the powerful communicative aspect of this sense, particularly at this stage of the firing (Bradley 2015). In fact, noticing when the smell was suddenly less acrid cued attendants to re-induce the smoky, smoldering atmosphere, either by adding more reduction fuel or tightening up any vents in the kiln walls. This kind of attunement and adjustment is all the more impressive considering that there were other kinds of burning—of incense or flesh—occurring all around the workshops in the burial grounds of Kerameikos. Though a fleeting phase in the firing, it is also important to consider how the scent of reduction might have clung to the bodies of the workers long after the firing was completed. Did the smell of smoke linger on their hair and their clothes and thus announce their identities as potters as they walked home, visited the taverns or perhaps sold pots in the Agora?

34 Milne in (Noble [1965] 1988, p. 190). 35 This assumes that reduction takes between twenty to forty minutes over the course of an eight hour ﬁring, which was our general experience. 36 As with oxidation, the optimal reduction temperature is clay dependent. For RedArt clay, beginning reduction around 1000 degrees centigrade was most eﬀective. However, lower temperatures were workable for the test pieces sent to us by Thetis Authentics, Ltd. Arts 2019, 8, 70 17 of 24

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Figure 13. Closing the chimney and firebox to induce reduction results in fire erupting out of both Figure 13. Closing the the chimney chimney and and firebox ﬁrebox to induce redu reductionction results in fire ﬁre erupting out of both these ports and the production of a gray smoke. these ports and the production of a gray smoke.

Figure 14. The beginning of reduction. Penteskouphia pinakes, Corinth, 575–550 BCE, Left: MNB Figure 14.14. TheThe beginningbeginning of of reduction. reduction. Penteskouphia Penteskouphia pinakes, pinakes, Corinth, Corinth, 575–550 575–550 BCE, BCE, (Left )Left: MNB MNB 2858, 2858, Louvre, Image from: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Plaque_Penteskouphia_ 2858,Louvre, Louvre, Image Image from: from:https: https://commons.wik//commons.wikimedia.orgimedia.org/wiki/File:P/wiki/File:Plaque_Penteskouphia_MNB2858.jpglaque_Penteskouphia_ ; MNB2858.jpg; Right: F827, Berlin Antikensammlung. Author’s own image. MNB2858.jpg;(Right) F827, Berlin Right: Antikensammlung. F827, Berlin Antikensamml Author’sung. own Author’s image. own image. So how did ancient makers’ bodies smell? My own children told me that I “smelled like hot So howhow diddid ancientancient makers’ makers’ bodies bodies smell? smell? My My own own children children told told me thatme that I “smelled I “smelled like hot like dogs” hot dogs” after each firing, an observation that reminds us that smell is both culturally packaged and dogs”after each after firing, each anfiring, observation an observation that reminds that reminds us that us smell that is smell both is culturally both culturally packaged packaged and closely and closely linked to taste (Bradley 2015; Boulay 2018). But the smell of a firing is also linked to other closelylinked tolinked taste to (Bradley taste (Bradley 2015; Boulay 2015; 2018Boulay). But 2018). the But smell the of smell a firing of a is firing also linked is also to linked other to cultural other cultural products and resources, specifically, firing fuel. The choice of kindling and wood for the fire productscultural products and resources, and resources, specifically, specifically, firing fuel. firing The choicefuel. The of kindlingchoice of and kindling wood and forthe wood fire for must the have fire must have had its own olfactory signature, with certain woods being more fragrant due to the musthad its have own had olfactory its own signature, olfactory with signature, certain woodswith certain being morewoods fragrant being duemore to fragrant the presence due to of sapthe presence of sap in them or even due to their origin (Draycott 2015). But the reduction phase required presencein them orof evensap in due them to theiror even origin due (toDraycott their orig 2015in (Draycott). But the 2015). reduction But the phase reduction required phase a somewhat required a somewhat different fuel, one that retains its heat even when choked of oxygen, thus maintaining adi somewhatfferent fuel, different one that retainsfuel, one its that heat retains even when its he chokedat even of when oxygen, choked thus maintainingof oxygen, thus the temperaturesmaintaining the temperatures required for iron blacks to form. This is a difficult feat, as demonstrated in Figure therequired temperatures for iron blacksrequired to form.for iron This blacks is a ditoffi form.cult feat,This asis a demonstrated difficult feat, inas Figuredemonstrated4, where in choking Figure 4, where choking the flame caused the temperature inside the kiln to plummet from 1000 to 800 4,the where flame choking caused the the temperature flame caused inside the thetemperatur kiln to plummete inside fromthe kiln 1000 to to plummet 800 degrees from Celsius 1000 withinto 800 degrees Celsius within a span of 25 minutes. Several types of reduction fuel, from charcoal to wet degreesa span of Celsius 25 minutes. within Several a span typesof 25 ofminutes. reduction Several fuel, types from charcoalof reduction to wet fuel, organic from charcoal materials, to have wet organic materials, have been proposed in the vase literature37, though none have been identified in organicbeen proposed materials, in thehave vase been literature proposed37, though in the vase none literature have been37, identifiedthough none in kilns. have Onebeen source identified of fuel in kilns. One source of fuel found archaeologically in domestic and other non-kiln contexts is pomace, kilns.found One archaeologically source of fuel in found domestic archaeologically and other non-kiln in domestic contexts and other is pomace, non-kiln a cake-like contexts formis pomace, of the a cake-like form of the waste products of pressing olive oil which burns cleanly while also retaining wastea cake-like products form of of pressing the waste olive products oil which of pressing burns cleanly olive whileoil which also burns retaining cleanly heat while (Rowan also 2015 retaining). This heat (Rowan 2015). This finding offers the possibility that an image showing small round balls being heatfinding (Rowan offers 2015). the possibility This finding that offers an image the possib showingility small that an round image balls showing being raked small outround of a balls kiln being by an raked out of a kiln by an attendant may be olive pits, not only charcoal as suggested in the literature.38 rakedattendant out mayof a kiln be olive by an pits, attendant not only may charcoal be olive as suggestedpits, not only in the charcoal literature. as suggested38 Pomace in would the literature. have been38 Pomace would have been easily available in Athens given the cultural and economic importance of Pomaceeasily available would inhave Athens been giveneasily the available cultural in and Athens economic given importance the cultural of and its olive economic oil industry importance (Haland of its olive oil industry (Haland 2012) and the ability to use materials that would otherwise have been its2012 olive) and oil the industry ability (Haland to use materials 2012) and that the would ability otherwise to use materials have been that wasted would wouldotherwise have have perhaps been wasted would have perhaps been a cost-savings for potters. In our own experimentation, we tested wasted would have perhaps been a cost-savings for potters. In our own experimentation, we tested wet pine boughs, charcoal, cow manure, olive pits and olive pomace and found that each material wet pine boughs, charcoal, cow manure, olive pits and olive pomace and found that each material had not only its own distinct ability (or inability) to hold heat but also produced its own distinctive had37 Cuomo not only di Caprio its own(1984 )distinct even mentions ability the (or use inability) of cut up horses’ to hold hooves heat as but a possibility also produced for fuel. its own distinctive 38 See the Penteskouphia plaque currently in the collection of the Louvre, accession number MNB 2856.

37 Cuomo Di Caprio (1984) even mentions the use of cut up horses’ hooves as a possibility for fuel. 37 Cuomo Di Caprio (1984) even mentions the use of cut up horses’ hooves as a possibility for fuel. 38 See the Penteskouphia plaque currently in the collection of the Louvre, accession number MNB 2856. 38 See the Penteskouphia plaque currently in the collection of the Louvre, accession number MNB 2856.

Arts 2019, 8, 70 18 of 24 been a cost-savings for potters. In our own experimentation, we tested wet pine boughs, charcoal, cow manure, olive pits and olive pomace and found that each material had not only its own distinct ability (or inability) to hold heat but also produced its own distinctive smell. Notes from the ﬁring logs attest to the diﬃculty of accurately describing smell, a familiar concern of the ancients (Bradley 2015) and include: “relatively pleasant smell of pine needles burning” (pine boughs); “burning smoke” (charcoal); “slow roasting shit” (cow manure); and “oily” (olive pits). The challenge of describing the smell without mentioning the substance from which it derives also recalls an ancient recognition of the elusive nature of smells and their links to other senses, including taste:

The Greeks, noting that the olfactory and gustatory modalities were physiologically associated, made use of the same semantics. Aristotle indicated that there is an analogy between the types of ﬂavors and smells, but, “the odors not being quite as fully evident as the ﬂavors, it is from the latter that the former derive their names. (Boulay 2018, p. 206)

It is tempting to consider whether potters chose their reduction fuel for their olfactory signatures as well as their performance, availability and cost. Did certain fuels signal cues in the reduction phase better than others? And if so, how did ancient kiln attendants smell? Was there an equivalent ancient odor to “hot dogs”?

3.4. Sensory Phase 4: The Smell, Sound and Taste (?) of Red, Black and Purple Pots Knowing when to make the transition from the reduction phase to the re-oxidation phase requires the experience and skill of the kiln attendants as there are no absolute indicators that signal this change. Instead, the staff and perhaps the individual in charge of the firing, would have considered numerous factors: whether the reduction phase seemed to have gone on for long enough to ensure a “good black”; whether the smell of reduction was continuing and therefore worth extending; and whether test pieces drawn from the edge of the kiln shelves were a reasonable indicator of the entire kiln stack being suitably reduced. Based on these and likely other observations, the kiln might then be transitioned into the final “critical zone,” one in which the oxygen ports were re-opened and burning and burned reduction fuel raked out of the firebox and replaced with new fuel (Figure 15). Perhaps this phase is depicted in an apprentice’s plaque showing that black smoke continues to erupt from the chimney during the raking out of fuel, indicating that the kiln is still in reduction.39 A full transition to re-oxidation is indicated by a disappearance of the acrid smell of reduction and the sudden re-appearance and whooshing sound of an orange flame in the chimney. The key challenge during this firing phase is to maintain a temperature below the highest heat previously achieved inside the kiln as an overfiring could distort vessels and change “good” black surfaces to a dull gray-green. Here, too, the kiln attendants’ experience in elevating the heat of the kiln without overheating it is crucial. In our experiments, carefully controlling the amount of fuel put into the firebox and listening for the excessive whooshing of the flame while checking our temperature gauges allowed us to limit overfiring. As previously mentioned, the re-introduction of oxygen changes the unslipped surfaces from black to red. However, slipped areas remain black as oxygen cannot diffuse through the thin layer of glass that has formed on those surfaces. Additionally, painted inscriptions made with a mixture of slip and iron-oxide pigments form a combination of the black and red iron oxides, often appearing purple or purplish-red. After a short period of maintaining these elevated temperatures—less than an hour in our firings—the firebox of the kiln is bricked up and the temperature is allowed to fall. The chimney, however, is left open, allowing air to enter the kiln to vent and cool it gradually.

39 See Penteskouphia Pinax, MNB 2856, Louvre, dated 575–550 BCE. Arts 2019, 8, 70 19 of 24 Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 24

Figure 15. RakingRaking out out the the reduction reduction fuel in order to begin re-oxidation.

An aspect of the firing firing that much of the art historical and the scientificscientific literature neglects is the anxiety that pervades its end. Both Both ancient ancient and and contemporary contemporary potters, potters, as as well well as as ancient ancient philosophers, philosophers, would likely agree agree that that the the lack lack of of control control over over what what happens happens inside inside a kiln a kiln is isa powerful a powerful reminder reminder of theof the limitations limitations of ofwhat what we we can can know know with with our our senses. senses. Even Even if if all all sensory sensory indicators indicators and and even even test pieces suggested suggested that that the the firing firing had had gone gone well, well, the the final final result result of the of thefiring firing is not is notcertain certain until until the kiln the coolskiln cools and is and opened. is opened. After Afterall, “only all,“only when when[the vessel] [the vessel] has left has the left kiln the does kiln it does become it become pottery, pottery, solid andsolid with and sufficient with suffi strengthcient strength to defy to the defy centuries” the centuries” (Cuomo (Cuomo di Caprio di 1984, Caprio p. 198472). Given, p. 72). the Given different the micro-environmentsdifferent micro-environments that exist that even exist from even one from part one of partthe kiln of the to kilnthe next, to the some next, pots some may pots have may been have perfectlybeen perfectly fired firedwhile while others others were were misshapen misshapen or a or gray-green a gray-green from from overfiring overfiring or or a adull dull red red from underfiringunderfiring or only partially reduced to black with th thee “ghosts” of vessels stacked next to them them visible visible on their surfaces (Noble (Noble [1965][1965] 1988,1988, pp. 162–64). 162–64). We We have have no no ancient images of the opening of kilns and none of the end of the long firings firings to show us ancient makers’ bodies in repose. Instead, we can only imagine them—worn, dirty, with the reek of smokesmoke clinging to their nost nostrils,rils, hair and clothes as they left the Kerameikos for home. Perhaps Perhaps some some ate ate a a hasty hasty meal and and remained on site overnight to watch thethe kiln.kiln. NoNo doubtdoubt some some fretted fretted over over whether whether the the firing firing had had been been successful, successful, if that if that ping ping or pop or popin an in earlier an earlier phase phase had signaled had signaled disaster disaster or if the or acrid if the smoke acrid of smoke reduction of reduction had lasted had long lasted enough long to enoughturn the to pots turn fully the black. pots fully Thus, black. the end Thus, of the the firing end of might the befiring more might associated be more with associated the churning with andthe churningevaluative and thoughts evaluative about thoughts the firing about in the the minds firing of ancientin the minds makers of now ancient that theirmakers bodies now were that finally their bodiesat rest. Greekwere finally philosophers at rest. do Greek not address philosophers this intellectual do not address activity thatthis wasintellectual certainly activity part of that the workwas certainlyof ceramics part production: of the work the calculationsof ceramics ofproduction potential: gainthe orcalculations loss, the evaluations of potential of gain what or might loss, need the evaluationsto be changed of what for the might next need firing to orbe evenchanged an appraisal for the next of firing how di orff evenerent an members appraisal of of the how workgroup different membersfared. To ignoreof the thisworkgroup mental work fared. of theTo firingignore is this to forget mental that work the production of the firing of vases is to wasforget a livelihood that the productionfor these ancient of vases people was and a livelihood one that depended for these onancient both anpeople attuned and body one asthat well depended as an attuned on both mind. an attuned body as well as an attuned mind. 4. Conclusions 4. ConclusionsA young man shopping for his first set of ceramics in a potter’s shop40 (Figure 16) might have beenA entirely young unawareman shopping of the sensoryfor his first signatures set of ceramics indicated in by a thepotter’s shining shop black40 (Figure and deep 16) redmight surfaces have beenof the entirely pots he unaware was considering of the sensory for signatures purchase. in Butdicated the shopby the proprietor, shining black perhaps and deep even red the surfaces potter ofhimself the pots/herself he /themselveswas considering might for have purchase. struck a But cup the with shop a fingernail, proprietor, bringing perhaps “forth even a sharpthe potter clear himself/herself/themselves might have struck a cup with a fingernail, bringing “forth a sharp clear sound”41 to indicate its solidity. The sheen of the black slip might have been scrutinized in bright sunlight40 See Langdridge-Noti to show its(2015 depth) on buying or the pots. cup itself filled with a liquid to prove its water-tightness or

40 See Langdridge-Noti (2015) on buying pots. 41 As mentioned in Geoponia VI, 3, as a way to test the quality of a pithos. See Richter (1923, p. 88).

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Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 20 of 24 sound”41 to indicate its solidity. The sheen of the black slip might have been scrutinized in bright sunlight to show its depth or the cup itself filled with a liquid to prove its water-tightness or emphasize emphasize how beads of moisture would cling to its external surface, deepening the black color how beads of moisture would cling to its external surface, deepening the black color (Figure 17). (Figure 17). Perhaps liquid was sloshed in a painted vessel, allowing the glistening images to appear Perhaps liquid was sloshed in a painted vessel, allowing the glistening images to appear and disappear and disappear (Watch Supplementary Multimedia File 4). Might certain dining or cooking pots have (Watchbeen extolled Supplementary for the iron-rich Multimedia taste File they 4). did Might (or did certain not) dining impart or to cooking foods (Wolfert pots have 2009)? been extolledIn fact, did for foodthe iron-rich and drink taste stored they or did served (or did in Athenian not) impart cerami to foodscs have (Wolfert a distinctive 2009)? ta Inste fact, reminding did food consumers and drink ofstored that orvessel served as ina “product Athenian of ceramics a region, have a certain a distinctive type of taste soil, reminding a microclimate, consumers of [the] of thatavailability vessel as of a “product of a region, a certain type of soil, a microclimate, of [the] availability of water”42? To thus water”42? To thus re-animate these ceramics as functional vessels meant to be held and used as functional containersre-animate reminds these ceramics us of asthe intentionalityvessels of meant all of totheir be heldsurfaces, and used not only as containers their painted reminds images. us of all Imaginingthe intentionality potters of showingof their off surfaces, their notwares only synaesthetically their painted images. to potential Imagining customers pottersshowing offers the off possibilitytheir wares that, synaesthetically for these ancient to potential makers, customers the sensory offers production the possibility of color that, continued for these post-firing; ancient makers, that is,the they sensory were production aware that oftheir color ceramics continued took post-firing;on other shades that is,as they were viewed aware that in different their ceramics lights, filledtook onwith other various shades substances as they were and viewedheld in others’ in different hands. lights, The filledconstant withly variouschanging substances nature of andthe color held ofin others’these surfaces hands. also The offers constantly insight changing into why nature ancient of theauthors color do of thesenot mention surfaces color also in off ersrelation insight to vesselsinto why but ancient rather authorsdescribe do their not sheen mention or luminosity. color in relation While tothis vessels has led but some rather scholars describe to suggest their sheen that ancientor luminosity. writers Whileare describing this has ledmetal some containers scholars (Vic to suggestkers 1985; that Vickers ancient and writers Gill 1994), are describing I would argue metal thatcontainers the changeability (Vickers 1985 of; Vickers“red” and and Gill“black” 1994 ce),ramics—based I would argue thaton lighting the changeability and use—made of “red” them and “black”difficult ceramics—basedto categorize; sheen, on lightinghowever, and is often use—made a constant, them whether difficult speaking to categorize; of a glassy sheen, black however, surface is oroften one a slick constant, with whetherdroplets. speaking of a glassy black surface or one slick with droplets.

Figure 16. Detail of a red figure cup signed by Phintias as painter, ceramic, Greek, 510 BCE, Image Figure 16. Detail of a red ﬁgure cup signed by Phintias as painter, ceramic, Greek, 510 BCE, Image courtesy of the Johns Hopkins Archaeological Museum.Museum.

41 As mentioned in Geoponia VI, 3, as a way to test the quality of a pithos. See Richter(1923, p. 88). 42 Boulay(2018, p. 210). Though Boulay is speaking of wine in this instance, the same characteristics apply to ceramics production.

42 Boulay (2018, p. 210). Though Boulay is speaking of wine in this instance, the same characteristics apply to ceramics production.

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Figure 17. Left: “Sweating” skyphos filled with water. Right: Changes in the color of the vessel in Figure 17. (Left) “Sweating” skyphos ﬁlled with water. (Right) Changes in the color of the vessel in sunlight and when filled with cherry juice. sunlight and when ﬁlled with cherry juice.

To seesee andand holdhold thethe “red”“red” andand “black”“black” ceramics of ancient Greece is to see and recognize the bodies, the sensory experience, the physical labor and the extraordinary expertise of the people who firedfired them. An awareness of the sensory experiencesexperiences of the ancient potters and painters as they made these objectsobjects alsoalso forcesforces us us to to acknowledge acknowledge the the di difficult,fficult, full-bodied full-bodied physical physical and and intellectual intellectual labor labor of the of non-elite,the non-elite, mostly mostly metic metic workers workers that madethat made the pleasure the pleasure of elite of Athenians elite Athenians possible. possible. These These low status low peoplestatus people were of were course of course barred barred from events from events such as such the symposium,as the symposium, with Plato with musing Plato musing43: 43: We couldcould makemake the the potters potters recline recline on on couches couches from from left toleft right to right before before the fire the drinking fire drinking toasts andtoasts feasting and feasting with wheel with alongsidewheel alongside to potter towith potter when with they when are they so disposed are so disposed... But urge … But us noturge to us do not this, to since,do this, if wesince, yield if we [the yield potter] [the will potter] not bewill... nota potter.be … a potter. DespiteDespite this thisdeliberate deliberate exclusion, exclusion, the thepotters’ potters’ object objects,s, full full of oftheir their makers’ makers’ embodied embodied experiences, experiences, were present in thesethese rarifiedrarified spacesspaces and essentialessential to the sensory and intimate worlds of the purchasers of their wares. While the more traditio traditionalnal kinds of evidence—archaeological, literary and epigraphic—might not record the physical bodies of these artisans, the objects they made and the sensory experiences accessible in the surfaces of thosethose objects offer offer other ways to know these ancient people. I would argue that we have not tried to know them on their own terms. The objects they made tell usus aboutabout whowho theythey werewere in in their their own own specialized specialized visual—and visual—and sensory—language. sensory—language. We We only only need need to beto be willing willing to look,to look, touch, touch, listen, listen, smell smell and an evend even taste. taste.

Supplementary Materials: TheThe following following are are available available online online at www.mdpi.com/xxx/s, at http://www.mdpi.com Multimedia/2076-0752 Files/8/2 /1–4.70/s1 , Multimedia Files 1–4. Acknowledgments: I am grateful to the Johns Hopkins University Program in Museums and Society Acknowledgments: I am grateful to the Johns Hopkins University Program in Museums and Society (particularly (particularly Elizabeth Rodini), The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, The Johns Hopkins University Discovery Elizabeth Rodini), The Andrew W. Mellon Foundation, The Johns Hopkins University Discovery Grant, and theGrant, Getty and Conservation the Getty Conservation Institute for Institute the support for the tosupport pursue to thesepursue test these ﬁrings test andfirings subsequent and subsequent studies. studies. I am especiallyI am especially grateful grateful to Matthew to Matthew Hyleck, Hyleck, master master potter, po whosetter, whose extraordinary extraordinary skill and skill patience and patience made this made project this possible.project possible. Thanks Thanks to my other to my fellow other makers fellow Camilamakers Ascher,Camila RossAscher, Brendle, Ross Brendle, Patricia McGuiggan,Patricia McGuiggan, Karun Pandian Karun andPandian Anastassia and Anastassia Sovolieva. Sovolieva. Thank youThank to allyou thirteen to all th Johnsirteen Hopkins Johns Hopkins University Univer studentssity students in the 2015 in the course, 2015 “Recreating Ancient Greek Ceramics.” This project is also indebted to the generosity of David Saunders and Karen course, “Recreating Ancient Greek Ceramics.” This project is also indebted to the generosity of David Saunders Trentelman. I am grateful to Annette Giesecke for her translation of the poem “Kiln” poem, and I thank her and Markand Karen Stansbury-O’Donnell Trentelman. I am for grateful their thoughtful to Annette and Giesec generouske for comments her translation on drafts of ofthe this poem paper. “Kiln” I would poem, also and like I tothank thank her the and anonymous Mark Stansbury-O’Donnell reviewers for their for suggestions their thoughtful on an earlierand generous version comments of this paper. on drafts of this paper. I would also like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their suggestions on an earlier version of this paper.

Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflicts of interest. 43 From Plato’s Republic 420e–421a, as translated by Shorey. See Hedreen(2016, p. 4).

43 From Plato’s Republic 420e–421a, as translated by Shorey. See Hedreen (2016, p. 4).

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Conﬂicts of Interest: The author declares no conﬂict of interest.

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