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PoS(Bormio2012)003

. y sa.it C of of 50 50

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readers http://pos.sis about 10 µg C also atom counting. he he introduction touched upon in for

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down to Beyond 12,000 years the n n many fields of science. provided erator mass spectrometry

of absolute age determination C C calibration curve 14 development ShareAlike ShareAlike Licence. - sample size tree rings. allows a considerable reduction of early early 1960s created the so of radiocarbon dating

C C introduced into the atmosphere by the AMS measurements of the r sample from days to half an hour. 14 C which The accuracy decay counting to direct 14 and a fast running clock

- NonCommercial

record of -

made -

beta year C - 14 Man Another Another important development was t by 60 years ago by Willard Libby at the University of -

ac.at a further reduction in Isotope Research, VERA Laboratory the the various aspects

frequent updates – 12,000 years a very reliable calibration is provided by top dimensions. -

now reaches back to 50,000 years covering the entire range ather extensive list of references is

allowed table mpts mpts to highlight some of these through

developed into an extraordinary versatile tool i 1090Vienna, Austria paper atte -

1 The calibration recent years

get get deeper insights into a reduction of sample size by a factor of 1000 and more (grams to milligram

awaits awaits further improvements. current current

. y 2012

, eventually reaching ), and also reduced the measuring time pe The carbon dating was invented some allowed Speaker

ocarbon dating. For the last walter.kutschera@univie.

nuclear nuclear weapons testing program in the late 1950s and bomb peak, which can be used as a unique tracer years. to representative examples. A r would like to paperthis group of experts radi dendrochronology, i.e. a continuous year calibration of Bayesian analysis into the calibration uncertainty process, in absolute age determination. This carbon Developments in Over the years, the size of accelerators required for reduced has been greatly improved Radio Chicago, and has since The biggest technical advance came (AMS), in which allowed one to the move from late 1970s with accel 1 27 27 Januar - mail: Copyright owned by the author(s) under the terms of the Creative Commons the ofCommons author(s) the terms the Attribution Creative owned by Copyright under -

 50th International Meeting Winter on Nuclear Physics, Bormio, Italy 23

Walter Walter Kutschera University of Vienna, Facultyof Physics Währingerstrasse 17, A E Radiocarbon Dating Coming of Age Coming Dating Radiocarbon

PoS(Bormio2012)003

. - ed ed up -

. of of the [1, 2] ceiv

re ” Speaker Name ays ays by Victor discovered discovered the energy energy cosmic - er er with balloon , later recognized near Innsbruck near had

) from from above 10] (e.g. (e.g. Robert Millikan - “ lhörst by by high a.s.l.

in 1932 registered registered an increase C C in the atmosphere, its two , , the first hint of a particle [17]. It is an important oxidant 14 er equipped with a charged

2 who who m 2300 CO 14 chamb where he tion tion of

remained remained skeptical Also Also in 1936 of of a heavy nucleus in in photographic plates exposed for several CO CO to

closed closed . 14 a penetrating radiation

[11] [11] y y thereafter by Werner Ko ray ray produc

- physicists physicists [6, [6, 7]

ron and the proton was observed [8 disintegration disintegration n n flights up to 5300 m prominent prominent

o gether gether with Carl David Anderson some complete complete to

, , and its distribution into the biosphere and the ocean. The inventory of he 2 rtant role in the oxidation of CO by by Blau and Wambacher 14

undertook undertook ballo 00 m [3, 4] In In 1937, t Measuring Measuring the ionization of air in a which which he interpreted as the result of Hess’ cosmic ray observational station at Hafelekar ( Hafelekar at station observational ray cosmic Hess’ in in cloud chamber measurements uon. uon.

Schematic Schematic presentation of the cosmic

This year we are celebrating the centenary of the discovery of cosmic r

on on Eventually, Eventually, they all recognized the existence of cosmic rays, and in 1936 Hess

. ) Introduction

C C in the various archives is given in percent. Note that the minute, but extremely reactive OH Fig. 1. Fig. step conversion to 14 radical plays an impo [18]. the atmosphere in gases of trace

positr intermediate in mass between the elect as the M rays was observed at months ionization ionization Although his discovery was confirmed shortl flights up to 93 [5] the Nobel Prize in Physics 1. Franz Hess. electrometer, he Short title PoS(Bormio2012)003

ounter Speaker Name the the Pic du Midi by by Occhialini and abeled abeled in red), it in in the atmosphere

Kaon Kaon and Lambda

], where samples of the [16

new unstable elementary particles new unstable particles elementary y y of Chicago had figured out that emulsions emulsions exposed at ion ion was discovered

the the P

ting. , eventually identified as the the radioactive decay curve (l

photographic cosmic cosmic ray secondary neutrons [13]

C C content measured through the specific activity. Since at Manchester at Manchester hints of figure figure from Arnold and Libby 14 , eventually entering the biosphere through the uptake of tler [14]

described described by 1950 Nobelprize in Physics for Cecil F. Powell. In c

in in the French Pyrenees

ray ray products. In ) - C can be used for da for used can be C photographs photographs

ld be produced by . a.s.l. C C reaction

14 m

n,p) (Fig. 1) (Fig. by by Rochester and Bu

C) C) shou

proof that that proof N( reasonably reasonably well

14 2870

14 , leading to the was

[12] Reproduction Reproduction of the original

After After the Second World War, the year 1947 turned out to be another rich year for

by plants by

2 CO Fig. 2. Fig. known age were compared with their the age the presented particles. particles. Meanwhile Willard F. Libby at radiocarbon ( the Universit through the 14 discoveries discoveries of new cosmic observatory ( Powell controlled cloud chamber were observed Short title PoS(Bormio2012)003

- - - ) 4 (see . An ratio ratio

(CH

C life. In - 12 from from 250

C C isotopic 2 C/ 14 for age C C (5700 yr) - 12

14 in one hour, n samples of Speaker Name 14 CO C/ in a variety of

, Müller Müller counters 14 accelerator C i -

to to measure long 14 e ions with tandem life of eral - one C C atoms at a present led to establishing the ith decay counting

14 one one believed that it is

s at sev ssolved ssolved inorganic carbon . . The main reason was the Considering Considering that there are molecules molecules break apart to perform

di . filled Geiger

C C atoms decays molecular molecular interferences from -

14 e . Although Although it was recognized that 14 - , the long half carbon ) attempts attempts , thus removing the otherwise strong 12

- C C detection , his his method to use carbon C was made made was C was was studied with AMS 14 , the use of negativ mass

14 Although Although at the beginning a cyclotron

ys per minute per gram of carbon), which of ys perwhich gram carbon), per minute

. [19]

counting counting advantage the required sample mass for a mass sample required the contains contains 60 million - for for a

deca that that much life, and therefore allows 4 . With the beta method counting was was performed by measuring - ility ility at Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution

C still still C C = 1.2x10 C C to be sure that the very very inefficient. 14 measurements measurements from

14 [27]

C C/ of 12 C C in organic matter was performed in methane 14 or or dissociates ,000 ,000 yr), which For example, in the field of oceanography it was now 14 C/ 14 on the half

state state = 104 C C measurable in large methan hich hich contained C C content in carbon samples was measured through the beta 14 not not be detected at natural abundances w 1/2 14 ld for this charge state, AMS tandem accelerator systems with a t energy energy mass spectrometry fell short by one order of magnitude . On average, only one of these - of organic carbon of ocean water 12

- precision precision Ca Ca ( by by decay counting - [23, [23, 24] and Canada [25]

10 41

. This, then, was the starting point of radiocarbon dating, and earned

ram x tandem tandem accelerat

s not form stable negative ions [26] not dependent C C can be used for dating

turned turned out to be far superior ccelerator mass spectrometry mass ccelerator

14 with with low

illi is A . tive tive ions was used at Berkeley [23]

s . It is interesting to note that for about 20 year m  detection N N doe that that a few grams (~13.8 a of carbon few grams just 0.5 liter

water water had to be extracted. The atom 14

CH accelerator mass spectrometry (AMS), (AMS), spectrometry mass accelerator One One 13 [21,22]

cosmogenic cosmogenic

1977, a big step forward in atom counting of counting in atom forward step1977, a big ith ith C C ratio of 1.2 C C atoms in one of gram carbon (

12 To obtain sufficient yie W In In For about 30 years the A A first measurement of natural and

14 ement ement was reduced from grams to milligrams of carbon, opening up a wide range of .

C/  radioisotopes radioisotopes which could The The advantage of atom counting over decay counting grows with increasing half atom atom counting 2 10

14 . . The proof H The Advent of

rminal voltage of ~3 MV were considered to be the best choice best the be to were considered MV ~3 of voltage rminal C National National Oceanographic AMS (NOSAMS) fac whereas whereas about one million can be counted with enormous gain AMS in detection in sensitivity. the same time. This is possible clearly an to perform high extracted from litres of ocean te measur applications. day interference interference from this stable isobar already in the ion source. In addition, the terminal stripping process inherent to a 12 necessary to strip to the 3+ charge below) laboratories laboratories in the USA operating with posi accelerators [24, 25] discovery that example example is applications 2. clearly clearly makes a direct atom counting would be much more efficient ratio measurement [20] fact, lived determination in archaeology, geology, geophysics, and other branches of sciences”. of branches other and geophysics, geology, archaeology, in determination decay requiring limited the method to samples w 6x10 emerging emerging from a sewage disposal plant in Baltimore, using expected feeble beta decay from isotope enrichment to make the [15] known age (Fig. 2) [16] Willard Libby the 1960 Nobelprize in Chemistry “for Short title PoS(Bormio2012)003

. ), ), C to to of of the the 14 only only µg µg C [39] up of is not

0 avoiding avoiding lower in the 1+

in order came about about came n in overall to

perform perform Speaker Name n Circulation ct, out of the C C content 3+ 14 molecules, dissociation at even even - 14 C one one It It turns out that 14 down down to 1 range of nuclides

can be counted. In . Although . AMS Although is (MICADAS at the AMS facility at the AMS facility

the

ed ed small small samples 2

- C. C. In fa comparable comparable in size to m 14

7 hundr a molecule ~ [31, 32] C C atoms

4 tural tural radioisotope to be used 1 entire entire mass

and , it is the problem of

- , 10 ) This then allowed x

information information on with with such ultra tandem tandem terminal top machines

ible ible [38] - s within the World Ocea

C C atoms. With AMS about 5 % of these 14 wide, wide, about half of them

7 C C measurements at the Such Such small facilities have foot prints of 14

molecules molecules can be dissociated 10 provided

5 ). x AMS technology since its invention technology AMS

s ions

from systematic investigations in

 0.2 MV, leading to a dramatic reductio e to a better understanding of the dynamics of ocean

C s AMS AMS can be performed much better at accelerators

14 precision C C as the most important na - 14 h cam stripper stripper thickness is sufficiently large. - advances

. nd Single Stage AMS eventually eventually This lead a throug

- . AMS AMS facilities world even even 1 µg C may be feas lived lived radioisotopes throughout the in the sample, of which about 3

up at the 3+ charge state, there is also a collisional break

- throughout throughout the world ocean

- of stripping – They They proved that the [37]

otherwise otherwise overwhelming interference from the mass significant significant .

the C C atoms , the break 14 , particularly , for particularly high . Although early experiments at Toronto indicated C C atoms



he most 5 14 esponding esponding AMS facilities (Fig. 3 only. only. This emphasizes

aturization of AMS facilities facilities AMS of aturization One One thus came down to essentially table 10 CH the paradigm i Zürich Zürich [36] x Coulomb Coulomb break 13

for for sure hich transport heat around the globe and therefore have a great impact on the climate on the impact a great have therefore and globe the around heat transport hich (Compact (Compact AMS

As As mentioned above, 1 mg C contains 6 One of t AMS AMS was first developed at accelerators originally used for nuclear physics

ore than 90 percent of all AMS measurements are devoted to and 2

isotope mass spectrometers. mass isotope -  2 , m . . More than 13,000 AMS measurement ides ides the Technical advances of AMS ofTechnical advances

CH 30 m es

still leaves 6 practical terms, the limit to perform AMS measurements the number of method ‘Vogel’ the pushed have we VERA At procedures. preparation sample in contamination size sample of miniaturization 3.2. The atoms can be detected. A reduction of the sample size by a factor of terminal terminal voltage from 3 MV to size of the corr ~ respectively. stable lower energies [34] of the ETH charge state, provided that the gas b molecules possible at lower energy and lower charge states. by by breaking dissociate 12 [33] approximately one hundred measurements [33] science field of any in almost min 3.1. The experiments. It was soon realized that dedicated to AMS being used to measure long dissolved dissolved inorganic carbon Experiment (WOCE) [29, 30] w currents, 3. Short title [28] PoS(Bormio2012)003

y from from a Speaker Name

top’ Mini AMS facility [40 facility AMS top’ Mini

- table the development from the relatively large VERA facilit ] to the ‘ the to ] ], showing

Comparison Comparison of the size of modern AMS facilities. The figure is reproduced

3. Fig. review article on AMS [33 [35 facility AMS a compact via Short title PoS(Bormio2012)003

- a is is C C C 14 14 14 C C from C C ratio C C content 14 12 14 he he growing ed in 2009, On On the other The need for Speaker Name

occur occur even in C/

. . C C ratio by the 14 depleted in the the troposphere

12 at at With With the help of C/ a calibration of of a calibration the the

publish

14 th . , that the samples samples is continuous

labelled materials, e.g deviations deviations - C C falls into t C 14 14

based material Sometimes Sometimes called the ‘final ed by Hans Suess in modern - correctly ubtle ubtle . During During the ice age, i.e. before

S in the ocean

in Switzerland [43] [50]

for for land , concluding that Libby’s assumption ar that one needed that ar

, i.e. ’

s (Fig. (Fig. 4).

calibration calibration curve was

mountains mountains effect to older ages. absolute absolute dates

7 r the the seasonal low of

flooding of the nile. flooding

. and other archives such as corals and sediments had age age (tree rings) a few µg C for dating human brain cells with the . Another future use of small A A lowering of the atmospheric

n yearly yearly . n n updated measurements measurements of carbon samples in the µg range were . . Establishing a precise calibration for this full range of ‘reservoi task due due to admixtures of deep ocean water because because

discovery it was cle it was discovery

dant dant

in the atmosphere (See Fig. 1), and

Monte Rosa , a , ssessment ssessment of radiocarbon dating [16]

2 C calibration curve calibration C 14 AMS AMS biomedical biomedical investigations with [54] of know

C 14 not abun

de Vries’ ). challenging challenging C dating C a from from fossil fuel burning was first observ onstant onstant in time for for the last 12,000 years [48] 14

ring ring dating), it was possible to measure the deviations of c 2 that that there exist - C C forms CO

14 down down to the level of . After . After still still

value to older ages , metabolic studies [44] a time shift of about 400 years trees trees were

k k to 50,000 years [52] [41] , (see below

free CO to different growing seasons as compared to trees used for the master calibration seasons to trees the calibration used as for growing compared master to different ific of time, in order to determine . - ed [47] ed bac

C years

14 spec (‘Suess (‘Suess effect’). A few years later, Hessel de Vries found deviations from a constant -

revis now now reference reference

The fact that

as as compared to the atmosphere C C ratio also in older wood This leads to Libby Libby assumed in his original a , it is well known

. 12 The for calibration

radiocarbon radiocarbon the by determined theyear in late season hand lower [53] land plants due curve. For example it was found that plants of know age from Egypt show an offset of 19 ± 5 4.1. On the global validity of the of the validity the global 4.1. On gets mixed within weeks over large distances is a curve for prerequisite determining absolute dates everywhere on Earth of using a master calibration to be employed for calibration, albeit with frontier’ less precision of radiocarbon dating [51] reaching is dating radiocarbon had to be as a function dendrochronology (tree constant 12,000 years ago in the atmosphere was addition of wood [46] 14 compound [45] flow AMS 4. of graphitization bomb peak [42] also performed in ice cores from the small samples also arises in Short title PoS(Bormio2012)003

C 14 in tree shown shown ear ear the

cked cked up in . As Speaker Name content ue for the last C 14

]. today today the

, and then calculating the . An example is shown in Figure a a human body which was lo

C C dating [55] 8 ring ring sequences can be established by matching 14

C C content from a constant reference val 14 from different time periods[49 time different from

. The relatively precise value for the uncalibrated radiocarbon age . of radiocarbon for precise The value the uncalibrated relatively C C values were determined by measuring content of the atmosphere including relatively fast fluctuations (see 14

C 14

rmination rmination of the famous Iceman Ötzi ing ring widths for wood for widths ring ]. The Δ - vary ocarbon dating of ancient human remains human ancient of dating ocarbon Italian [56] border Italian

- The Deviation Deviation of the atmospheric

Fig. 4) leads to a limit of precision for absolute 5 for the age dete ice at high altitude (3210 m a.s.l.) for approximately 5000 years Austrian in the Ötztal Alps n 4.2. Radi Ötzi Iceman 4.2.1 The Fig. 4. Fig. 12,000 years [48 rings, whose absolute date was determined by dendrochronology content for the time the tree ring was grown by applying the radioactive decay law by two examples in the figure, continuous tree tree overlapping Short title PoS(Bormio2012)003

(Before (Before date Speaker Name BC BC a the large brackets),

samples samples from the Iceman above above

. Note Note that

. AD AD ) translates into a age calibrated range to to 3100 BC

9 , 95.4 % probability

years BP by adding 1950 years adding by BP years shaded shaded areas

ts were performed at the AMS laboratories of the ETH Zürich (black time time of range from 3350 . However, due to the wiggles in the calibration curve this translates into e Iceman into the end of the Neolithic period making him the oldest, well C C measuremen 14 man body from ancienttimes. from body man total total calibrated a

]. The 19 years BP can be converted to calibrated calibrated to converted can be

e possible time regions and the University of Oxford, resulting and ofin resulting the University Oxford, a rather value precise mean for age of the radiocarbon 4550 ± thre covering Christ) Fig. 5 Calibration of radiocarbon measurements in bone and tissue Ötzi [56 of to5300 years is5050 This BP. though Even theby curve. of thecaused calibration “wiggles” the absolute age cannot be determined with high precision, the result is highly relevant because it clearly puts th hu preserved Short title (4550 ± 19) years BP (BP = before present, i.e. 1950 PoS(Bormio2012)003

of of ars ars

The The s ye

dating dating Similar Similar age C C AMS

C . 14 14 Speaker Name in in time degradation degradation of the diocarbon ed with some hundred some

ecent ecent calibration with moved moved in the sample

in situ is is in centimeters. The

s years years further back . Human . Human remains from this are period cale (Czech Republic) (Czech Republic)

are likely due to

eported eported for early presence of humans in a . to 5000

000 ago ago [57, 58]

e result from Table 1 reveals ra hypothesis, anatomically modern hypothesis, anatomically humans into moved vision vision on the s

Th . In this case Bayesian analysis (see below) could be . were were recently r

– [59] Africa’

- of - (~26 (~26 kyr and ~27 kyr)

summarized in Table 1 in summarized absolute absolute age by 4

features. features. The di too much material. An example ofmaterial. too An much example isthis skull female a beautiful (Fig

are are

of anatomically modern humans in Europe humans modern anatomically of

. er been dated by radiocarbon before the advent of AMS, because the beta the beta because of AMS, advent the before radiocarbon by dated er been in Table 1

, shifts the Due Due to the ‘out BP. BP. Note that these are uncalibrated radiocarbon years. A r ages

appearance C , respectively 14 and residual contamination which could not be completely re 09 [52]

, Recently, we Recently, were allowed to teethextract small samples from and bone material which

but but about 1000 years older from these objects objects these from

– kshelter kshelter of southwestern France [60] 2.2. Early 2.2. Early 31,000 31,000 years human human features and some ‘archaic’ features. In (b) a female cranium, Mladec 1, is exhibiting displayed, modern human results Fig. 6. Human fossil specimens from measurements the at VERA [59]. In Mladec (a) an upper jaw cave, fragment, Mladec 8, which is displayed, exhibiting were dat preparation INTCAL ages roc employed to reduce the calibrated uncertainty and to narrow down the occupation range. two lower collagen 6), which had found in thebeen Mladec in cave Moravia state. original its in Vienna in History of Natural Museum the at preserved and had been ago, were radiocarbon dated at VERA ~ Central Europe some 30 to 40 thousand years had nev andrare, some required method counting Short title 4. PoS(Bormio2012)003

the the )

Cases Cases ______

; (ii) ; (ii)

. In the from from an posterior 35,000

± 410 ±

– Speaker Name rtainty. age tained tained

- . C ations ations in the late (years BP) (years 170 ± 26,330 400 ± 31,320 380 ± 30,680 31,500 230 ± 27,370 31,190 ± 400 ± 31,190 be be combined with 14

36,500 36,500

(

defined defined mathematical 09 [52] - then then

reasonable reasonable assumption about

INTCAL

______This well

. After After identifying 72 tree rings in the

phases phases and/or layers can be identified . 63] -

(every year a new ring is formed) ring a new year (every information information can

buccal root

s - which which allow , coulored collagen) coulored

- coloured collagen) coloured prior -

distal half of the crown crown of the half distal 11

r the synchronization of civiliz

mesial distal half of crown of half distal

, with a considerably reduced unce s

dering dering of events (e.g. sequence of pharaos) M2 called

determined for human remains from the Mladeč site in in site Mladeč the from remains human for determined the eruption [65] he most precise radiocarbon date was ob

Tree ring sequence ring Tree in recent years [61 ertainty ertainty in the calibration process, the method of Bayesian and used in the calibration process. The result is a

historical historical or e a sequence of separate half Lingual canine, maxillary Right (white root of the half Lingual canine, maxillary Right (brown root of the M2 molar Right M3 Left molar Left molar So far, t

Sample material Sample Ulna a

dates dates tephra from

(uncalibrated) (uncalibrated)

; (iii) for for a sequence of samples 2

onological onological order. This so 9a Mladeč 9a Mladeč Name 25c Mladeč 1 Mladeč Mladeč 8 Mladeč Sample

C C is an important time marker fo

[59]

Radiocarbon ages ages Radiocarbon

e branch buried by In In order to reduce the unc

3076B 3074 3075 3076A 2736 3073 ------Dating the Minoan eruption of Santorini of eruption the Minoan Dating

The cataclysmic eruption of the Aegean Island of Santorini in the middle of the second

relative relative chr .

.1 . Bayesian sequencing . Bayesian ir Resulting age range (95.4 % probability) after calibration with calibration after % probability) (95.4 range age Resulting rchaeological rchaeological excavation, wher

olive olive tre millennium B Bronze Age in the East Numerous efforts Mediterranean. have been undertaken to pin down exact age of this eruption [64] a (deeper layers are older) cases. three these for examples give will we following, 4.3 procedure procedure is applicable the the uncalibrated radiocarbon probability distribution of the calibrated age are: (i) exist conditions where such 4.3 sequencing has been developed VERA ______a VERA VERA VERA VERA VERA Moravia ______Lab Number ______Short title 1. Table PoS(Bormio2012)003

. , This rsist and their Currently, Currently, . Speaker Name for for the eruption nt is reached with The The result of this of kings

. C C dates (gray shaded vel) vel) 14 ned for the outermost tree

modeled modeled - d be determi ll tools of Bayesian sequencing [62, 63] chronological order istorical istorical chronology

the the 12 The fu

. .

from from

s he beginning ofhe beginning the [67, New Kingdom 68]

with with dates from other islands surrounding Santorini, the the Egyptian h a a large set of radiocarbon dates from the layer destruction of solved. condition as the one described in the previous section seem to pe 4 consecutive groups of tree rings, a calibrated date range of re

1659 1659 to 1612 BC (95.4 % confidence le ’ lived lived material directly linked to Kings from the Old, Middle and - tion tion [66], was was combined a priori matching - has not been been not has

00 years later, i.e. after t igation is displayed in Figure 7 in Figure is displayed igation date date range of ef. [69] shows a comparison of the Bayesian wiggle ‘

1600 years BC (95.4 % confidence level) coul Result of the Oxford project to radiocarbon date the dynastic periods in Egypt [69]. [69]. in Egypt periods the date dynastic to radiocarbon of project Result the Oxford Radiocarbon dating of the Dynastic Period in Egypt Period Dynastic the of dating Radiocarbon

– Kingdom Kingdom in Egypt were performed [69]

Since discrepancies such In In another investiga disagreement re re from R .

Fig. 7. Fig. figu areas) with various historical chronologies for the accession dates of specific kings in the Old Kingdom (A), Middle Kingdom (B), and New Kingdom (C). Good agreeme bars). (red of [70] Shaw chronology the consensus extensive invest extensive radiocarbon radiocarbon dating of short New were employed with respective reign periods based on with the Egyptian historical chronology, who claim 1 approximately that the eruption must have happened this 4.3.2. 1627 ring the volcanic eruption resulting in a However, these two dates are disputed by some Egyptologists linking archaeological evidence Short title branch and PoS(Bormio2012)003

th ed ed was was , for , for

could could . This

it was

precision precision ents, DNA ents, DNA one to two dating The The level of assumptions assumptions

Speaker Name , the so call high high C C content d by the almost d theby almost 14 in the extraction les les of radiocarbon . Since the natural ] a priori [71 s that DNA from 10 cell from s that DNA

radiocarbon

content is also reflected in The The basic assumption was

. ount of carbon available for

show C the the fact that the 14 C C levels in genomic DNA le with each other. However le with each other. by by the Department of Cell and an an uncertainty of only 14 neuronal cells with with the biosphere and the ocean. the the atmospheric

2 due due to

). C C is asnegligible indicate rted rted after the Second World War this this excess after the limited Nuclear Test C

14 In In 1963 C bomb peak bomb C

ng ng project 14 e so in the Old Kingdom. Overall e so in the Old Kingdom. 13

C C reaction (see Fig. 1), neutrons from nuclear y be achieved by including the by including be achieved y variations variations during the past 4000 years, and in Figure 14 atmosphere atmosphere was increasing nteresti

neurons neurons from non Such a task can be achieved with modern methods of

C of the troposphere during the second half of the 20 14

uneasiness uneasiness remains 2

shows shows the best agreement with C atom. In order to make meaningful measurem meaningful order to make In atom. C

N(n,p) : n 14 the 14

quite low (<100 µg (<100 low quite (USA (USA and USSR) decided to stop the atmospheric nuclear

. The rapid decrease of is due to the exchange of CO rolinska rolinska Institute in Stockholm [74]

shows

the composition of human DNA, which which DNA, human of composition the a C C content in the 8 Assuming Assuming that the varying atmospheric

14 of human cells with cells the of human measured measured in CO in in 1963 is sometimes is sometimes C C through the same reaction.

ion ion triggered a very i , distinguishing also 14

are are displayed

. Figure ] summarizes summarizes

, 73 the birth the C C values . Depending on the subjects to be studied, the total am 14

[72 , when the superpowers

NA, NA, which is not exchanged after a cell has gone through its last division. C C integrated into genomic DNA should thus reflect the level in the atmosphere at any

reaty reaty (NTBT) be used to retrospectively establish the birth date of cells in the human body.” human the in of cells date birth the establish retrospectively to be used Table 2 “Most “Most molecules in a cell are in constant flux, D with the unique exception of genomic 14 given point, and we hypothesized that determination of When atmospheric nuclear weapons testing sta critics of radiocarbon dating a The The radiocarbon results are compared with different historical chronologies. While the ating iations in the Middle Kingdom, and even and even mor Kingdom, theiations Middle in

molecular molecular biology procedure measurements AMS nuclei must be collected to obtain 1 obtain to be collected nuclei must from millions of cells must be extracted. formulated in the following way [74] way following the in formulated For this period short of time of the radioactive decay horizontal decay curve. biological material, it can be used to date such material with years. This condit Molecular Biology of the Ka explosions explosions added doubled weapons testing 8b the Δ century Ban T 5. D soon noticed that the production happens through the some some onl could dates radiocarbon of the calibrated above. mentioned latter latter agree within each other and with the radiocarbon results for the New Kingdom, there are dev consensus chronology of Shaw [70] result is considered a milestone in the debate whether the absolute time sca of are Ancient compatib Egypt and dating chronology historical Short title PoS(Bormio2012)003

f the f during during

2 Speaker Name fossil fuel fuel fossil a detailed display o display a detailed The tree ring ring tree The

]. , 73 at stations in the northern northern in the stations at

2 C depletion due to the the to due depletion C C content in tropospheric CO in tropospheric content C 14 14

in tropospheric CO tropospheric in C bomb peak are shown [74]. In (b) In [74]. are shown peak bomb C 14 for the last 50 years years last 50 the for including the including

C bomb peak. In (a) the variation of the of the (a) variation peak. In bomb C

years years

The The

C values measured measured values C 14

the last 4000 the Δ shown [72 is (SH) hemisphere southern the and (NH) hemisphere a show AD 1950 around symbols) (filled measurements [46]. effect 8. Fig. Short title PoS(Bormio2012)003

______12 Speaker Name average average birth

P 13 C atoms C se pairs (bp) se pairs

O 8 11 ba

9 N 22 H

19 when the respective organ forms forms organ respective the when

C atoms detected atoms C 14 and C

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tool to help solving problems in many [79

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ties ties in a sample material can be traced with the required sensitivity. Nevertheless,

In In prin In In t onclusion measured [6] [7] [8] [3] [4] [5] [1] [2] oms (< 7eV) after the beta decay of

References it is still an open proper question whether the ensuing minute changes it poses of a the challenging problem molecular interesting radioisotopes such as possible are are the possibility where was that discussed the low of energy the recoiling at probability when it beyond is not pushed when the to use the ‘wiggly’ limitation, method versatile As such it has fulfilled the promise which was expressed in 1960 the quotation Nobel of Prize Libby’s in Chemistry (see above). Short title 6. C PoS(Bormio2012)003

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