Medicinal Uses and Natural Availability of Three Plant Species in Selected Ecosystems in Cameroon

Journal of Analytical & Pharmaceutical Research

Abstract Research Article

In many developing countries traditional medicine constitutes a major part of health Volume 4 Issue 4 - 2017 care because of its local availability and affordability compared to modern medicine.

medicinalHowever, littleplants is in known Cameroon, about and the to specific examine uses their and relative availability distribution of medicinal and abundance plants. In this research an exploratory study was conducted to determine the uses of three found that three species of medicinal plants including: Alstonia boonei, Picralima nitida andin specific Sarcocephalus habitats. latifolius From a that questionnaire are commonly administered used, either to singly traditional or in healers,mixtures we to treat human diseases such as muscle and joints pains, hyperthermia, hypertension, 1Institute of Medical Research and Studies of Medicinal Plants, Cameroon 2 fruits of Picralima nitida, University of Yaounde, Department of Animal Biology, hepatitis, jaundice and rheumatism. Fresh or dry barks of the tree plants and fresh Cameroon 3 as well as various ethnopharmacological preparations High Institution of Environmental Science, Cameroon from our ecological study revealed that Alstonia boonei 4 (decoctions, maceration, infusion and powder) are widely commercialized. Findings Cellomics and Toxicogenomics Research Laboratory, Jackson of total individuals recorded in 0.5 ha, implying 3 individuals and 6 trees/ha. This tree State University, USA was represented by 2, or 1 % 5Jackson State University, USA Picralima nitida was well represented and was sometime among the dominant species in the forests. *Corresponding author: Tsabang Nolé, Center for Research species in its habitats. was represented Sarcocephalus by 0.6 latifolius % of total trees recorded in 0.5 ha, implying 0.70 tree and 1 tree/ha. This tree was poorly represented and was not a dominant on Medicinal Plants and Traditional Medicine, Institute of Medical Research and Studies of Medicinal plants, Ministry densely represented in the Sudano-Guinean andbelonged Sahelian to asavannahs. group of 72It isplants the mostwith harvesteda recovery species< 5% corresponding of the three speciesto Braun- that Blanquet has undergone scale 1. Hence, a strong this anthropogenic plant was not Environmental Science, Cameroon, destruction. Therefore these three plants, and especially Sarcocephalus latifolius, need Email:of Scientific Research and Innovation, High Institution of to be protected through a sustainable management of their habitats in Cameroon. Received: March 10, 2017 | Published: April 13, 2017 Keywords: Natural availability; Alstonia boonei; Picralima nitida; Sarcocephalus latifolius exploitation; Conservation strategies ; Monospecific and polyspecific recipes; Disease control; Irrational

Introduction and related plants, for medicinal purposes. The main diseases treated by these three species of plant are: muscle and joints pains, hyperthermia, hypertension, hepatitis, jaundice and rheumatism. and 2015 has permitted to identify three medicinal plants The more rich in documented information of the three species are An ethnobotanical survey, realized in Cameroon from 2003 Alstonia boonei and Sarcocephalius latifolius [1,2]. Crude extracts Alstonia boonei and Picralimawith traditional nitida and monospecific one Rubiaceae and Sarcocephalus multispecific latifolius uses. These Syn. Naucleaplants are latifolia constituted of two Apocynaceae of these plants, either alone or in combination of two or three Sarcocephalus latifolius mixtures, are sold by travelling healers or hawkers in Cameroon’s . The two Apocynaceae are forests species while savannahs. The increasing harvest of these plants for their tomarkets. evaluate In thetheir present relative study dominance our first objectiveand abundance was to document in order grows in Guinean, Sudanian and Sahalian medicinal uses has reduced their population densities in their- tothe establish medicinal their uses availability of these natural and population plants and densities the second in their was natural habitats. near strong agglomerations especially in the Northern regions of natural ecosystems. This situation is moreSarcocephalus frequently observedlatifolius Materials and methods are currently used to treat diverse human diseases. Climate change isCameroon, another importantwhere various factor formulations that can affect of their perennity. The discovery in natural state of the synthetic Tramadol, a sedative A survey questionnaire was designed, validated and molecule from this African plant has increased its medicinal uses theadministered respondents to residentsincluded 70of the traditional study areas. healers Data and were 1,061 collected other from 1131 respondents drawn from 58 tribes. The distribution of Picralima nitida and of Alstonia boonei by traditional healers has resource persons [5]. The process used to collect information contributedby local people to an[2-4]. increasing The combination in the exploitation of its barks of thesewith those natural of details began by a fieldwork focusing on harvest and identification of Sarcocephalus latifolius resources. Therefore the present scientific research has provided the three plants. During this step ethno pharmacological new insights on the overexploitation of on the preparation of recipes were described with the help of

Submit Manuscript | http://medcraveonline.com J Anal Pharm Res 2017, 4(4): 00109 Medicinal Uses and Natural Availability of Three Plant Species in Selected Ecosystems Copyright: 2/9 in Cameroon ©2017 Nolé et al.

informants. This description focused on the mode and the time of preparation, the mode of administration, the posology, the duration of treatment, the undesirable or secondary/toxic effects, expressionparcels. The of list the of relative all the spacespecies occupied encountered by the inset the of individuals5 quadrats was established with their abundance-dominance that is an pharmacological approach based on investigation of previous and by their dimension. The usual scale for the evaluation is that searches.and the diseases ence chemistry treated. Itand was pharmacology followed by have the chemicalalso played and a of each species space which is at once determined by their number

H Tableof Braun-Blanquet 1: [9] described in Table 1 below. Cameroongreat role inand the voucher evaluation specimens of natural are products deposited [6]. in Confirmation the Institute Scale of species recovery of Braun-Blanquet. of Medical botanical Researches identification and Medicinal was done Plants in National Studies. Herbarium of Percentage of Recovery Attributed Index

Alstonia boonei and Picralima nitida Species just present +

For which are forest 1 species their abundance and their dominance were assessed Recovery< 5% 2 in their habitats by a sampling method that was based on the establishment of quadrats or parcels of 0.1 ha (100m x 10m) each. Recovery comprised between 5 – 25% 3 The device in Figure 1 was used for this inventory. Recovery comprised between 25 – 50% 4

Recovery comprised between 50 – 75% 5

Recovery > 75% FSi = CSi n ∑ FSn i=1

derived from these data have permitted to obtain an expression Specific frequencies SiF, and centesimal frequencies (CF) Figure 1: Improved methods for trees assessing and monitoring. of recovery for each species at level of soil [11,12]. It is equal to proportion (expressed in %) of number of repetitions of the Alstonia boonei in the Littoral and continental humid rain forests given species divided by a total number of quadrats sampled. The A total of 15 quad rats were established in three habitats: 5 for « specific contribution» SiC, which is defined as the rate of the plantations in Littoral humid rain forests and 5 for Picralima formula:specific frequency SiF and the sum of the specific frequencies of nitidazone of transition, 5 also for Alstonia boonei in the Banana’s all the species recorded, was calculated according to the following

in the Littoral and continental humid rain forests zone of Where SiC and SiF are the contribution and the specific transition. In these specific habitats each plant is highly harvested frequency of the species i and n the total number of species. for supplying towns’ markets with medicinal products. A total Ecological statistical analysis surface of 1ha was covered. The following formulas were used to calculate abundance and dominance of these two recorded trees H= −∑ piIn pi measures species with circumference at the breast high (CDH) ˃ 32 cm in Diversity assessment was done using Shannon-Weiner and eachBasal habitat surface [7,8]. Evenness. Shannon index (H) with 2 Sb= π X ( D / 2) the incertitude link to the appearance of an individual of a given Where pi is the proportion of individuals of a species i (Relative a given family or species it corresponds to the sum of basal surface species taken at random in the sample. density of species), and In is the natural logarithm. The maximum of different individuals, with of Sb this = surface family basal or species. and D =Abundance diameter. For of

value of H’ is the natural logarithmE= H/ InS of thedescribes number theof species distribution (In S). taxa: AT = (number of individuals of a species or of a family) x of100/total all recorded number individuals. of recorded individuals. Dominance of taxa: DT numbersEvenness of individuals. (E) with = (basal surface of a species or a family) x 100/total basal surface among species, reaching a value of 1 when all species have equal Sarcocephalus latifolius Results For , shrub of savannahs, the floristic Different uses of the three species diversity was evaluated following a sampling based on the establishment of quadrats of 1 ha (100m x 100m). A total of 5 The combined and single medicinal and non-medical uses of quadrats were sampled. A total surface of 5 ha was recovered. The the three plants by local people are presented in Table 2. method founded on the notion of the characteristic species [9] was used to study the vegetal community living in the quadrats or the

Citation: 10.15406/japlr.2017.04.00110 Nolé T, Albert A, Tsafack TJE, Donfagsiteli N, Clement GY, et al. (2017) Medicinal Uses and Natural Availability of Three Plant Species in Selected Ecosystems in Cameroon. J Anal Pharm Res 4(4): 00110. DOI: Medicinal Uses and Natural Availability of Three Plant Species in Selected Ecosystems Copyright: 3/9 in Cameroon ©2017 Nolé et al.

Presentation of ecological study of the three plant species belong to 24 families, 51 genera and 66 species. Alstonia boonei feature of vegetation, 125 individual trees were recorded. They Dominance and abundance was represented by 2.1% of total individuals recorded in 0.5 ha, Alstonia boonei implying 2.625 individuals and 6 trees/ha (Figure 2). This species Specific composition of the five quadrats located in Littoral was least abundant and dominant. The timbers’ exploitation and continental humid rain forests zone of transition: In this conservation.repulses this tree towards the versants of mountains difficult to reach. So like others species, the enclosure is favorable for it Table 2: Combined and single uses of the three plants in Cameroon.

Species Vernacular Names Uses Detailed Description of Recipes

Medical Uses

Alstonia boonei and Muscle pains, Picralima nitida hypertension hypertensionBoil 1 kg of bark and of use each 5 liters plant in in vapor 7 liters bath of water.and in Ewondo, Boulou, Fang: Ekuk Drink 250 mlbath of todecoction, treat rheumatism. 2 times daily to treat Ewondo: Abam Alstonia boonei and Muscle and joints pains, Sarcocephalus latifolius rheumatism. The decoctionand in ofbath 1 kg to of treat bark rheumatism. of each plant or the Kaka: Lombo macerate in 5 liters of water is used in vapor bath Alstonia boonies, Muscle and joints pains, Picralima nitida and hypertension, jaundice, Boil 1 kg of bark of each plant in 10 liters of water. Drink 250 ml 2 times daily to treat hypertension; 250 Sarcocephalus latifolius Bakouedje: Fufuldé, hepatitis. 5 liters in vapor bath and in bath to treat muscle and ml 3 times daily to treat jaundice and hepatitis. Use bokoriyi, Gamoyi, Zadeyi join pains. Intestinal helmintiasis half glass thrice a day. 1-Decoction of 250 g of stem bark in 2 liters. Drink a Akwaya: Ekuk Malaria and repeated convulsions 2- Soak 1 kg of stem bark in 3 liters of water. Stir Baya: Gouga Strangulated hernia underit from an time Alstonia to time boonei until it is hot. Drink 250 ml of Expulsion of placenta extract. In cases of strong crisis the patient is taking Bassa: Kotmot latex. tree and let him take some The decoction or the macerate is used in vapor bath Bulu, Ewondo, Fang: Ekuk Rheumatism and in bath to treat rheumatism

Malaria Macerate 200 g of the inner back in 1liter of water for Asthenia about 2 hours. Drink 250 ml daily for a week. Cleaning of pus in Mix 10 g of a powdered back in 20 ml of hot water. Kaka: Lombo Drink the macerate, 2 times daily for a week. fracture Soak 1 kg of stem bark in 3 liters of water. Stir it from woundAntipyretic and opened time to time until it is hot. Use the extract to clean pus in wound and opened fracture. Alstonia boonei Gonorrhea (Apocynaceae) Agalactocia Infusion of 300 g of stem bark in 2 liters of water. Eton : Akuk Wound the stemDrink and 250 apply ml 3 thetimes latex daily. on and around Abscess the site of the bite or infection, three times Snakebite Children dermatitis

Genital and urinary Stroking or touching on inflamed or eruptive parts. system affections Bamileke: Ndo Mabeumo 1- 2-Mix To the complete latex with the sugartreatment, cane orpurge pineapple the patients juice or Gastro-intestinal palm oil. Give to drink the mixture to patients. affections vaginal injection or seat bath. with 125 ml of mixture or give to them a urethral or a Edema Apply the pounded leaves in affected parts.

Antidote

Rheumatism Drink the latex. affected parts. Apply the pounded leaves, stem or root barks in Asltonia boonei and Active purgative Antostemon aubryanum latex one time Take 10 to 30 ml a mixture of

Decoction of 250g of stem bark in 2 liters. Drink a Maka: Bamborutuk Malaria half glass thrice a day for a week. glass thrice a day. Decoction of 250g of seeds in 2 liters. Drink a half Picralima nitida (Apocynaceae) Beti: Abam glass thrice a day. Decoction of 500g of fruit in 2 liters. Drink a half Male sexual impotence Maceration of 300g of bark in 2 liters. Drink 250ml 3 times daily for a week Baka Pygmies: Mototoko Crush and boil 300g of fruit. Drink half a glass thrice Dysmenorrhea Jaundice, a day for three days to a week Bafia: Keledeng Fufulde: Bakouedje, Yellow Fever Sanaga:Bokoriyi, Edindingue Gamoyi Rheumatism Pound 100 g of roottimes bark daily.and boil with a half-liter of water. Leave to cool before drinking 250 ml two Sarcocephalus latifolius Abdominal pain Syn. Nauclea latifolia Fever or antipyretic (Rubiaceae)

HepatitisJaundice

Pound 100g of stemextract bark 2 timesand macerate daily. in a half-liter Weakness of water. Leave to cool before drinking 250ml of

Oku : Shi Nkan She Non-MedicalHepatitis Uses

Edible or eatable Sarcocephalus latifolius Syn. Nauclea latifolia Sweet fruits edible by men and wild animals (Rubiaceae) Colorings including buffalo, monkeys and antelopes. Yellow extract of roots is used to color animals’ skin and fibers.

Gouga: Baka Pygmes Arrow-poison AlstoniaThe boonei latex is is used a useful to prepare shade treearrow for poison coffee, tea, cocoa and banana farms. Alstonia boonies Cash crops’ protection Alstonia boonei Emien, ekouk : Forestry. name Alstonia,English name.cheesewood, Socio-economic value ’s bark is commonly sold on local stool wood, pattern wood: markets in Yaounde, Douala, Limbe, Kumba, for medicinal uses. Inharvesting Yaounde, locality.the price of bark ranges from 500-2000 FCFA per kilogram depending of the Specific composition of the five quadrats located in the banana’s plantations: This feature of vegetation had 109 recorded trees. These trees belonged to 21 families, 31 genera and 35 species. Alstonia boonei individuals recorded in 0.5 ha, implying 2.5 individuals and was represented by 2% of total

conservation.5 trees/ha (Figure 3). This feature is nearly the same in the forest. Banana’s farming is a moderate means of useful trees Picralima nitida Specific composition of the five quadrats in continental humid dense old secondary forests:

belonged to 23 families, 42 genera andA total 47 species.of 164 trees Picralima were Figure 2: Abundance and dominance of species in Alstonia boonei nitidarecorded in five quadrats of 0,1 ha, implying 328 trees/ha. They forest habitats. 0.5 ha, implying 0.70 individual and 1 tree/ha. This species is the was represented by 0.6 % of total individualsPicralima recorded nitida in

RD: relative density; RA: relative abundance. least abundant and least dominant (Figure 4).

Cameroon.is an understory tree of rainforests, which is also found in semi- deciduous forests on the banks of rivers, up to 900 m altitude in

Figure 5: Sarcocephalus latifolius savannahs habitats. Abundance-dominance coefficient of species in Figure 3: Abundance and dominance of species in Alstonia boonei

RD: relative density; RA: relative abundance. banana’s plantations habitats. Banana’s Farms in littoral humid rain forests RD: relative density; RA: relative abundance.

of species. The common characteristic of these habitats is the presenceThe numbers of young in pioneer brackets species correspond that toinclude Shannon’s Macaranga index hurifolia (0,25), Macaranga spinosa (0,25), Macaranga paxii (0,16), Albizia adanthifolia (0,23), Albizia ferruginea (0,20), Albizia glaberrima (0,20) and Trema orientalis (0,20). Cultivated species Persea americana

Musangawas represented cecropioides by (0,20), Petersianthus the moremacrocarpus frequent (0,20), plant Alstonia(0,27). Among boonei the (0,13) plants one conserved of the main for useful their medicalplant of usesthis studywere and Strombosiopsis tetrandra (0,13) are found in third position, Piptadeniastrum africanum (0,07) and Spathodea campanulata following Beilschmiedia by obscura (0,07). Some plants were conserved for their other uses like (0,13)Strombosa which seed pustulosa are spice. (0,20), The Klainedoxamost important gabonensis plants kept(0,20), for Distemonanthus protecting banana benthamianus and cacao are plants for shadow that include Figure 4: Abundance and dominance of Picralima nitida species in (0,07) and Dialium welwitschii (0,07). This last category of plants continental forests habitats. is timber for local people. Littoral and continental humid rain forests zone of RD: relative density; RA: relative abundance. transition Sarcocephalus latifolius The most abundant tree of this site is Staudtia kamerunensis Sarcocephalus latifolius (0,23) and Terminalia superba (0,23). The family of CeasalpIniaceae represented by Afzelia bipindensis (0,13), Afzelia pachyloba (0,13), The Figure 4 shows that which belonged Berlinia bracteosa (0,13), Erythrophleum suaveolens (0,13) and to a group of 57 plants with a recovery < 5% corresponding to Guibourtia tessmannii Braun- Blanquet scale 1 (Figure 5) was weakly represented in its Pterocarpus soyauxii (0,20), Pterocarpus pterocarpoides (0,07) is AdamawaStatistical region’s analysis savannahs. of results (0,13)Mimosaceae is dominant. as Pentaclethra The Fabaceae macrophylla with The different indices of biodiversity are presented in Table 2. (0,16), Piptadenistrum africanum (0,13), Tetrapleura tetraptera (0,13)very representative and Cylicodiscus like gabunense include Pycnanthnus angolensis (0,20), Petersianthus macrocarpus (0,20), (0,16), (0,12). Other (0,16), large canopy trees vegetationDifferent (Table levels 2). of disturbance have effects on plant diversity Alstonia boonei Ceiba pentandra Cleistopholis mostly. Parcels were located in four main characteristic types of

patens (0,16), Sterculia tragacantha (0,16), Maranthes glabra Santiria trimera (0,07), Spondianthus preussii (0,07), Staudtia (0,13), Margaritaria discoidea (0,13), Ricinodendron heudelotii kamerunensis (0,07), Strombosia grandifolia (0,07), Terminalia (0,13), Santiria trimera (0,13), Strombosia grandifolia (0,13), superba (0,07), Treculia africana (0,07), Uapaca guineensis (0,07), Tridesmostemon omphalocarpoides (0,07), Sacoglottis gabonensis (0,07), Xylopia hypolampra (0,07) and Zanthoxylum heitzii (0,07). (0,13) and Uapaca guineensis (0,13). To the lesser extent, other trees as Cola verticillata (0,07), Coula edulis (0,07), Lophia alata numerous species of this site are Terminalia laxiflora (0,12), (0,07), Dacryodes macrophylla (0,07), Ficus mucoso (0,07), Sudano-Zambesian SavannahsCapparis of corymbosa Adamawa. (0,12), The Conyza most Garcinia mannii (0,07), Guarea thompsonii (0,07), Macaranga aegyptica (0,12), Diodia scandens (0,12) and Eclipta prostrate hurifolia (0,07), Maesopsis eminii (0,07) and Polyalthia suaveolens (0,12).Asparagus All otherwarneckei species (0,12), that include (0,07) are also represented. Sarcocephalus latifolius Continental humid rain forests with 0,07Interpretations as Shannon’s index, are less representative. Vitex cienkowskii Table 3 revealed that in the less disturbed littoral rain forests (0,12), Tabernaemontana crassa (0,12), Lovoa trichyloides (0,12),Large Irvingia trees which gabonensis dominated (0,12), the canopy Hylodendron are gabunense (0,12 (0,12) and ), Funtumia elastica Amphimas pterocarpoides zone of transition the diversity (5,51) and evenness (0,96) were

Afzelia high than in the disturbed Banana’s plantations in littoral humid (0,07), (0,07), pachyloba Alstonia boonei Amphimax ferrugineus rain forests (5,15) and (0,99). It was more less high in disturbed (0,07),(0,12). Annickia Other trees chlorantha of canopy (0,07), less Antiaris representative welwitschii are: (0,07), respectfullycontinental humid5,06 and rain 0,99. forests The (4,11)).individuals In the in Sudano-Zambesianthese communities (0,07), (0,07), Beilschmiedia letouzeyi Cleistopholus patens Savannahs of Adamawa the diversity and the evenness are Coelocaryon preussii (0,07), Cola semi-carpophylla (0,07), (0,07), (0,07), Dacryodes macrophylla Desbordesia glaucescens are distributed more equitably among these species. The specific (0,07), Diospyros bipindensis Distemonanthus benthamianus density is high in the forest of transition zone (66), following (0,07), (0,07), Musanga Maranthes gabunensis cecropioides by 48 in the Continental humid rain forests and 35 in banana’s (0,07), (0,07), Picralima nitida Piptadeniastrum africanum plantations of littoral humid rain forests. La density specific is 57 (0,07), Pterygota bequaertii (0,07), Pycnanthus angolensis (0,07), thatspecies result in thefrom site the of selective Adamawa’s conservation. savannahs because herbs were took in account. In the banana’s plantations there are 35 species Table 3:

Summary of the floristic data for parcels in different areas of ecological study. Number of Pielou’s Mean Number of Number of Shannon's Total Basal Sites Trees or Herbs Evenness dbh Parcels Species Index (H) Area in cm2 Per ha (E) cm

5 92 35 5, 15 15,45 17239,09 Banana’s Farms in Littoral Humid Rain 0, 98 AlstoniaForests boonei 5 5 0,13 0,13 3,10 37,72

Littoral and continental humid 5 125 66 5,50 0,99 45,23 200739,50 transition rain forests zone of

Alstonia boonei 5 6 0,16 0,014 67,62 21536,31

Continental humid 5 112 4,11 161356,55

48 42,84 PicralimaRain Forests nitida 5 1 0,07 0,02 11,54 104,53

Savannahs 5 71 57 5,06 0,99 Sudano-Zambesian

Sarcocephalus(Adamawa) 5 4 0,12 0,02 latifolius

Discussion the main habitats of some commonly useful plants in traditional medicine in tropical Africa. The populations continue to exploit Alstonia boonei this environment. A preservation of the natural resources by the antimicrobial effects against bacterial including Bacillus subtilis. riparian populations seems necessary to promote sustainable bark extract showed promising results for Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Escherichia Picralima nitida coli Candida albicans. The minimum inhibitory concentrations essay is capable of verifying that management [18]. For , on top ofSarcocephalus bark, seeds , and pathgens funga like compounds possessed antibacterial activities. These compounds latifoliusand other parts for commercialization in Cameroon markets and medicinal uses are harvested from wild habitats. for the inhibition of microorganisms. A. boonei revealed the is widely distributed in tropical humid forests, in presencecan give reliable of important indication minerals of concentration that include calcium,of medicine phosphorus, required undergrowths of dry forests and savannas of occidental and central Africa. It can grow at an altitude of 0 to 200m. It is also conditionswidely distributed of this speciesin the African are a temperature forests and galleries,of 27 degrees especially and iron, sodium, potassium, and magnesium. Other compounds like A. annear average rivers rainfall and outskirts of 2700 ofm. theThis ponds. species The still optimal survive climaticat high booneialkaloids, tannins, saponins, flavonoids and cardiac glycosides, total phenol, important vitamin, ascorbic acid were also found. elements and vitamin C that may be the important elements in around 15 degrees. The root system of this plant is more developed the medicinal possesses activities phytochemicals of A. boonei other [13,14] than phenolics. Alston likeboonei mineral and temperatures around 35 degrees, but dies at low temperatures Picralima nitida are three types of stems: arborescent, creeping and acaulescent in shrubbery and in fallow land with a good permeability. There Sarcocephalus latifoliuswere identified (formerly as Naucleaantimalarial latifolia herbal) is medicine a small in Cameoun by the European Commission and FAO project [15]. [19].(without visible stem). The color of the roots varies from while throughout sub-Saharan Africa. In traditional medicine, especially to yellow clear depending on whether the soil is sandy or clayey inshrub Cameroon, (also known this asplant African is used fisherman) in the abundantly treatment distributedof various pathologies and symptoms, including epilepsy, malaria, fever and species because they contribute to the treatment of many pain [16]. communitiesThis study in confirms Africa through that it necessarythe action toof protecttravelling these healers tree Alstonia boonei and Picralima nitida Sarcocephalus latifolius in their respective purposesor hawkers of inconservation African’s markets. [19]. Their importance has also been The weak proportions of the subject of reflection on many works including thesis for the and the low recovery of Conservation strategies habitats,Species revealstatus that and plants other may ecological not always characteristics be naturally available.

Sarcocephalus didericii for S. latifolius in their habitats, the research of their conserving status in the red The first one is their substitution by an equivalent resource Despite the fact that the three plants are weakly represented like which is a forest tree withThe an secondimportant one vegetative is the cultivation morphology. of each one of these species. Cameroon.list of UICN Theirreveals long that term none exploitation of them is threatened can easily inlead the to world. their disappearance.But none of them Therefore is dominant some inconservation its present strategies studied habitat need to in contribute to environmental degradation. The third one is the use be implemented to overcome the challenge of overexploitation However, cultivation may destroy other useful plants and also need treatment [17]. The natural habitats degradation leads of plant biotechnology to produce callus plants that can synthesize todue rarity to the of increase plants. Thein populations 5 plots, established and number in theof patientsLittoral whorain the same chemical constituents like the natural plants. The plant forest and 5 others in the continental reveal that rain forest are biotechnology strategy is the most important way of perpetuating plants, since it does not create damages to the plants’ habitats (Supplementary Figures 1-8).

Supplementary Figure 1-3: Alstonia boonei, Picralima nitida and Sarcocephalus latifolius, Three lots of different herbal medicines from various mixtures of bark, fresh fruits or root preparations, of sold by three hawkers in Yaounde’s markets.

Supplementary Figure 4: Alstonia boonei tree. Supplementary Figure 5: No sustainable harvest of Alstonia boonei

barks.

Supplementary Figure 6: No sustainable harvest of Sarcocephalium Supplementary Figure 7: Picralima nitida. latifolius roots. Fruits of

Supplementary Figure 8: Measurement of Coelocarium preussii s circumference at the breast high.

(Myristicaceae)’

Conclusion 7. tropical forest areas, Methods for establishment and inventory for Dallmeier F (1992) Long-time monitoring of biology diversity in species Alstonia boonei, Picralima nitida and Sarcocephalus Findingsare good from sources this research of medications indicated and that are thecommonly three plantused permanent plots. MAB disgest, p.1-73. latifolius vegetation of faunal reserve and Ejagham forest reserve, Cameroon. 8. Sunderland TCH, Ros CI, Comiskey JA, Njiammshi A (1997) The of their heavy exploitation for medicinal purposes, they are not commonlyby the local available people toin treattheir variousnatural habitats. diseases. Therefore However, thebecause long 9. International Cooperative Biodiversity Group (ICBG), pp. 345. term exploitation causes a real threat to the survival of these plant Peet RK (1985) Plant community ecology: paper in honor of Robert H. 10. Whittaker. Advances in Vegetation Science, pp. 185.

rd species. Hence, care must be taken to implement conservation 11. Braun BJ (1964) Pflanzensoziologie, Springer, New York, USA, pp. 845. strategies toward a good sustainable management of these natural Greig Smith P (1983). Quantitative plant ecology. (3 edn), Butter- resources. Further research on the isolation, identification, and 12. worths, Study in Ecology, London, USA, 9: 359. ée ecologicalcommercialization impact. of active ingredients from the crude extracts of dans la savane à palmier de Lamto (Cô these three plants will help reduce the demand and alleviate the AbidjanPoissonnet 1 : 577-601.J, Cesar J (1972) Structure specific de la strate herbac te-d’Ivoire) Annis. Université References 13. 1. al. (2007) Chemical constituents and antioxidant activity of Alstonia Afolabi CA, Ibukun EO, Emmanuel Afor, Akinrinlola BL, Onibon TR, et of Alstonia boonei boonei Opoku F, Akoto O (2015) Antimicrobial and Phytochemical Properties 14. 2. Extracts. Organic Chem Curr Res 4:1. ; African Journal of Biotechnology 6(10): 1197-1201. Alstonia boonei Salome A, Chime EC, Ugwuoke V, Onyishi SA, Brown, et al. (2013) 53(45):Kusari S, 12073-12076. Tatsimo SJN, Zühlke S, Talontsi FM, Kouam SF, et al. (2014) Tablets. Indian J Pharm Sci 75(2): 226-230. Tramadol- A True Natural Product? Angewandte Chemie International Formulation and Evaluation of Stem BarkPowder 3. Randall I (2013) Synthetic drug found in nature. Royal Society of 15. Chemistry, p.19. (1999) European Commission Directorate-General VIII Development 4. ï 16. and FAO. FAO, p. 1-22. écule antidouleur retrouvée à haute dose dans une plante, p. 5. Boumendjel A, Sotoing Ta we G, Ngo Bum E, Chabrol T, Beney C, Entraide Fibromyalgie Ouest (2013) Une mol tramadol in an African medicinal plant. 52(45): 17. égories et critè Sinniger V, et al. (2013) Occurrence of the synthetic analgesic Commission de la sauvegarde des espè Angewandte Chemie UICN (2015) Cat res de l’UICN pour la liste rouge. 5. é 11780–11784. ces de l’UICN, Gland, Suisse et et/ou antihypertensive du Cameroun. Thè S, é Tsabang N (2008) Etude ethnobotanique des plants antidiab tiques Cambridge Royaume-Uni, USA, p. 32. é é I, Cameroon, pp. 319. la végétation ligneuses de la ré se de Doctoral/Ph.D. 18. Diatta CD, Gueye M, Koma Akpo LE (2009) Diversit de la flore et de 6. Sénégal. Journal des Sciences 9(3): 1-13. Universit de Yaoune serve de Ngazobil (Joal-Fadiouth) au 19. Plassart L (2015) Sarcocephalium latifolius é de Rouen plantsTsabang uses N, Lionel discovery TDW, andNouboudem environmental TA, Sonwa threatens D, Dongmo on recordedBA, et al. (2015) Ethnopharmacological surveys’ methodologies for medicinal (Sm.) Universit Medical Research 15(5). UFER de Medecine et de Pharmacie, Germany, pp. 142. plants from indigenous knowledge in Cameroon. Global Journal of