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International Journal of Transpersonal Studies

Volume 24 | Issue 1 Article 7

1-1-2005 The ourS ces of Higher States of Steve Taylor

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Recommended Citation Taylor, S. (2005). Taylor, S. (2005). The ours ces of higher states of consciousness. International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 24(1), 48–60.. International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 24 (1). http://dx.doi.org/10.24972/ijts.2005.24.1.48

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The Sources of Higher States of Consciousness

Steve Taylor

In this paper, it is argued that “higher states of consciousness”–or mystical –have two main sources: they can be caused by a disruption of the normal homeostasis of the organ- ism and also by an intensification of the “consciousness-” that constitutes our . (These are termed HD and ICE states). The author investigates examples of both types of expe- rience, and compares and contrasts them. It is concluded that the second type of is the only one which is truly positive and which can become a fully integrated and permanent higher of consciousness.

he question of why and how higher states of decreased activity in different parts of this soggy clump consciousness occur has never received a clear of matter might produce higher states of conscious- Tanswer. There are, of course, attempts to ness. explain mystical experiences in neurological (or neu- Alister Hardy’s research (1979) showed that, while ropsychological) terms. Persinger (1987) has linked they may sometimes seem purely to be a matter of mystical/religious experiences to stimulation of the chance–or “grace”–there are many potential triggers of temporal lobes, and even claimed to induce such expe- spiritual/mystical experiences. These include , riences with a “helmet” which produces weak complex music, despair or depression, music, , and quiet magnetic fields. D’Aquili and Newberg (2000) have reflection. Alexander’s extensive research (e.g., 1990) suggested that mystical experiences of “oneness” corre- has shown a clear link between the regular practice of late with decreased activity in the posterior superior transcendental and such experiences. This parietal lobe of the brain, which is responsible for our research establishes an important link, but does not of boundaries. They have also linked mysti- seek to explain the cause of the experiences. Tart’s “sys- cal experiences with the autonomic nervous system, tems model” of consciousness (1983) provides a use- claiming that meditative experiences of serenity may ful–if tentative–view of the problem. He suggested stem from a high level of activity in the parasympa- that states of consciousness are the result of the inter- thetic half of the autonomic nervous system, while action of a large number of neurological and psycho- ecstatic high-arousal states may be induced by logical processes–such as attention, , cogni- increased activity in the sympathetic half. But as tion, emotions–and that if any one process is altered Wilber (e.g., 1996) has pointed out, we can just as eas- sufficiently (e.g., if we concentrate our attention to an ily see these brain states as results of higher states of intense degree or if we experience intense emotion), an consciousness rather than causes of them. These overall consciousness shift may result. This view researchers may only be investigating the “footprints” applies to altered states of consciousness rather than to of mystical and spiritual experience, rather than the higher states in particular, but has some similarities experience itself. At the same time there is the difficul- with the explanation I am going to suggest. Ludwig’s ty of explaining subjective experience in purely objec- model (1966) is also helpful. He suggested that there tive terms. Physicalist theories of higher states of con- are five basic ways of producing alterations of con- sciousness are subject to the same “explanatory gap” as sciousness: (1) by reducing exteroceptive stimulation theories which suggest how the brain might produce and/or motor activity; (2) by increasing exteroceptive consciousness itself. The philosopher Colin McGinn stimulation and/or motor activity and/or emotion; (3) (1993) has written that “You might as well assert that by increasing alertness or mental involvement; (4) by numbers emerge from biscuits or from rhubarb” decreasing alertness or relaxing the critical faculties; as suggest that the “soggy clump of matter” which is and (5) by changes in the body or neuro- the brain produces consciousness (p. 160). And we can physiological functioning. This again applies to altered say the same for the suggestion that increased or states rather than solely to higher states, and also has

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similarities with my model. causing a lower level of blood glucose, higher levels of insulin and a lower body temperature–appears to make Disrupting the Equilibrium the hold which ordinary consciousness has over us Fischer (1971) made an important distinction much looser. The shamans of native cultures often use between “ergotropic” higher states of and sleep deprivation as preparation for consciousness–that is, “high arousal” active or ecstatic flights and quests, as also did the initiates of the states–and “trophotropic” higher states–that is, “low Roman and Greek mystery as a preparation for arousal” passive and serene experiences. High arousal (Krippner, 2000; Burkhert, 1987). Sleep depri- states are associated with triggers such as drugs, danc- vation can certainly cause altered states of conscious- ing, fasting and breath-control, whereas low arousal ness. In Oswald’s experiments (1970), for example, states are associated with triggers such as meditation participants who went without sleep for five days dis- and relaxation. This distinction is valid, I will suggest, played symptoms identical to schizophrenia, with since these two types of mystical experience follow visual hallucinations and acute paranoia. But higher from the two distinct sources I intend to identify. states of consciousness can result too, particularly a Scholars–and mystics and spiritual seekers them- more intense perception of , an awareness of –generally agree that there are certain fundamen- what Becker (1973) called the “raw experience” of the tal features of mystical/spiritual experience. These world. The following report was given me by a nurse include: an intensified perception of the phenomenal who had been working night shifts without sleeping world, a sense of and wholeness, a sense of properly during the day. On the last morning she was oneness with the manifest world (or a sense of tran- “so tired that I was absolutely loaded with energy” and scending boundaries), and a sense of becoming a deep- decided to walk home instead of getting the bus: er and truer (e.g., James, 1902/85; Underhill, I was walking down a lane which had fields on 1911/60; Wilber, 2000b). However, as we will see, not either side of it. I walked past a tree and each all of these features are common to both types of high- leaf seemed to be coming out at me. They were er states of consciousness from both sources. all vivid, glowing, shining, and I felt a feeling of Throughout history human have made a . Each leaf seemed to be pulsating and conscious effort to produce ergotropic high arousal growing. I’ve never seen anything as beautiful states. This is actually fairly easy to do, even though ever again. there is no certainty that they will occur. Our bodies continually strive to maintain a state of homeostasis, This connection between physical deprivation and the optimum condition of our biological functioning. higher states of consciousness may partly explain the This includes such factors as body temperature, blood tradition of , the conscious effort to mortify sugar, salt concentration, and so on, which must their physical desires made by many–particularly remain at–or quickly return to–an optimum level. Christian– and mystics. Asceticism is sometimes Maintaining homeostasis is both involuntary and vol- seen as a morbid and neurotic expression of the anti- untary. To a large extent our bodies maintain home- physical dualistic ideology of monotheistic ostasis automatically, by breathing, digesting food, such as , and this is certainly true to some sweating and shivering, for example. But we are also degree. But some ascetics were motivated by a desire to obliged to consciously aid the process by performing transcend ordinary consciousness and reach a higher physical functions like eating, drinking and sleeping. state in which they experienced the presence of When we do not manage to do this for some (or ) in the world and felt themselves one with and suffer an internal imbalance, we are liable to illness the radiance of his being. We will see later that asceti- and even death, especially if the imbalance continues cism achieves this partly through a long term process for a long period (Green, 1987). But there is also a of taming physical desires (thereby conserving “con- possibility that we will experience higher states of con- sciousness-energy”), but it is probable that ascetics also sciousness. used and discomfort in a more short term way, as Disrupting homeostasis can be used as what a means of inducing temporary higher states of con- Andresen and Forman (2000) refer to as a “technology sciousness. The 14th century German mystic, Henry of spiritual experience.” This may be, for example, the de Suso, spent years wearing a hair shirt and an iron basis of the longstanding connection between fasting chain, as well as a leather belt containing 150 inward- and both altered and higher states of consciousness. A facing sharp brass nails. He never had a bath in 25 prolonged lack of food–which disrupts homeostasis by years, never sheltered from the cold in the winter or

Higher States 49

touched or scratched any part of his body apart from unquestionably due to its power to stimulate the mys- his hands and feet (James, 1902/1985). The Sufi mys- tical faculties of human nature, usually crushed to tic, al-Shebli, took a bundle of sticks with him into his earth by the cold facts and dry criticisms of the sober cellar every day, with which he would beat himself hour” (1902/1985, p. 387). By far the most powerful whenever he found his attention wandering from con- in terms of their transcendental effects, however, are templation of . At the end of the day he would psychedelic drugs. One acquaintance who experiment- dash his hands and feet against the wall (Attar, 1990). ed with mushrooms gave me the following It is likely that part of the motivation for these report: appalling practices was a discovery that by contraven- Everything I looked at, trees and stones and ing their physical needs and thereby disrupting home- blades of grass, seemed to have a powerful ostasis, they were able to free themselves from ordinary presence, an identity and being. They consciousness. seemed to have personalities or . At the By far the most direct way of disrupting the equi- same time they were all interconnected. I librium, however, is by using drugs. As Huxley point- looked at a meadow which was full of wild ed out: plants and bushes and weeds and in some For an aspiring mystic to revert, in the pres- way–which I can’t really describe–everything ent state of knowledge, to prolonged fasting in it was one. They were all separate on one and violent self-flagellation would be as level but on another they were all just one senseless as it would be for an aspiring cook thing. I lay down on the grass and looked to behave like Charles Lamb’s Chinaman, around and when I sat up I felt like I was who burned down the house in order to one of the blades of grass. Not in an “Oh my roast a pig. Knowing as he does (or at least god, I’m a blade of grass!” kind of way, but can know, if he so desires) what are the because there wasn’t this distinction between chemical conditions of transcendental expe- “me” and “it.” rience, the aspiring mystic should turn for This experience features many of the characteris- technical help to the specialists–in pharma- tics of higher states of consciousness I mentioned pre- cology, in physiology and neurology, in psy- viously: a heightened perception of the reality of the chology and psychiatry and phenomenal world, an experience of oneness with the (Huxley, 1977, p. 121). , and an awareness of the oneness of all phe- nomena. It might seem controversial to suggest that Or as we might rephrase it: why bother with pain, drug-induced spiritual experiences are essentially the hunger or sleep deprivation when it is possible to dis- same in kind as the above experiences of sleep-depriva- rupt homeostasis more directly simply by ingesting tion and lack of food, but I would maintain that the certain chemicals? Of course, human beings have root of both types of experience is the same internal always used drugs for transcendental and ritualistic imbalance and that the only real difference is one of purposes, as a means of intensifying or altering con- degree, in that drug experiences are likely to be much sciousness. The Neolithic peoples of Europe smoked more powerful. opium and for apparent religious or ritualis- There are other methods of inducing higher states tic purposes 5,000 years ago; the Native Americans of consciousness through disrupting homeostasis, such ingested plants such as fly-agaric mushrooms as altering our normal breathing patterns. Normally and peyote; the early Indo-European conquerors of we inhale and exhale at the same rate, and preserve a worshipped their drink Soma (probably made balance of carbon dioxide and oxygen levels. But if we from “magic” mushrooms); while adepts of the Greek inhale faster and more deeply than usual we build up ingested (Rudgley,1993; a higher than usual concentration of oxygen, and if we McKenna, 1993; Smith, 1964). All drugs alter the exhale faster and more deeply than usual we build up normal chemical balance of the human organism, and a higher than usual concentration of carbon therefore disrupt homeostasis. Of course, not all drug dioxide–and both of these non-homeostatic states can, experiences are transcendental experiences, but all it seems, generate higher states of consciousness. Many drugs undoubtedly can generate them in the right cir- Native American groups–such as the Salish, the cumstances. Even our one socially-sanctioned drug, Algonquians and Kiowa–used both hypo- and hyper- alcohol, has transcendental properties. ventilation as a means of inducing higher states of con- maintained that ‘The sway of alcohol over mankind is sciousness (Jilek, 1989). Certain kinds of chanting

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practised by tribal peoples, such as the “throat music” anism. It screens out reality so that we can concentrate of the Inuit, also appear to involve a rapid rhythmic properly on the business of day to day survival. And at hyperventilation which produces altered and higher the same time it conserves energy. Our perception states (Metzner, 1987). Part of the purpose of the becomes automatized so that we can transfer energy pranayama exercises of is to induce temporary that would normally be channelled into the act of per- higher states of consciousness. Although the essential ception into the business of practical survival. Or as purpose of pranayama is long-term regulation of Floyd W. Rudmin wrote: –and inseparable from the physical exercises of In line with evolutionary theory, it is widely hatha yoga, it is clear that a breath control technique accepted that this active mode of ordinary con- such as kevali-kumbhaka, in which the aim is simply sciousness is adaptive and functional and serves to hold the breath for as long as possible, would poten- to enhance the survival of the species. It simpli- tially induce a higher state of consciousness fies and actively processes information and (Feuerstein, 1990). guides and monitors our intra- and interperson- This may also be the root of the connection al actions (1994, p. 60). between dancing and higher states of consciousness. The initiates of the Greek and Roman mystery cults In view of this it seems justifiable to say that, at used frenzied dancing–as well as self-flagellation and least to some extent, homeostasis works to regulate and drugs–as a means of disrupting homeostasis so that maintain ordinary consciousness. The optimum phys- they could be, in the words of a contemporary observ- ical state of homeostasis equates with the optimum er, “filled with divine awe…assimilate themselves to psychological state (from the point of view of survival) the holy symbols, leave their own identity, become at of ordinary consciousness. As a result, when we disrupt home with the , and experience divine possession” homeostasis we also disrupt ordinary consciousness1. (in Spenser, 1950, p. 157). Similarly, the However, it’s important to point out that disrupt- orders of used dancing as a means of inducing ing homeostasis certainly does not always result in a the state of consciousness which they called “passing higher state of consciousness. It almost always results away.” Here we can probably assume that prolonged in altered states of consciousness, but only infrequent- energetic dancing produces an internal imbalance ly in higher states. For example, extreme tiredness may because of a high body temperature, dehydration and often result in psychotic and delusional states, with exhaustion. We can put forward similar cases for other paranoia and hallucinations. Psychedelic drugs appear ritualistic and religious practices such as drumming to most reliable way of inducing higher states through (which may also, like chanting, involve a meditative non-homeostasis, but even they can frequently pro- concentrative aspect) and painful ordeals. duce psychotic symptoms. All of these are examples of the fifth category in The exact chemical nature of the disruption to Ludwig’s model: changes in the body chemistry or homeostasis–in the case of sleep deprivation, blood neurophysiological functioning. His second pressure, a depressed immune system and hormonal category–increasing exteroceptive stimulation and/or and metabolic changes; or in the case of pain, hormon- motor activity and/or emotion–can also be seen as al and metabolic changes and increased heart rate and related to disrupting homeostasis, since in most cases blood pressure, or the chemical changes produced the increasing level of these factors is likely to produce directly by drugs–does not seem to be so significant. an internal imbalance, as with the increasing motor Any disruption to homeostasis can, it seems, trigger activity of frenzied dancing. altered states of consciousness (including higher The question of why disrupting homeostasis can states). result in higher states of consciousness is difficult to This might suggest that I am attempting to reduce answer exactly. It seems clear, however, that ordinary higher states of consciousness to chemical causes. But consciousness and homeostasis are closely interlinked. the important point may be rather that ordinary con- From the point of view of survival, ordinary conscious- sciousness is strictly chemically moderated. Higher ness is our optimum mode of consciousness. It may be (and altered) states of consciousness occur when the that, as the “filter theory” of higher states of conscious- chemical conditions that regulate ordinary conscious- ness put forward by Huxley (after Bergson), and later ness are relaxed, as it were. Any change in any one of developed by Naranjo and Ornstein (1971) suggests, these conditions is enough to dismantle the whole the “shadowy” vision of reality which ordinary con- structure. This suggests that, rather than merely being sciousness gives us evolved as a kind of survival mech- chemically produced themselves, higher states of con-

Higher States 51

sciousness are ontologically more fundamental and damentally independent, but consciousness as aware- authentic, and that ordinary consciousness may be ness and as consciousness as cognition are bound up thought of as–at least to some extent–a more artificial, with energy. chemically-generated construct. Psychologists often assume the of psy- chic energy (e.g., Novak, 1995; Csikszentmihalyi, Consciousness-Energy and 2003) or attentional energy (e.g., Deikman, 2004a; Higher States of Consciousness Csikszentmihalyi, 1992; Marchetti, 2004) without In a discussion on the psychological effects of making it clear exactly what this energy is. Others talk meditation, Novak (1996) makes an important con- more obliquely of mental effort (e.g., Gross, 1996) or nection between our normal shadowy vision of the “pool of attentional resources” (Kahneman, 1973), world and psychic energy. He notes that the “endless seeming to assume the existence of some form of men- associational chatter” of our monopolises our tal energy without actually using the term. psychic energy, leaving none available for us to devote Consciousness-energy is clearly distinct from energy as to what he calls the “open, receptive and present-cen- we normally think of it, and independent (at least to a tred awareness.” However, when a person meditates, large extent) to the chemical energy which we absorb she or he deprives the automatized structures of con- from food and which fuels the functioning of our bod- sciousness (which produce “thought-chatter”) of atten- ies. On an everyday level, we accept its existence tion. As a result, they begin to weaken and fade away, almost as a given, and we certainly feel subjectively which “frees up” the energy that they normally that it exists. As Marchetti (2004) puts it, paying monopolise. As a result, Novak claimed that energy attention towards an object spends attentional energy bound in defences and fantasies can be released in on it. We have the sense that our level of conscious- present-centeredness. Deikman also makes a connec- ness-energy continually fluctuates, according to how tion between mystical experiences and energy when he much we have expended through concentrating or suggests that they are attending to stimuli. If we have been concentrating brought about by a deautomatization of hierar- hard, we might feel lethargic or run down; if there is a chically ordered structures that ordinarily con- surplus of consciousness-energy, we feel alert and serve attentional energy for maximum efficien- vibrant. Our moods seem to be affected by our level of cy in achieving the basic goods of consciousness-energy too–when we feel mentally survival…Under special conditions of dysfunc- drained we often feel depressed, whereas when we feel tion, such as in acute or in LSD mentally buoyant, with a high level of consciousness- states, or under special goal conditions such as energy, we usually feel cheerful and optimistic. We also exists in religious mystics, the pragmatic sys- conserve this energy through the phenomenon of tems of automatic selection are set aside or automatization. Activities such as driving, typing or break down, in favour of alternate modes of playing a musical instrument are initially painstaking consciousness (Deikman, 1981, p. 259). conscious processes, but at a certain point there is a switch to fully automatic processing, the purpose of Both these views hint at what can, I believe, be which is to conserve attentional energy so that we can classified as the second major source of higher states of focus our minds elsewhere (Norman & Challice, consciousness. They can also occur when there is an 1980).2 intensification of what I term consciousness-energy. It might be said that we normally expend our con- This is roughly equivalent to the term “psychic ener- sciousness-energy in three main ways: through what gy”–I prefer consciousness-energy because it emphasis- Novak identifies as the “endless associational chatter” es the interrelationship between this energy and con- of our egos; through the concentrative effort we make sciousness. Consciousness-energy is the active princi- to deal with the tasks and chores which fill our lives, ple of consciousness, the energy which we use in being including the effort to communicate with other conscious, in the acts of perceiving the phenomenal human beings; and also through the effort we make to world, attending to our experience and thinking logi- process the various forms of information (e.g., percep- cally and discursively. This is not to say that conscious- tual stimuli such as sights and sounds, and verbal ness is in its a form of energy–De Quincey information from the media, books or the internet), (2002) has argued that this cannot be the case, since which are part of our lives. However, when, for some there is always a witnessing “I” which is apart from the reason, we halt this constant outflow of consciousness- of energy. Consciousness as a witness may be fun- energy, and build up a high concentration within our

52 The International Journal of Transpersonal Studies, 2005, Volume 24

own being, we are liable to experience higher states of of consciousness resulting from homeostasis disrup- consciousness. As Novak suggests, this is one interpre- tion is that the former are–in Stace’s terminology tation of what may happen in meditation practice. (1964/88)–more introvertive. That is, whereas home- The thought chatter of the ego is fed by attention, so ostasis disruption (HD) states are centred around a when we focus our attention elsewhere, it fades away. different mode of experiencing the phenomenal world, In addition, during meditation we largely close the ICE states also often involve a profound sense of inner other main channels through which we expend energy. peace and contentment, or even bliss. ICE states have We process very little information from our environ- a powerful affective dimension that HD states lack. ment, and the only task we have to concentrate on is Meditators have, for example, reported great senses of focusing our attention. Our automatized perception peace, wholeness, and relief (Hardy, 1979). This sense means that we usually give very little consciousness- of inner peace appears to be generally absent from HD energy to the act of perceiving our surroundings. experiences, which is logical when we consider that it However, when the chatter of our minds fades is probably directly caused by the high concentration away–and when we conserve energy in the other ways of consciousness-energy which meditation can gener- I mentioned–there is a surplus of consciousness-ener- ate. As the Indian mystical traditions make clear, bliss gy, which means that perception no longer needs to be is the nature of being or consciousness–being-con- automatic, since there is no need for energy to be con- sciousness-bliss (Sat Chit Ananda) is the essence of served. As a result we perceive our surroundings with reality. We are, therefore, likely to experience this bliss first-time vision, and are awake to the is-ness and ani- when the energy of our being is intensely concentrat- macy of natural phenomena. Examples of these were ed. given by many participants of Deikman’s experimental There is another cause of this sense of inner peace meditation sessions (Deikman, 2004b). that requires explanation. As well as an intensification, Many mystics and spiritual teachers have spoken ICE states feature a stilling of consciousness-energy. At of mystical experience in similar terms to these. The the same time as monopolising a large portion of our Hindu text the - compares the tran- consciousness-energy, the constant thought-chatter, scendental Self to a sun, and notes that through the which runs through our minds, creates a constant psy- process of concentration (dharana), the rays of the chic disturbance. In ’s (1996) phrase, sun–or the whirls of consciousness–are gathered up there is a constant inward storm of thought. In spiri- and focused inwardly. As a result, the yogin experi- tual states caused by an ICE this storm fades away. It ences the intense radiance of the Self, and attains a has to, otherwise consciousness-energy would not be state of (Feuerstein, 1990). In the Christian concentrated enough to produce a spiritual state. And mystical tradition, Meister Eckhart described how this contributes to the sense of bliss which spiritual mystical experience occurs when “you are able to draw ICE states feature. There is always a sense of inner still- in your [intellectual and sensory] powers to a unity ness, and a sense of purity–and this is not so much an and forget all those things and their images which you affective state, as a direct, literal experience of the still- have absorbed” (1979, p.7, italics added). Or again, he ness and purity of consciousness in these moments. states that to achieve union with God, “a man must Meditation is, we might say, a conscious attempt collect all his powers as if into a corner of his soul” to intensify and still our consciousness-energy, both in (1979, p. 20). Similarly, St. Gregory of Sinai described the short and long term. (In the long term it is an spiritual experience as “the total lifting of the powers attempt to permanently halt the associational chatter of the soul to what may be discerned of the entire of the , which may lead to a permanent alteration majesty of glory” (in Happold, 1986, p. 223). The of the structures of consciousness, if a point is reached terms “powers” and “powers of the soul” here are where the chattering ego becomes so weakened that it equivalent to the term consciousness-energy, and the disappears as a psychic habit.) However, there are situ- terms “drawing in,” “collecting,” and “lifting”–and ations in which ICE states may occur more accidental- also the “gathering up” of the whirls of consciousness ly, and give rise to higher states of consciousness. This described in the Moksha-Dharma–refer to what I is probably, for example, the reason why spiritual or describe as generating a high concentration of con- mystical experiences often occur in natural surround- sciousness-energy. ings. Usually if a person is, for instance, walking alone One of the main differences between ICE states in the countryside she is absorbing and processing (as I will term them from now on, standing for 'inten- comparatively little information and being relatively sification of consciousness-energy') and higher states inactive, and so largely closing two of the main chan-

Higher States 53

nels through which consciousness-energy drains away. periods: “All the nagging impulses that are normally And at the same time the beauty of nature may have a distracting your mind dissolve…once they have dis- similar effect to a in meditation. It becomes a solved, you enter one of the orders of bliss. Your whole focus for the attention, directing it away from the being rests lightly on your float, but not drowsily, very chattering of the ego. As a consequence the chattering alert” (1967, p. 72). might fade away, until an ICE state is generated, This may also be part of the reason why sex can be resulting in a sense of inner peace and wholeness and a powerful trigger of spiritual states. The sheer pleas- a familiarity-free perception of is-ness and all-pervad- ure of sex can shift our attention away from the ego- ing spirit. The following are good examples of higher mind, which may fall silent. As a result, after sex we states of consciousness (presumably) induced by may experience what D.H. Lawrence described as “the nature from Hardy’s The Spiritual Nature of Man strange, soothing flood of peace which goes with true (1979): sex” (1973, p. 54). Sex can, therefore, as Jenny Wade Last summer, when walking on Hampstead comments, “take people to the same realms as , Heath alone, feeling calm and at peace with the meditation, drugs” (p. 120). world, suddenly I became aware that there was Music, too, is a prominent trigger of spiritual no separateness between myself and other peo- states, for similar . The following ple, that there was no such things as death, and example–again from Hardy–is a good example of an I was pervaded by a feeling of great peace and ICE state induced by music: joy. (p. 62) In my early twenties…in Wales, I I was sitting one evening, listening to a Brahms went out for walk one evening alone. The path symphony. My eyes were closed, and I must led up to a narrow precipice walk along the hill’s have become completely relaxed, for I became edge, and while I was there…the setting sun aware of a feeling of ‘expansion’, and seemed to blazed out turning the whole world crimson be beyond the boundary of my physical self. and gold, there was a gust of wind and felt as if Then an intense feeling of ‘light’ and ‘’ I had been swept into the very heart of all that uplifted and enfolded me (Hardy, p. 85). glory and colour, taken over by something out- side myself if which I was yet a part. (p. 72) The fact that the person was inactive and had closed his eyes had already reduced his or her outflow The high incidence of spiritual experiences of consciousness-energy, and we can assume that the amongst athletes and sportspeople (e.g., Murphy & music acted as a concentrative device, quietening the Whyte, 1995; Taylor, 2002) can be explained in simi- chattering of the ego-self, reducing the outflow fur- lar terms. Some of these may be due to homeostasis ther. disruption, since the exertions of some sports can eas- In theory, almost any activity which involves a ily create internal imbalances. However, sports also degree of concentration and which takes place in a often involve an intense degree of concentration, quiet and still setting–and which can therefore result which may generate ICE states. This is particularly the in an intensification and stilling of life-energy–could case with sports that involve long periods of monoto- give rise to a spiritual experience. Other significant nous rhythmic activity, such as long distance running triggers of spiritual experience, such as literature, the or swimming. The activity itself serves as a focusing of art and creative work (Hardy, 1979; device, and quietens the chattering ego. As the psychi- Laski, 1961) might be explained in these terms. atrist Thaddeus Kostrulaba (1976) wrote, after dis- cussing the universal use of to induce differ- Other Aspects of ICE states ent states of consciousness, “I think the same process So far I have discussed two different aspects of occurs in the repetitive rhythm of long-distance run- higher states of consciousness in relation to ICE states: ning. Eventually, at somewhere between 30 and 40 an intensified perception of the phenomenal world minutes, the conscious mind gets exhausted and other (perhaps including an awareness of the presence of areas of consciousness are activated” (p. 103). in the world) and a sense of inner peace. Similarly, the poet Ted Hughes described a meditative However, we should give some attention to other state he often experienced while fishing. He notes how aspects of higher states of consciousness. For example, poetry depends upon the ability to focus the mind, how can we explain the sense of one-ness that comes and that he acquired this ability through fish- with spiritual experiences in these terms? ing. He describes the effect of staring at a float for long Unlike the sense of inner peace, this sense of one-

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ness is–as we have seen–also a feature of spiritual expe- especially once the superficial thought-maintained self riences resulting from homeostasis disruption. This of the ego has faded away. According to the Yoga phi- suggests that the experience is not strictly related to losophy of Patanjali, the “restriction of the whirls of ICE states. The experience may be primarily related to consciousness” allows the transcendental Self to appear ego-dissolution, a or dismantling of the (in Feuerstein, 1990, p.171.) Since HD states do not separate-self system which creates the illusion of sepa- depend on an intensification of consciousness-energy, rateness and duality. This can be achieved through dis- we would not expect this aspect to feature in them. rupting homeostasis–since the separate self-system is And based on my own examination of reports of HD an integral part of our ordinary optimum survival con- states (e.g., Huxley, 1977; Ouspensky, 1984; Hardy, sciousness which homeostasis partly serves to main- 1979; McKenna, 1993) and my own personal experi- tain–or through a silencing of associational chatter. ences of them3, I believe this to be the case. Reports of Our sense of ego appears to be largely maintained by HD-induced higher states of consciousness do not, I this chatter. Therefore when the chatter becomes silent believe, generally feature this sense of becoming one the separate self-system may fade away. with a truer and deeper self. In this respect the term However, ICE states in particular may provide that is sometimes used for psychedelic drugs, another source of this experience of oneness. As many “” (e.g., Walsh, 2003)–literally, revealers of spiritual traditions hold, at the essence of our being, the god within–is misleading. If anything, they should we are one with the cosmos. As the tradition be termed “extheogens.” tells us, is one with brahman. The conscious- ness-energy that constitutes our being is one and the Long Term same as the consciousness-energy which pervades the Long-term spiritual development can also be cosmos. Therefore, when we experience a powerful interpreted in terms of an intensifying and stilling of intensification of consciousness-energy, we also effec- consciousness-energy. One way of looking at regular tively experience the essence of the whole . We –whether it is daily meditation prac- tap into the ocean of Spirit that pervades all reality. tice or exercises or a monastic life of Another important aspect of spiritual experiences renunciation–is as a concerted effort to generate a per- is the sense of becoming who we really are, the sense manently high concentration of consciousness-energy that we have made contact with a deeper and truer (and to permanently still consciousness-energy to part of our own being. There is an identity shift from some degree), by permanently reducing or restricting the ego-self to the True Self, which can occur tem- its outflow. As mentioned previously, the practice of porarily in higher states of consciousness or as a grad- meditation does this by teaching the chattering ego the ually evolving feature of long-term spiritual develop- habit of quietness. But the spiritual life involves more ment. This new sense of self is vividly evoked in Paul than meditation. Traditionally, spiritual aspirants have Brunton’s famous description of meditating in the forced themselves to extremes of renunciation and presence of Ramana Maharishi: detachment in an effort to permanently transform The brain has passed into a state of complete their state of being. They might choose to live alone in suspension, as it does in deep sleep, yet there is the forest or desert, to take vows of silence or , not the slightest loss of consciousness. I remain to rid themselves of all possessions or to relinquish perfectly calm and fully aware of who I am and ambitions or interests of their own. This kind of radi- what is occurring. Yet my awareness has been cal is opposed to many contemporary spir- drawn out of the narrow confines of separate itual teachings (e.g., Cope, 1999), which insist that personality; it has turned into something sub- there is no distinction between the spiritual and the limely all-embracing. Self still exists, but it is a mundane and that every aspect of our lives–including changed, radiant self. Something that is far business, food and relationships–offers the opportuni- superior to the unimportant personality which ty for spiritual growth. Like asceticism, detachment was I, some deeper diviner being, arises into has been seen as part of the ascending world-rejecting consciousness and becomes me. (1972, pp. 304-5) tradition which posits an artificial and dangerous dual- ity between matter and spirit. It’s certainly true that, as The important point here may be that our true the Integral Philosophy recently developed by Ken sense of self is embedded in consciousness-energy. The Wilber, Michael Murphy, and others suggests, focus- energy is our Self, our true identity, so that an ICE ing our energies exclusively upon spiritual develop- state equates with a sense of connection to a truer self, ment is likely to cause an imbalance and a neglect of

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other important areas of our lives. However, the pur- this, we must exercise self-discipline; we must control pose of the life of a renunciate is clear: he or she is our physical appetites and passions” (p.102). attempting to drastically limit the outflow of con- usually involves chastity (brahmacarya) and the subju- sciousness-energy–or more specifically, making a gation of the senses (indirya-jaya) and is believed to determined effort to permanently close down the generate an intense form of energy, ojas, which is channels through which consciousness-energy drains sometimes experienced as heat (the literal meaning of away. This underlying purpose of detachment was the word tapas). The first two stages of Patanjali’s noted by Underhill (1960), who describes it as a eight-limbed path of yoga also involve rigorous self- process of “stripping or purging away of those super- control and an effort to tame the body of desire. The fluous, unreal, and harmful things which dissipate the purpose of yama (often translated as restraint) is, as precious energies of the self” (p. 204). The practice of Feuerstein (1990) puts it, “to check the powerful sur- voluntary poverty, for example, can be seen as a vival instinct and rechannel it to serve a higher pur- method of stopping our thoughts being occupied and pose” (p. 186). This frees up psychospiritual energy, our energies being drained away by possessions. As which the adept can use at the niyama (discipline) Meister Eckhart noted, ‘There are men who complete- stage, when he attempts to “harmonize his relationship ly dissipate the powers of the soul in the outward man. to life at large and to the transcendental reality” (p. These are the people who direct all their aims and 186). intelligence towards transient possessions’ (1990, p. We should note that both detachment and morti- 117). And similarly, Underhill (1960) noted that pos- fication (or asceticism) are not –at least ideally–ongo- sessions “are a drain upon the energy of the self, pre- ing or permanent processes. They are processes direct- venting her from attaining that intenser life for which ed to a particular end: a release from what Underhill she was made” (p. 212). In a similar way, we can see calls the selfhood’s tyranny and from the dominance the practice of celibacy as, on the one hand, a method (and energy-monopolisation) of our lower, hedonistic of freeing the or mystic from the responsibility impulses. Many mystics strove for years to attain this of having to care and provide for a family, and also a freedom, at which point they often relinquished their means of–hopefully, since there is always the danger lives of detachment and became extremely active. St. that the sexual energy may simply be repressed–freeing Catherine of Sinea, for example, spent three years liv- the consciousness-energy which is normally devoted to ing as a hermit and an ascetic until she attained a state sexual desires and activity. As of deification. At that point she abandoned her soli- (1952) wrote: “Sexual activity, and the thoughts and tude and was frenetically active for the rest of her life, fantasies of sex, use up a great portion of our vital teaching, converting non-Christians and serving the force. When that force is conserved through absti- poor and sick (Underhill, 1960). The same is true of nence, it becomes subliminated as spiritual energy” (p. other mystics such as St. Theresa, St. John of the 72). Silence and are clearly two other ways of Cross, and St. . The purpose of detach- concentrating or intensifying consciousness-energy. ment and mortification is to produce a transformation This is another aspect of asceticism. We should of being, a permanent redistribution of consciousness- not see asceticism purely as a matter of punishing the energy, which equates with a permanently higher state body for its sinful desires. At the same time as serving of consciousness, or ascendance to the higher transper- as a means of inducing temporary spiritual states sonal realms. through homeostasis-disruption, it should be seen as a I should make it clear that I am certainly not question of taming or controlling what ascetics called advocating a retreat from the world, or implying that “the body of desire” in order to conserve–and redi- everyday life is opposed to spirituality. I personally rect–the consciousness-energy which it normally hold the non-dualist view that there is no distinction monopolises. As Underhill notes again, ‘The mortify- between spirit and the world and that in principle ing process is necessary…because those senses have every act of our lives–from eating to washing the dish- usurped a place beyond their station; become the focus es and sex and socialising–is sacred and spiritual. The of energy, steadily drained the vitality of the self” (p. effort to tame physical appetites does not 220). Underhill actually refers to a wrong distribution necessarily–and should not–entail a mind/body duali- of this energy. And similarly, the yogic ascetisicm of ty or a sense of disgust towards the body. The practices tapas was defined by Swami Prabhavananda (1969) as should be seen purely as a matter of economy, of per- “the practice of conserving energy and directing it manently taming our desires so that they no longer toward the goal of yoga…obviously, in order to do monopolise our consciousness energy, and of reducing

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its outflow by keeping ourselves apart from the vertive void experiences of pure consciousness, or demands and the hectic activity of normal life. This extrovertive experiences of perceiving is-ness, wonder does not mean going to the extremes of the ascetics— and oneness. Whether ICE states are introvertive or in my view it is probably only necessary to follow the extrovertive depends simply upon the circumstances in “middle way” that recommends, half way which they occur. An ICE state which is consciously between hedonism and asceticism, in which we avoid induced by meditation will be introvertive, simply excessive desires and excessive activity, but do not go because the meditator has closed her senses to the the extreme of punishing the body or neglecting other external world, by shutting her eyes, sitting in quiet- areas of our development besides the spiritual. ness and focusing her attention on a mantra (or anoth- er object of concentration). An ICE state that occurs ICE states versus HD states in the countryside, or while long-distance running or This is not the place for an extended discussion listening to music, will be extrovertive, simple because and comparison of HD and ICE mystical states. Many the individual is already in open communication with scholars have written at length on the question of the external world. whether drug-induced higher states of consciousness A major problem with HD states is their unrelia- are comparable with those induced by or related to bility. Often they will not generate any discernable long term spiritual practices or seemingly proffered by change in consciousness (this is especially the case with the grace of God (e.g., , 1964; Stace, forms of physical deprivation such as sleep and 1964/1988; Zaehner, 1961). However, there are a few hunger), and even when they do, they are likely to gen- salient points that I would like to mention. erate other altered states of consciousness besides high- HD and ICE states are two different technologies er states, such as hallucinatory experiences or psychot- of spiritual experience, and have been used as such ic episodes. As Walsh noted of psychedelic drugs in throughout human history. But the spiritual experi- particular, “[they] can induce genuine mystical experi- ences they generate are of a different character. Above ences, but only sometimes, in some people, under I have dealt with four different aspects of higher states some circumstances” (2003, p.2). ICE states, on the of consciousness: (a) an intensified perception of the other hand, have a very low risk of negative or psy- phenomenal world (b) a sense of inner peace and chotic states, and reliably generate transpersonal or wholeness (c) a sense of oneness with the manifest mystical states. world, or a sense of transcending boundaries and (d) a Probably the most important difference between sense of becoming a deeper and truer Self. As I men- HD and ICE states, however, is that only the latter can tioned above, one of the differences between ICE and build towards a permanently transformed conscious- HD states is that while the former feature all four of ness. In Wilber’s terms (e.g., 2000), only they can cre- these, the latter do not. HD states certainly feature (a) ate permanent, enduring structures of consciousness. and (c), but they do not appear to feature the affective HD states can only give “peek” experiences into the characteristics of (b) and (d). HD states are primarily transpersonal domains. These can be useful; they sensory or perceptual experiences. I also pointed out might come as a bolt out of the blue, rupturing the that in ICE states the characteristic (c) is likely to be familiar, taken-for-granted world and making the indi- more powerful than in HD states because of the essen- vidual aware that higher realms of reality do exist. tial oneness of consciousness-energy with the con- There is some evidence that drug-induced higher sciousness-force of the cosmos. states of consciousness encourage individuals to inves- HD and ICE states correspond to Fischer’s (1971) tigate methods of gradual long-term consciousness ergotropic high arousal and trophotropic low arousal transformation (e.g., Tart, 1991). This may not always experiences. HD states can never give rise to the low be the case though. Being given these experiences for arousal void experience of what Robert Forman (2000) free may create a passive attitude towards them, and a describes as the Pure Consciousness . This can reluctance to make the long term disciplined effort only come from ICE states, since these actually involve which permanent spiritual transformation requires. a purification and intensification of consciousness. For every , there is a . Or as Similarly, we can say that HD states are never–in Smith puts it, “Drugs appear to induce religious expe- Stace’s terminology (1964/1988)–introvertive. They riences: it is less evident that they can produce reli- always involve the phenomenal world; they are always gious lives” (1964, pp. 528-9). extrovertive. On the other hand, ICE states can be HD states can also be dangerous. The individual both introvertive and extrovertive. They may be intro- may not actually be ontologically ready to process the

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experience, and their psychic equilibrium may be dis- mal-operational levels before they can stabilise them- turbed as a result. William Johnston argued that selves at the transpersonal realms (although Wilber “meditation is safer than drugs because the meditation, admits that they may have brief peek or peak experi- if properly instructed, and guided, can integrate the ences). However, if we see an intensification of con- new knowledge and preserve his equilibrium” (1988, sciousness-energy as the source of spiritual states, then p. 124). Particularly with intense use of psychedelic children and native peoples clearly do have access to drugs, there is the danger that the separate self-system the transpersonal realms. In fact, since in both cases may collapse altogether, and lead to schizophrenia or their sense of ego is less developed and less active than psychosis. In fact this is the only long-term psychic ours, and appears to produce less associational chatter, change which the regular inducement of higher states we might assume that there would be a reduced out- of consciousness through HD can lead to. Whereas flow of consciousness-energy in their case, and that meditative ICE states are constructive–that is, they they would be therefore more open to spiritual states gradually tame the chattering ego and produce a per- than us. This might not apply so much to children, manent intensification of consciousness-energy, and since the intensity of their instinctive desires and gradually create a new psychic structure–HD states are heightened emotionality would itself produce a large essentially destructive: they produce a powerful blast outflow of consciousness-energy, but could easily be which immobilises the ego, and if this blast is regular- true for native peoples (see Taylor, 2003 for a related ly repeated the ego-structure will be eroded away, to discussion). The important point is that, as so many the point where it is no longer able to re-form itself. spiritual teachers have stated, our over-active and over- This strongly suggests that ICE states are superior separate egos–although not the ego in itself–are an to HDs. However, at least HD states have the appar- enemy. As well creating a sense of “otherness” between ent advantage–which is part of their appeal–of requir- us and the world, and between ourselves and our own ing no effort, whereas ICE states usually involve some bodies, they monopolise our consciousness-energy, so form of mental concentration and a degree of self-dis- that we see the world as one-dimensional and inani- cipline. And I would certainly not degrade HD mysti- mate place, instead of the radiant, benevolent, mean- cal experiences to the extent that scholars such as ingful, Spirit-charged cosmos that it really is. Zaehner (1961) and Masters and Houston (1966) have done by claiming that psychedelic experiences may be analogous to mystical experiences but are not Endnotes the same thing—or else that they only superficially 1 Neurologically, higher states of consciousness resemble them. HD mystical experiences are clearly associated with homeostasis disruption appear to cor- genuine, but deficient in that they do not feature relate with hyperactivity of the limbic system. Rhawn aspects of higher states of consciousness common to Joseph (2000) recognises that practices such as food ICE states. We might say that they are one-dimension- and water deprivation, pain, drug use and self-mutila- al, in that they can only be extrovertive, and lack an tion have been traditionally been used to induce mys- affective dimension. tical or spiritual states, and links this to arousal of the This essay leaves some questions unanswered, of brain’s limbic system. As he sees it, when the limbic course. For example, why is it that disrupting home- system is denied its normal input, it becomes hyperac- ostasis does generate higher states of consciousness in tive and can no longer efficiently delete and filter out some instances but not in others? Or, how do ICE stimuli, resulting in intensified perceptual awareness. states correlate with the different levels of mystical or However, again, we can equally see the hyperactivity of transpersonal experiences (e.g., in Wilber’s model, the the limbic system as a correlate–or an effect–of the psychic, subtle, causal and non-dual)? (My suggestion mystical or spiritual state that is produced when home- would be, very briefly, that the greater the intensifica- ostasis disruption means that ordinary consciousness tion and purification of consciousness-energy, the can no longer be regulated and maintained. Following higher the level of consciousness.) Newberg and D’Aqulli’s research, there would also This model of higher states of consciousness sug- appear to be a correlate with increased activity in the gests a new view of the issue of whether children and sympathetic half of the autonomic nervous system. native or tribal peoples might be more spiritual than 2 The existence of this energy makes sense in adult Westerners. In Wilber’s model of transpersonal terms of the theory of consciousness put forward by development (e.g., 2000) this is impossible, since indi- Robert Forman and others, which suggests that the viduals first have to move through the egoic and for- brain itself doesn’t produce consciousness, but rather

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receives and transmits it. According to this view, con- Brunton, P. (1934/1972) A search in secret India. sciousness is a fundamental force of the universe, pres- London: Rider. ent everywhere and in everything, and at the cellular Burkert, W. (1987) Ancient mystery cults. Cambridge, level and above, entities become capable of receiving it, MA: Harvard University Press. and so become individually conscious. Extending this Cope, S. (1999) Yoga and the quest for the true self. New further, consciousness-energy–or psychic energy–is the York: Doubleday. portion of universal consciousness which is canalised Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1992). Flow: The psychology of into us, which is received and transmitted by our . London: Rider. Csikszentmihlayi, M. brains. This accords very well with the spiritual con- (2003). and the evolution of con- cept that at the heart of being we are one with the uni- sciousness. In T. Kasser, & A. Kanner (Eds), verse, that atman is one with brahman. Our own con- Psychology and consumer culture (pp. 91-106). sciousness is of the same substance as the conscious- Washington D.C: American Psychological ness that pervades the universe. Association. 3 I made a number of experiments with LSD and De Quincey, C. (2002). Radical nature. Montpelier, magic mushrooms over a two-year period. With the VT: Invisible Cities Press.Deikman, A. (2004a). exception of one psychotic episode (with LSD), the Deautomatization and the mystic experience. In R. experiences did produce what I would class as higher Woods, (Ed.), Understanding (pp. 240- states of consciousness. I experienced an intense per- 60). London: The Athlone Press. ception of the phenomenal world; so-called “inani- Deikman, A. (2004b) Experimental meditation avail- mate” objects came to life, and natural phenomena able at http:/www.deikman.com/experimental.html such as stones and trees seem to possess a conscious- accessed 05/05/04Feuerstein, G. (1990) Yoga: the ness or being of their own. I was also occasionally technology of ecstasy. Wellingborough, UK: The aware of the presence of “spirit” in things. I felt I knew Aquarian Press. what brahman was when I looked at the sky and felt it Fischer, R. (1971). A cartography of the ecstatic and was filled with a harmonising, living presence. There meditative states. Science, 174(4012), 897-904. was also an awareness of the unity of superficially sep- Forman, R. (1998). What does mysticism have to arate things. I felt exhilarated by these , teach us about consciousness? Journal of even euphoric at the sense of meaning I could perceive, Consciousness Studies, 5(2), 202-223. but I never experienced a sense of inner peace and Green, S. (1987) Physiological psychology: An introduc- wholeness, or a sense of becoming one with a deeper tion. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. self. In fact the perceptual intensity was occasionally Gross. R. (1996), Psychology: The science of mind and accompanied with a sense of inner and behaviour. London: Hodder & Staughton. indifference. Happold, F.C. (1986) Mysticism. London: Pelican Hardy, A. (1979) The spiritual nature of man. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Hughes, T. (1967) Poetry in the making. London: References Faber and Faber. Alexander, C.N., Davies, J.L., Dixon, C.A., Dillbeck, Huxley, A. (1977). and M.C., Druker, S.M. Oetzel, R., Muehlman, J.M., and . London: Grafton. & Orme-Johnson, D.W. (1990). Growth of higher James, W. (1902/1985). The varieties of religious expe- stages of consciousness: Maharishi’s Vedic psychol- rience. London: Penguin. ogy of human development. In C.N. Alexander Jilek, W. (1989). Therapeutic use of altered states of and E. Langer (Eds.), Higher stages of human devel- consciousness in contemporary North American opment: Perspectives on adult growth (pp. 286-341). Indian dance ceremonials. In C. Ward (Ed). Altered New York: Oxford University Press. states of consciousness and : a cross cul- Andresen, J, & Forman, R. (2000). Methodological tural perspective (pp. 167-85). London: . pluralism in the study of religion. Journal of Johnston, W. (1988) Silent music. London: Fontana. Consciousness Studies. 7(11-12), 7-16. Joseph, R. (2000) The transmitter to God: the limbic sys- Attar, F. A. (1990) Muslim saints and mystics. London: tem, the soul and spirituality San Jose: The Arkana. University Press California. Becker, E. (1973). The denial of death. New York: Free Kahneman, D. (1973), Attention and effort. Press. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.

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