COPYRIGHT AND CITATION CONSIDERATIONS FOR THIS THESIS/ DISSERTATION
o Attribution — You must give appropriate credit, provide a link to the license, and indicate if changes were made. You may do so in any reasonable manner, but not in any way that suggests the licensor endorses you or your use.
o NonCommercial — You may not use the material for commercial purposes.
o ShareAlike — If you remix, transform, or build upon the material, you must distribute your contributions under the same license as the original.
How to cite this thesis
Surname, Initial(s). (2012). Title of the thesis or dissertation (Doctoral Thesis / Master’s Dissertation). Johannesburg: University of Johannesburg. Available from: http://hdl.handle.net/102000/0002 (Accessed: 22 August 2017).
CONSUMER NEEDS FOR A HEALTHY KOTA SOLD BY STREET VENDORS IN THE SOWETO DISTRICT
by
SHARON ILANA RYAN
A dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the Degree
of
Masters in Tourism and Hospitality Management
at the
College of Business and Economics
UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG
Supervisor: Dr. Hema Kesa
DECEMBER 2019
DECLARATION
I hereby certify that this dissertation is submitted by myself, Sharon Ilana Ryan, student number 200801850, for the degree in Tourism and Hospitality Management at College of Business and Economics, University of Johannesburg. I confirm that this is my independent work and has not been submitted for any other degree at another university.
Sharon Ilana Ryan December 2019
ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Man often becomes what he believes himself to be. If I keep on saying to myself that I cannot do a certain thing, it is possible that I may end by really becoming incapable of doing it. On the contrary, if I have the belief that I can do it, I shall surely acquire the capacity to do it even if I may not have it at the beginning – Mahatma Gandhi.
I firstly wish to thank the Almighty for the ability, strength, knowledge and will to complete this dissertation. Without the Lord’s unfailing blessings, this achievement would not have been possible.
I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr Hema Kesa for her guidance, motivation, patience and assistance throughout the dissertation process. She has been a mentor, friend and continual source of inspiration.
A special thanks to my statistician, Jaclyn De Klerk from Statkon for her time, effort and assistance with the statistical analysis of this study, and to my language/technical editor, Cheryl Thomson for all of her effort in ensuring that this dissertation reads well.
To my colleagues and fieldworkers, thank you for your assistance and professionalism.
To all of my loved ones, thank you for your patience, words of encouragement and dedication to showing me continual support throughout the completion of my dissertation. Your unfailing motivation has been monumental in my life and has assisted me tremendously on this journey.
This dissertation is dedicated to my mother, thank you for always believing in me and encouraging me to further my education. You are my biggest source of inspiration and a huge part of all my successes.
iii ABSTRACT
The street food vending industry in South Africa and globally is constantly evolving. As a means of employment and sustainability, street food vendors are determined to meet the growing needs of consumers and as trends evolve over time, the street vended Kota known amongst Sowetan locals, has received an increase in interest. It is a South African favourite, believed to have its roots within townships in Johannesburg, and was born as a by-product of the well-known ‘Durban Bunny Chow’. While this is part of national heritage and culture, the dish brings with it some noteworthy concerns regarding its nutritional content and the contribution this may have to the increasing obesity pandemic that challenges the country.
As consumers continue to purchase and enjoy the Kota, the statistics of street food vendors that sell the dish are on the rise. With this come the challenges of safe food practices and controls being followed by these vendors. The main objective of the study was to address consumer needs for a healthy Kota sold by street food vendors in the Soweto District. The sub-objectives aimed to investigate the basic ingredients of a standard Kota, street food vendors’ level and knowledge of food preparation skills when preparing a Kota and the level of food safety and hygiene knowledge of street food vendors.
The study sees the use of quantitative research, realised via self-administered survey questionnaires. The results indicated that the ingredients in a basic Kota are high in fat and carbohydrates, and it is not a healthy meal. It was indicated that some healthy ingredients should be in a Kota. Consumers believe that street food vendors know how to prepare ingredients before cooking them, as well as knowing how long each ingredient should be cooked. They felt that street food vendors would not know how to check if an ingredient had been properly cooked. Street food vendors reported a limited ability to prepare ingredients using different cooking methods.
It is recommended that alternative healthy ingredients should be available for health conscious consumers. An obesity and nutrition awareness campaign in this regard was also recommended. In addition, it is suggested that the nutritional value of the Kota and its link to obesity in South Africa, as well as food safety and hygiene practices amongst street food vendors, should be investigated.
Key words: Food safety; Kota; obesity, preparation skills, street food vendors
iv TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION ...... II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... III
ABSTRACT ...... IV
LIST OF TABLES ...... IX
LIST OF FIGURES ...... XII
CHAPTER 1 BACKGROUND AND OUTLINE OF THE STUDY ...... 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1.1 Background of the study ...... 1 1.2 RESEARCH PROBLEM ...... 2 1.2.1 Identify the research problem ...... 2 1.2.2 Statement of the problem ...... 2 1.3 RATIONALE OF THE STUDY ...... 2 1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY ...... 5 1.4.1 Main research objective ...... 5 1.4.2 Research sub-objectives ...... 5 1.5 MAIN RESEARCH QUESTION ...... 5 1.5.1 Research sub-questions ...... 6 1.6 OUTLINE OF CHAPTERS ...... 6 1.7 SUMMARY ...... 6
CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 8 2.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 8 2.2 THE KOTA ...... 8 2.2.1 Defining street food ...... 8 2.2.2 The birth and history of the Kota ...... 8 2.2.3 Growth of the Kota ...... 10 2.2.4 Ingredients of a Kota ...... 11 2.2.5 Nutritional value of a Kota ...... 11 2.2.6 The obesity pandemic and the Kota ...... 14 2.2.7 Perceived need for a healthy Kota ...... 15 2.3 OVERVIEW OF STREET FOOD VENDORS’ FOOD SAFETY KNOWLEDGE AND HYGIENE PRACTICES ...... 16 2.3.1 Food safety defined ...... 16 2.3.2 Current food safety practices ...... 17 2.3.3 A global perspective ...... 17
v 2.3.4 An African perspective ...... 18 2.3.5 A South African perspective ...... 19 2.3.6 Health burden of unsafe food practices ...... 21 2.3.7 Food preparation skills ...... 23 2.4 INDUSTRY OF INFORMAL VENDING AND MUNICIPAL ROLE/ CONTRIBUTION ...... 23 2.5 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY ...... 26 2.6 SUMMARY ...... 27
CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 28 3.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 28 3.2 RESEARCH PROBLEM ...... 28 3.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS ...... 29 3.3.1 Main research question ...... 29 3.3.2 Secondary research questions ...... 29 3.4 RESEARCH DESIGN ...... 29 3.4.1 Introduction ...... 29 3.4.2 Research approach ...... 30 3.4.3 Research technique ...... 32 3.5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 34 3.5.1 Operationalization ...... 34 3.6 RESEARCH INSTRUMENT ...... 34 3.6.1 Questionnaire design ...... 34 3.6.2 Measurements of concepts in the study ...... 37 3.6.3 Validity ...... 37 3.6.4 Reliability ...... 38 3.6.5 Feasibility ...... 39 3.7 SAMPLING ...... 39 3.7.1 Participants and sample ...... 41 3.7.2 Data collection ...... 42 3.7.3 Data coding and analysis ...... 43 3.8 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ...... 44 3.8.1 Introduction ...... 44 3.8.2 Protection from harm ...... 45 3.8.3 Privacy and confidentiality ...... 45 3.8.4 Informed consent ...... 45 3.8.5 Honesty with colleagues in the field ...... 46 3.9 SUMMARY ...... 46
vi CHAPTER 4 RESULTS ...... 47 4.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 47 4.2 RESPONSE RATE ...... 47 4.3 DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE OF RESPONDENTS ...... 48 4.3.1 Gender ...... 50 4.3.2 Age ...... 50 4.3.3 Ethnicity ...... 51 4.3.4 Education level ...... 51 4.3.5 Employment status...... 51 4.4 CUSTOM TABLES ...... 51 4.5 CROSS-TABULATION WITH CHI-SQUARE ANALYSIS ...... 56 4.5.1 Perception of consumers and street food vendors: Are Kota ingredients cooked using healthy or unhealthy cooking methods ...... 56 4.5.2 Perception of consumers and street food vendors on which ingredients should be in a healthy Kota ...... 60 4.5.3 Age of consumers and their perceptions on Kota nutrition ...... 63 4.5.4 Education level of consumers and their perceptions on street food vendors’ food preparation skills...... 65 4.5.5 Education level of street food vendors and their perceptions on their own and other street food vendors’ food preparation skills...... 67 4.6 FREQUENCIES AND PERCENTAGE ...... 72 4.7 RELIABILITY ...... 81 4.8 SUMMARY ...... 82
CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION OF MAIN FINDINGS ...... 83 5.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 83 5.2 DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES OF RESPONDENTS ...... 83 5.2.1 Age ...... 83 5.2.2 Ethnicity ...... 84 5.2.3 Highest level of education ...... 84 5.2.4 Employment status...... 85 5.3 DETERMINING THE INGREDIENTS THAT MAKE UP THE BASIC KOTA AND HEALTHIER ALTERNATIVES ...... 85 5.3.1 Main findings from Table 4.37 (Basic ingredients of a Kota) ...... 85 5.3.2 Main findings from Table 4.39 (Consumers and Street Food vendors) – Healthy ingredients that should be in a Kota ...... 86 5.4 DETERMINING IF THERE IS CONCERN AND A NEED FOR A HEALTHIER ALTERNATIVE TO THE KOTA ...... 87 5.4.1 Main findings from Table 4.3 (Consumers) and Table 4.4 (Street Food vendors) – Mean and Standard deviation for priorities when purchasing or selling the Kota ...... 87
vii 5.4.2 Main findings from Section 4.5.3 (Consumers) and (Street Food vendors) – Chi-square tests for independence on nutritional value and determining the need for a healthier version ...... 88 5.5 STREET FOOD VENDORS’ KOTA PREPARATION SKILLS ...... 89 5.5.1 Main findings from Table 4.23 (Consumers) and Table 4.36 (Street food vendors) – Responses regarding the perception of food preparation knowledge ...... 89 5.5.2 Main findings from Table 4.24 (Consumers) and Table 4.25 (Consumers) – Responses regarding the perception of ingredient preparation and cooking..89 5.6 STREET FOOD VENDORS’ PERSONAL HYGIENE PRACTICES AND FOOD SAFETY KNOWLEDGE ...... 90 5.6.1 Main findings from Table 4.5 (Consumers) and Table 4.6 (Street food vendors) – Mean and Standard deviation for the perception on street food vendors’ personal hygiene ...... 90 5.6.2 Main findings from Table 4.41 (Consumers and Street food vendors) – Frequency and Percentage for the reasons that the correct food safety and hygiene practices are used...... 91 5.7 SUMMARY ...... 91
CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND LIMITATIONS ...... 93 6.1 INTRODUCTION ...... 93 6.2 REFLECTING ON RESEARCH OBJECTIVES ...... 93 6.2.1 Main objective ...... 93 6.2.2 Sub-objective 1 ...... 94 6.2.3 Sub-objective 2 ...... 95 6.2.4 Sub-objective 3 ...... 96 6.3 RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 97 6.3.1 Recommendations to the street food vendor industry and government ...... 97 6.3.2 Recommendations for future research ...... 99 6.4 LIMITATIONS ...... 99 6.5 CONCLUSION ...... 100
REFERENCES ...... 102
APPENDIX A: LETTER OF REQUEST TO PARTICIPATE IN RESEARCH ...... 115
APPENDIX B: CONSUMERS QUESTIONNAIRE ...... 116
APPENDIX C: STREET FOOD VENDOR QUESTIONNAIRE ...... 121
APPENDIX D: ETHICS CONSENT FORM ...... 126
APPENDIX E: GRAMMARIAN CERTIFICATE ...... 127
viii LIST OF TABLES Table 3.1: Purpose and properties of quantitative research ...... 30
Table 3.2: Purpose and properties of quantitative research used in this study ...... 31
Table 3.3: Description of survey questionnaires ...... 34
Table 3.4: Likert scales used in this study ...... 37
Table 3.5: Researchers frame ...... 42
Table 3.6: Descriptive data analysis ...... 44
Table 4.1: Demographic variables for consumers ...... 49
Table 4.2: Demographic variables for street food vendors ...... 50
Table 4.3: Priorities when purchasing the Kota – Consumers ...... 52
Table 4.4: Priorities when selling the Kota – Street food vendors ...... 53
Table 4.5: Perception of street food vendors’ personal hygiene – Consumers ...... 54
Table 4.6: Responses of street food vendors’ personal hygiene – Street food vendors .. 55
Table 4.7: Chi-square tests for independence: Are potato or “slap” chips that are in the Kota prepared using a healthy or unhealthy cooking method – consumers and street food vendors...... 57
Table 4.8: Chi-square tests for independence: Is polony that is in the Kota prepared using a healthy or unhealthy cooking method – consumers and street food vendors ...... 57
Table 4.9: Chi-square tests for independence: Is the Russian that is in the Kota prepared using a healthy or unhealthy cooking method – consumers and street food vendors58
Table 4.10: Symmetric Measures: Is Russian prepared using a healthy or unhealthy cooking method – consumers and street food vendors ...... 58
Table 4.11: Chi-square tests for independence: Is the patty in the Kota prepared using a healthy or unhealthy cooking method – consumers and street food vendors ...... 59
Table 4.12: Chi-square tests for independence: Is the egg in the Kota prepared using a healthy or unhealthy cooking method – consumers and street food vendors ...... 59
Table 4.13: Chi-square tests for independence: Should salads (tomato, lettuce, cucumber, onion) be in a healthy Kota – Consumers and street food vendors ...... 60
Table 4.14: Chi-square tests for independence: Should lean meat be in a healthy Kota – Consumers and street food vendors ...... 61
Table 4.15: Chi-square tests for independence: Should chicken breast be in a healthy Kota – Consumers and street food vendors ...... 61
Table 4.16: Chi-square tests for independence: Should wholegrain or high fibre bread be in a healthy Kota – Consumers and street food vendors ...... 62
ix Table 4.17: Symmetric Measures: Should wholegrain or high fibre bread be in a healthy Kota – Consumers and street food vendors ...... 62
Table 4.18: Chi-square tests for independence: Should beans (baked beans, kidney beans, lima Beans, butter beans, chickpeas) be in a healthy Kota – Consumers and street food vendors ...... 63
Table 4.19: Symmetric Measures: Should beans (baked beans, kidney beans, lima Beans, butter beans, chickpeas) be in a healthy Kota– Consumers and street food vendor.63
Table 4.20: Chi-square tests for independence: Is the Kota a healthy meal - Consumers ...... 64
Table 4.21: Chi-square tests for independence: Should the Kota be replaced with a healthier version? - Consumers...... 64
Table 4.22: Chi-square tests for independence: Do you think that customer’s that buy Kotas are concerned about following a healthy diet? - Consumers ...... 64
Table 4.23: Chi-square tests for independence: Do you think that street food vendors know how to prepare ingredients before cooking them? - Consumers...... 65
Table 4.24: Chi-square tests for independence: Do you think that street food vendors know how long each ingredient should be cooked for? - Consumers ...... 66
Table 4.25: Chi-square tests for independence: Do you think that street food vendors know how to check if an ingredient is properly cooked? - Consumers ...... 66
Table 4.26: Chi-square tests for independence: Do you think that street food vendors know how to prepare ingredients using different cooking methods? - Consumers ...... 67
Table 4.27: Chi-square tests for independence: Is the Kota healthy meal – Street food vendors ...... 67
Table 4.28: Chi-square tests for independence: Should the Kota be replaced with a healthier version? – Street food vendors ...... 67
Table 4.29: Chi-square tests for independence: Do you think that customer’s that buy Kotas are concerned about following a healthy diet? – Street food vendors ...... 68
Table 4.30: Chi-square tests for independence: Age and formal training in food safety, hygiene and/or food handling– Street food vendors ...... 69
Table 4.31: Symmetric Measures: Age and education level correlation – Street food vendors ...... 69
Table 4.32: Chi-square tests for independence: Education level and perception of knowledge on ingredient preparation – Street food vendors ...... 70
Table 4.33: Chi-square tests for independence: Education level and perception on how long each ingredient should be cooked for – Street food vendors ...... 70
Table 4.34: Chi-square tests for independence: Education level and perception on how to check if an ingredient is properly cooked – Street food vendors ...... 71
x Table 4.35: Chi-square tests for independence: Education level and the perception to prepare ingredients using different cooking methods – Street food vendors ...... 71
Table 4.36: Symmetric Measures: Education level and ability to prepare ingredients using different cooking methods – Street food vendors ...... 72
Table 4.37: Investigation of what ingredients are in a basic Kota ...... 72
Table 4.38: Other ingredients in a basic Kota ...... 74
Table 4.39: Healthy ingredients that were felt should be in a Kota ...... 75
Table 4.40: Perception on street food vendors’ formal training in food safety, hygiene and/or food handling ...... 76
Table 4.41: Reasons why street food vendors should use the correct food safety and hygiene practices ...... 77
Table 4.42: Street food vending priorities ...... 78
Table 4.43: Perception of how frequently street food vendors follow hygiene practices .. 79
Table 4.44: Results:Cronbach’s alpha test for consumers/ street food vendors merged. 81
Table 4.45: Results: Cronbach’s alpha test for street food vendors ...... 81
xi LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1: Legislation affecting street trading ...... 25
Figure 2.2: Conceptual framework of the study ...... 27
Figure 3.1: The process of quantitative research ...... 32
Figure 3.2: The sampling process ...... 40
xii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS
CoJ City of Johannesburg
DoH Department of Health
FAO Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations
FDA Food and Drug Authority
GDS Growth and. Development Strategy
HACCP Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point
HEALA Healthy Living Alliance
IFTP Informal food-trading programme
NICD South African National Institute for Communicable Diseases
RSA Republic of South Africa
UJ University of Johannesburg
WHO World Health Organisation
xiii LIST OF TERMINOLOGY
Kota: The term Kota is defined as “a quarter loaf of bread hollowed out and filled with combinations of atchar, polony (Bologna sausage), Russian sausages, ‘slap’ chips, cheese, eggs, chilli sauce and more. A street food variant of the more suburban bunny chow and is termed from the pronunciation of the English word “quarter” (Feeley, Pettifor & Norris 2009:118).
Healthy food: Also called a healthy diet, it is the consumption of “any food believed to be ‘good for you’, especially if high in fibre, natural vitamins and fructose. Less consumption of salt, sugars and saturated and industrially-produced trans-fats are essential for following a healthy diet which may reduce cholesterol, atherosclerosis and the risk of stroke, help control glucose, slow down the progression of osteoporosis, and reduce the risk of infections and cancer (World Health Organization [WHO], 2019; The Free Dictionary, 2019).
Obesity: Phillips, Comeau, Pisa, Stein and Norris (2016:2) define obesity as any person who has a body mass index ≥ 30Kg/m2, is grossly or abnormally fat in a way that is unhealthy and poses a health risk for chronic diseases.
Street food: Street food by definition is “foods which are generally sold from stands/stalls (usually not permanent structures) on the pavement of busy streets in both urban and rural areas, usually at lower costs than fast foods” (Steyn & Labadarios, 2011:462).
Street food vendor: A street food vendor is defined as “someone who sells things such as newspapers, cigarettes, or food from a small stall or cart” (Collins Dictionary, 2019)
Food safety: Food safety refers to “handling, preparing and storing food in a way to best reduce the risk of individuals becoming sick from foodborne illnesses, using controls and often in line with legislation.” (Australian Institute of Food Safety, 2019; European Food Information Council [EUFIC], 2019).
Food preparation skills: Also termed cooking skills that can be defined as “a set of mechanical or physical skills used in meal preparation” (Short, 2003; Ternier, 2019).
xiv CHAPTER 1 BACKGROUND AND OUTLINE OF THE STUDY
1.1 INTRODUCTION
A popular street-vended fast food item sold throughout South Africa is the Kota or “Quarter”, particularly in the busy hub of the township of Soweto in Gauteng, South Africa which on average comprises “a quarter loaf of white bread, fried potato chips, processed cheese, any number of processed meats or sausages, a fried egg, and various sauces” (Feeley et al., 2009:118). It is loved for its size, fillings and flavour but could be harmful to health and a significant contributor to obesity. Like many other fast foods sold by street vendors, the Kota is believed to be a factor that contributes to the worldwide obesity problem and pervasive unhealthy eating lifestyles.
Very few local studies have been published on the governance of fast food vendors, microbiological safety, food and safety knowledge, the practices amongst fast food vendors and the security of a street food vendor’s livelihood, and more importantly, on the fat and nutritional content of the foods that street vendors sell. However, these areas of discussion have been researched in global studies and published by numerous authors (Omemu & Aderoju, 2008:397; Caron, 2013:2; Ababio & Lovatt, 2014:93; Samapundo, Climat, Xhaferi & Devlieghere, 2015:458; Martin, 2014:1871; Farahat, El-Shafie & Waly, 2015:427; Kumar, 2016:453). This study consults these references for further insight.
The study will look at how healthy the Kota is perceived to be, if there is a consumer demand for a healthier Kota and the food safety and hygiene practices of street food vendors that sell the Kota.
1.1.1 Background of the study
The Kota, also known as “Quarter”, derived its origin from the “Bunny Chow”, which was first seen in the Indian community of Durban, Kwa-Zulu Natal, South Africa when Hindus from India began migrating to the area as early as 1860 (Desai & Vahed, 2011:46). The “Bunny Chow” is defined as “a very cheap and very filling meal, consisting of a half or quarter loaf of bread, with the inside hollowed out and filled with meat or vegetable curry as a takeaway” (Shvachko & Vasyura, 2004:65; Koopman, 2011:91). Branford and Aldridge (1980:45) report that it was usually sold in lower income group areas and that the translation of the name is broken up into two words, “chow” meaning food of Chinese origin, while “Bunnie”, “Bunny” or “Bunia”, are synonyms that translate into Hindu or Gujerati businessmen who were all called “Bania’”; hence they called the takeaway “Bunia Chow” (Mesthrie & Hromnik, 2011:71).
1 Similarly, the Kota has gained popularity and rapidly spread across the country. It is a modification of the traditional “bunny chow”, aimed at youth living in urban and rural areas, defined as “townships, settlements, towns and cities”; it is high in fat, salt and carbohydrates, with a low fibre content (Feeley et al., 2009:118).
1.2 RESEARCH PROBLEM
“With South Africa mirroring worldwide obesity and nutrition-related chronic disease trends, it is important to assess changing dietary habits and eating practices, with specific emphasis on fast-food consumption. Children and adolescents living in urban and township areas are increasingly exposed to the influences of the western lifestyle, and therefore to foods that are relatively high in fat, carbohydrates and salt and low in fibre” (Feeley et al., 2009:118).
The purpose of this study is to investigate if consumers of the existing Kota are aware of the nutritional value of the ingredients in a Kota and to identify if consumers and street food vendors feel that there is a need to develop a healthier Kota. The study will also look at hygiene standards of Kota preparation and the overall food knowledge and health and safety practices of the street vendors themselves.
1.2.1 Identify the research problem
The problem that has led to the development and research into the topic of the study is unhealthy street food that is currently being sold globally. As stated, there is a lack of existing literature on the consumption and nutritional value of the Kota, a local South African street vended fast food, as well as the food and safety knowledge of local Soweto street food vendors (Feeley et al., 2009:119).
1.2.2 Statement of the problem
More Soweto locals are consuming the street vended fast food known as the Kota, and with many of its ingredients being high in carbohydrates and unhealthy fats, this could be a contributor to obesity in the community of Soweto (Malhotra et al., 2008:316). Further noted by Ramaena (2017:37) is the fact that “consumption of unhealthy foods, such as fast foods and soft drinks is more prevalent in urban areas than rural areas”, and Soweto is classified as an urban settlement or “township” in South Africa (Voorend, Norris, Griffiths, Sedibe, Westerman & Doak, 2012:564; Feeley & Norris, 2014:88-89; South African History Online [SAHO], 2019).
1.3 RATIONALE OF THE STUDY
Many authors have reported on the resources that fast food vendors have available to them (Bas, Ersun & Kivanç, 2006; Fotopoulos, Kafetzopoulos & Gotzamani, 2011:579; World
2 Food Programme (WFP), 2012:58; Rendall-Mkosi, Wenhold & Sibanda, 2013). Numerous studies have examined street food vendors’ overall hygiene and food safety knowledge (Jianu & Chis, 2012:154; Martins, Hogg & Otero, 2012:185; Afolaranmi, Hassan, Bello & Misari, 2015), while other authors have reported on the role that government plays in regulating street vendors, or the lack thereof, and the assessment of pathogens present in various food samples sold amongst fast food vendors both locally and globally (Bryan et al., 1997:396; Beuchat, Nail, Adler & Clavero, 1998:1309; Ekanem, 1998:213; Mosupye & von Holy, 1999:1278; Samapundo et al., 2015:464). Literature has been published on the nutritional value of the Kota as an individual street-vended fast food and the concerns associated with it, but as a standalone study, further research is required to determine if Kota consumers are seeking a healthier alternative (Feeley et al., 2009:123).
The study aims to measure the extent of the understanding that the local street food vendors have of the nutritional value of the food that they sell and both the consumers and the vendors’ standing on whether there is a need to replace the current Kota with a healthier alternative. Segen (2011: online) defines healthy food as:
Any food believed to be ‘good for you’, especially if high in fibre, natural vitamins, fructose, etc. Healthy foods may reduce cholesterol, reduce the atherosclerosis and risk of stroke, help control glucose, halt progression of osteoporosis, and reduce the risk of infections, cancer.
The study also assesses food hygiene and safety knowledge and how the City of Johannesburg (CoJ) as a governing organisation aims to train these vendors to implement correct and healthy practices. The study has been officially partnered with CoJ in line with their Growth and Development strategy 2040 (City of Johannesburg, 2011). As part of CoJ’s strategy, the Mayor of Johannesburg, Herman Mashaba and his flagship programme aim to promote healthy eating in the city, suburbs and townships, committing to initiatives that will prevent communicable and non-communicable diseases such as diabetes, high blood pressure, obesity and heart ailments. “I fully support informal traders in our city, as much as I support the health of residents”, was the statement made by Mashaba in response to the public when he received backlash from stopping a street vendor pushing cows’ heads in a trolley through the city (Guercia, 2011). Other research pertaining to indigenous South African food also indicates that the diet of the urban South African shows a significantly higher intake of sugar and fat than that of their rural counterparts (Goedecke, Jennings & Lambert, 2006:1). The link between the Kota sold by fast food vendors and street food vendor food hygiene and safety knowledge will be investigated.
3 Further research into food safety knowledge and practices of fast food vendors will be researched. Past studies prove that a preponderance of vending sites lack basic infrastructure and services, such as potable running water and garbage disposal facilities; the water used to wash dishes and hands is often insufficient and may be re-used, sometimes without soap (Abdussalam & Käferstein, 1993:192; Kubheka, Mosupye & von Holy, 2001:129). This, plus the fact that only in rare cases do street vendors have adequate refrigeration facilities, poses serious health risks, especially during the warmer months of the year (Carolissen-Mackay, 1998:37; Ekanem, 1998:211; Martínez-Tomé, Vera & Murchia, 2000:441). Martins (2006:19) goes on to state that, “street food vendors are often poor and uneducated and lack an appreciation of safe food handling and consequently, street foods are perceived to be a major public health risk”. Martins also noted the restriction to potable water, ablution facilities, adequate refrigeration and washing and garbage disposal facilities. His findings indicate that overall, the hygiene standard of the street food sold by vendors is quite acceptable but regular hand washing, wearing jewellery, protective clothing, handling of money and preparing food whilst ill are all of notable concern.
The WHO (1989) reports that: Mishandling and disregard of hygienic measures on the part of the food vendors may enable pathogens to come into contact with foods and in some cases to survive and multiply in sufficient numbers to cause illness to the consumer.
It can thus be said that food safety and hygiene play the biggest role in ensuring that uncontaminated food is not sold to consumers and the suggestion for local authorities to implement codes of practice, training and certificates for complying vendors should be heeded (Omemu & Aderoju, 2008:401).
Upon looking closer at other studies, fast food vendors’ highest level of education may also be taken into consideration as a contributing factor or means for comparison. Martins (2006:18) noted that approximately half of the 200 vendor respondents in his study had a secondary school qualification and that the vast majority of vendors were female. A mere 18% of vendors in his study reported that they were aware of training programmes for informal street vendors and only 31.5% had some knowledge on the “10 golden rules for healthy food preparation”, while the Department of Health (DoH) apparently displays large posters depicting these rules in locations where vendors usually operate. Similar results can be found in international studies, such as that of Samapundo et al. (2015:458) conducted in Port-au-Prince in Haiti, where the authors found that “street vendors are often poor, uneducated and show little concern for the safe handling of foods”. The Food and Agricultural Organization [FAO] (1990) adds that, “it has been observed that street food vendors generally have poor levels of food safety and knowledge”. Other authors have
4 reported contrasting results on street vendors’ education levels relative to their food safety and hygiene practices. Soares, Almeida, Cerqueira, Carvalho and Nunes (2012:210) noted a positive correlation between the two, however Annor and Baiden (2011:833) did not report any noteworthy effect of educational level on food safety and hygiene knowledge.
Omemu and Aderoju (2008:399), who conducted a study on food safety knowledge of street vendors in Nigeria, imply that there may also be a link between the prevalence of females in street food vending with higher food safety knowledge. Female vendors were found to sell food with a higher nutritional value than that of their male peers (Ohiokpehai, 2003:79). This too was the result of Klontz, Timbo, Fein and Levy (1995:929), where safe food preparation was reported by females, who were a minimum of 40 years old and possessed a high school education certificate.
This study would thus contribute to the current literature gap, as well as identifying if there is a need for a healthier alternative to the current Kota based on the results determined from Kota consumers.
1.4 OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
1.4.1 Main research objective
The main research objective is to determine if consumers feel there is a need for a healthy Kota to be sold by street vendors in the Soweto District; this will ultimately answer if there is a need to replace the existing Kota with a healthy alternative.
1.4.2 Research sub-objectives
The sub-objectives of the study are: i. To investigate the basic ingredients that makes up a standard Kota; ii. To determine the street food vendors’ perceived level and knowledge of food preparation skills when preparing a Kota; and iii. To determine the level of food safety and hygiene knowledge of the street food vendors
1.5 MAIN RESEARCH QUESTION
The main research question is, is there a need by consumers to replace the existing Kota with a healthy alternative? This question is posed to both consumers and street food vendors to determine the need.
5 1.5.1 Research sub-questions i. What are the basic ingredients in a standard Kota? ii. What perceived level of food preparation skills do street food vendors have when preparing a Kota? iii. What level of food safety and hygiene knowledge do street food vendors possess?
1.6 OUTLINE OF CHAPTERS
Chapter 1: Background and outline of the study: This chapter introduces the context of the research and gives a background to the research. The objectives and rationale of the study is stated. It also includes a brief sketch of the purpose and aims of the study.
Chapter 2: Literature Review: Chapter 2 reviews current literature and the findings available on global and local street food vendors of the Kota. It discusses the consumers that buy this food item, the food safety knowledge of consumers and street food vendors, street food vendors’ hygiene practices and the current Kota’s nutritional value.
Chapter 3: Research Methodology: This chapter outlines the data collection procedure and the methodological approach to the study. It discusses the pilot study, the instruments used and why they were selected . The overall framework of the research is addressed.
Chapter 4: Results: This chapter discusses the results of the study in detail and in line with the research questions.
Chapter 5: Discussion of main findings: Chapter 5 discusses the findings derived from the data collected and analysed using SPSS software. Data are presented in graphical format that facilitates interpretation by the researcher.
Chapter 6: Conclusions, Recommendations and Limitations: This chapter provides the researcher’s conclusions and recommendations, based on the analysis and interpretation of data analysed in the preceding chapter. The limitations of the study are also discussed.
1.7 SUMMARY
This study offers new research that has not yet been conducted in South Africa, as the Kota is an authentic South African street-vended fast food product. The relevance of its nutritional value and whether a healthy replacement is necessary will assist future studies on the nutritional value of food sold by local street vendors and the outcomes will contribute to the current knowledge gap on the topic.
6 The findings on food safety and hygiene practices can be used globally for comparison as this part of the study is not limited to South Africa, as standards for food safety are generally similar throughout the world.
In addressing the nutritional value of the popular Kota, the importance of a healthy diet applies to both young and older people, and the benefits thereof will hopefully be proven in further studies. This will address the ever-growing global epidemic of obesity, which due to the influence of a westernised culture seen in South Africa in the last few decades, is spreading through the country at an alarming rate.
7 CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter analyses existing literature, apposite to the study, specifically the South African street-vended fast food known as the Kota, its ingredients, nutritional quality, and growth in popularity. Literature on street food vendors’ food safety, hygiene knowledge and practices will also be examined in addition to their food preparation skills.
2.2 THE KOTA
2.2.1 Defining street food
Street food by definition is “foods which are generally sold from stands/stalls (usually not permanent structures) on the pavement of busy streets in both urban and rural areas, usually at lower costs than fast foods” (Steyn & Labadarios, 2011:462; Hill, Mchiza, Fourie, Steyn & Puoane, 2019:401). It is often sold from a portable food booth, food cart, or food truck and meant for immediate consumption, thus categorising it as fast food. Feeley et al. (2009:122) define fast food as: “...convenience foods obtained in self-service or ‘take-away’ eateries with minimal waiting and are usually characterised as energy dense, low in micronutrients and fibre, high in simple sugars and salt, generally larger in portion size than conventional home-cooked or restaurant foods and highly palatable”.
Some street foods are regional but many have spread beyond their region of origin. Most street foods are classed as both finger food and fast food, and are cheaper on average than meals purchased at a restaurant (Mosupye & von Holy, 1999:1278; Samapundo et al, 2015:457). According to a 2007 study from the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations Agriculture and Consumer Protection Department, 2.5 billion people eat street food every day (Fellows & Hilmi, 2011:7).
Street food is often common or typical of the place from which it originates but in some cases the variety on offer is vast and loses the cultural link with its place of origin and characteristics from multi ethnic influences (Steyn & Labadrios, 2011:462). The Kota, as discussed above, originated from the Indian community but due to the multi-ethnic and cultural dynamic of South Africa, has evolved into what it is today.
2.2.2 The birth and history of the Kota
The Kota, also known as “Quarter”, derived its origin from the “Bunny Chow”, which was first seen in the Indian community of Durban, Kwa-Zulu Natal, South Africa, when Hindus from
8 India began migrating to the area as early as 1860 (Desai & Vahed 2011:46). The “Bunny Chow” is defined as “a very cheap and very filling meal, consisting of a half or quarter loaf of bread, with the inside hollowed out and filled with meat or vegetable curry, usually beans curry, and sold as a takeaway” (Shvachko & Vasyura, 2004:65; Koopman, 2011:91). Desai and Vahed (2011:6) report that eating a bunny chow is a very shared or united experience as groups of friends, colleagues or family usually eat together. The name is likely to have emanated from Kapitan and Patel’s on Grey Street (now Yusuf Dadoo Street), owned by the Banias. It was referred to as ‘‘bunny ous’’ (an Indian trading caste) who invented the dish as an economical and convenient take-away. The hollowed out loaves of bread served as makeshift bowls and the “cap” of white bread at the top served to help clean ones hands after eating as the takeaway did not even come with a serviette or spoon. This was because in the 1950s when Apartheid laws were passed, black South Africans were no longer allowed to eat in restaurants and eating takeout from any of these restaurants had to be as inconspicuous as possible from law enforcement officers (Twigg, 2018). Branford and Aldridge (1980:45) report that it was usually sold in areas where lower income groups resided. The origin of the name stems from the word, “chow” meaning food of Chinese origin, and “Bunnie”, “Bunny” or “Bunia”, all derivatives of Hindu or Gujerati businessmen who were called “Bania” (Desai & Vahed, 2011:6). Hence, they called the takeaway “Bunia Chow” (Koopman, 2011:91; Mesthrie & Hromnik, 2011:78).
According to AFP Relaxnews (2018), the Kota evolved from the Bunny Chow and was born from South African history, where non-whites were not allowed to eat in restaurants or use their cutlery and crockery. Therefore, the hollowed out half loaf of bread served the purpose of carrying take-away food, as did sandwiches. Even though the Oxford Learners’ Dictionary (2019) defines a sandwich as “an item of food consisting of two pieces of bread with a filling between them”, South Africa certainly has its own unique genre of street sandwiches. These may be called Bunny Chow, Kota (also known as Quarter), Sphatlo or Iskhambane, dependent on the geographical location in which it is purchased. In addition, there is the Gatsby, another well-known South African street food, which originated in Cape Town. The Gatsby consists of a loaf of French bread that is normally filled with masala steak, melted cheese, fried eggs, chips and several sauces. However, the Kota, influenced by the Bunny Chow, is said to have its roots in ‘Kasi’ or township heritage (Mohlomi, 2017).
Feeley et al. (2009:120) also bring to our attention some anecdotal evidence that suggests that the ‘quarter’ or Kota can be rooted to the ‘bunny chow’. During the late 1970s and 1980s, the Kota was first seen to be composed of “bread, mashed potato, mincemeat, and atchaar, often accompanied by a cooked chicken’s foot.” This version is still available, but
9 seems to be favoured amongst the elders. Most vendors noted that fried chips were first introduced to the Kota in the late 1980s, and thereafter other food items were slowly introduced. Thus, even though all of the ingredients of a Kota are not necessarily standardised, there are some key attributes that make it a Kota, which the authors note as “a quarter-loaf of white bread, a portion of fried chips, a slice of processed cheese, any number of processed meats, including, though not exclusively, polony, Russian sausage, Vienna, mangola, white liver, and special (the latter three are fatty processed meats), a fried egg, and sauces, including tomato sauce, mustard, chilli sauce, and mango atchaar. Occasionally lettuce, fresh tomato and/or chakalaka (a spicy vegetable relish) are added.
Some street foods available today have been globalized and are linked to specific cultural environments or geographical areas. The name may suggest where it is from and/or what the ingredients are (Privitera & Nesci, 2015:718). The Kota or “Quarter” has one element of this, as the main ingredient in this dish is a quarter loaf of white bread. The authors go on to tell us “Street food has an important role in the cities and towns of many developing cities and towns in meeting the food demands of urban dwellers.” They share the likes of the hot dog’s popularity in New York and the kebab rooting its heritage in Istanbul (Privitera & Nesci, 2015:717).
2.2.3 Growth of the Kota
The Kota has gained popularity, so much so that 2017 saw the birth of the first annual Soweto Kota Festival which was held in Jabulani in Soweto, dedicated to the famous Kota. The festival has since grown from strength to strength and has seen even more success in 2018 and 2019. The aim of the event is to celebrate ‘Kasi’ food and heritage, and 35 street vendors were encouraged to attend and sell their version of the Kota. Judges are appointed, some ingredients, like the bread, are sponsored and prizes for marketing and further business development are on offer to the winners (Eventa, 2019).
Voorend et al. (2012:5) confirmed that the trendiest food item to buy at schools in Soweto during break time was the “relatively cheap, so-called Kota; a quarter loaf of white bread with chips, meat, cheese, egg and/or sauce”. The obesity pandemic is beginning to mimic that of the urban areas (Feeley et al., 2009:122). Steyn and Labadarios (2011:462) note that street foods may be responsible for up to 40% of the daily diet of urban consumers in economically developing nations and that street foods are often frequently sold in poor and working class countries, and that South Africa would fall within this bracket.
As eating patterns and trends evolve through the ages, social and economic factors have an influence on individual diets and some factors that attribute to this may include income, cost,
10 preferences, cultural traditions, and geographical location. Healthy food environments require furtherance from multiple sectors, including the government and educational systems, to enable change. Steyn, Labadarios and Nell (2011:104) reported frequent consumption of street food and fast food in all of South Africa’s nine provinces and consequently is factored into total dietary intake, especially for those who consume these meals often. The average Kota, as previously stated, is defined as “comprises a quarter loaf of white bread, fried potato chips, processed cheese, any number of processed meats or sausages, a fried egg, and various sauces and is very high in fat, sodium and carbohydrates, with a little fibre” (Feeley et al., 2009:119), hence its reputation as unhealthy and of poor dietary quality.
2.2.4 Ingredients of a Kota
The average Kota comprises the following components, “a quarter loaf of white bread, fried potato chips, processed cheese, any number of processed meats or sausages, a fried egg, and various sauces” (Feeley et al., 2009:119). It is a modification of the traditional “bunny chow” aimed at the youth that reside in urban and rural areas, “townships, settlements, towns and cities”, and from its contents, the authors note that the Kota has an imbalance in its nutritive composition as it is high in fat, sodium and carbohydrates, with little fibre.
2.2.5 Nutritional value of a Kota
Nutritional value can be described as the contribution of a food to the nutrient content of the diet. This value depends on the quantity of a food which is digested and absorbed and the amounts of the essential nutrients (protein, fat, carbohydrate, minerals and vitamins) which it contains. This value can be affected by soil and growing conditions, handling, storage, and processing (Reference MD, 2019). Thus, it can be said that the perceived nutritional value of the Kota’s ingredients are based on the feelings, thoughts, opinions and previous nutritional knowledge and assumptions that a person may have on or around a particular food ingredient.
According to Feeley et al. (2009:121), the nutritional breakdown of 16 Kota samples were assessed and the findings revealed that:
“The energy content ranged between 3 093 kilojoules and 8 015 kilojoules; the total protein ranged between 26 gram and 62 gram; the total fat ranged between 15.1 gram and 88.1 gram; saturated fatty acids (SFA) ranged between 5.3 gram and 22.2 gram; total carbohydrates ranged between 102 gram and 202 gram; total dietary fibre ranged between 6.8 gram and 15.2 gram; and the sodium content ranged between 1108 milligram and 4402 milligram”.
11 Torun (2005:980) reports that the energy requirement a 17-year old is 10000 kilojoules; in their findings an average Kota meal supplied more than half of this requirement, served with a soft drink, 60%, or without a soft drink, 54%. The energy density of the Kota when compared with 100 gram per KFC meal, 100 gram per Steers meal and 100 gram per McDonalds meal, ranked the second highest with KFC containing 1257 kilojoules, followed by, the Kota 1162 kilojoules, McDonalds 1039 kilojoules and Steers 960 kilojoules. Torun reported that when compared with other studies, the results of this one proved that the mean fast-food item intake amongst 17-year olds in Soweto was higher than in the USA and China. The primary research carried out in the aforementioned study also explored the need for a healthy alternative to the Kota as a means to combat the obesity epidemic. Whilst it has been recognised that health education needs to be built upon, current knowledge around what healthy food is, the implication of social pressure seems to create a barrier for progression (Feeley et al., 2009:118).
Feeley, Kahn, Twine and Norris (2011:199-201) report that it is worthy to note that Kotas sampled in rural areas contained more energy and fat than those sampled from Soweto (6300 kilojoules, 60 grams fat, versus 5369 kilojoules, 51.5 grams fat). They attribute these results to the fact that the portion size of fried chips used in the rural Kota was bigger. Fried foods are known to be low in macronutrients and are not fibre-dense but contain high amounts of energy and fats. Upon inspection of a 17-year old’s energy requirements, the authors note it is 10000 kilojoules of which less than 30% should originate from fat. If a portion of chips and a Kota are consumed, this could comprise up to 70% of the total daily fat requirement.
In many economically developing communities, fast food purchases are perceived as a marker of economic status (Popkin, 2006:290). This suggests that whilst there is a need for a healthy alternative to street foods and fast foods, demand is driven by a culture that does not reflect a desire for healthy foods (Pereira et al., 2005:36-42). Female respondents highlighted individual mind-set and society, alongside diet and physical activity, as equally influential to healthy lifestyles (Phillips et al., 2016:4). As many low- and middle-income countries evolve economically, studies have noted an increased intake of energy-dense foods. A group of mothers interviewed in Soweto appeared to relate food quantity and choice with luxury, viewing an increase in different foods as an improvement on their own upbringing (Phillips et al., 2016:4). The theory of Phillips et al. (2016:8) suggests that where rapid urbanisation is occurring and communities are seeing changes in spending habits, individuals are spending more of their disposable income on fast foods. This research supports that theory when we note how mothers were motivated to provide their daughters
12 with more fast food on the basis that this was something unavailable to them when growing up. Some mothers within the group were keen to provide their daughters with healthier foods than they had been given when growing up. Many daughters showed a strong understanding of what it meant to be healthy, noting that small behavioural changes in diet and exercise had the potential to improve their lifestyles. Interestingly, reflecting on the BMI recorded of the respondents in this study, awareness did not appear to influence the daughters to make positive changes (Phillips et al., 2016:5).
Further examination of the research by Phillips et al. (2016) identified physical inactivity as a primary health risk among young women in the urban township of Soweto, Johannesburg. Other articles examined in this literature reviewed dietary habits of various communities, including social influences, cost and convenience of high-energy foods lacking in nutritional density, and primarily street food (Puoane et al., 2002; Goedecke et al., 2006; Reddy et al., 2012; Alaba & Chola, 2014). Whilst many of these communities continue to tackle the burden of malnutrition and the health complications it may cause, they are also experiencing an upsurge in diseases that can be linked directly to obesity. This suggests that what people perceive as healthy may not be healthy; weight gain has traditionally been observed as a positive change but there appears to be a lack of education around how much is too much (Alaba & Chola, 2014:3400).
In addition to the nutritional value of the Kota, Alaba and Chola (2014) examined current research. They found that attention was focussed on the governance of street food vendors, the security of street food vendors’ livelihoods, safety relating to the microbiology of street food, as well as the hygiene and safety knowledge and practices amongst street food vendors in published literature. However, very few local studies, if any, have been published on South African street foods, the nutritional content thereof and the link it may have to the increase in obesity (Mosupye & von Holy, 1999:1279).
The study of Voorend et al. (2012:1) was the exception to this. They report that the mean fat content of a Kota is 60 grams and much like in other countries, obesity is on the rise, where the prevalence of being overweight or obese is particularly high (57%) amongst women and that higher results of obesity are reported in Cape Town (80%) than in other historically disadvantaged townships.
Feeley et al. (2011:200) stated that:
“We have found that the consumption of fast food (defined as convenience foods obtained from take-away vendors), and usually characterised as energy dense, low in
13 micronutrients and fibre and high in simple sugars and salt is high amongst teenagers in Soweto”.
The Kota ranked as the second most popular fast food sold by street food vendors in four rural areas in north and east of South Africa. Voorend et al. (2012:9) found that female high school adolescents in the Soweto area of Johannesburg purchase Kotas from their school tuck shop and that there may be a direct link to more than half of the participants in the study being recorded as obese. Their study also explores an adolescent’s perceived social ideas towards fast foods, pricing, as well as portion size, which enables them to share meals.
According to Privitera and Nesci (2015:718):
“Street foods may be the least expensive and most accessible means of obtaining a nutritionally balanced meal outside the home for many low-income people, provided that the consumer is informed and able to choose the proper combination of foods”.
This gives hope to the Kota, where one is generally able to omit or add ingredients to the dish when making a purchase from the vendor.
In light of the above, some perspective of the nutritional value of the Kota has been gained. It can be noted that unless it is the only meal that one is consuming, the chances of exceeding the total daily fat requirement is particularly high and thus a contributor to overweight adolescents in Soweto.
2.2.6 The obesity pandemic and the Kota
The WHO estimates that 39% of the world’s population is overweight, with 650 million adults classified as obese. Obesity may be defined as “excess body fat”. Because body fat is usually not measured directly, a ratio of body weight to height is often used instead. It is defined as Body Mass Index (BMI). An adult who has a BMI of 30 or higher is considered obese (Healthy Living Alliance [HEALA], 2019b).
Govender, Al-Shamsi and Regmi (2019:85) report that in many places obesity is considered a chronic disease and that it is often associated with “stigmatisation and discrimination”. Whilst the obesity crisis was once a concern that appeared to affect only high-income regions, there has been a significant rise in obesity in many poverty-stricken and middle- order countries. In Africa, obesity rates are rising, with disadvantaged urban communities appearing to be most at risk.
In South Africa, 57% of women are categorised as overweight or obese and it is widely recognised that one of the fundamental causes of obesity is the consumption of more calories than one expends, causing an energy imbalance (WHO, 2018). Puoane et al.
14 (2002:1038) reported that the mean weight of women in their study was higher than men and that the heaviest women were between 35-64 yrs old; women’s BMI continued to rise until the age of 64 years, while it was significantly less for men. Hunter-Adams, Battersby and Oni (2019:248) attribute obesity to food insecurity and it is noted in Schools Campaign by the Healthy Living Alliance that “3% of South African children are either overweight or obese” (HEALA, 2019a).
Steyn and Labadarios (2011:462) reported that there is a paucity of national data and research available on how much street and fast food is consumed in South Africa. However, they recorded that Black South Africans consumed street food most frequently and that the youngest consumers of street food were between 16-24 years old. This study was conducted across all nine provinces of South Africa, in all geographical areas and encompassed all races. Participants were aged 16 years and upwards. The findings furthermore reported that “fruit, cold drinks, savoury snacks, biscuits and cooked food such as pap and fried meat” were the most common food items purchased (Steyn & Labadarios, 2011:462). The Kota would fall into the category of cooked food.
Feeley et al. (2009) produced data on the amount of fast food that was being consumed (including street food sold by vendors) by 17-year olds in the birth–20 cohort in Soweto and Johannesburg. Their findings illustrated that 30% of the participants ate fast foods five to seven times a week, with another 20% consuming it two to four times a week. The authors postulated that street foods were likely to be a large contributor to total dietary intake since many items were considerably sized meals in terms of energy value.
2.2.7 Perceived need for a healthy Kota
The perception of a need for a healthy Kota can be defined as both consumers and street food vendors’ feelings, opinions, wants and needs on supplying, buying and consuming a Kota that is made up of ingredients with better nutritional value than the existing Kota.
Articles published (Adams, 2017; Khambule, 2017; Mohlomi, 2017; Guercia, 2018) explain that the Kota is evolving and many street food vendors have reported that consumer demand for a healthy Kota is on the increase and they (the vendors) are finding creative ways to meet this need.
For example, Rocktown Deli’s chef, Mogau Tabane, makes mention of fillings such as mushroom and strawberry being introduced to Kotas. The vendor and owner of “Kasi Pavement Café in Rockville” told the press that they had introduced healthier options on their menu such as “creamed spinach, green beans, feta and chicken kebabs”. Another
15 addition to health conscious consumers’ options was avocado, which proved to be a popular ingredient in Kotas sold at 2019 Soweto Kota Festival. An innovative combination was scrambled egg, butternut and spinach, which was referred to as the “vegetarian Kota“. Some vendors used boiled eggs, lean cuts of meat, brown bread and other raw or pickled vegetables like “red onion, fresh chilli and home-made pickled cucumber”. A vendor from Westbury, Carol Dooms, makes her Kotas using “rye bread, fewer processed meats and more fresh vegetables”. Chief Katlego Mlambo told the press that he offers two Kotas that have a “healthy twist”, in which he includes ingredients such as grilled tomatoes, lettuce and green peppers (Adams, 2017; Khambule, 2017; Mohlomi, 2017; Guercia, 2018).
2.3 OVERVIEW OF STREET FOOD VENDORS’ FOOD SAFETY KNOWLEDGE AND HYGIENE PRACTICES
Research into food safety knowledge and practices of street food vendors reveals that most vending sites do not have basic infrastructure and services, namely potable running water and garbage disposal facilities, and that dish and hand washing water is often inadequate and re-used many times, sometimes without cleanser or detergent (Abdussalam & Käferstein, 1993:192; Mosupye & von Holy, 1999:1282). This, together with the fact that only in rare cases do street vendors have adequate refrigeration facilities, poses serious health risks, especially during the warmer months of the year (Carolissen-Mackay, 1998:37; Ekanem, 1998:214; Martínez-Tomé et al., 2000:442).
Martins (2006:27) reported that “street food vendors are often poor and uneducated and lack an appreciation of safe food handling and consequently, street foods are perceived to be a major public health risk”. Despite the restrictions of no potable water, inadequate ablution facilities, lack of refrigeration, cleaning and garbage disposal systems, Martins noted that overall the hygiene standard of the street food sold by vendors is quite acceptable. However, regular hand washing, wearing jewellery and no protective clothing, handling of money and preparing food whilst ill are all notable concerns (Martins, 2006:27).
2.3.1 Food safety defined
Food Safety refers to “handling, preparing and storing food in a way that reduces the risk of individuals becoming sick from foodborne illnesses (Australian Institute of Food Safety, 2019). The Australian Institute of Food Safety adds that the principles of food safety aim to prevent food from becoming contaminated and causing food poisoning. This is achieved in many ways, some of which are:
Properly cleaning and sanitising all surfaces, equipment and utensils; Maintaining a high level of personal hygiene, especially hand-washing;
16 Storing, chilling and heating food correctly with regards to temperature, environment and equipment; Implementing effective pest control; and Comprehending food allergies, food poisoning and food intolerance.
2.3.2 Current food safety practices
Actual food safety practices being followed can be defined as a list of principals used to measure if the respective street food vendor is both knowledgeable as well as practically applying these principals in their daily food preparation, storage and handling. (Australian Institute of Food Safety, 2019)
2.3.3 A global perspective
According to Farahat et al. (2015:427), Saudi Arabia has no formal food and safety regulations. Their study focussed on women only as street food vendors in Saudi, which limitation is because food preparation at home is mainly done by women due to cultural influences. They state that several studies in other countries have found that consumers have substandard food safety knowledge and/or practices (Albrecht, 1995; Bruhn & Schutz, 1999; Jay, Comar & Govenlock, 1999; Medeiros, Kendal, Hillers, Chen & Schroeder, 2001; Redmond & Griffith, 2003; Unusan, 2007; Fawzi & Shama, 2009, cited by Farahat et al., 2015:427).
Results of street food vendor education levels, gender and knowledge on healthy food preparation reflect similarly to those conducted locally in international studies. An example is the study of Samapundo, Climat, Xhaferi and Devilieghere (2015), conducted in Port-au- Prince, Haiti, which found that street vendors often do not have high incomes, are ill educated and show a lack of interest in the safe handling of foods. FAO (1990) goes on to add, “It has been observed that street food vendors generally have poor levels of food safety and knowledge”. Other authors have reported contrasting results in correlation to street vendors’ education level and their food safety and hygiene practices. Soares et al. (2012:212) noted a positive correspondence between the two but Annor and Baiden (2011:833) did not find any meaningful correlation of educational level on food safety and hygiene knowledge.
Several studies referenced by Farahat et al. (2015:427) highlight that many countries have reported consumers to have a less than desirable amount of food safety knowledge and/or practices. Most of them reported discontinuity between their food safety knowledge and practices (Albrecht, 1995; Bruhn & Schutz, 1999; Jay, Comar & Govenlock, 1999; Medeiros, Kendal, Hillers, Chen & Schroeder, 2001; Redmond & Griffith, 2003; Unusan, 2007; Fawzi & Shama, 2009, cited by Farahat et al., 2015:427).
17 They add that even though the public has been perturbed about food-related health risks, food poisoning cases continue to increase, which would draw closer to the fact that the decisions that people make are less than ideal from a health and safety perspective about what to eat and the way that food is stored and prepared (McCarthy et al., 2007:206). Most recent research has centred on hazard control in the food production sector, but an equal effort has not been dedicated to raising awareness and education of consumers on food safety (Garayoa, Cordoba, Garcia-Jalon, Sanchez-Villlegas & Vitas, 2005:2633). As developed countries launched local initiatives to educate consumers on food safety and hygiene, so the need for better food safety education started to be identified globally (Haapala & Probart, 2004:73) and Privitera and Nesci (2015:719) report that local governments and authorities in most developing countries are responsible for initiating and regulating the food hygiene trade (Tinker, 1997).
2.3.4 An African perspective
Omemu and Aderoju (2006:1) stated that the importance of street food has seen increased scrutiny worldwide as a general concern for food security and health. Canet and N’Diaye (1996) detected that the majority of the street food vendors in their study, conducted in the city of Abeokuta in Nigeria, are unregulated and operate haphazardly with little to no monitoring of what food is prepared and sold and how it is prepared. They also implied that there may be a link between the predominance of females in street food vending and them having better food safety knowledge. Omemu and Aderoju (2008:396) report that factors such as the characteristics of the trade, inadequate local infrastructure, features of the products sold and having little sanitary surveillance raise concerns about the safety of street- vended foods. Added to this is the fact that street food vendors are mostly unlicensed, have no formal training in food hygiene and workplace sanitation and work under primitive, unsanitary conditions (Muinde & Kuri, 2005:3).
While this may be the case in Nigeria, the Ghana Standards Authority has developed and encouraged international and nationally acceptable food safety standards, implemented by directives given to their local authorities, including their metropolitan assemblies (Ababio & Lovatt, 2014:75). At first glance, Ghana seems better off as Ababio and Lovatt (2015:92-93) state:
The food laws in Ghana include the Food and Drugs Act PNDCL 305B of 1992, which covers food safety and handling requirements and penalties for breaching the law.” The existing hygiene principles are not legally binding (Ghana Standards Authority, 2013) but are guidelines that the food industry can use to ensure food safety. The Food and Drugs Authority (FDA) is the national regulatory body under the Ministry of Health with the responsibility of implementing food policies and ensuring the safety and wholesomeness
18 of food for consumers”. FDA roles include food manufacturing and processing site inspections, licensing, product registration and monitoring.
Ghana also provides adequate hygiene training for food handlers that correlates with globally accepted standards for the street food vended industry. However, Ababio and Lovatt (2015:92-93), as their research continues, they then note that food poisoning prevails domestically, commercially and in industrial catering nationally and go on to say that restaurants and standalone food vendors were flagged as sources of foodborne illness. Standing out most notably in their research, however, is the fact that food handlers and vendors’ hygiene practices been reported to be below standard (Tomlins, Johnson, Aseidu, Myhara & Greenhalgh, 2002; Afoakwa, 2005:26; Addo, Bonsu & Akyeh, 2007:3; Feglo & Sakyi, 2012:6). Alarmingly, numerous authors have reported bacterial counts superseding the acceptable limits as set out by the Ghana Standards Authority for Ready to Eat Foods (Mensah, Yeboah-Manu, Owusu-Darko & Ablordey, 2002:551; Feglo & Sakyi, 2012:4).
A number of authors highlighted that less than average education levels were present among food handlers in Kumasi and Accra when researched as independent locations and added that food handling trends did not reflect knowledge (Tomlins et al., 2002; Ababio & Adi, 2012:37; Feglo & Sakyi, 2012:7). They reiterated that consumers and food handlers alike tended to neglect food hygiene practices like hand washing procedures and maintaining a sanitary kitchen, and focussed more on decorative qualities including the superficiality of the environment and the appearance of the vendor. Some respondents went on to add that the relationship between the consumer and vendor was a factor for them and that the product price and the proximity of the stall also often impacted their perception of the food hygiene (Ababio & Lovatt, 2015:94).
Further studies have been conducted with the aim of assessing the quality of different street foods in several countries and the findings show that many of these foods were hazardous and carriers of foodborne illnesses (Freese, Romero-Abal, Solomons & Gross, 1998; Mosupye & von Holy, 1999; Umoh & Odoba, 1999; Edema & Omemu, 2004; Omemu, Edema & Bankole, 2005).
2.3.5 A South African perspective
Mathee et al. (1996:39) state that street food vending may employ up to 25% of the South African workforce and that this has increased in modern times. This is confirmed by von Holy and Makhoane (2006:89-92) who reported that street food vending likely employs the majority of people within in the informal sector and is a significant contributor to the South African economy. Other authors also note that the industry is expanding due to increased
19 patronage because of industrialisation and urbanisation, which forces people living in cities to eat out of the home more often (Alimi, 2016:141).
Sibanyoni, Tshabalala and Tabit (2017:1398) share the results of their study, which indicate that the minority of respondents had not had any previous training or experience with handling food, and the authors blame this on the fact that there is a scarcity of food safety awareness in high schools (Smith & de Zwart, 2010:17; South Africa, 2012). This study was based on the “National School Nutrition Programme” but has certain similarities to that of street food vendors, as often meals are prepared from temporary kitchens with makeshift resources; there are no HACCP systems in place, nor are there any persons solely responsible for food safety. Contrary to this, their results showed that the majority of the participants affirmed to receiving some form of “in-service training for safe food handling”, which even though is not as ideal as pre-training, does help nonetheless (Sibanyoni et al., 2017:1402).
Upon taking a closer look at the food safety and hygiene statistics in Johannesburg and South Africa, it becomes clear that there is a dearth of national data on both street food and fast food consumption. Because street food is substantially lower in cost, ready-to-eat, satiates immediate hunger, and is a source of employment for vendors, it needs to be recognized that street foods contribute to both individual and household food dependability. (Steyn & Labadarios, 2011:462).
Another neoteric study commenced at three different shopping malls in Johannesburg and was set to include youngsters from three different socio-economic classes. Fast foods, as a category, purchased from retail outlets were researched in this study and street foods were not included. A little less than 50% of the respondents earned under R5000 per month yet spent at a minimum of R200 a month on fast foods. Just over 25% of participants reported that they consumed fast foods two to three times a month. The trendiest food items were burgers, pizza and fried chicken, while soft drinks were the most consumed beverage. These food items are a cause for alarm since the fast foods consumed were high-fat and energy- dense foods, which correlate to the recordings of obesity in South Africa, where 27.4% women are obese (Steyn et al., 2011:104). The authors go on to note that there is a paucity of data on fast food consumption in South Africa and no statistics are available at a national level. Their study aimed to close this gap and found that Gauteng had the third highest consumption of street food at 18.9%. Their pilot study, which was carried out in Mpumalanga, revealed that fried potato chips, vetkoek (fried dumplings made from wheat flour) and Kotas were the most popular items, with similar trends showing throughout the country (Steyn et al., 2011:107). The attempt to gain further insight into this issue, was
20 addressed by a study conducted in Cape Town, which also found that the Black Africans are the most frequent consumers of street food and linked this once again to the increased obesity statistics reported amongst Black females in South Africa (65.7%). Hill et al. (2019:412) found inadequate food safety and hygiene practices being followed by street food vendors. They agree that the possibility of hazardous food being sold to consumers may cause food poisoning and poses imminent threats to the public. Highlighted as the most likely causes of contamination in their study was that vendors lack basic personal hygiene, food safety training and infrastructure and resources such as potable water, refrigerators, adequate garbage disposal facilities and electricity (Hill et al., 2019:412).
Notable results of other studies highlight that fast food vendors’ highest level of education must also be taken into consideration as a contributing factor or means for comparison. Martins (2006:21) noted that approximately half of the 200 vendor respondents in his study had a secondary school qualification and that the vast majority of vendors were female. An alarming 18% of vendors in his study demonstrated awareness of training programmes for informal street vendors and only 31.5% reported having any knowledge of the “10 golden rules for healthy food preparation”, as the DoH apparently displays large posters with these rules where vendors usually operate.
2.3.6 Health burden of unsafe food practices
Even through street-vended food has been noted by Steyn and Labadarios (2011:462) as generally inexpensive, readily available and meeting the need of immediate hunger, the cons to these pros are the distress over the quality and safety of street-vended foods which have been mentioned because the vendors lack sufficient appreciation of basic food safety issues.
Rahman, Arif, Bakar and Tambi (2012:36) and McGill, Fulgoni and Devareddy (2015:126) report that inadequate food safety knowledge may result in improper food handling practices that are deemed unsafe, as well as cross contamination. Other studies have drawn notion to the fact that some food handlers who work in the food service industry do not demonstrate basic food safety knowledge, particularly those critical control points related to temperature, cross-contamination and good personal hygiene practices (Jianu & Chis, 2012:154; Martins et al., 2012:188; Afolaranmi et al., 2015).
Vendors are known to operate mostly from stands or carts that are not well constructed and may be described as rudimentary. For many, running water is not readily available and often hand and dish washing is performed in the same container, sometimes without cleanser or detergent. Wastewater is commonly discarded in streets, and garbage may be disposed of inadequately and often near the vending site, which attracts insects, rodents and other food
21 pests. In many cases, ablution facilities are non-existent and vendors may be forced to excrete their urine and/or faeces in nearby areas and then return to their vending sites without washing their hands. These conditions and poor practices lead to the cross- contamination of cooked ready-to-eat foods. Further to this, temperature control is another area of concern since safe food-storage temperatures are difficult to maintain, refrigerators are uncommon and foods are often displayed at ambient temperatures for long periods and may not be reheated before being served. In other cases, vendors may purchase raw produce from questionable sources and these foods may either already be contaminated with foodborne pathogens or may be unfit for consumption for other reasons. In nations in which street-food vending is common, there is often a lack of information on the occurrence of foodborne diseases related to street-vended foods (Mosupye & von Holy, 1999:1278).
Mosupye and von Holy (1999:1281) report varied results on the mean bacterial count of various street-vended food items. Swabs as well as water samples were taken from various street food vendors operating in CoJ and bacteria counts in the water were high. Mosupye and von Holy state:
“Local street vendors had limited access to clean running water. As a result, the water that was collected in the morning was frequently used until the end of the day. This water was usually boiled at the beginning of the day before food preparation and was then poured into the dish basins (followed by the addition of dishwashing detergent). However, by the time samples were collected, this water had been standing at ambient temperatures for several hours. The water was not only used for dish washing but also for cleaning of the food-preparation areas and for hand washing by the vendors or their customers before and after eating. Vendors also commonly washed their hands in the dishwater when they returned from toilets. This was reflected by higher bacterial counts as well as by the relatively high incidence of E. coli 1 in the dishwater samples”.
Katiyo, de Kock, Coorey and Buys (2019:104) report the most severe results of food safety malpractice, where food poisoning was deemed to have caused 12 fatalities in 2016 . They indicate that 85 foodborne disease outbreaks were reported to the South African National Institute of Communicable Diseases (NICD), causing 139 people to be hospitalised. They continue and highlight the listeriosis outbreak in South Africa which claimed the lives of 218 citizens in 2018. These statistics draw further notion to the fact that good food safety practices are a necessity in preventing contamination and the spread of disease. It is also worthy of note to emphasise the fact that the true statistics of foodborne illness cases are likely to be higher than published as some cases are not reported, particularly in upcoming nations (Jahan, 2012; Katiyo et al., 2019:104-105). This very listeriosis outbreak inadvertently affected street food Kota vendors as well, as reported by Anon. (2018a) who interviewed Sydney Moeti, a street food vendor in Soweto who said that the way the matter had been handled confused his customers and that they should educate people in the
22 township. Saal and Masweneng (2018) also published an article on the negative effect on sales that the listeriois outbreak had on street food vendors.
2.3.7 Food preparation skills
Sibanyoni et al. (2017) reported that the majority of food handlers always washed fruit and vegetables under running water and used older food first. The minority of these food handlers reported making use of a calibrated food thermometer, and stated that they did not often reheat food.
A study published in Uganda, interestingly notes that less than half of the street food vendors that participated in their study reported using cooking oil at all due to the health concerns associated with it, but did mention that the times it was used, it aimed to increase the overall taste and mouth feel of the dish and was never changed but only replenished, The health risks associated with reheating oil to high temperatures are carcinogenic dioxins and acrylamides (Hassanein, El-Shami & El-Mallah, 2003:664; Muyanja, Nayiga, Brenda & Nasinyama, 2011:1555).
Muyanja et al. (2011:1557) reported that most of the vendors that participated in their study prepared food long in advance of consumption with the exception of a few items and recommends an intervention by local authorities to educate and regulate street food vendors in addition to providing suitable infrastructure. Bereda, Emerie, Melese, Reta Asfaw (2016:163) agree with these recommendations, as their study located in Ethiopia also revealed that pathogen counts in certain street-vended foods were high, and their results suggest that this is due to a lack of education, improper food handling practices and that the vendors’ food preparation skills are lacking.
Von Holy and Makhoane (2006:92) suggest that South Africa’s current safety of street- vended foods is not as substandard as its African counterparts and base this notion on the results of microbiological and food pathogen surveys conducted on street-vended foods. The general results interestingly prove that street foods in South Africa are relatively safer and attribute this to the majority of vendors possessing adequate food preparation skills.
2.4 INDUSTRY OF INFORMAL VENDING AND MUNICIPAL ROLE/CONTRIBUTION
According to the WHO (1989), a lack of care for the practice of food hygiene and mismanagement on the food vendors’ part may allow pathogens to come into contact with foods and possibly survive and multiply in numbers that could result in food poisoning. It can thus be said that food safety and hygiene play the biggest role in ensuring that uncontaminated food is not sold to consumers and the suggestion for local authorities to
23 implement codes of practice, training and certificates for complying vendors should be taken. The WHO (1996) conducted a survey in more than 100 nations to assess contamination of street-vended food, as many of the countries reported food contamination from raw food, infected handlers and equipment that had not been cleaned properly, and attributed time and temperature abuse to be contributors to food-borne disease. This was in part because the available infrastructure was inadequate, noting limited access to potable water, ablution facilities, refrigeration and cleaning and garbage disposal facilities (WHO, 1996).
Furthermore, registration, training and medical examinations were not among the selected management strategies at the time (Martins, 2006:2). Steyn et al. (2011:104) concur with Martins (2006), reporting that:
“The aspect of street food that has to be mentioned is one on food hygiene and safety, due to the large numbers of people who purchase such foods and the possible health risks involved. Microbial studies conducted on street foods in both Bloemfontein and Johannesburg have found that the safety of street foods was better than expected in these two urban areas studied and that two critical points were identified as ensuring best safety of foods including cooking at temperatures over 65 degrees Celsius and having short holding times. The practices studied in Johannesburg indicated that vendors bought food from retailers early every day; prepared the food in sufficient quantities for that day and gave away or took home the leftovers. This practice is thought to have contributed to the reasonably safe microbial content of the street foods examined but may have had ramifications for the families at home who most probably eat the leftovers. Von Holy et al. have stressed the importance of a need for running water and toilets in areas where street vendors operate however, there does not appear to be national data on the food safety aspects of such enterprises. We would like to recommend that this aspect is given serious consideration when the next national survey is planned since the extent of street food consumption in RSA certainly warrants this”.
In South Africa, it has been reported that the Gauteng DoH implemented the “Informal food trading programme”, which is aimed at encouraging the safe handling of food within the informal food trading sector in Gauteng. This programme is a result of the WHO’s commencement to promote healthy cities in the communities of Gauteng. The purpose of the training was to train street food vendors on how to handle food safely and hygienically, improve their general knowledge and be aware of regulations and by-laws regarding street food vending in an informal environment. A training tool used for this initiative, was a set of flip charts that conveyed the message of basic food hygiene.
The Johannesburg Metropolitan council also took it upon themselves to allocate spaces in which street food vendors could operate and register these spaces as areas of its jurisdiction; furthermore, to supply basic facilities such as water, shelter, flushable toilets and even electricity to some of the vendors. At this stage, the decision disallow street vendors from using refrigeration devices was implemented in the form of a policy, as the critical
24 control point of holding prepared foods for short periods would have been discouraged if refrigerators were used (Mosupye & von Holy, 1999; City of Johannesburg, 2009:11).
In 2016, the Deputy-Director of Informal Trading in CoJ, Xolani Nxumalo presented on the informal trading sector in CoJ and briefly outlined the challenges faced and the need for and implementation of polices and governance of informal trading as a strategy going forward. Street food vendors are a major part of the informal sector, which sees Johannesburg as the biggest national informal economical contributor, and as such, it makes sense to focus on the governance and safe practices of these vendors (Nxumalo, 2016:24).
Another author that discusses these bylaws extensively is Matjomane (2013:26). He makes reference to the City of Johannesburg (2009) and concurs with Nxumalo (2016) that bylaws for informal traders are indeed necessary and that this progression is needed. However, Matjomane (2013:26) argues that some of the repercussions of breaking these laws are severe and that the Council should adopt a better approach when dealing with these issues.
In an article published by The Sunday Times newspaper in Johannesburg on 24 September 2017, the author speaks of the National Health Minister, Aaron Motsoaledi’s concerns about communicable and non-communicable diseases that are taking over the City and how the Minister attributes unregulated food production to being the largest contributor to this. (Mohlomi, 2017).
The image below depicts a national summary of legislation applicable to street trading.
Figure 2.1: Legislation affecting street trading
25 Source: Matjomane (2013:26)
From the above figure, the progression, planning and implementation of legislation, policies and governance can clearly be seen, as well as a steady increase in progress since 2000. (Matjomane 2013:26).
Blignaut (2018) reports on a listeriosis training and awareness session held by CoJ, which pertained to raising awareness and educating street food vendors on safe food handling practices, with the ultimate goal of preventing the spread of the disease, but there is still a way to go as Hill et al. (2018:406) found in their study that 68.6% of South African street food vendors did not possess any certification, leases or concession letters enabling them to operate as food vendors and recommended that public health authorities address the lack of hygiene and safe food practices amongst street food vendors, which was established as result of their research.
2.5 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY
The conceptual model for this study (Figure 2.2 below) was developed to investigate the relationship between perceived nutritional value of the Kota and food safety practices amongst consumers and street food vendors and focuses on whether a healthier alternative to the existing Kota is needed in the township of Soweto, Johannesburg. The following model was adapted from various studies, to identify the constructs on which this study focuses. The constructs are briefly discussed in this section. Refer to Chapter 3 for a more in-depth discussion.
26 Perceived Nutritional Value & Ingredients of the Kota Consumers Street Food Vendors
Beliefs about what Food Safety and Hygiene Is: Consumers Street Food Vendors
Current Food Safety Practices being Followed Street Food Vendors
Percieved Need for a healthy Kota Consumers Street Food Vendors
Figure 2.2: Conceptual framework of the study
Source: Martins (2006:19); Ismail, Chik, Muhammad and Yusuf (2016:293)
2.6 SUMMARY
The aim set out in this chapter was achieved by exploring global and local street food vendor food safety and hygiene practices, as well as the street-vended food called the Kota with specific reference to the township of Soweto in Johannesburg and its current role and contribution to the consumption of the Kota. The next chapter discusses consumer and street food vendor behaviour, beliefs and perceptions on the nutritional value of the Kota as well as food safety and hygiene practices.
The conceptual model, which was developed for this study (see Figure 2.2 above), includes the concepts of perceived nutritional value of the Kota, the beliefs of what food hygiene and safety are, the current food safety and hygiene practices being followed, the relationship between these concepts and the likelihood of consumer and street food vendors implementing a healthier alternative or version of the existing Kota.
.
27 CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Research methodology is defined as the broad strategy which is used to conduct a study to address a research problem (Leedy & Ormrod, 2010:12). This chapter provides an in-depth inspection of the research process and describes the quantitative research methodology adapted for this study, used to determine both consumers and street food vendors’ actual and perceived nutritional value of the Kota. It was also used to determine their perceptions and practices regarding food safety and hygiene of street food. This chapter provides detailed insight into how all the research activities for the study were conducted. The research problem, objectives and hypotheses, secondary research, primary research design, research frame, collection of primary data and data analysis for this study, are also explained. Quantitative research produces descriptive findings that can be analysed using various statistical approaches (Schiffman & Kanuk, 2010:54), and was deemed the most suitable for the objectives of the study.
3.2 RESEARCH PROBLEM
Increasingly, Soweto locals are consuming the street vended fast food known as the Kota; with many of its ingredients high in carbohydrates and unhealthy fats, it could be a contributor to obesity in the community of Soweto (Malhotra et al., 2008:315). Noted by Ramaena (2017:37) is that “consumption of unhealthy foods, such as fast foods and soft drinks, is more prevalent in urban areas than rural areas”, and that Soweto is classified as an urban settlement or “township” in South Africa (Voorend et al., 2012:564; Feeley & Norris, 2014:88-89; SAHO, 2019).
Feeley et al. (2011:200) noted that the Kota is the second most popular fast food sold by street food vendors in four rural areas in north east South Africa, and their study shows that the obesity pandemic is beginning to mimic that of the urban areas. They also noted that the mean fat content of a Kota is 60 gram, with the price in 2011 being on average R9.50.
The problem that led to the development and research into the topic of the study is unhealthy street food that is currently being sold globally. As stated, there is a lack of literature currently available on the nutritional value of the Kota, as well as the food and safety knowledge of local, Soweto street food vendors. The Gauteng DOH developed the informal food-trading programme (IFTP) to promote safe food handling within the informal food-trading sector in the province, which forms part of the WHO’s initiative to promote
28 healthy cities among communities of Gauteng but the township of Soweto has not been examined independently (Martins & Anelich, 2000:7).
3.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS
The research questions reflect the purpose of the study, the target population and the particular field or product that is researched (Schiffman & Kanuk, 2010:43-44). A hypothesis is a questionable statement about a particular research problem and is used to state the expected result and relationship between two or more variables before analysis (Malhotra, Birks & Willis, 2012:65; Brown & Suter, 2014:28; Clow & James, 2014:27).
3.3.1 Main research question
Is there a need by consumers to replace the existing Kota with a healthier alternative?
3.3.2 Secondary research questions
The secondary questions of the study were articulated to assist in addressing the main research question:
What are the basic ingredients that make up a standard Kota? What level of food preparation skills are street food vendors perceived to have when preparing a Kota? What level of food safety and hygiene knowledge do street food vendors possess?
3.4 RESEARCH DESIGN
3.4.1 Introduction
The primary research design involves collecting valid and reliable data from trustworthy sources and analysing the data with the aim of outputting information regarding the research problem that has been tasked. The information that is obtained from the data is used to test the hypotheses of the study (Hair, Bush & Ortinau, 2009:51; Clow & James, 2014:3, 34). Labaree (2009) states that:
The research design refers to the overall approach adopted to integrate the different components of a study in a clear and logical way to ensure that the research problem is adequately addressed. This section defines quantitative research; types of research designs; and the research methodology used for this study.
The study made use of a quantitative research design, which was formulated as a result of the specific research questions that aimed to measure both consumers and street food vendors’ nutritional knowledge of the Kota. The perceptions and practices of street food vendors regarding food safety and hygiene while preparing the Kota are also investigated. The data was collected using close-ended, self-administered questionnaires, which were
29 completed by Kota consumers and by street food vendors that sell the Kota. Descriptive research was used because it is deemed suitable for quantitative research (Zikmund & Babin, 2010:44). It is known to assist in the analysis of data, which aims to answer the questions of Who, What, When, Where, and How. It could also be described as determining the frequency with which something occurs, such as how two or more variables are related (Zikmund & Babin, 2010:44; Mooi & Sarstedt, 2011:15-16; McDaniel & Gates, 2013:66-67; Silver, Stevens, Wrenn & Loudon, 2013:71; Brown & Suter, 2014:27-28, 33; Clow & James, 2014:28).
3.4.2 Research approach
A quantitative research approach was used for the study, which Zikmund, Babin, Carr and Griffin (2013:134) define as the investigator being required to “address research objectives through empirical valuations that contain numerical measurements and analysis”. Quantitative research may be described as ”a distinctive research approach that entails the collection of numerical data, regards the relationship between theory and research as deductive, prefers a natural science approach in general and adopts an objectivist conception of social reality” (Bryman, Bell, Hirschsohn, dos Santos & du Toit, 2014:62). Fallon (2016:3) defines quantitative research as a “top-down” process that begins with a question. Zikmund et al. (2013:36) elaborate, explaining that “quantitative research examines the relationship between variables which can be measured on instruments for data to be analysed”, through the use of statistical procedures.
Table 3.1: Purpose and properties of quantitative research
Description Quantitative Approach Purpose Collect quantitative data More useful for testing Provides summary information on many characteristics Useful in tracking trends Properties More structured data collection techniques and objective ratings Higher concern for representativeness Emphasis on achieving reliability and validity of measures used Relatively short interviews (1-20 minutes) Interviewer questions directly, but does not probe deeply Large samples (over 50) Results relatively objective
Source: Hair et al. (2015:154)
Table 3.1 above provides details and insights into the purpose and properties of using a quantitative research approach.
30 Table 3.2 below provides insight into how the approaches were used in the current study.
Table 3.2: Purpose and properties of quantitative research used in this study
Description Quantitative approach Quantitative approach used in this study Purpose Collect quantitative data Quantitative data was collected through More useful for testing the use of close-ended, self- administered questionnaires Provides summary information on many characteristics Useful in tracking trends Properties More structured data collection techniques The questionnaires provided the and objective ratings structured data collection. Higher concern for representativeness Participants were selected non- Emphasis on achieving reliability and randomly within the defined sample validity of measures used groups. Relatively short interviews (1-20 minutes) Questionnaires were checked by the fieldworker and explained/translated to Interviewer questions directly, but does not participants where needed. probe deeply The study encompassed 160 Large samples (over 50) Consumers and 65 Street Food Results relatively objective Vendors.
Source: Hair et al. (2015:154)
In Figure 3.1 below, Bryman et al., (2014) describes in a step-by-step formula, the process that quantitative research follows.
31 1. Develop theoretical framework
2. Define specific research question and hypothoses
3. Select research design
4. Devise measures of concept
5. Selec research site(s)
6. Select research subjects and respondents
7. Collect Data/ Administer research instruments
Process data
Analyse data
Develop findings/ Conclusion
Write-up findings
Figure 3.1: The process of quantitative research
Source: Bryman et al. (2014:63)
3.4.3 Research technique
A cross-sectional descriptive survey technique was used to analyse and interpret the primary data of this study. According Oxford Reference (2019): Primary research can be defined as a technique of original data collection or research that comes directly from the respondents and is different from secondary research in that it uses data or research that has already been collected.
A survey questionnaire was used to collect the quantitative data. Survey research is a particular field study that necessitates collection of data from a sample of constituents, which is selected from a well-defined population using a questionnaire (Visser, Krosnick & Lavrakas, 2000:223). Creswell (2007:201) goes on to add that survey instruments provide a
32 statistical overview of trends, behaviours and opinions of the sample. Surveys are especially useful for non-experimental descriptive designs that endeavour to convey reality. A cross- sectional survey was used as the primary research was conducted at a single point in time with the aim of investigating the behaviour, beliefs and attitudes of both street food vendors and Kota consumers (Mathers, Fox & Hunn, 2007:5).
Mathers et al. (2007:6) highlighted the merits of using a survey, which are that surveys have internal and external validity, meaning that a survey that is based on random sampling will produce a sample which is representative of the specified population under study and that those findings may be generalized to the wider population. Surveys can be described as efficient because a random sampling technique allows for small sizes to be used to produce findings, which is a cost-effective way to research what people think, feel and want. Surveys are also capable of covering largely dispersed geographical areas through the use of postal, electronic mail and telephonic interviews and can also be seen as flexible, as one may combine other methods such as diaries, focus groups or in-depth interviews with a survey to produce richer data. Lastly, since only a minority of surveys expose the population to possible invasive techniques, they may be considered as more ethical.
Further to this, the limitations listed by the authors include but may not be limited to the fact that surveys are dependent on the chosen sampling frame and it is sometimes impossible to identify a reliable or up-to-date sampling frame. Surveys can be seen as limiting because often they are unable to produce the reasoning behind people’s feelings. Mathers et al. (2007:6) go on to note that making use of qualitative research with open-ended questions as the framework is better suited to address the objectives of why. The authors further suggest that the outcome of a survey may be influenced by faults of the interviewer or prejudice, and emphasize the importance of interviewers receiving proper training on how to approach interviews.
Questionnaires aim to ask questions, which relate to consumers’ demographics, behaviours, motivations, attitudes and intentions (Clow & James, 2014:35). A questionnaire is defined “as a document containing questions and other types of items designed to solicit information appropriate to analysis” (Babbie, 1990:377). It is a useful method used to gather descriptive information from the sample selected for the study (Schiffman & Kanuk, 2010:60). Walliman (2010:97) reports that using a questionnaire allows the researcher to separate and code questions in a suitable manner that will encourage the interviewer not to speak to the respondent, thus there is no bias of the researcher, allowing a higher chance of receiving a true response.
33 Table 3.3 below presents the purpose, advantages and disadvantages of using survey questionnaires.
Table 3.3: Description of survey questionnaires
Method Purpose Advantages Disadvantages Questionnaires Conducted to gather Members of the sample Difficulties of ensuring large size of information group can remain greater depth of the in a short period of time anonymous research Considerably cheaper than The problem of the ‘first most of the other primary choice selection’ data collection methods Possibility of generating large amount of data
Source: Dudovskiy (2018:16)
To meet the objectives of the study, a quantitative cross-sectional survey was adopted, as justified above, to best meet the investigational needs of the research problem.
3.5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Research is an uncomplicated process of concluding a steadfast solution to a problem, through the organized and logical collection, analysis and interpretation of data (Singh, 2006:1). Research methodology is defined as “the general approach that the researcher takes in carrying out the research project” (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001:14).
The process of operationalization, which involves determining the measure of concepts as adopted from Bryman et al. (2014:66), was used in this study.
3.5.1 Operationalization
Operationalization involves defining how the variables in the study will be considered (Babbie & Mouton, 2001:9). It framed and guided the two questionnaires that were chosen and developed as the most suitable instrument for the study. Lewis-Beck, Bryman and Liao (2003:162) state that the variables must be tested before any hypotheses can be tested. Measurement allows one to quantify fine differences in magnitude relating to the idea in question (Bryman et al., 2014:79).
3.6 RESEARCH INSTRUMENT
3.6.1 Questionnaire design
A questionnaire is defined as “a document containing questions and other types of items designed to solicit information appropriate to analyze” (Babbie, 1990:377). Questionnaires are used in survey research, experiments and other means of observation. Well thought out
34 research questions aim to elicit answers that relate to specific variables for analysis; formulating the questionnaire is a highly important part of the research which allows researchers to draw conclusions based on the answers that they have received (Acharya, 2010:2). Walliman (2010:97) states that a structured questionnaire possesses a structured format, is logical and well suited for respondents to complete, making it both a powerful and flexible tool to use. Hair et al. (2009:235-236) maintain that questionnaires are the preferred data collection tool for descriptive studies and their advantages include easy distribution to a greater geographical population, being cost effective and that the data collected can be thoroughly analysed using statistical procedures.
IBM SPSS version 24 was used to capture and populate the data for this study and provided analytical and true results, which are discussed in Chapter 4.
Acharya (2010:3) states that two types of questionnaires exist, namely structured and unstructured. Self-administered structured questionnaires were adopted for this study, which are defined by Acharya (2010:3) as: ...pre-coded questions with well-defined skipping patterns to follow the sequence of questions. Most of the quantitative data collection operations use structured questionnaires and advantages of such structured questionnaires are less discrepancies, easy to administer, consistency in answers and easy for the data management.
In self-administered questionnaires, respondents complete and answer the questionnaire themselves (Bryman et al., 2014:255). The researcher self-developed and pilot-tested the instrument and decided to use English as the language for the survey questionnaires as this is spoken predominantly and is understood as the business language in Soweto and the Johannesburg region. The questionnaires were written in as simple English as possible to ensure that the questions could be understood by all of the respondents. Two questionnaires were used for the study, one for the street food vendors that sell the Kota and the other for the consumers who purchase the Kota. All the sections measured the same variables with the exception of seven additional questions added in the final section of the street food vendor survey, which was aimed at further investigating their food safety and hygiene practices (see Appendix C). The administration of the questionnaires was done by trained fieldworkers who handed the questionnaires to consumers and street food vendors at the Soweto Kota festival, which took place at the Soweto Theatre in Johannesburg in September 2017. They were collected on the same day after completion. As the research was conducted at a single point in time, this made the survey technique cross-sectional.
Acharya (2010:3) notes that literature describes close-ended questions as structured, and characterises them as having adequate alternative answers from which the respondent may
35 choose, making them the most suitable data collection tool for descriptive studies. Clow and James (2014:328) state that close-ended questions allow respondents the choice of a limited number of responses. They list the advantages of using close-ended questions as allowing for easy and accurate data coding and entry, there are a limited number of responses, the alternative list of responses may assist the respondent to recall other information, and there is limited interviewer bias. The disadvantages of close-ended questions include that researchers must generate the alternatives, respondents have to select from the given alternatives and there is no freedom in how the respondent chooses to answer. As the advantages of using close-ended questions for the study were found to outweigh the disadvantages, they were deemed more suitable for the questionnaire design and objectives. They were developed by the researcher and used for the structured survey questionnaires administered in the study.
The Likert scale, developed by Rensis Likert, can be described as summative and is one of the most popular approaches used to scale responses to close-ended questions (Bryman et al., 2014:196). Acharya (2010:5-6) describes the Likert scale as “an arrangement of options from extreme negative to extreme positive” and notes that researchers have found that in self-administered questionnaires, options arranged horizontally prove to be more reliable than those arranged vertically if the respondents are well educated. Five-point binary response format and verbal format Likert scale questions were predominantly used in the questionnaires, while other questions adopted a multiple-choice approach. Questions answered using a Likert scale aim to yield interval data that can be analysed using more powerful statistical tests and mean and standard deviation (SD) can be obtained instead of only frequency counts (Bryman et al., 2014:485; Clow & James, 2014:333).
36 Table 3.4: Likert scales used in this study
“Yes” - (1) “Not important at all”- (1) “Yes” - (1) “Never”- (1) “No” – (2) “Not important” – (2) “No” – (2) “Rarely” – (2) “Neutral” – (3) “Important” – “Unsure” – (3) “Sometimes” – (3) (4) “Often” – (4) “Very Important” – (5) “Always” – (5) To measure how healthy, To measure priorities of To measure To measure perceived the Kota is perceived to street-vended food vendors perception on basic and actual food safety be. and consumers food preparation and hygiene practices To measure which skills ingredients should be in a healthy Kota To measure if the ingredients in the Kota are known
Source: Greener (2008:67)
3.6.2 Measurements of concepts in the study
Measurement is the action of assigning numbers or labels to phenomena or characteristics such as individuals, object or events and can include demographics, product ownership characteristics and attitudes to various things (Clow & James, 2014:255). The instrument, reliability and validity of the variables were measured in the study as well as the feasibility. Bryman et al. (2014:76) emphasize the importance of measurement; measurement allows one to recognise and make finer distinctions in the small differences between the extremities of positive and negative that are often measured; it gives the researcher a device to measure or gauge consistency, which ultimately depends upon the reliability; and measurement provides an accurate assumption of how closely the relationship between concepts are related.
3.6.3 Validity
Validity is the association between or among variables. It is the limitation of the measurement tool that assesses and evaluates what the study planned for it to evaluate (Acharya, 2010:13; Leedy & Ormrod, 2010:28; Pallant, 2011:6). For a measurement to be valid, it must prove to be both reliable as well as measure what it is supposed to measure; we can thus say that validity presumes reliability (Clow & James, 2014:259). Face and content validity were consulted to determine the validity of the questionnaires in the study.
Face validity is described by Bryman et al., (2014:82) as whether or not the concept that is the focus of attention has been captured by the measure. The authors suggest that the researcher may consult with other professionals with experience in the field and that face validity is ultimately intuitive.
37 Face validity formed a very significant part in designing the questionnaires and the researcher’s supervisor and statistician were consulted before finalisation. The questionnaires were reviewed to ensure that there was no instrument bias such as questions unrelated to the objectives of the research or leading questions, which McDaniel and Gates (2013:155) state that is of the utmost importance. The study aimed to measure the perceptions, knowledge and opinions of the Kota, its nutritional value and street food vendors’ food hygiene and safety practices. Therefore, the questions posed in the questionnaires were designed with these constructs in mind.
Leedy and Ormrod (2010:92) define content validity as the measurement tool accurately representing a sample of the intended content to be measured. The process begins with assessing how other researchers have measured the concept, which has been discussed in depth in the literature review (Chapter 2). Thereafter, the literature tells us that a panel of experts may be asked to review the list of items (as mentioned above, the researcher’s statistician and supervisor were consulted on this step). Following their recommendations, a pilot test of the questionnaire was conducted to assess the content validity. Finally, the number of items was reduced, re-formatted or rephrased by using data analysis to determine items with higher correlations to one another (Clow & James, 2014:217). The pilot test questionnaire sampled 20 respondents including 12 consumers and 8 street food Kota vendors. The samples were sourced from 10 different street food-vending stalls in Soweto, Johannesburg.
3.6.4 Reliability
Reliability refers to how consistent a measuring device is and tests the ability of the tool to produce the same results if tested numerous times (Mathiyazhagan & Nandan, 2010:41). Reliability and validity are closely related because if your measure is not reliable, validity cannot be proved. Measures may prove unreliable if not stable or fluctuate over time. A measure may also lack internal reliability, which means that the multiple-indicator measure cannot be valid as it is measuring two or more different ideas. Lastly, disagreement on inter- observer consistency would mean that there is no valid measure as observers are unable to agree on the meaning of what they are observing (Bryman et al., 2014:67). The Cronbach coefficient alpha is the statistical method used to test internal consistency or reliability, which aims to determine each item in a construct’s consistency and measurement in relation to the actual construct. Results range from zero to one and the higher the score, the greater the reliability. Literature notes the Cronbach alpha coefficient of a scale should ideally be seven and above (de Vellis, 2003:137; Pallant, 2011:6). See Chapter 4 for the Cronbach alpha values of each construct.
38 3.6.5 Feasibility
The feasibility of the study was investigated using pre-testing or a pilot study of the questionnaire. This is described as a process wherein the questionnaire is administered to a small group of people who closely resemble the population and the “think aloud” technique is used to determine what respondents think of each item on the survey and share their thoughts directly with the researcher (Ruane, 2015; Patton, 2001). The researcher should take into account the format as well as the content of the questionnaire as the layout should be user-friendly and easily understood by the respondent. If the respondent feels that the questionnaire is relatively easy to understand and complete, it will reduce measurement and non-response errors. Likert scaling, as used in this study, is an acceptable technique for measuring attitude (ten Klooster, Visser & de Jong, 2008:513).
Clow and James (2014:28) note that in a pilot study, a small number of respondents are selected to trial the success of the researcher’s proposed data collection and sampling methods and this will ultimately determine if the measurement tool is feasible. The authors suggest that sample size of between 20 to 40 participants. As such, a pilot study of the questionnaire that consisted of 20 respondents was undertaken by the researcher. The respondents were conveniently selected from the target population that vend and purchase the Kota in the Soweto area. The respondents specified that the questionnaire was relatively simple to understand and did not take a long time to complete. Many respondents expressed excitement to know more about the outcome of the research. No questions were removed or revised and the questionnaire remained the same (see covering letter in Appendix A and questionnaires in Appendices B and C). Piloting is crucial as it removes ambiguous questions and allows the researcher to gain feedback on the construction and sense of the questionnaire, ensuring that the instrument is easy to understand (Wilkinson & Birmingham, 2003:52).
3.7 SAMPLING
The process of choosing the group of individuals to survey is called sampling. Populations in which a researcher is usually interested are often too large and with time and budget constraints, one needs to choose a sample of people to represent the entire population under research; it can thus be said that a sample is subsection of a larger group (Zikmund et al., 2013:385; Clow & James, 2014:225; Nardi, 2018:117).
As it was not possible to do a study on a full population, population parameters were used to estimate sample statistics, which most of the time prove a difference between the statistics
39 populated from the sample and the true parameters of the population. This is called a sampling error (Nardi, 2018:117).
Clow and James (2014:226) identify five steps as a guide to choosing a sample. Figure 3.2 below depicts this graphically in what is known as the sampling process.
2. Identify 3. Choose 4. Decide 1. Define 5. Select the a on the the the sample sampling sample population sample frame procedure size
Figure 3.2: The sampling process
Source: Clow and James (2014:226)
In the first stage, the researcher needs to define the target population, which involves framing the characteristics, boundaries and limitations that the individual needs to have. Incidence in this step is essential to consider as it give the researcher an idea of what level of effort and cost will be required to conduct the study.
In step two, when identifying the sample frame, the researcher needs to study the sample population from which the sample will be chosen and make a concerted effort to ensure that the sample frame represents the population well by using a process that represents the majority of that population.
When choosing a sample procedure, in the third step of the sampling process, the researcher needs to decide whether to use probability or non-probability sampling. This decision is usually made at the same time that the researcher identifies the sample frame, as they are closely related.
Step four is deciding on the sample size. Clow and James (2014) note that budget and time constraints will have an influence on what is practical and achievable.
40 In the final stage, step five, the researcher finally selects the sample. The aim is for the target population to be adequately represented by the chosen sample and so one may choose a different method to best suit the research question and objectives, based on whether they have chosen to use probability or non-probability sampling (Clow & James, 2014:230).
An initial attempt was made to obtain a database of street food vendors registered within the CoJ from the council but this did not prove viable due to delays in receiving the information. Therefore, the researcher scoped the sample population required for the study and set the criterion as the geographical location of where the vendor was operating. This was limited to the township of Soweto. Furthermore, no restaurants that sold the Kota were included in the sample and the street food vendors had to have a Kota on their menu offering to participate. The sample was also extended to all street food vendors that participated in the 2017 Annual Kota Festival, and the criterion defined for consumers was simply any person physically seen purchasing a Kota from any street food vendor in Soweto. All fieldwork took place in September 2017 and no limitations pertaining to age, race or gender were set.
3.7.1 Participants and sample
According to Hair et al. (2009:35), survey research is best suited for descriptive study analysis and requires at least 200 participants. Tabachnick and Fidell (2007, cited by Pallant, 2011:183), state that a sample size of 150 to 300 participants is adequate to conduct statistical analysis. The sample size for this study was 245 participants, of which 160 were Kota consumers whom all purchased a Kota from various street food vendors in Soweto or at the Soweto Kota Festival. 85 of the participants were street food Kota vendors trading in Soweto or at the Soweto Kota Festival. Some of these vendors operated in various locations in the township and as noted, others were displaced at the Soweto Kota festival held at the Soweto Theatre in Jabulani in 2017. Participents included all ages, races and gender; 100% of the questionnaires were completed and returned, and used in the statistical analysis. Exploratory factor analysis requires at least 250 questionnaires for analysis and with this study having 245, this could still be done with a 98% affirmation.
The study used a non-probability sampling method, namely convenience sampling, as a list of all Kota consumers in Soweto or a complete comprehensive list of all street food vendors does not exist.
In studies that use of non- probability sampling, the data that are generated will apply only to those that were available and present when the actual research took place and since there is no equality in selection, the results have limited generalizability (Nardi, 2018:118).
41 Researchers should strive to ensure that their convenience sampling is representative of the target population and careful planning and execution may assist with this (Clow & James, 2014:232). Researcher bias may be eliminated by typically selecting units on non-random criteria such as purposive or convenience (Bhattacherjee, 2012:69). The sample used in the study were participants (both consumers and street food vendors) that were accessible and keen to complete the survey questionnaire at the annual Soweto Kota festival in September 2017 and those found vending and purchasing from their “normal” areas in Soweto during the same period.
Table 3.5 below presents the research frame used for this study, with a view to the procedures used to collect the primary data.
Table 3.5: Researchers frame
Target population Kota consumers and Street food Kota vendors Sampling frame Consumers and street food vendors that were present, available and willing to participate in the study Sampling method Non-probability sampling strategy: Convenience sampling Time period to collect data 1 September 2017-30 September 2017 Geographic location Soweto, Johannesburg, South Africa Target sample size 245 Actual sample size 245
3.7.2 Data collection
Primary and secondary data are the two categories of data. “Data previously collected for purposes other than the current study at hand are secondary data” (Clow & James, 2014:63). This was discussed in depth in the literature review in Chapter 2. The primary data for this study were collected through self-administered, close-ended survey questionnaires and were collected from the period of 1-30 September 2017 (1 month) on all days of the week during the daytime, including the weekend of 16-17 September 2017 when the first annual Soweto Kota Festival took place at the Soweto Theatre in Johannesburg. Primary data can be described as information which is obtained from participants and analysed with the aim of obtaining an answer to the research questions and meeting the research objectives set out by the study (Silver et al., 2013:42; Clow & James, 2014:28).
Fieldworkers were selected upon application and review. All fieldworkers employed for the purpose of the research were final year undergraduate students enrolled at the University of Johannesburg and had previous experience in data collection, particularly survey questionnaires. Further to this, a training session was held by the author, where the exact
42 instructions were explained and an example of how to complete the questionnaires was shown. The training commenced by explaining the aim of the study to participants and ensuring that they were aware of and understood the confidentiality, consent and anonymity disclosure, which did not allow space for any personal details to be recorded. This method ensured higher participation rates and enabled fieldworkers to answer respondents’ questions (Hair et al., 2009:244-245).
3.7.3 Data coding and analysis
The way that data are collected will ultimately determine how they will be coded. A data analysis should be conducted with the aim to answer the research objectives of the study. Wilson (2012:38) states that data collected from the questionnaire should be prepared for analysis to take place. Bryman et al. (2014:259) agree and state that when designing the questionnaire, one should be mindful of what statistical techniques will be applied because statistical analysis techniques must be appropriately matched to the types of variables. There may be limitations on the kinds of techniques that one can use due to the nature of the data and the sampling. When the researcher developed the questionnaire, answers or responses were coded, meaning that each answer was reduced to a numerical value, which allowed the data to be gathered quickly and presented in a form suitable for analysis. The researcher developed coding frames, which can be seen on the questionnaires (see Appendices B and C). This facilitated data capture and analysis by using the SPSS statistical software (Wilkinson & Birmingham, 2003:20).
STATKON, a statistical unit at the University of Johannesburg, was consulted to assist with the analysis of the data gathered in the study. The data were inputted into IBM SPSS v24, which is a Windows-based data analysis program. The software is able to produce graphs, tables, percentage mean, mode, cross-tabulation, Chi-square tests, reliability statistics and SD figures, which the researcher may then use to interpret and understand the results of the findings.
Table 3.6 below illustrates the different descriptive data analyses used to meet the various objectives of the study.
43 Table 3.6: Descriptive data analysis
Research Question Objectives Data Gathering Data Analysis To determine if consumers feel that there Custom table with Is there a need by consumers is a need for a healthy percentage (%), mean to replace the existing Kota Questionnaires Kota to be sold by street (M) and standard with a healthy alternative? vendors in the Soweto deviation (SD) District. To investigate the basic What are the basic ingredients Frequency (n) and ingredients that makes up Questionnaires that make up a standard Kota? percentage (%) a standard Kota. To determine the street What level of food preparation food vendors’ level and Cross-tabulation with skills do street food vendors knowledge of food Questionnaires Chi-square analysis have when preparing a Kota? preparation skills when preparing a Kota.
To determine the level of Frequency (n) and What level of food safety and food safety and hygiene percentage (%) hygiene knowledge do street Questionnaires knowledge of the street food vendors possess? food vendors Chronbachs alpha test
3.8 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
3.8.1 Introduction
Formal research requires systematic methods of investigation and a critical analysis of evidence to discern credible and not‐so‐credible knowledge. Research involves answering questions that are academic in nature and advance a scientific understanding of human society or human behaviour (Wang & Park, 2015:2). The subjects of research in this study were human and as such, adherence to certain ethical measures was needed. Patten and Newhart (2018:32) describe ethical considerations in research as matters associated with right and wrong when research is being conducted on people or animals. The authors note that a formal set of ethical principles, against which research needs to be reviewed, has come into effect because of previous unethical research that was conducted in the 20th century. The type of research the author is conducting would determine the type of questions being asked. The questions may influence a participant’s sensitivity, emotional triggers or vulnerability, as often the participant is sharing personal information about himself or herself and thus the researcher needs to take care (Wang & Park, 2015:96).
Bryman et al. (2014:169) agree that it is of utmost importance to have awareness of the ethical principles that need to be considered and concerns about ethics that could arise as it
44 will aid the researcher in making informed decisions and knowing the implications of the decisions that are made.
Ethical principles and how they can be contravened can be classified into four main categories, according to Diener and Crandall (1980, cited by Bryman et al., 2014:169). These are “whether there is harm to participants, whether there is an invasion of privacy, whether there is a lack of informed consent, and whether deception is involved”.
The Research Ethics Committee and Higher Degrees Committee at the University of Johannesburg (UJ) considered all ethical considerations and approved the ethics of the study during the research proposal process (Ethics approval number FOM2017-STH 033, (see Appendix D).
3.8.2 Protection from harm
Research that may possibly cause harm to participants is deemed as intolerable. Diener and Crandall (1980, cited by Bryman et al., 2014:169) state that harm is not limited to physical harm but includes harm to a participant’s social well-being or development, and likely to inflict tension, cause harm to career opportunities or employability and includes subjects being encouraged or groomed to engage in dishonourable or illegal acts. The researcher ensured that participants were not exposed to any kind of harm or force. The research was conducted with care and fieldworkers remained courteous, empathetic, and patient and understanding with the subjects at all times.
3.8.3 Privacy and confidentiality
Participants should be protected since research may include private and sensitive information. Anonymity means that the subject’s identity is completely unknown to the researcher and or fieldworker, as well as the public (Wang & Park, 2015:98). To this end, Bryman et al. (2014:177) note that the topic of privacy is invariably linked with anonymity and confidentiality during the research process and participants should be allowed to choose to answer questions anonymously to protect their privacy. All of the research conducted in this study remained voluntarily and anonymous and participants were instructed on the cover page of the questionnaires (see Appendices B and C) not to fill in their name or contact details.
3.8.4 Informed consent
The principle of informed consent denotes that respondents should be fully informed about the research process. The subjects need to be made aware of and fully understand the nature of the study, and the activities in which they are asked to be involved and agree to it
45 out of their own freewill (Wang & Park, 2015:98; Bryman et al., 2014:175). In this study, the purpose and request for the participants to take part was done in writing on the cover page that accompanied each questionnaire. Furthermore, fieldworkers were also available to discuss the aim of the study with the paticipants and explain that partaking in the survey was purely voluntarily, thus obtaining verbal consent. The sample consisted of a few participants younger than 18 years of age and consent was obtained by their parents who had been made aware of the Letter of Request to participate in research.
3.8.5 Honesty with colleagues in the field
Many ethics codes focus on the significance of openness and honesty when communicating the details about the research to not only participants but to all other persons who may be interested (Bryman et al., 2014:179). However, many researchers note that complete honesty is not always favourable as some degree of deception may aid the researcher in achieving a more natural response from participants. A researcher must be very careful when adopting this stance and to consult with the university and supervisor when the researcher feels that a degree of deception would be beneficial. If any potential harm is identified, participants are debriefed and an in-depth explanation about the purpose of the study, the procedures used and an offer to share the results once available, are made to the subject by the researcher (Bryman et al., 2014:177; Wang & Park, 2015:99; Patten & Newhart, 2018). No deception was used while conducting this study and the researcher affirms to honestly report and publish the findings of the study, with zero misrepresentation.
3.9 SUMMARY
This chapter achieved its objective of providing detailed insight into the research methodology of this study. The research questions were outlined and the research design was explored in detail. The instrument, a self-administered survey questionnaire was justified as the most suitable tool in the study’s quantitative research approach and scrutiny of the validity, reliability and feasibility proved that the measurements of concepts in the questionnaire would yield valid results. The sampling techniques and method of data collection for the study were also probed extensively. The chapter concluded with a discussion of the ethical considerations applied in the study.
In the following chapter, Chapter 4, the findings of the data analysis are explained, and the results discussed in relation to the research objectives of the study.
46 CHAPTER 4 RESULTS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter examines the findings of the data analysis and present the results of the study. It discusses the validity and reliability of the data through exploratory factor analysis, the realisation rate, descriptive statistics of different constructs and simple linear regression analysis, which determines the relationship between different constructs as outlined by the objectives of the study.
As discussed in Chapter 3, two sample groups were investigated, namely Kota consumers and street food Kota vendors. Frequencies (n) and percentages (%) are the symbols used in the study. They represent the response rate, demographic profiles of the respondents, the knowledge of ingredients in the Kota, cooking methods used to prepare the Kota and perceptions on whether or not a healthy Kota is needed and should be included. The ingredients in a healthy Kota are discussed, as well as the perceptions of the food safety and hygiene practices of street food vendors.
Percentage (%), mean (M) and standard deviation (SD) are presented in custom tables regarding the perception of street food vendors’ personal hygiene, street food vending priorities and food hygiene.
The association of responses between how healthy the cooking methods of the ingredients in the Kota are, perceptions of whether the ingredients that are in the Kota are healthy or unhealthy, the Kota’s perceived nutritional value, food preparation skills, education levels and age are tested with cross-tabulations and Chi-square tests.
The chapter concludes with determining the reliability of results by describing the value of the Cronbach’s alpha test.
4.2 RESPONSE RATE
The realisation of the study as discussed in Chapter 3 was 100%, with all questionnaires fully completed and usable.
Trained fieldworkers who conducted the research attested to this fact for the following reasons:
47 i. Fieldworkers were able to explain or clarify any questions that the participants did not understand. ii. In addition to the written confidentiality disclosure in the covering letter, fieldworkers verbally re-emphasised this to participants, who were assured of anonymity. iii. Fieldworkers waited for respondents to complete the questionnaire; this assisted in achieving the 100% return rate as respondents were able to hand the questionnaire back directly to the fieldworker. Thereafter fieldworkers checked for completion before thanking the respondent.
4.3 DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE OF RESPONDENTS
Section A in both the street food vendor and consumer questionnaires consisted of only demographic information (see Appendices B and C), which probed respondents about their gender, age, ethnicity, education level and employment status. The variables were measured in both questionnaires, while street food vendors had one additional variable which explored whether they would describe the area that they were vending in as rural or urban.
For each demographic variable, the frequency (n) and percentage (%) are provided in Table 4.1 for consumers and Table 4.2 for street food vendors.
48 Table 4.1: Demographic variables for consumers
Demographic Values Frequency (n) Percentage (%)
Male 82 51.3 Gender Female 78 48.8 TOTAL 160 100.0 14 - 25 years 84 52.5 26 - 35 years 55 34.4 Age group 36 - 45 years 15 9.4 45 years and older 6 3.8 TOTAL 160 100 Black 137 85.6 White 5 3.1 Coloured 13 8.1 Ethnicity Indian 4 2.5 Asian 1 0.6 TOTAL 160 100.0 Std 10 and under 105 65.6 Education level Higher education 55 34.4 TOTAL 160 100 Employed Full-time 55 34.375 Employed Part-time 14 8.75
Employment Self-Employed 21 13.125 status Student 49 30.625 Unemployed 21 13.125 TOTAL 160 100
49 Table 4.2: Demographic variables for street food vendors
Demographic Values Frequency (n) Percentage (%) Male 30 35.3 Gender Female 55 64.7 TOTAL 85 100.0 14 - 25 years 23 27.1 26 - 35 years 38 44.7 Age group 36 - 45 years 18 21.2 45 and older 6 7.1 TOTAL 85 100 Black 77 90.6 White 1 1.2 Coloured 6 7.1 Ethnicity Indian 1 1.2 Asian 0 0.0 TOTAL 85 100 Std 10 and under 76 89.4 Education level Higher education 9 10.6 TOTAL 85 100 Owner 25 29.41176471 Employment Status Employee 60 70.58823529 TOTAL 160 100 How would you describe Urban 85 100 the area in which you are Rural 0 0 selling your Kotas? Did they know the difference? TOTAL 85 100
4.3.1 Gender
Table 4.1 depicts that the majority of the consumers that purchase the Kota are male, 52.3% (n=82) with females following close behind at 48.8% (n=78). Most the street food vendors of Kota are female (64.7%; n=55), with males following behind at 35.3% (n=30), as seen in Table.4.2.
4.3.2 Age
Most of the consumers were aged between 14–25 years (52.5%; n=84), with very few participants under 18 years. The age group of 26 – 36 years followed (34.4%; n=55). The balance of consumers were 36–45 years of age (9.4%; n=15), while the smallest group was the 45 years and older (3.8%; n=6). Most of the street food vendors were aged between 26–
50 35 years (44.7%; n=38), followed by the 14–25 age group (27.1%; n=23), 36–45 years (21.2%; n=18). The smallest group was the 45 years and older (7.1%; n=6).
4.3.3 Ethnicity
Table 4.1 shows the majority of consumers were Black (85.6%; n=137), followed by Coloureds (8.1%; n=13), then Whites (3.1%; n=5) and Indians (2.5%; n=4), while Asians were last (0.6%; n=1). Table 4.2 indicates that the majority of street food vendors were Black (90.6%; n=77), followed by Coloureds (7.1%; n=6), Whites (1.2%; n=1); and Indians (1.2%; n=1). There were no Asian street food vendors.
4.3.4 Education level
Most of the consumers had an education level of Std 10 or under (65.6%; n=105). The balance possessed a form of higher education (34.4%; n=55). Most of the street food vendors had an education level of Std 10 or under (89.4%; n=76), while the balance possessed some form of higher education (10.6%; n=9).
4.3.5 Employment status
Full-time consumers totalled 34.4% (n=55), student consumers were 30.6% (n=49), followed by self-employed consumers (13.1%; n=21) and unemployed consumers (13.1%; n=21). The balance of 8.8% (n=14) were employed part-time. The majority of the street food vendors were employees (70.59%; n=60) and the balance were owners (29.41%; n=25).
Only the street food vendors were asked to describe the area in which they sell their Kotas. All of them described the area as urban (100%; n=85).
4.4 CUSTOM TABLES
The findings from the two sample groups, consumers and street food vendors, are described in this section using mean (M), percentage (%) and standard deviation (SD). Respondents were required to choose their responses from a five-point Likert scale and the findings are illustrated in the tables below.
51 Table 4.3: Priorities when purchasing the Kota – Consumers
Priorities when purchasing the Kota Mean (M) Standard Deviation (SD) Seeing a clean vending stall 4.60 0.737 Ensuring that you are eating fresh food 4.51 0.709 Ensuring that you are eating food that is safe and will not 4.56 0.798 cause illness The business that you purchasing from being known to sell 4.24 0.968 safe food to eat The price that you buy the Kota for 3.53 1.387 The quality of ingredients used to prepare the Kota 4.21 1.041 Whether the Kota is considered healthy or not 3.60 1.342 Overall priorities when purchasing the Kota 4.18 0.997
The mean for the priorities of consumers when purchasing the Kota ranged from 3.53 to 4.60 (1 = not important at all; 5 = very important). The SD ranged between 0.737 and 1.387, which indicates some level of variance between the responses.
The statement with the highest level of importance was, “Seeing a clean vending stall” (M = 4.6; SD 0.737), followed by, “Ensuring that you are eating food that is safe and will not cause illness” (M = 4.56; SD 0.798). Thereafter, “Ensuring that you are eating fresh food” (M = 4.51; SD 0.709), was followed by, “The business that you are purchasing being known to sell safe food to eat” (M = 4.24; SD 0.968). Next of importance was, “The quality of ingredients used to prepare the Kota” (M = 4.21; SD 1.041). The statements that respondents felt were less important were, “Whether the Kota is considered healthy or not” (M = 3.60; SD 1.342) and, “The price that you buy the Kota for” (M = 3.53; SD 1.387).
The overall mean for the priorities that consumers have when purchasing the Kota was 4.18 with an SD of 0.997, which indicates that most respondents strongly agreed that all of the statements listed in the priorities when purchasing the Kota construct were important to them.
52 Table 4.4: Priorities when selling the Kota – Street food vendors
Priorities when selling the Kota Mean (M) Standard Deviation (SD) Seeing a clean vending stall 4.59 0.583 Ensuring that the consumer is eating fresh food 4.42 0.762 Ensuring that the consumer is eating food that is safe and will 4.41 0.761 not cause illness The business that you selling from being known to sell safe 4.62 0.556 food to eat The price that you sell the Kota for 4.20 0.884 The quality of ingredients used to prepare the Kota 3.93 1.110 Whether the Kota is considered healthy or not 3.21 1.473 Overall priorities when selling the Kota 4.20 0.876
The mean for the priorities of street food vendors when selling the Kota ranged from 3.21 to 4.62 (1 = not important at all; 5 = very important), and the SD ranged between 0.556 and 1.473, which indicates variance between the responses.
The statement with the highest level of importance was, “The business that you purchasing from being known to sell safe food to eat” (M = 4.62; SD 0.556), followed by, “Seeing a clean vending stall” (M = 4.59; SD 0.583). Thereafter, “Ensuring that you are eating fresh food” (M = 4.42; SD 0.762) and “Ensuring that you are eating food that is safe and will not cause illness” (M = 4.41; SD 0.761), and was followed by, “The price that you buy the Kota for” (M = 4.20; SD 0.884). The statements that respondents felt were less important were, “The quality of ingredients used to prepare the Kota” (M = 3.93; SD 1.110), “Whether the Kota is considered healthy or not” (M = 3.21; SD 1.473) and “The price that you sell the Kota for” (M = 3.53; SD 1.387).
The overall mean for the priorities that street food vendors have when selling the Kota was 4.20 with SD 0.8765, which indicates that most respondents strongly agreed that all of the statements listed in the priorities when selling the Kota construct were important to them.
53 Table 4.5: Perception of street food vendors’ personal hygiene – Consumers
Perception of street food vendors hygiene practices Mean (M) Standard Deviation (SD) when preparing/cooking food Wear clean uniform or other clean suitable clothing daily 3.58 1.141 Wear a clean disposable hair net daily 3.42 1.124 Wear a fresh, clean apron daily 3.38 1.032 Use disposable gloves when preparing food. 2.83 1.083 Use disposable gloves when serving food. 2.74 1.031 Use a clean cloth to wipe surfaces that food is prepared on 3.40 0.985 Use a disinfectant chemical to wipe surfaces that food is 3.14 1.037 prepared on Overall, follow good hygiene and food safety practices 3.48 1.064 Overall perception of street food vendors hygiene practices 3.25 1.062 when preparing/cooking food
The mean for consumers of the perception of street food vendors’ hygiene practices while preparing/cooking food construct, ranged from 2.74 to 3.58 (1 = never; 5 = always), and the SD ranged between 1.083 and 1.14, which indicates a low level of variance between the responses to statements.
The statements with the highest mean in the perception of street food vendors hygiene practices when preparing/cooking food construct in descending order were,: “Wear clean uniform or other clean suitable clothing daily” (M = 3.58; SD 1.141), “Overall, follow good hygiene and food safety practices” (M = 3.48; SD 1.064), “Wear a clean disposable hair net daily” (M = 3.42; SD 1.124), “Use a clean cloth to wipe surfaces that food is prepared on” (M = 3.40; SD 0.985), “Wear a fresh, clean apron daily” (M = 3.38; SD 1.032). The statements that respondents perceived to be occurring less frequently were, “Use disposable gloves when preparing food” (M = 2.83; SD 1.083) and “Use disposable gloves when serving food (M = 2.74; SD 1.031).
The overall mean of the perception of street food vendors’ hygiene practices when preparing/cooking food construct was 3.25 with a SD of 1.062, which indicates that the majority of the respondents felt that most of the statements were practiced by street food vendors.
54
Table 4.6: Responses of street food vendors’ personal hygiene – Street food vendors
Responses of street food vendors hygiene practices when Standard Mean (M) preparing/cooking food Deviation (SD) Wear clean uniform or other clean suitable clothing daily 4.54 0.650 Wear a clean disposable hair net daily 4.41 1.127 Wear a fresh, clean apron daily 4.50 0.753 Use disposable gloves when preparing food. 3.21 1.729 Use disposable gloves when serving food. 3.18 1.705 Use a clean cloth to wipe surfaces that food is prepared on 4.30 0.889 Use a disinfectant chemical to wipe surfaces that food is prepared on 3.62 1.379 Wash your hands before handling food 4.07 0.941 Wash your hands after using the toilet 4.15 0.925 Wash your hands after blowing your nose 3.76 1.228 Use clean water to wash dishes 3.98 0.875 Use clean cooking utensils and equipment during food preparation 3.93 0.967 Change cooking oil often 3.46 1.058 Use separate cutting boards for different types of ingredients 2.37 1.487 Overall Response of street food vendors on their hygiene practices 3.82 1.122 when preparing/cooking food
The mean for the street food vendors responses to their own hygiene practices when preparing/cooking food construct, ranged from 2.37 to 4.54 (1 = never; 5 = always), and the SD ranged between 0.650 and 1.729, which indicates variances between the responses to statements.
The statements with a very high mean for the street food vendors’ responses to their own hygiene practices when preparing/cooking food construct in descending order were, “Wear clean uniform or other clean suitable clothing daily” (M = 4.54; SD 0.650), “Wear a fresh, clean apron daily” (M = 4.50; SD 1.127), “Wear a clean disposable hair net daily” (M = 4.41; SD 1.127), “Use a clean cloth to wipe surfaces that food is prepared on” (M = 4.30; SD 0.889), “Wash your hands after using the toilet” (M = 4.15; SD 0.925), “Wash your hands before handling food” (M = 4.07; SD 0.941). Statements that reported a slightly lower but still strong mean were, “Use clean water to wash dishes” (M = 3.98; SD 0.875), “Use clean cooking utensils and equipment during food preparation” (M = 3.93; SD 0.967), “Wash your hands after blowing your nose” (M = 3.76; SD 1.228), “Use a disinfectant chemical to wipe surfaces that food is prepared on” (M = 3.62; SD 1.379), “Change cooking oil often” (M = 3.46; SD 1.058), “Use disposable gloves when preparing food” (M = 3.21; SD 1.729), “Use
55 disposable gloves when serving food” (M = 3.18; SD 1.705). The statement with the lowest mean was, “Use separate cutting boards for different types of ingredients” (M = 2.37; SD 1.487).
The overall mean for the street food Kota vendors’ responses to their own hygiene practices when preparing/cooking food construct was 3.82 with SD 1.122, which indicates that most of the respondents felt strongly that the statements were always practiced by themselves, street food vendors.
4.5 CROSS-TABULATION WITH CHI-SQUARE ANALYSIS
Pallant (2011:237) describes the Chi-square test for independence as a non-pragmatic statistic that is used to determine if there is a relationship between two categorical variables, which also compares the frequency of cases in its various categories of one variable across the different variables of another. It is one of the simplest and most widely used non- parametric tests in statistical work (Dubey, Kothari & Awari, 2016:245).
To be statistically significant the P-Value must be ≤ 0.05 as if it exceeds 0.05 then it is deemed insignificant (Pallant, 2005:288).
The effect size which is the absolute measure of association is known as the Cramer V and its variances can be described as a ‘small effect’ which is < 0.3, a ‘medium/moderate effect’ which is 0.3 to 0.50, or a ‘large effect’ which is >0.5 (Pallant, 2011:220).
4.5.1 Perception of consumers and street food vendors: Are Kota ingredients cooked using healthy or unhealthy cooking methods
The purpose of the below test was to determine if there was an association between which ingredients consumers and street food vendors feel are prepared using a healthy cooking method and which are not. The correlation and the effect thereof were also tested.
56 Table 4.7: Chi-square tests for independence: Are potato or “slap” chips that are in the Kota prepared using a healthy or unhealthy cooking method? – consumers and street food vendors
Cross tabulation – potato or “slap” chips Healthy Unhealthy Total Group Consumers Count 14 146 160 % within Group 8.8% 91.3% 100.0% Street Vendors Count 2 83 85 % within Group 2.4% 97.6% 100.0% Count 16 229 245 Total % within Group 6.5% 93.5% 100.0% Chi-square tests Pearson Chi-Square 0.054 Fisher's Exact Test 0.060 1 Sided Fisher's Exact Test 0.042
Upon examination of whether potatoes or “slap” chips in the Kota were prepared using a healthy or unhealthy cooking method, 91.3% of consumers thought that they were prepared in an unhealthy manner, as did 97.6% of street food vendors, a difference that was not statistically significant (P = 0.060, Fisher's exact test), therefore both groups of respondents thought that the ingredient was prepared using an unhealthy cooking method.
Table 4.8: Chi-square tests for independence: Is polony that is in the Kota prepared using a healthy or unhealthy cooking method? – consumers and street food vendors
Cross tabulation – polony Healthy Unhealthy Total Group Consumers Count 51 105 156 % within Group 32.7% 67.3% 100.0% Street Vendors Count 22 59 81 % within Group 27.2% 72.8% 100.0% Count 73 164 237 Total % within Group 30.8% 69.2% 100.0% Chi-square tests Pearson Chi-Square 0.382 Fisher's Exact Test 0.459 1 Sided Fisher's Exact Test 0.235
In Table 4.8 above, it is evident that both consumers, 67.3% and street food vendors, 72.8% think that the polony that is in the Kota is prepared using an unhealthy cooking method. This finding is statistically insignificant (P = 0.459, Fisher's exact test) and concludes that neither group thought that the ingredient was prepared using a healthy cooking method.
57
Table 4.9: Chi-square tests for independence: Is the Russian that is in the Kota prepared using a healthy or unhealthy cooking method? – consumers and street food vendors
Cross tabulation – Russian Healthy Unhealthy Total Group Consumers Count 19 132 151 % within Group 12.6% 87.4% 100.0% Street Vendors Count 1 71 72 % within Group 1.4% 98.6% 100.0% Count 20 203 223 Total % within Group 9.0% 91% 100.0% Chi-square tests Pearson Chi-Square 0.006 Fisher's Exact Test 0.005 1 Sided Fisher's Exact Test 0.003
Statistical analysis (two-sided Fisher's exact test) as seen above confirmed that 87.4% of consumers and 98.6 % of street food vendors thought that the Russian in the Kota is prepared using an unhealthy cooking method, however the test proved statistically significant (P < 0.01, Fisher's exact test).
Table 4.10: Symmetric Measures: Is Russian prepared using a healthy or unhealthy cooking method? – consumers and street food vendors
Symmetric Measures Value Approximate Significance
Nominal by Nominal Phi 0.183 0.006 Cramer's V 0.183 0.006 N of Valid Cases 223
Based on the values presented in Table 4.10 above, it can be concluded that the measure used to detect the magnitude of association between consumers and street food vendors’ perceptions of whether a healthy or unhealthy cooking method is used to prepare a Russian, an ingredient of the Kota, the effect was small (Phi = 0.183) with a strong negative association, as more street food vendors answered unhealthy to this question as seen in Table 4.9.
58 Table 4.11: Chi-square tests for independence: Is the patty in the Kota prepared using a healthy or unhealthy cooking method? – consumers and street food vendors
Cross tabulation – patty Healthy Unhealthy Total Group Consumers Count 22 91 113 % within Group 19.5% 80.5% 100.0% Street Vendors Count 7 30 37 % within Group 18.9% 81.1% 100.0% Count 29 121 150 Total % within Group 19.3% 80.7% 100.0% Chi-square tests Pearson Chi-Square 0.941 Fisher's Exact Test 1.000 1 Sided Fisher's Exact Test 0.576
In Table 4.11 above, it can be seen that the both consumers, 80.5% and street food vendors, 81.1% think that the patty that is in the Kota is prepared using an unhealthy cooking method. This finding is statistically insignificant (P = 1.000, Fisher's exact test) and concludes that neither group thought that the ingredient was prepared using a healthy cooking method.
Table 4.12: Chi-square tests for independence: Is the egg in the Kota prepared using a healthy or unhealthy cooking method? – consumers and street food vendors
Cross tabulation – egg Healthy Unhealthy Total Group Consumers Count 20 125 145 % within Group 13.8% 86.2% 100.0% Street Vendors Count 8 55 63 % within Group 12.7% 87.3% 100.0% Count 29 121 150 Total % within Group 13.5% 86.5% 100.0% Chi-square tests Pearson Chi-Square 0.832 Fisher's Exact Test 1.000 1 Sided Fisher's Exact Test 0.512
Table 4.12 above reports statistically insignificant results, (P = 1.000, Fisher's exact test) and shows that 86.2% of consumers and 87.3 % of street food vendors thought that the egg that is in the Kota is prepared using an unhealthy cooking method.
59 4.5.2 Perception of consumers and street food vendors on which ingredients should be in a healthy Kota
The purpose of the below test was to determine if there was an association between which ingredients consumers and street food vendors felt should be in a healthy Kota. The correlation and the effect thereof were also tested.
Table 4.13: Chi-Square Tests: Should salads (tomato, lettuce, cucumber, onion) be in a healthy Kota? – consumers and street food vendors
Cross tabulation – salads Yes No Total Group Consumers Count 151 9 160 % within Group 94.4% 5.6% 100.0% Street Vendors Count 71 13 84 % within Group 84.5% 15.5% 100.0% Count 222 22 244 Total % within Group 91.0% 9.0% 100.0% Chi-square tests Pearson Chi-Square 0.011 Fisher's Exact Test 0.017 1 Sided Fisher's Exact Test 0.012 Symmetric Measures Phi 0.163 Cramer’s V 0.163
Statistically significant results, (P = 0.017, Fisher's exact test) are shown above. 94.4% of consumers and 84.5 % of street food vendors thought that salads should be in a healthy Kota. The effect was small (Phi = 0.163) with a strong negative association, as more consumers answered yes to this question.
60 Table 4.14: Chi-square tests for independence: Should lean meat be in a healthy Kota?
Cross tabulation – lean meat Yes No Total Group Consumers Count 104 56 160 % within Group 65% 35% 100.0% Street Vendors Count 43 40 83 % within Group 51.8% 48.2% 100.0% Count 147 96 243 Total % within Group 60.5% 39.5% 100.0% Chi-square tests Pearson Chi-Square 0.046 Fisher's Exact Test 0.053 1 Sided Fisher's Exact Test 0.032
Above in Table 4.14, statistically insignificant results are reported (P = 0.053, Fisher's exact test) as 65% of consumers and 51.8 % of street food vendors thought that lean meat should be in a healthy Kota.
Table 4.15: Chi-square tests for independence: Should chicken breast be in a healthy Kota? – consumers and street food vendors
Cross tabulation – chicken breast Yes No Total Group Consumers Count 120 40 160 % within Group 75% 25% 100.0% Street Vendors Count 53 30 83 % within Group 63.9% 36.1% 100.0% Count 173 70 243 Total % within Group 71.2% 28.8% 100.0% Chi-square tests Pearson Chi-Square 0.069 Fisher's Exact Test 0.075 1 Sided Fisher's Exact Test 0.048
In Table 4.15 above, the p-value is 0.075 (Fisher’s exact test) which is statistically insignificant as 75% of consumers and 63.9% of street food vendors thought that chicken breast should be in a healthy Kota.
61 Table 4.16: Chi-square tests for independence: Should wholegrain or high fibre bread be in a healthy Kota? – consumers and street food vendors
Cross tabulation – wholegrain or high fibre bread Yes No Total Group Consumers Count 133 27 160 % within Group 83.1% 16.9% 100.0% Street Vendors Count 45 40 85 % within Group 52.9% 47.1% 100.0% Count 178 67 245 Total % within Group 72.7% 27.3% 100.0% Chi-square tests Pearson Chi-Square 0.000 Fisher's Exact Test 0.000 1 Sided Fisher's Exact Test 0.000
In Table 4.16 above, the results are statistically significant (P = 0.000, Fisher's exact test) and it can be seen that majority of both consumers (83.1%) and street food vendors (52.9%) thought that wholegrain or high fibre bread should be in a healthy Kota.
Table 4.17: Symmetric Measures: Should wholegrain or high fibre bread be in a healthy Kota? – consumers and street food vendors
Symmetric Measures Value Approximate Significance
Nominal by Nominal Phi 0.322 0.000 Cramer's V 0.322 0.000 N of Valid Cases 245
Based on the values presented in Table 4.17 above, it can be concluded that the measure used to detect the magnitude of association between consumers and street food vendors’ perceptions of whether wholegrain or high fibre bread should be in a healthy Kota, the effect was moderate (Cramer’s V = 0.322) with a weak positive association, as more consumers answered yes to this question as seen in Table 4.16.
62 Table 4.18: Chi-square tests for independence: Should beans (baked beans, kidney beans, lima Beans, butter beans, chickpeas) be in a healthy Kota? – consumers and street food vendors
Cross tabulation – beans (baked beans, kidney beans, lima Beans, butter beans, chickpeas) Yes No Total Group Consumers Count 80 80 160 % within Group 50% 50% 100.0% Street Vendors Count 24 60 84 % within Group 28.6% 71.4% 100.0% Count 104 140 244 Total % within Group 42.6% 57.4% 100.0% Chi-square tests Pearson Chi-Square 0.001 Fisher's Exact Test 0.002 1 Sided Fisher's Exact Test 0.001
Table 4.18 shows statistically significant (P = 0.002, Fisher's exact test) results and it can be seen that 50% of consumers thought that beans (baked beans, kidney beans, lima Beans, butter beans, chickpeas) should be in a healthy Kota, while 71.4% of street food vendors thought they should not.
Table 4.19: Symmetric Measures: Should beans (baked beans, kidney beans, lima Beans, butter beans, chickpeas) be in a healthy Kota? – consumers and street food vendors
Symmetric Measures Value Approximate Significance
Nominal by Nominal Phi 0.206 0.001 Cramer's V 0.206 0.001 N of Valid Cases 244
Table 4.19 reports that the measure used to detect the magnitude of association between consumers and street food vendors’ perceptions of whether beans (baked beans, kidney beans, lima Beans, butter beans, chickpeas) should be in a healthy Kota, showed a small effect (Phi = 0.206) with little or no association, as more street food vendors answered no to this question as seen in Table 4.18.
4.5.3 Age of consumers and their perceptions on Kota nutrition
The purpose of the below test was to determine if there was an association between the age of consumers and their perceptions of Kota nutrition.
63 Table 4.20: Chi-square tests for independence: Is the Kota a healthy meal? – Consumers
Cross tabulation – Is the Kota a healthy meal? Yes No Total Group 25 years and Count 8 76 84 younger % within Group 9.5% 90.5% 100.0% Older than 25 Count 3 73 76 years % within Group 3.9% 96.1% 100.0% Count 11 149 160 Total % within Group 6.9% 93.1% 100.0% Chi-square tests Pearson Chi-Square 0.164 Fisher's Exact Test 0.217 1 Sided Fisher's Exact Test 0.140
Table 4.20 shows statistically insignificant (P = 0.217, Fisher's exact test) results and it can be seen that 90.5% of consumers 25 years and younger and 96.1% of consumers older than 25 years thought that the Kota was an unhealthy meal.
Table 4.21: Chi-square tests for independence: Should the Kota be replaced with a healthier version? – Consumers
Cross tabulation – Should the Kota be replaced with a healthier version? Yes No Total Group 25 years and Count 52 32 84 younger % within Group 61.9% 38.1% 100.0% Older than 25 Count 45 31 76 years % within Group 59.2% 40.8% 100.0% Count 97 63 160 Total % within Group 60.6% 39.4% 100.0% Chi-square tests Pearson Chi-Square 0.728 Fisher's Exact Test 0.748 1 Sided Fisher's Exact Test 0.426
Table 4.21 shows statistically insignificant (P = 0.748, Fisher's exact test) results and it can be seen that 61.9% of consumers 25 years and younger and 59.2% of consumers older than 25 years thought that the Kota should be replaced with a healthier version.
64 Table 4.22: Chi-square tests for independence: Do you think that customers that buy Kotas are concerned about following a healthy diet? – Consumers
Cross tabulation – Do you think that customers that buy Kotas are concerned about following a healthy Yes No Total diet? Group 25 years and Count 22 62 84 younger % within Group 26.2% 73.8% 100.0% Older than 25 Count 26 50 76 years % within Group 34.2% 65.8% 100.0% Count 48 112 160 Total % within Group 30.0% 70.% 100.0% Chi-square tests Pearson Chi-Square 0.269 Fisher's Exact Test 0.302 1 Sided Fisher's Exact Test 0.175
Table 4.22 shows statistically insignificant results (P = 0.302, Fisher's exact test) and it can be seen that 73.8% of consumers 25 years and younger and 65.8% of consumers older than 25 years thought that that customers that buy Kotas are not concerned about following a healthy diet.
4.5.4 Education level of consumers and their perceptions of street food vendors’ food preparation skills.
The purpose of the below test was to determine if there was an association between the education level of consumers and their perceptions on street food vendors’ preparation skills.
Table 4.23: Chi-square tests for independence: Do you think that street food vendors know how to prepare ingredients before cooking them? – Consumers
Cross tabulation – Do you think that street food vendors know how to prepare ingredients before Yes No Unsure Total cooking them? Group Grade 12 Count 61 12 32 105 (Matric, std % within Group 58.1% 11.4% 30.5% 100.0% 10) or lower Higher Count 28 10 17 55 Education % within Group 50.9% 18.2% 30.9% 100.0% Count 89 22 49 160 Total % within Group 55.6% 13.8% 30.6% 100.0% Chi-square tests Pearson Chi-Square 0.464
In Table 4.23 above, the p-value is 0.464, which is statistically insignificant. Consumers that possess a Grade 12 or lower (58.1%) and consumers that possess a higher education
65 qualification (50.69%) thought that street food vendors do know how to prepare ingredients before cooking them.
Table 4.24: Chi-square tests for independence: Do you think that street food vendors know for how long each ingredient should be cooked? – Consumers
Cross tabulation – Do you think that street food vendors know for how long each ingredient Yes No Unsure Total should be cooked? Group Grade 12 Count 60 11 34 105 (Matric, std % within Group 57.1% 10.5% 32.4% 100.0% 10) or lower Higher Count 33 10 12 55 Education % within Group 60% 18.2% 21.8% 100.0% Count 93 21 46 160 Total % within Group 58.1% 13.1% 28.8% 100.0% Chi-square tests Pearson Chi-Square 0.214
In Table 4.24 above, the p-value is 0.214, which is statistically insignificant. Consumers that possess a Grade 12 or lower (57.1%) and consumers that possess a higher education qualification (60%) thought that street food vendors do know how how long each ingredient should be cooked for.
Table 4.25: Chi-square tests for independence: Do you think that street food vendors know how to check if an ingredient is properly cooked? – Consumers
Cross tabulation – Do you think that street food vendors know how to check if an ingredient is Yes No Unsure Total properly cooked? Group Grade 12 Count 60 16 29 105 (Matric, std % within Group 57.1% 15.2% 27.6% 100.0% 10) or lower Higher Count 28 8 19 55 Education % within Group 50.9% 14.5% 34.5% 100.0% Count 88 24 48 160 Total % within Group 55.0% 15% 30.0% 100.0% Chi-square tests Pearson Chi-Square 0.656
In Table 4.25 above the p-value is 0.656, which is not significant. Consumers that possess a Grade 12 or lower (57.1%) and consumers that possess a higher education qualification (50.9%) thought that street food vendors do know how how to check if an ingredient is properly cooked.
66
Table 4.26: Chi-square tests for independence: Do you think that street food vendors know how to prepare ingredients using different cooking methods? – Consumers
Cross tabulation – Do you think that street food vendors know how to prepare ingredients using Yes No Unsure Total different cooking methods? Group Grade 12 Count 57 10 38 105 (Matric, std % within Group 54.3% 9.5% 36.2% 100.0% 10) or lower Higher Count 21 10 24 55 Education % within Group 38.2% 18.2% 43.6% 100.0% Count 78 20 62 160 Total % within Group 48.8% 12.5% 38.8% 100.0% Chi-square tests Pearson Chi-Square 0.100
In Table 4.26 above the p-value is 0.100, which is statistically insignificant. Consumers that possess a Grade 12 or lower (54.3%) thought that street food vendors know how to prepare ingredients using different cooking methods, whereas consumers that possess a higher education qualification (43.6%) were unsure.
4.5.5 Education level of street food vendors and their perceptions of their own and other street food vendors’ food preparation skills.
The purpose of the below test was to determine if there was an association between the education level of street food vendors and their perceptions of their own and other street food vendors’ food preparation skills.
Table 4.27: Chi-square tests for independence: Is the Kota healthy meal? – Street food vendors
Cross tabulation – Is the Kota a healthy meal? Yes No Total Group 25 years and Count 0 23 23 younger % within Group 0.0% 100.0% 100.0% Older than 25 Count 2 60 62 years % within Group 3.2% 96.8% 100.0% Count 2 83 85 Total % within Group 2.4% 97.6% 100.0% Chi-square tests Pearson Chi-Square 0.383 Fisher's Exact Test 0.100 1 Sided Fisher's Exact Test 0.530
67 Table 4.27 shows statistically insignificant (P = 0.100, Fisher's exact test) results and it can be seen that 100.0% of street food vendors 25 years and younger and 96.8% of street food vendors older than 25 years thought that the Kota was an unhealthy meal.
Table 4.28: Chi-square tests for independence: Should the Kota be replaced with a healthier version? – Street food vendors
Cross tabulation – Should the Kota be replaced with a healthier version? Yes No Total Group 25 years and Count 12 11 23 younger % within Group 52.2% 47.8% 100.0% Older than 25 Count 23 39 62 years % within Group 37.1% 62.9% 100.0% Count 35 50 85 Total % within Group 41.2% 58.8% 100.0% Chi-square tests Pearson Chi-Square 0.210 Fisher's Exact Test 0.226 1 Sided Fisher's Exact Test 0.157
A statistically insignificant (P = 0.226, Fisher's exact test) result is shown in Table 4.28 and it can be seen that 52.2% of street food vendors 25 years and younger thought that the Kota should be replaced with a healthier version, while 62.9% of street food vendors older than 25 years thought it should not.
Table 4.29: Chi-square tests for independence: Do you think that customers that buy Kotas are concerned about following a healthy diet? – Street food vendors
Cross tabulation – Do you think that customers that buy Kotas are concerned about following a healthy Yes No Total diet? Group 25 years and Count 4 19 23 younger % within Group 17.4% 82.6% 100.0% Older than 25 Count 15 47 62 years % within Group 24.2% 75.8% 100.0% Count 19 66 85 Total % within Group 22.4% 77.6% 100.0% Chi-square tests Pearson Chi-Square 0.504 Fisher's Exact Test 0.573 1 Sided Fisher's Exact Test 0.362
68 In Table 4.29 above the p-value is 0.573 (Fisher’s exact test), which is not significant. 82.6 % of street food vendors 25 years and younger, and 75.8% of street food vendors older than 25 years thought that consumers that buy the Kota are not concerned about following a healthy diet.
Table 4.30: Chi-square tests for independence: Age and formal training in food safety, hygiene and/or food handling– Street food vendors
Cross tabulation – What formal training in food Total safety, hygiene and/or food handling do you have? None Certificate
Group 25 years and Count 12 9 21 younger % within Group 57.1% 42.9% 100.0% Older than 25 Count 47 9 56 years % within Group 83.9% 16.1% 100.0% Count 59 18 77 Total % within Group 76.6% 23.4% 100.0% Chi-square tests Pearson Chi-Square 0.013 Fisher's Exact Test 0.031 1 Sided Fisher's Exact Test 0.017
A statistically significant (P = 0.031, Fisher's exact test) result is shown in Table 4.30 and it can be seen that 57.1% of street food vendors 25 years and younger and 83.9% of street food vendors older than 25 years did not have any formal training in food safety.
Table 4.31: Symmetric Measures: Age and formal training in food safety, hygiene and/or food handling – Street food vendors
Symmetric Measures Value Approximate Significance
Nominal by Nominal Phi -0.282 0.013 Cramer's V 0.282 0.013 N of Valid Cases 77
Displayed in Table 4.31 is the measure used to detect the magnitude of association between street food vendors’ 25 years and younger and street food vendors older than 25 years, showed a small effect (Phi = -0.282) with a strong negative association, as more street food
69 vendors older than 25 years answered that they did not have any formal qualification in food safety.
Table 4.32: Chi-square tests for independence: Education level and perception of knowledge on how to prepare ingredients before cooking – Street food vendors
Cross tabulation – Do you think street food vendors know how to prepare ingredients before Yes No Unsure Total cooking them? Group Grade 11 or Count 25 5 8 38 lower % within Group 65.8% 13.2% 21.1% 100.0% Grade 12 or Count 39 3 5 47 Higher % within Group 83.0% 6.4% 10.6% 100.0% Count 64 8 13 85 Total % within Group 75.3% 9.4% 15.3% 100.0% Chi-square tests Pearson Chi-Square 0.188
In Table 4.32 above the p-value is 0.188, which is not significant. 65.8 % of street food vendors in possession of a Grade 11 or lower education, and 83.0% of street food vendors in possession of a Grade 12 or higher education thought that street food vendors do know how to prepare ingredients before cooking them.
Table 4.33: Chi-square tests for independence: Education level and perception on the knowledge of how long each ingredient should be cooked for – Street food vendors
Cross tabulation – Do you think that street food vendors know how long each ingredient should Yes No Unsure Total be cooked for? Group Grade 11 or Count 23 6 9 38 lower % within Group 60.5% 15.8% 23.7% 100.0% Grade 12 or Count 33 7 7 47 Higher % within Group 70.2% 14.9% 14.9% 100.0% Count 56 13 16 85 Total % within Group 65.9% 15.3% 18.8% 100.0% Chi-square tests Pearson Chi-Square 0.556
In Table 4.33 above the p-value is 0.556, which is not significant. 60.5 % of street food vendors in possession of a Grade 11 or lower education, and 70.2% of street food vendors in possession of a Grade 12 or higher education thought that street food vendors do know how long each ingredient should be cooked for.
70 Table 4.34: Chi-square tests for independence: Education level and perception on knowledge of how to check if an ingredient is properly cooked – Street food vendors
Cross tabulation – Do you think that street food vendors know to check if an ingredient is Yes No Unsure Total properly? Group Grade 11 or Count 23 5 10 38 lower % within Group 60.5% 13.2% 26.3% 100.0% Grade 12 or Count 37 2 7 46 Higher % within Group 80.4% 4.3% 15.2% 100.0% Count 60 7 17 85 Total % within Group 71.4% 8.3% 20.2% 100.0% Chi-square tests Pearson Chi-Square 0.113
Above in Table 4.34 above the p-value is 0.113, which is not significant. 60.5 % of street food vendors in possession of a Grade 11 or lower education, and 80.4% of street food vendors in possession of a Grade 12 or higher education thought that street food vendors know how to check if an ingredient is properly cooked.
Table 4.35: Chi-square tests for independence: Education level and perception on the ability to prepare ingredients using different cooking methods – Street food vendors
Cross tabulation – Do you think that street food vendors know how to prepare ingredients using Yes No Unsure Total different cooking methods? Group Grade 11 or Count 16 8 14 38 lower % within Group 42.1% 21.1% 36.8% 100.0% Grade 12 or Count 34 5 8 47 Higher % within Group 72.3% 10.6% 17.0% 100.0% Count 50 13 22 85 Total % within Group 58.8% 15.3% 25.9% 100.0% Chi-square tests Pearson Chi-Square 0.019
In Table 4.35 above the p-value is 0.019, which is statistically significant. 42.1 % of street food vendors in possession of a Grade 11 or lower education, and 72.3% of street food vendors in possession of a Grade 12 or higher education thought that street food vendors do know how to prepare ingredients using different cooking methods, however 36.8% of street food vendors in possession of a Grade 11 or lower education were unsure.
71 Table 4.36: Symmetric Measures: Education level and perception on the ability to prepare ingredients using different cooking methods – Street food vendors
Symmetric Measures Value Approximate Significance
Nominal by Nominal Phi 0.306 0.019 Cramer's V 0.306 0.019 N of Valid Cases 85
Based on the values presented in Table 4.36 above, it can be concluded that the measure used to detect the magnitude of association between street food vendors’ in possession of a Grade 11 or lower education and street food vendors in possession of a Grade 12 or higher education, showed a moderate effect (Cramer’s V = 0.306) with little or no association, as more street food vendors in possession of a Grade 12 or higher education indicated that they thought street food vendors know how to prepare ingredients using different cooking methods.
4.6 FREQUENCIES AND PERCENTAGE
Table 4.37: Investigation of what ingredients are in a basic Kota
Which of the below listed ingredients are Frequency Percentage used to make a basic Kota? Mark all that are Street Street applicable Consumers Food Consumers Food Vendors Vendors B1.1 White bread 156 84 12.6 12.3 B1.2 Fried potato or ‘slap’ chips 156 84 12.6 12.3 B1.3 Cheese 142 82 11.5 12.0 B1.4 Polony 145 79 11.7 11.6 B1.5 Russian 139 72 11.2 10.5 B1.6 Patty 89 38 7.2 5.6 B1.7 Egg 128 64 10.3 9.4 B1.8 Tomato Sauce 135 76 10.9 11.1 B1.9 Mango Atchaar 129 77 10.4 11.3 B1.10 Other 19 27 1.5 4.0 Total 1238 683 100.0 100.0
Table 4.37 provides insight into the responses of consumers and street food vendors on what ingredients make up a basic Kota. The main findings reveal that consumers and street
72 food vendors affirm that the following are ingredients in a basic Kota: White bread 12.6% (n=156) and 12.3% (n=84); Fried potato or “slap” chips 12.6% (n=156) and 12.6% (n = 84). Consumers 11.5 % (n=142) and street food vendors 12.0% (n=82) agreed that Cheese is basic ingredient in the Kota, while 11.7% (n=145) of consumers and 11.6% (n=79) of street food vendors agreed that Polony is also a basic ingredient in the Kota; Consumers 11.2% (n=139) agreed that a Russian is an ingredient in the basic Kota and a slight discrepancy can be seen with 10.5% (n=72) of street food vendors agreeing the same. The findings showed Eggs, consumers 10.3% (n=128) and street food vendors 9.4% (n=64); Tomato Sauce consumers 10.9% (n=135) and street food vendors 11.1% (n=76); Mango Atchaar consumers 10.4% (n=129) and street food vendors 11.3% (n=77), all ingredients in a basic Kota, which all had slight variances but indicated overall agreement.
Patties were noted as an ingredient in the basic Kota by some consumers (7.2%; n=89) and street food vendors varied with 5.6% (n=38), indicating that they may not be present in all Kotas as a standard ingredient. The same is true for the category of Other, which referred to any other additional ingredient making up a basic Kota. Only 1.5% (n=19) of consumers responded that there were other ingredients present, while 4% (n=27) of street food vendors responded similarly. This indicates that some street food vendors do prepare a basic Kota with additional ingredients.
From the above, we can deduce that white bread, potato or “slap” chips, cheese, polony, Russian, egg, tomato sauce and mango atchar are the ingredients used to make a basic Kota and any other ingredient is optional or an add-on.
73 Table 4.38: Other ingredients in a basic Kota
Other ingredients that respondents Frequency Percentage noted as an ingredient in a basic Street Food Kota Consumers Street Vendors Consumers Food (n=160) (n=85) Vendors Lettuce 1 4 0.6 4.7 Special 4 3 2.5 3.6 Bacon 2 1 1.3 1.2 Curry 1 - 0.6 - Ham 1 - 0.6 - Hot Sauce 1 - 0.6 - Mangola 1 - 0.6 - Morogo 1 - 0.6 - Sauce 1 - 0.6 - Avocado 2 - 1.3 - Chakalaka - 1 - 1.2 Mayonnaise - 1 - 1.2 Chilli Sauce - 2 - 2.4 Mustard - 2 - 2.4 White Liver - 2 - 2.4 BBQ Sauce - 3 - 3.5 Vienna - 7 - 8.3 Total 160 100% 85 100.0%
Table 4.38 depicts that 4.7% (n=4) of street food vendors listed lettuce as an ingredient in the basic Kota, while only 0.6% (n=1) consumers agreed with this. “Special” was included by 2.5% (n=4) of consumers and 3.6% (n=3) street food vendors, which indicates some consensus of possible inclusion. However, as there is no definition or breakdown for what exactly “special” is, these findings cannot be used in the result of the study. Bacon was noted by 1.3% (n=2) of consumers and 1.2% (n=1) of street food vendors as an ingredient in a basic Kota. Although the above ingredients were listed across consumers and street food vendors, the percentage and frequencies are too insignificant to be deemed as an ingredient in the definition of a basic Kota, and will be seen as extras or an add-on. The same applies to all other ingredients listed by either consumers or street food vendors, apart from the notable percentage of Viennas listed by street food vendors (8.3%; n=7), which indicates that this may be a standard ingredient in some street food vendors’ basic Kota.
74 Table 4.39: Healthy ingredients that were felt should be in a Kota
Which of the below ingredients do you Yes No think should be in a healthy Kota? Street Consumers Food Street Vendors Consumers Food (n=160) Vendors (n=85)
Salads (Tomato, Lettuce, Cucumber, n 151 71 9 13 Onion) % 94.4% 84.5% 5.6% 15.5% n 104 43 56 40 Lean Meat % 65.0% 51.8% 35.0% 48.2% n 120 53 40 30 Chicken Breast % 75.0% 63.9% 25.0% 36.1% n 118 47 42 37 Fish % 73.8% 56.0% 26.3% 44.0% n 133 45 27 40 Wholegrain or High Fibre Bread % 83.1% 52.9% 16.9% 47.1%
Low Fat Dairy Products (Cheese and n 129 55 31 28 Butter) % 80.6% 66.3% 19.4% 33.7%
Nuts (Almonds, Pecan Nuts, Walnuts, n 72 29 88 54 Peanuts) % 45.0% 34.9% 55.0% 65.1%
Grains (Barley, Brown rice, Whole- n 74 24 86 60 grain corn, Sorghum) % 46.3% 28.6% 53.8% 71.4%
Beans (Baked Beans, Kidney Beans, n 80 24 80 60 Lima Beans, Butter Beans, Chickpeas) % 50.0% 28.6% 50.0% 71.4%
n 160 84 160 84 Total % 100% 100% 100% 100.0%
Table 4.39 clearly illustrates the healthy ingredients that consumers and street food vendors feel should be in a Kota. Consumers, in descending order, felt that the following should be in a healthy the Kota: Salads, 94.4% (n = 151); Wholegrain or high fibre bread, 83.1% (n = 133); Low fat dairy products, 80.6% (n = 129); Chicken breast, 75% (n = 120); Fish, 73.8% (n = 118); Lean meat, 65% (n = 104); Beans, 50% (n = 80); Grains, 46.3% (n = 74) and Nuts, 45% (n = 72).
Street food vendors, in descending order, felt that the following should be in a healthy Kota: Salads, 84.5.4% (n = 71); Low fat dairy products, 66.3% (n = 55); Chicken breast, 63.9% (n
75 = 53); Fish, 56% (n = 47); Wholegrain or high fibre bread, 52.9% (n = 45); Lean meat, 51.8% (n = 43); Nuts, 34.9% (n = 29); and equal results for Beans and Grains, 28.6% (n = 24).
From the above, we can agree that both street food vendors and consumers strongly feel that salads, wholegrain or high fibre bread, low fat dairy products, chicken breast, fish and lean meat are healthy ingredients that should be in a Kota. Consumers seemed to be more open minded to the possibilities of nuts, grains and beans being included in a healthy Kota than street food vendors were.
Table 4.40: Perception on street food vendors’ formal training in food safety, hygiene and/or food handling
What formal training in food safety, Frequency Percentage hygiene and/or food handling do you Street Food think that street food vendors have? Consumers Street Vendors Consumers Food (n=160) (n=85) Vendors None 105 59 65.6 69.4 Certificate 42 18 26.3 21.2 Diploma 6 0 3.8 0 Degree or Higher 4 0 2.5 0 Other 2 7 1.3 8.2 Total 159 84 99.4 98.8 System 1 1 0.6 1.2 Total 160 85 100.0 100.0
As seen above in Table 4.40, 65.6% (n=105) of consumers think that street food vendors have no formal qualification or training, and 69.4% (n=59) street food vendors responded the same. Consumers 26.3% (n=42) thought that street food vendors possess a certificate of some kind, while only 21.2% (n=18) street food vendors agreed on the same. Consumers 3.8% (n=6) thought that street food vendors may have a diploma and 2.5% (n=4) thought that they have a degree or higher. No street food vendors responded that any other street food vendors have a diploma or a degree or higher, however 8.2% (n=7) of street food vendors did respond that they thought street food vendors had some other type of formal training in food safety/handling, as did 1.3% (n=2) of consumers responded the same.
The results help us to deduce that the majority of street food vendors most likely have no formal training or qualification in food safety/handling, or possibly possess a certificate.
76 Table 4.41: Reasons that street food vendors should use the correct food safety and hygiene practices
What are the reasons that you Frequency Percentage think street food vendors Street should use the correct food Street safety and hygiene practices? Consumers Food Vendors Consumers Food Mark all that are applicable. (n=160) Vendors (n=85) To avoid food contamination (food 134 75 19.1 22.0 poisoning) To avoid accidents while cooking 106 54 15.1 15.8 It ensures that food tastes good 107 50 15.3 14.7 To keep food fresh 124 53 17.7 15.5 Because you will complain if the 124 61 17.7 17.9 area is dirty To avoid foreign objects from 106 48 15.1 14.1 falling into the food Total 701 341 100.0 100.0
Table 4.41 indicates that a higher percentage of street food vendors 22% (n = 75) felt that they should use the correct food safety and hygiene practices “To avoid contamination of food”, whereas only 19.1% (n = 134) of consumers agreed with this. Results were similar for “To avoid accidents while cooking” with 15.8% (n = 54) for street food vendors and 15.1% (n = 106) for consumers. Consumers 15.3% (n = 107) agreed with the statement “It ensures that food tastes good” and 14.7% (n = 50) of street food vendors felt the same way. Consumers 17.7% (n = 124) agreed with the statement “To keep food fresh”, whereas only 15.5% (n = 53) of street food vendors responded the same. “Because you will complain if the area is dirty” saw a higher rate of agreement amongst both consumers 17.7% (n = 124) and street food vendors 17.9% (n = 61); and consumers 15.1% (n = 106) agreed that “To avoid foreign objects from falling into the food” was a reason that street food vendors should use the correct food safety and hygiene practices, while street food vendors 14.41% (n = 48) agreed as well.
Overall, the frequencies and percentages were not high and we can see slight variations between what consumers and street food vendors thought were reason that street food vendors should use the correct food safety and hygiene practices. This is indicative of an overall poor understanding, although generally better amongst consumers, of knowledge as to why food safety and hygiene practices are followed by both groups of participants.
77 Table 4.42: Street food vending priorities
Consumers % Street Food Vendors %
How important is each of ortant
the following to you:
Not Important at all Not Important Neutral Important Very Important Not Imp at all Not Important Neutral Important Very Important Seeing a clean vending 0.6 1.3 7.7 18.8 71.9 0.0 0.0 4.7 31.8 63.5 stall/ The customer seeing a clean vending stall Ensuring that you are eating 0.0 0.6 10.6 26.3 62.5 0.0 1.2 12.9 28.2 57.6 fresh food/ Ensuring that the customer eats fresh food Ensuring that you are eating 0.6 1.9 10.0 15.6 71.9 0.0 1.2 12.9 29.4 56.5 food that is safe and will not cause illness/ Ensuring that the customer eats food that is safe and will not cause illness The business that you are 0.6 5.6 16.9 23.1 53.8 0.0 0.0 3.5 30.6 65.9 purchasing from being known to sell safe food to eat / Your business being known to sell safe to eat food The price that you buy the 10.6 16.9 16.3 21.9 34.4 0.0 4.7 16.5 32.9 45.9 Kota for/ The price that you sell the Kota for The quality of ingredients 2.5 4.4 17.5 21.3 54.4 3.5 7.1 22.4 27.1 40.0 used to prepare the Kota Whether the Kota is 8.8 13.1 25.6 14.4 38.1 17.6 18.8 15.3 21.2 27.1 considered healthy or not/ Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
From Table 4.42, it is clear that the majority of consumers (71.9%) as well as street food vendors (63.5%) rated “seeing a clean vending stall” as very important; 62.5% of consumers and 57.6% of street food vendors also rated “ensuring that you are eating fresh food” as very important, and also felt that “Ensuring that you are eating food that is safe and will not cause illness” was very important, consumers 71.9% and street food vendors 56.5% which again represents the majority. “The business that you are purchasing from being known to sell safe food to eat” was also rated very important by the majority of consumers (53.8%) and street food vendors (65.9%). “The price that you buy/sell the Kota for” showed a difference in percentages amongst the two groups although both saw very important as the preferred answer, with 34.4% of consumers choosing that answer, while 45.9% of street food vendors
78 agreed. “The quality of ingredients used to prepare the Kota” is very important to both groups, consumers 54.4% and street food vendors 40%. Finally, “whether the Kota is considered healthy or not” was very important to most of the respondents but more so amongst consumers, 38%, than street food vendors, 27.1%.
It can thus be deduced that both groups value consuming and selling safe-to-eat food that is well priced and they consider the healthiness of the Kota.
Table 4.43: Perception of how frequently street food vendors follow hygiene practices
Consumers % Street Food Vendors % How often do you think that street food vendors that you purchase from
follow the below hygiene
practices when preparing/cooking food? Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always Wear clean uniform or other clean suitable 4.4 15.6 21.3 35.0 23.8 0.0 1.2 4.8 32.5 61.4 clothing daily Wear a clean disposable 5.0 16.3 30.0 29.4 19.4 7.2 0.0 7.2 15.7 69.9 hair net daily Wear a fresh, clean apron 4.4 13.8 36.3 31.3 14.4 1.2 0.0 8.3 28.6 61.9 daily Use disposable gloves 12.5 22.5 42.5 14.4 8.1 32.1 3.6 14.3 10.7 39.3 when preparing food. Use disposable gloves 13.8 22.5 45.6 12.5 5.6 31.3 6.0 12.0 14.5 36.1 when serving food. Use a clean cloth to wipe surfaces that food is 3.1 14.4 34.4 35.6 12.5 1.2 1.2 17.9 26.2 53.6 prepared on Use a disinfectant chemical to wipe surfaces 6.3 20.6 34.4 30.6 8.1 14.3 6.0 16.7 29.8 33.3 that food is prepared on Overall, follow good hygiene and food safety 3.1 16.3 28.1 34.4 18.1 n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a practices Wash your hands before n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a 0.0 6.0 22.6 29.8 41.7 handling food Wash your hands after n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a 0.0 3.6 25.0 23.8 47.6 using the toilet Wash your hands after n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a 6.0 10.7 21.4 25.0 36.9 blowing your nose Use clean water to wash n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a 0.0 2.4 31.7 31.7 34.1 dishes Use clean cooking utensils and equipment during food n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a 1.2 3.6 32.1 27.4 35.7 preparation
79 Change cooking oil often n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a 1.2 17.9 35.7 23.8 21.4 Use separate cutting boards for different types n/a n/a n/a n/a n/a 45.2 13.1 13.1 16.7 11.9 of ingredients Total 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Table 4.43 indicates that the majority of consumers (35.0%) thought that street food vendors often “Wear clean uniform or other clean suitable clothing daily”, while 61.4% of street food vendors differed, indicating that they always follow this practice. Another significant variance in perception was noted with 30.0% of consumers stating sometimes and 29.4% stating often, when asked, “Wear clean uniform or other clean suitable clothing daily”, while 69.9% of street food vendors stated that they do this often. A similar response can be seen on “Wear a fresh, clean apron daily”, where 36.3% of consumers responded sometimes and 31.3% responded often, whereas 61.9% of street food vendors responded always. “Use disposable gloves when preparing food” showed the majority of consumers (42.5%) responding that this occurs sometimes, while the majority of street food vendors (39.3%) responded always. However, a close response of 32.1% in the same group responded never. The same could be said for “Use disposable gloves when serving food”, where the majority of street food vendors (36.1%) responded always but a close response of 31.3% in the same group responded never, while the majority of consumers (45.6%) responded sometimes. The majority (35.6%) of consumers responded often to “Use a clean cloth to wipe surfaces that food is prepared on”, closely followed by 34.4% of the same group responding sometimes. A total of 34.4% and 30.6% of consumers respectively responded sometimes and often to “Use a disinfectant chemical to wipe surfaces that food is prepared on”, while the majority of street food vendors (33.3%) responded often. Only consumers were asked to respond to “Overall, follow good hygiene and food safety practices”, and the majority (34.4%) agreed that this was “often”, followed closely by “sometimes” (28.1%).
Only street food vendors responded to the below statements. For “Wash your hands before handling food”, the majority (41.7%) responded always. “Wash your hands after using the toilet”, 47.6% responded always. “Wash your hands after blowing your nose”, 36.9% responded always. “Use clean water to wash dishes”, 34.1% responded always, followed closely by 25.0% responding often and 21.4% responding sometimes. “Use clean cooking utensils and equipment during food preparation”, 35.7% responded always while 32.1% responded sometimes. “Change cooking oil often”, 35.7% responded sometimes and finally, “Use separate cutting boards for different types of ingredients”, 42.5% responded never.
80 4.7 RELIABILITY
Reliability refers to how consistent a measuring device is and tests the ability of the tool to produce the same results if tested numerous times (Mathiyazhagan & Nandan; 2010:41). Leedy and Omrod (2010:28) describe it as the dependability of an instrument of measure to deliver a certain unit, provided the construct remains unchanged. Reliability and validity are closely related because if your measure is not reliable, it cannot be valid. Measures may prove unreliable if not stable or fluctuates over time. A measure may also lack internal reliability, which is what was utilised for the study, meaning that the multiple-indicator measure cannot be valid as it is measuring two or more different ideas (Bryman et al., 2014). The Cronbach coefficient alpha is the statistical method used to test internal consistency or reliability, which aims to determine each item in a construct’s consistency and measurement in relation to the actual construct. Results range from zero to one and the higher the score, the greater the reliability. Literature notes the Cronbach alpha coefficient of a scale should ideally be seven and above (De Vellis, 2003; Pallant, 2011:6).
Table 4.44: Results from the Cronbach’s alpha test for consumers and street food vendors merged.
Construct Cronbach’s alpha
Street food vending priorities 0.810 Personal Hygiene 0.859 Cleanliness of vending stall 0.939
Table 4.44 above shows high reliability coefficients, which indicate more than fair consistency among the items that were tested for both consumers and street food vendors. High alpha values were calculated for “Cleanliness of vending stall”, ( = .939); “Personal Hygiene”, ( = .859) and “Street food vending priorities”, ( = .810), which indicates good internal consistency among the items tested.
Table 4.45: Results from the Cronbach’s alpha test for street food vendors
Construct Cronbach’s alpha
Food hygiene 0.929
The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient calculated, as seen above in Table 4.45, reached a high reliability coefficient ( = .929) for “Food hygiene”, which was tested among street food vendors only. This indicates good internal consistency among the items.
81 4.8 SUMMARY
This chapter presented the main findings and results from the statistical analysis of the data, based on the research methodology presented in Chapter 3.
The results from two respondent groups were analyzed, namely consumers and street food vendors. The response rate was examined, as well as the respondents’ demographic profiles.
The chapter further explored the custom tables relating to the objectives of the study and cross-tabulations with Chi-square tests were examined and discussed.
Finally, the chapter concludes with the investigation of determining reliability through the use of Cronbach’s alpha test.
All of the findings have been expressed in data table format as Leedy and Omrod (2014:41) note that data tables assist in demonstrating and clarifying data, as well as having the advantage of being convenient.
The following chapter, Chapter 5, discusses the main findings of the study.
82 CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION OF MAIN FINDINGS
5.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter discusses the main findings of the results of the study, which were presented in Chapter 4.
The chapter explains how the research objectives of the study were met are explored whilst discussing the demographic variables of the respondents in the two groups that participated in the study, namely consumers and street food vendors.
A further look into the results of the respondents’ priorities when purchasing a Kota and the perception on street food vendor’s personal hygiene which was represented by Means (M), Standard Deviation (SD) and Percentage (%), is discussed.
This is followed by a discussion of the Chi-square tests which measured the association between certain variables. The variables were perceptions of whether the ingredients in the Kota are prepared using a healthy or unhealthy cooking method, what ingredients should be included in a healthy Kota, perceptions on whether the Kota is an overall healthy meal, if the Kota should be replaced by a healthy alternative, perceptions on street food vendors’ food preparation knowledge and skills, and the age and education levels of street food vendors.
Chapter Five concludes by discussing the frequencies of the basic ingredients in the Kota, any other common ingredients that may be found in a basic Kota, the most common reasons why street food vendors follow food safety practices and the frequency of how often these practices are perceived to be maintained.
5.2 DEMOGRAPHIC VARIABLES OF RESPONDENTS
5.2.1 Age
Table 4.1 shows that the majority of the consumers in the study were aged between 14–25 years (52.5%; n=84). Feeley et al. (2009:120) who conducted their study amongst adolescents state that the average age of an adolescent who consumes fast food in Soweto is 17.7 years old. This is consistent with the 14–25 year age group of consumers that were the majority age group in this study. Further to this, Steyn and Labadarios (2011:463) reported in their study that the majority of consumers of street-vended food fell with the 16– 24 year old age group. Katiyo et al. (2019:101) report that 18-29 year olds were the majority of consumers that responded to the safety risks associated with handling raw chicken.
83 Most of the street food vendors in the study were aged between 26–35 years (44.7%; n=38). There was little difference in the counts of the age group of 14–25 years (27.1%; n=23) and 36–45 years (21.2%; n=18). According to Samapundo et al. (2014:459), who conducted their study in Haiti, the majority of street food vendors were between 15–25 years old (31.3%). This aligns with the results of this study and is further supported by the results of Omemu and Aderoju (2007:397) who reported that the majority (46%) of street food vendors in Abeokuta, Nigeria were aged between 31–40 years old and likewise with Hill et al. (2019:405) who found that the majority of street vendors fell within the 35–44 year old age group.
It can be said that the main consumers of street-vended food are the youth between 14–25 years old and that the majority of street food vendors are slightly older and fall within the 26– 35 year old category.
5.2.2 Ethnicity
Table 4.1 shows that the majority of consumers were Black (85.6%; n=137), followed by Coloureds (8.1%; n=13). Thereafter ranked Whites (3.1%; n=5) and Indians (2.5%; n=4) with Asians last (0.6%; n=1). The results from Steyn and Labadarios (2011:463) also show that Black Africans were the most frequent consumers of street food, with Indians and Whites being the minority consumer ethnic groups.
It can be seen that the majority of street food vendors were also Black (90.6%; n=77). According to the statistics published in the 2011 South African national census, 79.4% of the South African population declared themselves as Black (Anon., 2018b). It can thus be deduced that the majority of consumers and street food vendors were also Black, as the ratios are consistent with the population. Hill et al. (2019:405) mention the same majority race in their study.
5.2.3 Highest level of education
Table 4.1 indicates that most of the consumers had an education level of Std 10 and under, (65.6%; n=105) while the remainder (34.4%; n=55) possessed a form of higher education.
Table 4.2 shows that most of the street food vendors had an education level of Std 10 and under (89.4%; n=76), while the remaining 10.6% (n=9) possessed a form of higher education. Samapundo et al. (2015:458) report that the majority of street food vendors who participated in their study had finished high school and Hill et al. (2019:405) reports that most of their vendors had some high school education. This is consistent with the findings in
84 the current study where the results show most street food vendors had a Std 10 or under, followed by the minority who said they had some form of higher education.
The results correlate with the study of Cortese, Veirosa, Feldman and Cavalli (2016:180), where the majority of street food vendors had completed elementary school, followed by high school and then primary school, which can all be categorised as Std 10 and under. The minority had a university qualification. All of the aforementioned studies are in line with Omemu and Aderoju (2008:397), who reported the majority of street food vendors who participated in their study had completed primary school, secondary school or possess no schooling, which again can be categorised as Std 10 and under, followed by the minority who possessed a tertiary or vocational qualification. It can thus be said from the statistical trends that street food vending as a form of employment is often pursued by people who do not hold a higher education qualification.
5.2.4 Employment status
Table 4.1 shows that 34.38% (n=55) of consumers were employed full-time, with student consumers following close behind at 30.64% (n=49). These results are consistent with the above discussion on the majority age category, the 14-25 year olds who most frequently consume the Kota and would likely still be students or employed full-time post-graduation.
It can be seen that the majority of the street food vendors were employees (70.59%; n=60) and the balance were owners (29.41%; n=25). Gamieldien and van Niekerk (2017:24) state that people are forced to become street food vendors or hawkers to generate an income, due to the limited availability of employment in the formal sector of South Africa. This statement would correlate to the high percentage of street food vendors employed by an owner as reported in the current study.
5.3 DETERMINING THE INGREDIENTS THAT MAKE UP THE BASIC KOTA AND HEALTHIER ALTERNATIVES
5.3.1 Main findings from Table 4.37 (Basic ingredients of a Kota)
Table 4.37 provides insight into the responses of consumers and street food vendors on what ingredients make up a basic Kota. The main findings reveal that consumers and street food vendors affirm that the following are ingredients in a basic Kota: White bread 12.6% (n=156) and 12.3% (84); Fried potato or “slap” chips 12.6% (n=156) and 12.6%. 11.5 % (n=142) consumers and 12.0% (n=82) street food vendors agreed that Cheese is basic ingredient in the Kota, while 11.7% (n=145) of consumers and 11.6% (n=79) of street food vendors agreed that polony is a basic ingredient in the Kota. 11.2% (n=139) of consumers agreed that a Russian is an ingredient in the basic Kota and a slight variance can be seen
85 with 10.5% (n=72) of street food vendors agreeing. The findings saw Eggs, consumers 10.3% (n=128) and street food vendors 9.4% (n=64); Tomato Sauce consumers 10.9% (n=135) and street food vendors 11.1% (n=76); Mango Atchaar consumers 10.4% (n=129) and street food vendors 11.3% (n=77), all as ingredients in a basic Kota which all had slight variances but indicated overall agreement.
These results correlate with those published by Feeley et al. (2009:121) who state that: Though the ingredients of a ‘quarter’ are not necessarily standardised, there are some key attributes that make it a ‘quarter’: a quarter loaf of white bread, a portion of fried chips, a slice of processed cheese, any number of processed meats, including, though not exclusively polony, Russian, sausage, Vienna, mangola, white liver and special, a fried egg, and sauces including tomato sauce, mustard, chilli sauce, and atchar. Occasionally lettuce, fresh tomato and/or chakalaka (a spicy vegetable relish) are added.
The results of the current study as depicted in Table 4.38 indicate that patties, lettuce, “special”, bacon, curry, ham, hot sauce, mangola, morogo, sauce, avocado, chakalaka, mayonnaise, chilli sauce, mustard, white liver, bbq sauce and Viennas may all be extras or optional add-ons to a basic Kota.
From the above, it can be deduced that white bread, potato or “slap” chips, cheese, polony, Russian, egg, tomato sauce and mango atchar are the ingredients used to make a basic Kota and any other ingredient is optional or an add-on.
5.3.2 Main findings from Table 4.39 (Consumers and Street Food vendors) – Healthy ingredients that should be in a Kota
In Table 4.39 and Section 4.5.2, the results reveal which healthy ingredients that consumers and street food vendors feel should be in a Kota. From the results, it can be seen that both street food vendors and consumers strongly feel that salads 94.4% (n = 151) and 84.5% (n = 71), wholegrain or high fibre bread 83.1% (n = 133) and 52.9% (n = 45), low fat dairy products 80.6% (n = 129) and 66.3% (n = 55), chicken breast 75% (n = 120) and 63.9% (n = 53), fish 73.8% (n = 118) and 56% (n = 47), and lean meat 65% (n = 104) and 51.8% (n = 43), are healthy ingredients that should be in a Kota.
Consumers seemed to be more open minded to the possibilities of nuts 45% (n = 72) and 34.9% (n = 29), grains 46.3% (n = 74) and 28.6% (n = 24) and beans 50% (n = 80) and 28.6% (n = 24), being included in a healthy Kota than street food vendors were. However, these results were still in the minority across both groups, indicating that while they may be healthy ingredients, respondents did not necessarily feel that they would be appropriate ingredients in a Kota.
86 5.4 DETERMINING IF THERE IS CONCERN AND A NEED FOR A HEALTHIER ALTERNATIVE TO THE KOTA
5.4.1 Main findings from Table 4.3 (Consumers) and Table 4.4 (Street Food vendors) – Mean and Standard deviation for priorities when purchasing or selling the Kota
The overall mean score for the statement that measured “priorities when purchasing the Kota” for consumers was (M=4.18) and the overall mean score for the statement that measured “priorities when selling the Kota” for street food vendors was (M=4.20). These scores are indicators that respondents ranked the priorities listed when purchasing/selling as mostly important to them.
Results from Table 4.3 and Table 4.4 show that both consumers and street food vendors ranked “Ensuring that you are eating/selling food that is safe and will not cause illness” as important to them (M = 4.56) and (M = 4.41) respectively.
Both groups of respondents remained neutral on the statement “Whether the Kota is considered healthy or not” (M = 3.60) and (M = 3.21), indicating that the statement was neither important nor unimportant to participants. This shows concerns with the food safety of the Kota but not so much with the nutritional value. The findings from Table 4.23 show a statistically significant result from the Chi-square test (p = 0.269), which confirmed a positive association amongst consumers, between “Do you think that consumers that buy the Kota are concerned about following a healthy diet?” and consumers 25 years old and under and consumers that were over 25 years, while Table 4.24 reported a statistically insignificant result from the Chi-square test (p = 0.204), which confirmed a slightly negative association amongst street food vendors, who overall agreed that consumers 25 years old and under and consumers that were over 25 years, were not concerned about following a healthy diet.
These results align with the findings of Cortese et al. (2016:181), who reported that street food vendors were concerned about the validity of data labels and the use of ice for preservation to avoid cross-contamination, confirming that the respondents of the study were also concerned about selling/eating safe to eat food as reported in the current study. Feeley et al. (2009:122) report on the nutritional analysis of the Kota, which showed the meal to be high in energy, fat, carbohydrates, protein and sodium. They also reported that there was a prevalence of obesity amongst female adolescents. The results of the current study have indicated that the nutritional value of the Kota is not a foremost priority. As discussed earlier in section 5.2.1, the authors’ results are consistent with the majority age group that were found to be Kota consumers in the current study.
87 Press releases after the 2019 Soweto Annual Kota Festival stated the increase of healthier ingredients seen in many evolving Kotas such as mushroom and strawberry, cream spinach, green beans, and feta and chicken kebabs. Avocado was also popular ingredient, as was scrambled egg, butternut and spinach Kotas, which were referred to as a “vegetarian Kota”. Ingredients like boiled eggs, lean meats, brown bread and other raw or pickled vegetables like red onion, fresh chilli and homemade pickled cucumber were seen, in addition to rye bread, and more fresh vegetables. Another chef included ingredients such as grilled tomatoes, lettuce and green peppers (Adams, 2017; Khambule, 2017:3; Mohlomi, 2017; Guercia, 2018). This gives an indication that there are already healthy Kota options on the market and this too will be driven by demand.
Table 4.44 reported a Cronbach’s Alpha value of ( = .810) for “Street food vending priorities” which indicates good internal consistency amongst the items that were tested.
5.4.2 Main findings from Section 4.5.3 (Consumers) and (Street Food vendors) – Chi- square tests for independence on nutritional value and determining the need for a healthier version
Findings from Table 4.20 indicate a statistically insignificant result from the Chi-square test (p = 0.217) between consumers 25 years old and under and over 25 years. The majority of all consumers (93.1%) all thought that the Kota was an unhealthy meal. Table 4.27 indicated statistically insignificant results from the Chi-square test (p = 0.100) between street food vendors 25 years old and under and over 25 years. Thus, majority of street food vendors (97.6%) also thought that the Kota is not a healthy meal.
Table 4.21 indicated that the majority (60.6%) of consumers 25 years old and under and over 25 years felt that the Kota should be replaced with a healthier version (p = 0.748) proving statistically insignificant. Depicted in Table 4.28, Street food vendors 25 years old and under and over 25 years felt that the Kota should not be replaced with a healthier version (p = 0.226). This result was also statistically insignificant. This contradictory finding determines that there is some need for a healthier version of the Kota. Interestingly, results show that just over half (52.2%) of the younger group of street food vendors (25 years and younger) felt that the Kota should be replaced with a healthier version, as well as did the 25 years and younger group of consumers (61.9%). This may indicate a trend towards younger adults being more health conscious.
Table 4.22 correlates with the above, as statistically insignificant (p = 0.305) amongst 25 years old and under and over 25 years consumers who purchase the Kota, and consumers were not in overall agreement that they are concerned about following a healthy diet was
88 reported (70%). Table 4.29 depicts statistical insignificance (p = 0.573) amongst street food vendors, majority (77.6%) responded that they thought that consumers 25 years old and under and over 25 years are not concerned about following a healthy diet. This result contrasts to the response reported in Table 4.21 and shows that street food vendor’s perception that consumers may not be concerned about following a healthy diet is incorrect as the majority reported that the Kota should be replaced with a healthier version.
5.5 STREET FOOD VENDORS’ KOTA PREPARATION SKILLS
5.5.1 Main findings from Table 4.23 (Consumers) and Table 4.36 (Street food vendors) – Responses regarding the perception of food preparation knowledge
As seen in Table 4.23, a statistically insignificant Chi-square value (p = 0.464) was achieved, which indicated consumers that possess a Grade 12 or lower and consumers that possess a higher education thought that overall street food vendors know how to prepare ingredients before cooking them. Table 4.36 reflected a moderate effect as the Cramer V value was 0.306 when measuring the association between street food vendors that possess a Grade 12 or lower qualification and those that possess a higher education qualification, and their perceived ability to prepare ingredients using different cooking methods. According to Omemu and Aderoju (2008:399), over 60% of respondents in their study agreed that street food vendors adequately wash and cook food, which aligns with the results of the current study. Hill et al. (2019:408) reported that 56.7% of street food vendors in their study did not keep food covered and that 39% use their hands to pick up food.
5.5.2 Main findings from Table 4.24 (Consumers) and Table 4.25 (Consumers) – Responses regarding the perception of ingredient preparation and cooking
A statistically insignificant Chi-Square value (p = 0.214) was reported in Table 4.24, indicating that consumers that possess a Grade 12 or lower and consumers that possess a higher education qualification, perceived overall that street food vendors do know for how long each ingredient should be cooked (58.1%). Table 4.25 also reports the majority of all consumers that possess a Grade 12 or lower and consumers that possess a higher education qualification also perceived overall that street food vendors do know for how long each ingredient should be cooked (55.0%).
Consumers and street food vendors therefore show agreement in their perception of street food vendors knowing for how long an ingredient should be cooked and knowing when to check if an ingredient is properly cooked.
89 5.6 STREET FOOD VENDORS’ PERSONAL HYGIENE PRACTICES AND FOOD SAFETY KNOWLEDGE
5.6.1 Main findings from Table 4.5 (Consumers) and Table 4.6 (Street food vendors) – Mean and Standard deviation for the perception on street food vendors’ personal hygiene
Findings from Table 4.5 and Table 4.6 revealed that consumers (M = 3.25) and street food vendors (M = 3.82) respectively felt that overall, street food vendors mostly followed the personal and food hygiene practices as stated in the questionnaire.
The statements with the highest mean in the perception of street food vendors hygiene practices when preparing/cooking food construct, in descending order as reported by consumers and street food vendors, were: “Wear clean uniform or other clean suitable clothing daily” (M = 3.58 and SD 1.141; M = 4.54 and SD 0.650); “Overall, follow good hygiene and food safety practices” (M = 3.48 and SD 1.064); “Wear a clean disposable hair net daily” (M = 3.42 and SD 1.124; M = 4.41 and SD 1.127); “Use a clean cloth to wipe surfaces that food is prepared on” (M = 3.40 and SD 0.985; M = 4.30 and SD 0.889); “Wear a fresh, clean apron daily” (M = 3.38 and SD 1.032; M = 4.50 and SD 1.127). The statements that consumer respondents perceived to be occurring less frequently, in comparison to what street food vendors actually reported, were: “Use disposable gloves when preparing food” (M = 2.83 and SD 1.083; M = 3.21 and SD 1.729), and “Use disposable gloves when serving food (M = 2.74 and SD 1.031; M = 3.18 and SD 1.705).
The statements asked only to street food vendors on the Kotas and responses to their own hygiene practices when preparing/cooking food construct in descending order were: “Wash your hands before handling food” (M = 4.07; SD 0.941). Statements that reported a slightly lower, but still strong mean were: “Use clean water to wash dishes” (M = 3.98 and SD 0.875), and “Use clean cooking utensils and equipment during food preparation” (M = 3.93 and SD 0.967); “Wash your hands after blowing your nose” (M = 3.76 and SD 1.228); “Use a disinfectant chemical to wipe surfaces that food is prepared on” (M = 3.62 and SD 1.379); “Change cooking oil often” (M = 3.46 and SD 1.058). The statement with the lowest mean was “Use separate cutting boards for different types of ingredients” (M = 2.37; SD 1.487).
The findings above correlate with the findings of Samapundo et al. (2015:461), who reported that consumers had an average knowledge of food safety but that a large percentage (36.9%) of street food vendors had an inadequate level of food safety knowledge. The authors report no statistical difference based on gender, age, food safety training or level of education. Bruhn and Schutz (1999:78), however, indicated that food safety knowledge of consumers may increase with age and that women generally have a higher knowledge of
90 food safety. Street food vendors in the current study had a slightly higher mean score and this too correlates with Samapundo et al. (2015:461), in whose study the same trend is apparent. Further to this notion, Lues, Rasephei, Venter and Theron (2006:320) reported that street food vendors in South Africa have a good level of food safety knowledge. Hand washing is seen as an important food safety practice in the current study and Omemu and Aderujo (2008:398) reported similar results, with particular emphasis on hand washing after visiting the toilet. Interestingly, in a study by Katiyo et al. (2019:106), only 36% of consumers reported washing their hands before and 36% reported hand washing after handling raw chicken.
5.6.2 Main findings from Table 4.41 (Consumers and Street food vendors) – Frequency and Percentage for the reasons that the correct food safety and hygiene practices are used
Table 4.41 provided an overview of the findings on the reasons why consumers and street food vendors felt that food safety and hygiene practices should be followed. The main findings reveal that that a higher percentage of street food vendors (22%; n = 75) felt that they should use the correct food safety and hygiene practices “To avoid contamination of food”, whereas only 19.1% (n = 134) of consumers agreed. Consumers 17.7% (n = 124) agreed with the statement “To keep food fresh”, whereas only 15.5% (n = 53) of street food vendors responded the same. “Because you will complain if the area is dirty” saw a higher rate of agreement amongst both consumers 17.7% (n = 124) and street food vendors.
The findings suggest that customer complaints, if they saw a lack of cleanliness, is a foremost priority and concern amongst both consumers and street food vendors. Risk of contamination is an important and well-known reason to street food vendors as to why they should follow food safety practices. Many consumers identified fresh food with better food safety and hygiene practices.
Overall, the results indicate poor understanding, although generally better amongst consumers. There is a lack of knowledge as to why food safety and hygiene practices are followed amongst both groups of participants and further training and awareness in this regard is required.
5.7 SUMMARY
This chapter discussed the main findings of the study and explained how the research objectives were achieved.
From the main findings, it can be concluded that a basic Kota is made up of a quarter loaf of white bread, potato or “slap” chips, cheese, polony, Russian, egg, tomato sauce and mango
91 atchar and is agreed that it is not a healthy meal. Further findings indicate that street food vendors and consumers feel strongly that salads, wholegrain or high fibre bread, low fat dairy products and fish are healthy ingredients that should be in a Kota. Respondents indicated that whether or not the Kota was a healthy meal was not an important issue when deciding to purchase one.
The chapter highlights that street food vendors generally do follow good personal and food hygiene practices and that most do wash their hands before handling food, but that consumers too seem to have more food safety knowledge than street food vendors do. Overall, the results on why street food vendors should use good food safety practices revealed poor understanding, although was generally better amongst consumers. Both groups of participants lack knowledge as to why food safety and hygiene practices are followed and further training and awareness in this regard is required.
The findings revealed that consumers that possess a Grade 12 or lower and consumers that possess a higher education qualification perceive street food vendors to not know how to prepare ingredients before cooking them, and that street food vendors also do not know for how long each ingredient should be cooked. They too felt that street food vendors would not know how to check if an ingredient had been properly cooked. Street food vendors in possession of a Grade 12 or lower qualification and those that possess a higher education qualification reported that their ability to prepare ingredients using different cooking methods might be limited, with a moderate effect shown as the Cramer V value was 0.306.
The following chapter, Chapter 6, presents the conclusions, recommendations and limitations of the study, which emanated from the findings as discussed.
92 CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSIONS, RECOMMENDATIONS AND LIMITATIONS
6.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter summarises the study and offers recommendations based on the main findings. The chapter reflects on the research objectives and how these were achieved. Further research opportunities are suggested and finally, the limitations of the study are explained to conclude the dissertation.
6.2 REFLECTING ON RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
The main objective of the study was to investigate if consumers required a healthy Kota to be available from street food vendors in the Soweto district. To realise the main objective, sub-objectives were formulated to investigate and understand the degree of knowledge that consumers and street food vendors had of ingredients and preparation, perceptions on a healthy Kota and overall food safety and hygiene practices. Each sub-objective is discussed below.
6.2.1 Main objective
To determine if consumers feel there is a need for a healthy Kota to be sold by street vendors in the Soweto District; this will ultimately answer if there is a need to replace the existing Kota with a healthy alternative.
Results from Table 4.3 and Table 4.4 show that both groups of respondents remained neutral on the statement “Whether the Kota is considered healthy or not” (M = 3.60) and (M = 3.21), indicating that the statement was neither important nor unimportant to participants when deciding to purchase/sell a Kota. The findings from Table 4.22 report a statistically insignificant result from the Chi-square test (p = 0.302), which showed that the majority (70%) of consumers that were asked, “Do you think that consumers that buy the Kota are concerned about following a healthy diet?” answered no. Table 4.29 also reported a statistically insignificant result from the Chi-square test (p = 0.573), and the test reported that overall 77.6% of street food vendors thought that consumers that buy the Kota are not concerned about following a healthy diet It could be argued how successful the introduction of a healthy Kota would be if both groups of participants were neutral about its nutritional value.
Further to this, however, findings from Table 4.39 and section 4.5.2 reveal which healthy ingredients consumers and street food vendors feel should be in a Kota. From the results, it
93 can be seen that both street food vendors and consumers feel strongly that the following healthy ingredients should be in a Kota: salads (94.4%; n = 151) and (84.5%; n = 71); wholegrain or high fibre bread (83.1%; n = 133) and (52.9%; n = 45); low fat dairy products (80.6%; n = 129) and (66.3%; n = 55); chicken breast (75%; n = 120) and (63.9%; n = 53); fish (73.8%; n = 118) and (56%; n = 47); and lean meat (65%; n = 104) and (51.8%; n = 43).
It could be said that even though the respondents listed and know which ingredients should be in a healthy Kota, if this was put into practice and a healthy Kota actually produced, there is no guarantee that it would be well received, based on the findings from Table 4.3 and Table 4.4, as well as the findings from Table 4.20, which indicate a statistically insignificant result from the Chi-square test (p = 0.217) between consumers up to 25 years old and over (93.1%), who did not think that the Kota is a healthy meal. Table 4.27 also indicated statistically insignificant results from the Chi-square test (p = 0.100) between street food vendors up to 25 years old and over as 97.6% of street food vendors did not think that it was a healthy meal. Thus, undoubtedly, both groups of respondents agree that the Kota is not a healthy meal.
Table 4.21 and Table 4.28 differed, consumers up to 25 years old and over felt that the Kota should be replaced with a healthier version (p = 0.748) proving statistically insignificant, and street food vendors up to 25 years old and over felt that the Kota should not be replaced with a healthier version (p = 0.210) also proving statistically insignificant. These statistics are interesting to note, as published in a Press released post- the 2019 Annual Kota Festival bring to light the fact there are already healthy Kotas on the market with a variety of healthy ingredients introduced. This falls in line with the data presented in Table 4.21 and tells us that there is a demand for and awareness of healthy eating (Adams, 2017; Khambule, 2017; Mohlomi, 2017; Guercia, 2018), more so amongst consumers than street food vendors at present.
6.2.2 Sub-objective 1
To investigate the basic ingredients that make up a standard Kota.
A representation of consumers and street food vendors responses to which ingredients are found in a basic Kota are seen in Table 4.37. It was concluded that white bread, potato or “slap” chips, cheese, polony, Russian, egg, tomato sauce and mango atchar are the ingredients used to make a basic Kota and any other ingredient is optional or an add-on.
Table 4.38 indicates that some additional extra ingredients may feature in a Kota, such as lettuce, “special”, bacon and Vienna being mentioned the most frequently. Other ingredients
94 were noted but their frequencies were very low. This could be the result of many street food vendors having their own unique Kota to gain the upper hand on a tastier or special Kota that may appeal to certain consumers, giving these vendors a competitive advantage. As mentioned in previous chapters, Feeley et al. (2009:121) state that:
“Although ingredients in a Kota ‘quarter’ are not necessarily standardised, there are some key attributed that make it a ‘quarter’: a quarter loaf of white bread; a portion of fried chips; a slice of processed cheese; any number of processed meats, including, though not exclusively, polony, Russian, sausage, Vienna, mangola, white liver, special (the latter three are fatty processed meats); a fried egg, sauces inclusion tomato sauce, mustard, chilli sauce and atchar and occasionally lettuce, fresh tomato and/or chakalaka (a spicy vegetable relish) are added.
AFP Relaxnews (2018) reports that, “The quarter loaf is hollowed out and then filled with layers of all sorts—potato fries, fried egg, baloney, Frankfurter, and spicy pickles.” Their results are consistent with those revealed in the current study.
6.2.3 Sub-objective 2
To determine the perception of street food vendors’ food preparation skills.
As seen in Table 4.23, a statistically insignificant Chi-square value (p = 0.464) was achieved, and the results indicated that consumers (55.6%) regardless of education level thought that street food vendors did know how to prepare ingredients before cooking them. This result shows that regardless of educational level, consumers still felt the same and were confident in the ability of street food vendors to prepare the foods that they sold.
Table 4.36 reflects a moderate effect as the Cramer V value was 0.306 when measuring the association between street food vendors that possess higher education qualifications and their ability to prepare ingredients using different cooking methods. The result shows that regardless of educational level, street food vendors feel confident in their ability to prepare the foods that they sell. This could be argued that one may learn how to cook not only through education or theory but through experience and social learning. As mentioned earlier, this aligns with the findings of Omemu and Aderoju (2008:399).
A statistically insignificant Chi-Square value (p = 0.214) was reported in Table 4.24, indicating that majority of consumers (58.1%), regardless of their education qualifications thought that street food vendors did know for how long each ingredient should be cooked. Similarly, Table 4.25 indicates that the majority of consumers (55.0%) in possession of any educational qualifications felt that street food vendors do know how to check if an ingredient is properly cooked.
95 The majority of consumers therefore show confidence in their perception of street food vendors knowing for how long an ingredient should be cooked and when to check if an ingredient is properly cooked.
6.2.4 Sub-objective 3
To determine street food vendors’ current food safety knowledge and hygiene practices.
Findings from Table 4.5 and Table 4.6 reveal that consumers (M = 3.25) and street food vendors (M = 3.82) both felt that overall, street food vendors were following the personal and food hygiene practices as stated in the questionnaire. Samapundo et al. (2015:461) reported similar trends in their study, therefore it could be said that street food vendors follow good personal and food hygiene practices. As stated earlier, Lues et al. (2006:326) reported similar findings, that street food vendors in South Africa have a good level of food safety knowledge. However, different results are reported by Hill et al. (20196:412) who used the description “less than optimal” to describe street food vendors’ hygiene practices.
The statements with the highest mean in the perception of street food vendors hygiene practices when preparing/cooking food construct in descending order as reported by consumers and street food vendors were, “Wear clean uniform or other clean suitable clothing daily” (M = 3.58; SD 1.141) and (M = 4.54; SD 0.650) respectively, which confirms overall adherence to this practice. “Overall, follow good hygiene and food safety practices” (M = 3.48; SD 1.064)—this result shows that consumers believe that street food vendors are hygienic and it is safe to purchase food from them. “Wear a clean disposable hair net daily” (M = 3.42; SD 1.124) and (M = 4.41; SD 1.127)—again, this indicates that this practice is followed. “Use a clean cloth to wipe surfaces on which food is prepared” (M = 3.40; SD 0.985) and (M = 4.30; SD 0.889)—this result shows that it is likely that the practice is often followed although no definition was given to the word “clean”. “Wear a fresh, clean apron daily” (M = 3.38; SD 1.032) and (M = 4.50; SD 1.127)—the result shows that it is likely that the practice is often followed. The statement that consumer respondents perceived to occur less frequently, compared to what street food vendors actually reported, was “Use disposable gloves when preparing food” (M = 2.83; SD 1.083) and (M = 3.21; SD 1.729). This result shows that street food vendors use disposable gloves more frequently than perceived by consumers, although it could be argued that the frequency of how often these gloves are changed is unknown. The statement “Use disposable gloves when serving food returned (M = 2.74; SD 1.031) and (M = 3.18; SD 1.705), similar to the responses to “Use disposable gloves when preparing food”.
96 Table 4.41 provides an overview of the reasons why consumers and street food vendors believe that food safety and hygiene practices must be followed. The main findings reveal that that a higher percentage of street food vendors (22%; n = 75) felt that they should use the correct food safety and hygiene practices “To avoid contamination of food”, whereas only (19.1%; n = 134) of consumers agreed to this. Consumers (17.7%; n = 124) agreed with the statement “To keep food fresh”, whereas only (15.5%; n = 53) of street food vendors responded similarly. “Because you will complain if the area is dirty” saw a high rate of agreement from both consumers (17.7%; n = 124) and street food vendors.
The findings suggest that customer complaints, if they saw a lack of cleanliness, is a foremost priority and concern amongst both consumers and street food vendors. Risk of contamination is an important and well-known reason to street food vendors as to why they should follow food safety practices. Many consumers identified fresh food with better food safety and hygiene practices.
Overall, the results indicate a poor understanding of food safety and hygiene practices. Although generally better amongst consumers, there is a lack of knowledge in both groups of respondents why food safety and hygiene practices should be followed. This indicates the need for training and awareness in this regard.
6.3 RECOMMENDATIONS
6.3.1 Recommendations to the street food vendor industry and government
It is recommended that street food vendors should standardise the basic Kota and its ingredients and give any Kota with additional ingredients a different name, for example a “bacon Kota”. It is further suggested that street food vendors should be able to explain ingredients and portion sizes to consumers and be able to offer healthier ingredients if a consumer is health conscious. This may require a certain degree of training.
Another recommendation is to promote an awareness campaign by the South African Government to both consumers and street food vendors on the impact of obesity, unhealthy eating and the consequences thereof. The neutrality on this matter as reported in Table 4.3 and Table 4.4 from both consumers and street food vendors, is indicative that there is a need for authorities to promote awareness of healthy eating. Melani (2018:106) suggests that “it would seem rational that the food service industry consider the issue of public health concern (prevalence of obesity) as a factor that influences their decisions on the incorporation of healthy balanced meals in their menus”, given the high rate of obesity in South Africa and literature that blames the food service industry for the prevalence of obesity. The same author goes on to note that this authority should be the National DoH as
97 ultimately nutrition-related illnesses become the burden of the state and hence they should play a role in promoting and creating awareness of healthy eating.
Table 4.5 and Table 4.6 respectively revealed that consumers and street food vendors both felt that overall, street food vendors were mostly following personal and food hygiene practices although some areas of concerns were raised. These were “Use disposable gloves when preparing food”. This result shows that street food vendors use disposable gloves more frequently than perceived by consumers, although the frequency of glove changes is unknown. In addition, “Use disposable gloves when serving food prompts a similar debate. It is therefore recommended that guidelines are implemented and made accessible to street food vendors on how often disposable gloves should be changed.
The findings in Table 4.41 show that a high percentage of street food vendors felt that they should use the correct food safety and hygiene practices “To avoid contamination of food”, whereas only some consumers agreed with this. Consumers agreed with the statement “To keep food fresh”, whereas only the minority of street food vendors responded likewise. “Because you will complain if the area is dirty” saw a high rate of agreement amongst both consumers and street food vendors.
The findings suggest that customer complaints, if they saw a lack of cleanliness, is a foremost priority and concern amongst both consumers and street food vendors. Risk of contamination is an important and well-known reason to street food vendors as to why they should follow food safety practices. Many consumers identified fresh food with better food safety and hygiene practices.
Overall, the results indicate poor understanding. Although generally better amongst consumers, there is a lack of knowledge as to why food safety and hygiene practices are followed amongst both groups of participants and further training and awareness in this regard is recommended. The National DoH could, for example, host and run various food safety modules for street food vendors to attend.
After carefully examining the main findings, it is recommended that the government, DoH and/or local councils should promote healthy eating awareness, obesity and related diseases campaigns for street food vendors and the general public. Furthermore, food safety training programmes should be developed and provided to street food vendors and attendance of these programmes should be a standard requirement for registering their businesses. Further incentives for possessing and displaying a food safety accredited
98 certificate could be implemented to encourage street food vendors to learn and comply with these practices.
6.3.2 Recommendations for future research
Limited literature on the Kota and its nutritional value is available and further research is recommended. This would aid awareness campaigns if exact nutritional content was published. The ingredient “Special” should be further investigated to determine what exactly it is, and the nutritional content thereof, enabling consumers to make informed choices. Parents and adolescents alike should be made aware of the nutritional value of street- vended food that they so readily and conveniently consume.
Furthermore, it is recommended that authorities enforce street food vendors to offer a variety of healthy ingredients that could be substituted in a basic Kota, as the main findings indicate that consumers and street food vendors alike agree that certain healthy ingredients should be included in a Kota. Perhaps lack of availability has prevented this.
Although the findings of the study indicate that street food vendors have an overall good understanding of and compliance to food safety, there remain areas of concern. Therefore, the researcher recommends investigating the exact level of food safety training that street food vendors need and how best to roll out a training programme of this magnitude successfully in the area.
It is further recommended that research be conducted in different geographical locations of South Africa. As this study focussed on the peri-urban area of Soweto, results of similar studies conducted in rural areas would be interesting to compare and note the differences, which could be considered when designing a training framework.
6.4 LIMITATIONS
The researcher took considerable measures to ensure integrity, honesty; reliability and validity throughout the research process. However there were still limitations to the study.
The most significant limitation was finding street food vendors and consumers in the Soweto district who were willing to participate in the study. As a result, the researcher was forced to seek alternative means of accessing willing street food vendors and consumers. The Annual Soweto Kota Festival in September of 2017 provided the opportunity to access many street food vendors and Kota consumers over a two-day period, thus reducing the data collection period significantly. Data was collected from 245 participants and all of the questionnaires were returned completed.
99 A few of the participants that completed the consumer questionnaire were under the age of 18 (14-17 years old), however most of their parents were available to allow consent to participate, but in some instances when their parents were unavailable, only verbal consent was obtained. Only 1 street food vendor was under 18 years old (17 years old) and consent was obtained from the guardian to participate in the study.
The limitations of a quantitative research design are also given credit to, which can be listed as; difficulty in controlling variables, difficulty in replicating the same conditions of the study, ethical problems that may arise, time consuming and expensive, rreliability of data is dependent on the quality of answers and on the survey' structure, rigidity of the structure, unable to capture emotions, behavior and changes of emotions of respondents (Almeida, Faria and Queirós. 2017;382) . The study also concluded with a relatively smaller sample size.
Further to this, the research area was limited to the district of Soweto and thus the findings cannot be generalised outside of this geographical area.
6.5 CONCLUSION
Chapter Six concluded the study, identified limitations of the study and offered suitable recommendations for future research.
Further research opportunities were identified and the implications of the study were discussed. The aim of the study was to determine if consumers need a healthy Kota to be sold by street food vendors, which was outlined in the conceptual framework. This framework investigated the ingredients in a basic Kota and the high fat content being a possible contributor to obesity. It was thus recommended that healthy ingredients replace traditional Kota ingredients for those consumers that may be health conscious. The findings indicate that an awareness campaign for both consumers and street food vendors in this regard is a necessity.
The study achieved an unexpected realisation rate of 100%. However, interpretation of certain contradicting results was challenging and ultimately some results were deemed unusable.
The study will be useful to the street food vending industry of South Africa and provides a theoretical contribution to the industry’s body of knowledge. Further research will support the notion that the Kota could be a contributing factor to the obesity pandemic in South Africa. Despite awareness of obesity and nutritional value, and healthier ingredients being substituted by street food vendors, healthy eating choices lie ultimately with the consumer.
100 The researcher recommends further research into the nutritional value of the popular Kota and its link to obesity in both rural and urban areas throughout South Africa, as the results of this study have found that it is not a healthy meal and that those who purchased it are perceived to not care about their diet, although consumers do think that the existing Kota should be replaced with a healthier alternative. Food safety and hygiene practices amongst street food vendors should be studied in greater detail. The conclusion of this study reveals that at present there is a need to replace the existing Kota with a healthier alternative; however street food vendors do not have the same perception. It is clear that as a minimum, healthy ingredients should be available as an optional choice for consumers. This study does not close the topic at hand, but rather paves the way for further research questions that need to be answered.
101 REFERENCES
Ababio, P. & Lovatt, P. 2014. Commercial and institutional caterings food hygiene practice and the 1992 Food and Drugs Act of Ghana, Sections 1, 6 and 7. Food Control, 37:73-76.
Ababio, P. & Lovatt, P. 2015. A review on food safety and food hygiene studies in Ghana. Food Control, 47:92-97.
Ababio. P. & Adi. D. 2012. Evaluating food hygiene awareness and practices of food handlers in the Kumasi Metropolis. Internet Journal of Food Safety, 14:35-43
Abdussalam, M. & Käferstein, F. 1993. Safety of street foods. World Health Forum, 14(2):191-194. [Online]. Available at: https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/49005 Accessed: 8 November 2017.
Acharya, B. 2010. Questionnaire design: A working paper. Online. Available at: http://www.saciwaters.org/CB/IFRM/IFRM/IV.%20Literature/Module%206_Qualitative%20Re search%20Methods/6.4%20Questionnaire%20Design_Acharya%20Bidhan.pdf Accessed: 3 July 2017.
Adams, A. 2017. Kota, yummy side of heritage. Sunday World: 12, September 24.
Addo, K.K., Mensah, G.I., Bonsu, C. & Akyeh, M.I. 2007. Food and its preparation conditions in hotels in Accra, Ghana. A concern for food safety. African Journal of Food Agriculture Nutrition and Development, 7(5):1-12.
Afoakwa, E.O. 2005. Enhancing the quality of school feeding programs in Ghana. [Online]. Available at: https://www.academia.edu/31874995/Enhancing_the_Quality_of_School_Feeding_Program mes_in_Ghana Accessed: 3 March 2019.
Afolaranmi, T., Hassan, Z., Bello, D. & Misari. Z. (2015). Knowledge and practice of food safety and hygiene among food vendors in primary schools in Jos, Plateau State, North Central Nigeria. Journal of Medical Research, 4(2):016-022. [Online]. Available at: http://www.e3journals.org/cms/articles/1430546502_Galley%20proof%20-2.pdf Accessed: 3 August 2019.
AFP Relaxnews. 2018. It's our heritage: Soweto celebrates the iconic kota. [Online]. Available at: https://www.timeslive.co.za/sunday-times/lifestyle/food/2018-09-11-its-our- heritage-soweto-celebrates-the-iconic-kota/ Accessed: 10 December 2018.
Alaba, O. & Chola, L. 2014. Socioeconomic inequalities in adult obesity prevalence in South Africa: A decomposition analysis. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 11(3):3387-3406.
Alimi, B. 2016. Risk factors in street food practices in developing countries: A review. Food Science and Human Wellness, 5(3):141-148.
102 Almeida, F., Faria, D. & Queirós, A. (2017). Strengths and Limitations of Qualitative and Quantitative Research Methods. European Journal of Education Studies. 3. 369-387. 10.5281/zenodo.887089.
Annor, G. & Baiden, E. 2011. Evaluation of food hygiene knowledge, attitudes and practices of food handlers in food businesses in Accra, Ghana. Food and Nutrition Sciences, 02(08):830-836.
Anon. 2018a. Kota sales take a knock. Weekend Argus: 8, March 11.
Anon. 2018b. World population review. [Online]. Available at: http://worldpopulationreview.com/ Accessed: 3 July 2018.
Australian Institute of Food Safety. 2019. What is food safety? [Online]. Available at: https://www.foodsafety.com.au/resources/articles/what-is-food-safety . Accessed: 13 November 2019.
Babbie, E. & Mouton, J. 2001. The practice of social research. 2nd ed. Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
Babbie, E. 1990. Survey research methods. 2nd ed. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Baş, M., Ersun, A. & Kıvanç, G. 2006. The evaluation of food hygiene knowledge, attitudes, and practices of food handlers’ in food businesses in Turkey. Food Control, 17(4):317-322.
Bereda, T.W, Emerie, Y.M., Reta, M.A. & Asfaw, H.S. 2016. Microbiological safety of street vended foods in Jigjiga City, Eastern Ethiopia. Ethiopian Journal of Health Sciences, 26(2):161-170. DOI: 10.4314/ejhs.v26i2.10
Beuchat, L., Nail, B., Adler, B. & Clavero, M. 1998. Efficacy of spray application of chlorinated water in killing pathogenic bacteria on raw apples, tomatoes, and lettuce. Journal of Food Protection, 61(10):1305-1311.
Bhattacherjee, A. 2012. Social science research: Principles, methods, and practices. North Charleston, SC: Create Space Independent Publishing Platform.
Blignault, R. 2018. Johannesburg gives listeriosis advice to street food sellers. The Citizen: 7, March 22.
Branford, W. & Aldridge, M. 1980. Structure, style and communication. Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
Brown. T.J. & Suter. T.A, 2014. What’s inside: A student-tested, faculty approved approach to learning marketing research. 2nd ed. Independence, KY: Cengage Learning.
Bryan, F., Jermini, M., Schmitt, R., Chilufya, E., Michael, M., Matoba, A., Mfume, E. & Chibiya, H. 1997. Hazards associated with holding and reheating foods at vending sites in a small town in Zambia. Journal of Food Protection, 60(4):391-398. 8 authors
Bryman, A., Bell, E., Hirschsohn, P., dos Santos, A., du Toit, J. & Masenge, A. 2014. Research methodology: Business and management contexts. Cape Town: OUP.
103 [Online]. Available at: http://0- search.ebscohost.com.ujlink.uj.ac.za/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=1104420&site=e ds-live&scope=site Accessed: 19 March 2019.
Canet, C. & N’Diaye, C. 1996. Street foods In Africa. Food Nutrition and Agriculture 17(18):4-13.
Carolissen-Mackay, V. 1998. Initiatives aimed at improving the safety of street-vended food. Urban Health and Development Bulletin, 1:36-39.
Caron, E. 2013. Interactions between Chengguan and street vendors in Beijing. China perspectives. [Online]. Available at: http://journals.openedition.org/chinaperspectives/6100
City of Johannesburg. 2009. Informal trading bylaws. City of Johannesburg. [Online]. Available at: https://www.joburg.org.za/documents_/Documents/ByLaws/informal_trading_bylaws.pdf . Accessed: 3 October 2019
City of Johannesburg. 2009. Metropolitan Municipality Informal Trading By-Laws. [Online]. Available at: https://www.joburg.org.za/search/Pages/results.aspx?k=Search%2E%2E%2EMetropolitan% 20Municipality%20Informal%20Trading%20By%2DLaws#k=informal_trading_bylaws.pdf . Accessed: 2 October 2019.
City of Johannesburg. 2011. Joburg 2040 Growth Development Strategy. [Online]. Available at: https://www.joburg.org.za/documents_/Pages/Key%20Documents/Joburg%202040%20GDS /Joburg-2040-GDS.aspx . Accessed: 3 June 2018
Clow, K. & James, K. 2014. Essentials of marketing research. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Collins Dictionary, 2019. Vendor. [Online]. Available at: https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/vendor. Accessed: 13 November 2019.
Cortese, R.D.M, Veirosa, M.B, Feldman, C. & Cavalli, S.B. 2016. Food safety and hygiene practices of vendors during the chain of street food production in Florianopolis, Brazil: A cross-sectional study. Food Control, 62:178-186
Creswell, J.W. 2007. Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five traditions. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Creswell, J.W. 2014. Research design: Qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches. 4th ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
De Vellis, R.F. 2003. Scale development theory and applications. 2nd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Desai. A. & Vahed, G. 2011. Between apartheid and neoliberalism in Durban's Indian Quarter. Capitalism Nature Socialism, 22(4):43-49.
104 Dubey, U., Kothari, D.P. & Awari, G.K. 2016. Quantitative techniques in business, management and finance: A case-study approach. Boca Raton, FL: Taylor & Francis Group
Dudovskiy, J. 2018. The ultimate guide to writing a dissertation in business studies: A step- by-step assistance. July 2016 edition, eBook. Journal of Mixed Methods Research, 4(1):6- 16.
Edema, M.O. & Omemu, A.M. 2004. Microbiology and food hygiene in public food services. In Proceedings of the International Conference on Science and National Development : 25- 29.
Ekanem, E. O. 1998. The street food trade in Africa: Safety and socio-environmental issues. Food Control 9(4):211-215.
European Food Information Council (EUFIC), 2019. What is food safety? [Online]. Available at: https://www.eufic.org/en/food-safety/article/what-is-food-safety Accessed: 13 November 2019.
Eventa. 2019. Soweto Kota Festival 2019. [Online]. Available at: https://eventa.co.za/soweto-kota-festival-2019/ Accessed: 6 July 2019.
Fallon, M. 2016. Writing up quantitative research in the social and behavioral sciences. New Milford, CT: Sense Publishers.
Farahat, M.F, El-Shafie, M.M. & Waly, M.I. 2014. Food safety knowledge and practices among Saudi women. Food Control, 47:427-435.
Farahat, M.F., El-Shafie, M.M. & Waly, M.I. 2015. Food safety knowledge and practices among Saudi women. Food Control, 10:427-435.
Feeley, A., Pettifor, J.M. & Norris, S.A. 2009. Fast-food consumption among 17-year-olds in the birth to 20 cohort. South African Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 22(3):118-123.
Feeley, A.B. & Norris, S.A. 2014. Added sugar and dietary sodium intake from purchased fast food, confectionery, sweetened beverages and snacks among Sowetan adolescents. South African Journal of Child Health, 8(3):88-91.
Feeley, A.B., Kahn, K., Twine, R. & Norris, S.A. 2011. Exploratory survey of informal vendor- sold fast food in rural South Africa. South African Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 24(4):199-201.
Feglo, P. & Saki, K. 2012. Bacterial contamination of street vending food in Kumasi, Ghana. Journal of Medical and Biomedical Sciences, 1(1):1-8.
Fellows, P. & Hilmi, M. 2011. Selling street and snack foods. Rural Infrastructure and Agro- Industries Division Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations Rome 2011. Online. Available at: http://www.fao.org/3/i2474e/i2474e00.pdf . Accessed: September 20, 2018)
Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO). 1990. Street foods: Report of an FAO expert consultation. Yogyakarta, Indonesia, 5-9 December 1988. FAO Food and Nutrition Paper, 46, Rome.
105 Fotopoulos, C., Kafetzopoulos, D. & Gotzamani, K. 2011. Critical factors for effective implementation of the HACCP system: A pareto analysis. British Food Journal, 113(5):578- 597.
Freese, E., Romero-Abal, M., Solomons, N. & Gross, R. 1998. The microbiological safety of typical Guatemalan foods from street vendors, low-income homes and hotels. International Journal of Food Science and Nutrition, 49:27-38.
Gamieldien, F. & van Niekerk, L. 2017. Street vending in South Africa: An entrepreneurial occupation. South African Journal of Occupational Therapy, 47(1):24-29. [Online]. Available at: http://www.sajot.co.za/index.php/sajot/article/view/372/259 Accessed: 10 September 2018.
Garayoa, R., Cordoba, M., Garcia-Jalon, I., Sanchez-Villlegas, A. & Vitas, A.I. 2005. Relationship between consumer food safety knowledge and reported behavior among students from health sciences in one region of Spain. Journal of Food Protection, 68(12):2631-2636.
Ghana Standards Authority. 2013. Personal communication with standard documentation department as cited by Ababio, P. and Lovatt, P. 2015. A review on food safety and food hygiene studies in Ghana. Food Control, 47:92-97.
Goedecke. J.H, Jennings. C.L & Lambert. E.V. 2006. Obesity in South Africa. In Steyn, K., Fourie, J. & Temple, N. (Eds.), Chronic diseases of lifestyle in South Africa, 1995-2005. Technical Report. Cape Town: South African Medical Research Council: 65-79.
Govender, R.D, Al-Shamsi, S. & Regmi, D. 2019. Weight bias and eating behaviours of persons with overweight and obesity attending a general medical practice in Durban, South Africa, South African Family Practice, 61(3):85-90, DOI: 10.1080/20786190.2018.1554305
Greener, S. 2008. Business research methods. London. Ventus Publishing.
Guercia, G. 2018. Soweto celebrates iconic kota at festival - New and uncommon ingredients such as mushroom and strawberry are now finding their way into the mix. The Citizen: 7, September 11.
Haapala, I. & Probart, C. 2004. Food safety knowledge perceptions and behaviors among middle school students. Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 36:71-76.
Hair, F., Celsi, M., Money, A., Samouel, P. & Page, M. 2015. The essentials of business research methods. 3rd ed. New York: Routledge.
Hair, J.F., Bush, R.P. & Ortinau, D.J. 2009. Marketing research in a digital information environment. 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill/Irwin.
Hassanein, M.M., El-Shami, S.M. & El-Mallah, M.H. 2003. Changes occurring in vegetable oils composition due to microwave heating. Journal of Food and Nutrition Research, 5(9):659-667.
HEALA (Healthy Living Alliance). 2019a. Schools campaign. [Online]. Available at: https://heala.org/schools-campaign/ Accessed: 9 November 2019.
106 HEALA (Healthy Living Alliance). 2019b. What’s in my food. [Online]. Available at: https://whatsinmyfood.org.za/glossary/ Accessed: 9 November 2019
Hill, J., Mchiza, Z., Fourie, J., Steyn, N. & Puoane, T. 2019. Food sold by street-food vendors in Cape Town and surrounding areas: A focus on food and nutrition knowledge as well as practices related to food preparation of street-food vendors, Journal of Hunger and Environmental Nutrition 14(3):401-415.
Hunter-Adams. J, Battersby, J. & Oni, T. 2019. Food insecurity in relation to obesity in peri- urban Cape Town, South Africa: Implications for diet-related non-communicable disease. Appetite. 1(137): 244-249. DOI: 10.1016/j.appet.2019.03.012
Ismail, F.H, Chik, C.T, Muhammad, R. & Yusoff, N.M. 2016. Food safety knowledge and personal hygiene practices amongst mobile food handlers in Shah Alam, Selangor. Social and Behavioral Sciences, 222:290-298.
Jahan, S. 2012. Epidemiology of foodborne illness. [Online]. Available at: https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Epidemiology-of-Foodborne-Illness- Jahan/8d19062bc4c0ff5a2987344c396dc7d497c7f8e4 . Accessed: 20 September 2019.
Jianu, C. & Chis, C. 2012. Study on the hygiene knowledge of food handlers working in small and medium-sized companies in Western Romania. Food Control, 26:151-156. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2012.01.023
Katiyo, W., de Kock, H., Coorey, R. & Buys, E. 2019. Assessment of safety risks associated with handling chicken as based on practices and knowledge of a group of South African consumers. Food Control, 101:104-111.
Khambule, l. 2017. Kota’s the best thing since sliced bread. Daily Sun: 3, September 18.
Klontz, K.C., Timbo, B., Fein, S. & Levy, A. 1995. Prevalence of selected food consumption and preparation behaviors associated with increased risks of food-borne disease. Journal of Food Protection, 58(8):927-930.
Koopman, A. 2011. Notes and queries: Banyan trees and bunny chows. [Online]. Available at: http://natalia.org.za/Files/41/Natalia%2041%20Notes-%20Queries%20pp%2090-98.pdf Accessed: 23 July 2017.
Kubheka, L.C., Mosupye, F.M. & von Holy, A. 2001. Microbiological survey of street-vended salad and gravy in Johannesburg City, South Africa. Journal of Food Control, 12:127-131.
Kumar. R. 2016. Study on understanding about food hygiene among street food vendors in Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh. [Online]. Available at: http://www.sweft.in/download/volume_2_:_issue_3&4_july_-_september_&_october_- _december/Paper%205.pdf Accessed: 28 March 2019.
Labaree, R.V. 2009. Organizing your social sciences research paper: Types of research designs. [Online]. Available at: https://libguides.usc.edu/c.php?g=235034&p=1559832 . Accessed: 23 March 2019.
107 Leedy, P. & Ormrod, J. 2001. Practical research: Planning and design. 7th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education International.
Leedy, P. & Ormrod, J. 2010. Practical research: Planning and design. 9th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education International.
Leedy, P. & Ormrod, J. 2014. Practical research: Planning and design. 10th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education International. [Online]. Available at: http://www.myilibrary.com?id=526969
Lewis-Beck, M.S., Bryman, A. & Liao, T.F. (Eds.). 1995. Quantitative applications in the social sciences: Data analysis. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Lues, J., Rasephei, M., Venter, P. & Theron, M. 2006. Assessing food safety and associated food-handling practices in street food vending. International Journal of Environmental Health Research, 16(5):319-328.
Malhotra, N.K., Birks, D.F. & Wills, P. 2012. Marketing research: An applied approach. 4th ed. Harlow, UK: Pearson Education.
Malhotra, R., Hoyo, C., Østbye, T., Hughes, G., Schwartz, D., Tsolekile, L., Zulu, J. & Puoane, T. (2008). Determinants of obesity in an urban township of South Africa. South African Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 21(4):315-320.
Martin, N. 2014. Food fight! Immigrant street vendors, gourmet food trucks and the differential valuation of creative producers in Chicago. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research, 38(5):1867-1883. DOI: 10.1111/1468-2427.12169
Martínez-Tomé, M., Vera, A.M. & Murcia, M.A. 2000. Improving the control of food production in catering establishments with particular reference to the safety of salads. Journal of Food Control, 11:437- 445.
Martins, J.H. 2006. Socio-economic and hygiene features of street food vending in Gauteng. South African Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 19(1):18-25.
Martins, J.M. & Anelich, L.E. 2000. Socio-economic features of street vending, hygiene and microbiological status of street foods in Gauteng. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 61:137-145.
Martins, R.B., Hogg, T. & Otero, J.G. 2012. Food handlers’ knowledge on food hygiene: The case of a catering company in Portugal. Food Control, 23(1):184-190. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2011.07.008.
Mathee, A, von Schirnding, Y.E., Byrne, J., De Beer, M., Letlape, A., Hobbs, C. & Swanepoel, F.1996. The greater Johannesburg healthy foods/markets programme. Urban Health Newsletter, 28:39-47.
Mathers, N., Fox, N. & Hunn, A. 2007. Surveys and questionnaires. The NIHR RDS for the East Midlands/ Yorkshire & the Humber. [Online]. Available at: https://www.rds- yh.nihr.ac.uk/wp-
108 content/uploads/2013/05/12_Surveys_and_Questionnaires_Revision_2009.pdf Accessed: 12 November 2018.
Mathiyazhagan, T. & Nandan, D. 2010. July-September 2010 Media Mimansa Survey research method. [Online]. Available at: http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.464.5585 Accessed: 13 November 2019.
Matjomane, M. 2013. Strategies used by street traders’ organisations to influence trading policy and management in the City of Johannesburg. Unpublished Master’s thesis. University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg. [Online]. Available at: https://www.wits.ac.za/media/wits-university/faculties-and-schools/-engineering-and-the- built-environment/research- entities/cubes/documents/Strategies%20used%20by%20Street%20Traders%20Organisatio ns.pdf Accessed: 11 May 2018.
McCarthy, M., Brennan, M., Kelly, A.L., Ritson, C., de Boer, M., Thompson, N. 2007. Who is at risk and what do they know? Segmenting a population on their food safety knowledge, Food Quality and Preference, 09503293, 18, Issue 2 https://0-doi- org.ujlink.uj.ac.za/10.1016/j.foodqual.2005.10.002
McDaniel, C. & Gates, R. 2013. Marketing research: International student version. 9th ed. Singapore: John Wiley & Sons.
McGill, C., Fulgoni, V.L. & Devareddy, L. 2015. Ten-year trends in fiber and whole grain intakes and food sources for the United States population: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2001-2010. Nutrients, 7(2):1119-1130.
Melani, A. 2018. The food service industry’s contribution towards combating obesity. [Online]. Available at: https://ujcontent.uj.ac.za/vital/access/manager/Repository/uj:28895?site_name=Research+O utput&exact=sm_creator%3A%22Melani%2C+Akhona%22&sort=sort_ss_title%2F Accessed: 3 February 2019.
Mensah, P., Yeboah-Manu, D., Owusu-Darko, K. & Ablordey, A. 2002. Street foods in Accra, Ghana: How safe are they? Bulletin of the World Health Organisation, 80(7): 546-554.
Mesthrie, R. & Hromnik, J. 2011. Eish, but is it English? Cape Town: Zebra Press.
Mohlomi, S. 2017. Kasi heritage. The kota-culture food revolution. Sunday Times: 14, September 24.
Mooi, E. & Sarstedt, M. 2011. A concise guide to market research: The process, data, and methods using SPSS statistics. Heidelberg, Germany: Springer-Verlag.
Mosupye, F.M. & von Holy, A. 1999. Microbiological quality and safety of ready-to-eat street- vended foods in Johannesburg, South Africa. Journal for Food Production, 62:1278-1284.
Muinde, O.K. & Kuri, E. 2005. Hygienic and sanitary practices of vendors of street foods in Nairobi, Kenya. African Journal of Food Agriculture & Nutritional Development, 5(1):1-14.
109 Muyanja, C., Nayiga, L., Brenda, N. & Nasinyama, G. 2011. Practices, knowledge and risk factors of street food vendors in Uganda. Food Control, 22(10):1551-1558.
Nardi, P.M. 2018. Doing survey research: A guide to quantitative methods. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.
Nxumalo, X.P. 2016. Johannesburg inner city partnership: Presentation to Inner City Informal Trading Sector. [Online]. Available at: https://www.jicp.org.za/informal-traders/ Accessed: 15 September 2019.
Ohiokpehai, O. 2003. Nutritional aspects of street foods in Botswana. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 2(2):76-81.
Omemu, A. & Aderoju, S. 2008. Food safety knowledge and practices of street food vendors in the city of Abeokuta, Nigeria. Food Control, 19(4):396-402. [Online]. Available at: https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0956713507001028.
Omemu, A.M., Edema, M.O. & Bankole, M.O. 2005. Bacteriological assessment of street vended ready-to-eat (RTE) vegetables and pre-packed salad in Nigeria. Nigerian Journal of Microbiology, 19(1-2):497-504.
Oxford Learners Dictionaries, 2019. Obesity. [Online]. Available at: https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/us/definition/english/obesity Accessed: 7 November 2019.
Oxford Learners Dictionary. 2019. Sandwich. [Online]. Available at: https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english/sandwich_1 . Accessed: 17 July 2019.
Oxford Reference. 2019. Primary research. [Online]. Available at: https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100345447 Accessed: 13 April 2019.
Pallant, J. 2005. SPSS survival manual: A step by step guide to using SPSS for windows (Version 12). Canberra, NSW: Allen & Unwin.
Pallant, J. 2011. SPSS survival manual: A step-by-step guide to data analaysis using SPSS. 4th ed. Crows Nest, NSW: Allen & Unwin.
Patten, M. & Newhart, M. (2018.). Understanding research methods. An overview of the essentials. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.
Patton, M.Q. 2001. Qualitative research and evaluation methods. 3rd ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Pereira, M., Kartashov, A., Ebbeling, C., Van Horn, L., Slattery, M., Jacobs, D. & Ludwig, D. 2005. Fast-food habits, weight gain, and insulin resistance (the CARDIA study): 15-year prospective analysis. The Lancet, 365(9453):36-42.
Pezzano, A. 2011. Informal traders and informal trading policy. Unpublished. Department of Asian, African and Mediterranean Studies, University of Naples L’Orientale, Italy.
110 Phillips, E., Comeau, D., Pisa, P., Stein, A. & Norris, S. 2016. Perceptions of diet, physical activity, and obesity-related health among black daughter-mother pairs in Soweto, South Africa: a qualitative study. BMC Public Health, 16(1). Online. Available at: https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-016-3436- 8?utm_campaign=BMC_TrendMD&utm_medium=cpc&utm_source=TrendMD
Phillips, E., Comeau, D., Pisa, P., Stein, A. & Norris, S. 2016. Perceptions of diet, physical activity, and obesity-related health among black daughter-mother pairs in Soweto, South Africa: A qualitative study. BMC Public Health, 16(1). [Online]. Available at: https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12889-016-3436- 8?utm_campaign=BMC_TrendMD&utm_medium=cpc&utm_source=TrendMD
Popkin, B. 2006. Global nutrition dynamics: The world is shifting rapidly toward a diet linked with noncommunicable diseases. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 84(2):289-298.
Privitera, D. & Nesci, F. 2015. Globalization vs. Local. The role of street food in the urban food system. Procedia Economics and Finance, 22:716-722.
Puoane, T., Steyn, K., Bradshaw, D., Laubscher, R., Fourie, J., Lambert, V. & Mbananga, N. 2002. Obesity in South Africa: The South African Demographic and Health Survey. Obesity Research, 10(10):1038-1048.
Rahman, M.M., Arif, M.T., Bakar, K. & Tambi, Z. 2012. Food safety knowledge, attitude and hygiene practices among the street food vendors in Northern Kuching City, Sarawak. Borneo Science, 31:94-103.
Ramaena, N. 2017. Dietary practices of students living in the residences of a university in Gauteng. [Online]. Available at: https://ujcontent.uj.ac.za/vital/access/manager/Repository/uj:23597?site_name=GlobalView Accessed: 12 November 2018.
Reddy, S., Resnicow, K., James, S., Funani, I., Kambaran, N., Omardien, R., Masuka, P., Sewpaul, R., Vaughan, R. & Mbewu, A. 2012. Rapid increases in overweight and obesity among South African adolescents: Comparison of data from the South African National Youth Risk Behaviour Survey in 2002 and 2008. American Journal of Public Health, 102(2):262-268.
Reference MD. 2019. Nutritive value. [Online]. Available at: http://www.reference.md/files/D009/mD009753.html Accessed: 15 October 2019.
Rendall-Mkosi, K., Wenhold, F. & Sibanda, N.B. 2013. Case study of the national school nutrition programme in South Africa. PCD, NEPAD, University of Pretoria. [Online]. Available at: http://hgsf-global.org/en/component/docman/doc_details/404-case-study-of-the-national- school-nutrition-programme-in-south-africa Accessed: 24 June 2016.
Rogerson, C.M. 1988. The underdevelopment of the informal sector: Street hawking in Johannesburg, South Africa. Urban Geography, 9(8):549-567.
Ruane, J. 2015. Introducing social research methods. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
111 Saal, P. & Masweneng, K. 2018. Fast food favourites kotas and Gatsbys hit hard. The Herald: 6, March 7.
Samapundo, S., Climat, R., Xhaferi, R. & Devlieghere, F. 2015. Food safety knowledge, attitudes and practices of street food vendors and consumers in Port-au-Prince, Haiti. Food Control, 50:457-466.
Schiffman, L.G. & Kanuk, L.L. 2010. Consumer behaviour. 10th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hill.
Segen, J.C. 2011. Segen's Medical Dictionary. [Online]. Available at: http://medical- dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/PMI Accessed: 12 October 2019.
Short, F. 2003. Domestic cooking skills - what are they? Journal of the HEIA 10(3):13-22. [Online]. Available at: https://www.mv.helsinki.fi/home/palojoki/english/GBG%202007/francesshort.pdf . Accessed: 10 November 2019.
Shvachko, S.O. & Vasyura, T. 2004. English varieties. Samara, Russia: Publishing House Samarskiy Universitet.
Sibanyoni, J., Tshabalala, P. & Tabit, F. 2017. Food safety knowledge and awareness of food handlers in school feeding programmes in Mpumalanga, South Africa. Food Control, 73:1397-1406.
Sibanyoni, J.J., Tshabalala, P.A. & Tabit, F.T. 2017. Food safety knowledge and awareness of food handlers in school feeding programmes in Mpumalanga, South Africa. Food Control Volume, 73(Part B):1397-1406.
Silver, L., Stevens, R., Wrenn, B. & Loudon, D. 2013. The essentials of marketing research. 3rd ed. New York: Routledge, Taylor & Francis.
Singh, K.Y. 2006. Fundamentals of research methodology and statistics. New Delhi: New Age International.
Skinner, C. 2007. The struggle for the streets: Processes of exclusion and inclusion of street traders in Durban, South Africa. Development Southern Africa, 25:227-242.
Smith, G. & de Zwart, M. L. 2010. Home economics: A contextual study of the subject and home economics teacher education. A BCTF PQT/Teacher Inquiry project. [Online]. Available at: www.thesa.ca/wordpress/wpcontent/uploads/2016/01/inquiry_contextual.pdf Accessed: 4 October 2019.
Soares, L.S., Almeida, R.C.C., Cerqueira, E.S., Carvalho, J. S. & Nunes, I.L. 2012. Knowledge, attitudes and practices in food safety and the presence of coagulase positive, staphylococci on hands of food handlers in the schools of Camaçari, Brazil. Food Control, 27:206-213.
South Africa. 2012. South African Government Notice. Approval of the regulations pertaining to the national curriculum statement grade R-12. [Online]. Available at: http://www.saou.co.za/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/REGULATIONS-PERTAINING-TO-THE-
112 NATIONAL-CURRICULUM-STATEMENT-GRADES-R-12-Dec-2016.pdf Accessed: 15 October 2019.
South African History Online (SAHO). 2019. Soweto. [Online]. Available at: www.sahistory.org.za/place/soweto. Accessed: 15 October 2019.
Steyn, N.P. & Labadarios, D. 2011. Street foods and fast foods. How much do South Africans of different ethnic groups consume? Ethnicity & Disease, 21:462-466. [Online]. Available at: https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/2b3d/89a06cb7f0de9fa96b954c81f69bbfdb0341.pdf Accessed: 14 June 2018.
Steyn, N.P., Labadarios, D. & Nel, J.H. 2011. Factors which influence the consumption of street foods and fast foods in South Africa. A national survey. Nutrition Journal, 10:104. DOI: 10.1186/1475-2891-10-104
Ten Klooster, P.M., Visser, M. & de Jong, M.D.T. 2008. Comparing two image research instruments: The Q-sort method versus the Likert attitude questionnaire. Food Quality and Preference, 19(5):511-518. DOI: 10.1016/j.foodqual.2008.02.007
Ternier, S. 2019. Understanding and measuring cooking skills and knowledge as factors influencing convenience food purchases and consumption. [Online]. Available at: file:///C:/Users/qvhrtr/Downloads/1122-Article%20Text-5970-1-10-20100309.html#Ref Accessed: 14 November 2019.
The Free Dictionary, 2019. Healthy food. [Online]. Available at: https://medical- dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/healthy+food. Accessed: 13 November 2019.
Tinker, I. 1997. Street foods: Urban food and employment in developing countries. Berkeley, UK: Oxford University Press.
Tomlins, K, Johnson, P.N., Aseidu, O.P., Myhara, B. & Greenhalgh, P. 2002. Street food in Ghana: A source of income, but not without hazards. [Online]. Available at: www.iita.org/info/phnews5/mr8.htm Accessed: 13 March 2019.
Torun, B. 2005. Energy requirements of children and adolescents. Public Health Nutrition, 8(7a):968-993.
Twigg, M. 2018. Durban on your plate. [Online]. Available at: https://www.standard.co.uk/lifestyle/travel/durban-south-africa-exotic-foodie-destination- a3974506.html . Accessed: 1 November 2019.
Umoh, V.J. & Odoba, M.B. 1999. Safety and quality evaluation of street foods sold in Zaria, Nigeria. Food Control, 10:9-10.
Van der Heijden, T. 2012. Making the informal economy visible: Guidelines for municipalities in respect of adopting a more developmental approach towards the informal economy. South African Local Government Association (SALGA). [Online]. Available at: www.led. co.za/document/making-informal-economy-visible-municipal-guidelines-informaleconomy- policy-june-2012 Accessed: 3 November 2018.
113 Visser, P.S., Krosnick, J.A. & Lavrakas, P.J. 2000. Survey research: Handbook of research methods in social psychology. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Von Holy, A. & Makhoane, F. M. 2006. Improving street food vending In South Africa: Achievements and lessons learned. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 111(2):89- 92.
Voorend, C.G.N., Norris, S.A., Griffiths, P.L., Sedibe, M.H., Westerman, M.J & Doak, C.M. 2012. We eat together; today she buys, tomorrow I will buy the food: Adolescent best friends’ food choices and dietary practices in Soweto, South Africa. [Online]. Available at: https://research.vu.nl/en/publications/we-eat-together-today-she-buys-tomorrow-i-will-buy- the-food-adole Accessed: 29 September 2018.
Walliman, N. 2010. Research methods. The basics. Abingdon-on-Thames, UK: Taylor & Francis/Routledge.
Wang, G. & Park, K. 2015. Student research and report writing. Chichester, UK: Wiley Blackwell.
Wilkinson, D. & Birmingham, P. 2003. Using research instruments. New York: Routledge Falmer.
Wilson, A. 2012. Marketing research: An integrated approach. 3rd ed. Harlow, UK: Pearson Education.
World Food Programme (WFP). 2012. WFP’s school feeding policy: A policy evaluation. [Online]. Available at: http://documents.wfp.org/stellent/groups/public/documents/reports/wfp244666.pdf Accessed: 14 July 2019.
World Health Organisation (WHO).1989. Health surveillance and management procedures for food handling personnel. WHO technical report series # 785. Geneva:WHO.
World Health Organization (WHO). 1996. Food safety issues: Essential safety requirements for street-vended foods.Geneva: WHO.
World Health Organization (WHO). 2018. Obesity and overweight. [Online]. Available at: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/obesity-and-overweight Accessed: 15 March 2019.
World Health Organization (WHO). 2019. Be healthy. [Online]. Available at: https://www.who.int/behealthy/healthy-diet. Accessed: 13 November 2019.
Zikmund, W.G. & Babin, B.J. 2010. Essentials of marketing research. 4th ed. Hampshire, UK: Cengage Learning.
Zikmund, W.G. & Babin, B.J., Carr, J.C. & Griffin, M. 2013. Business research methods. 5th ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Cengage Learning.
114 APPENDIX A: LETTER OF REQUEST TO PARTICIPATE IN RESEARCH
Dear sir/madam
I, Sharon Ryan am undertaking a research project to determine the nutritional value, preparation methods and food hygiene practices of the current street-vended food known as the Kota and to investigate if there is a need for a new, healthy Kota .To this end I kindly request that you complete the following short questionnaire regarding your habits, preferences and attitudes towards the current existing Kota. It should take no longer than 10 minutes of your time. Your response is purely voluntarily, is of the utmost importance to me and will be highly appreciated.
Please do not enter your name or contact details on the questionnaire. It remains anonymous and confidential.
Kindly return the completed questionnaire to the person that has handed it to you on the same day, as they will be available to collect it on my behalf.
Summary results of this research will be published in my Master’s thesis in Tourism & Hospitality Management 2019, University of Johannesburg.
Should you have any queries or comments regarding this survey, you are welcome to contact me telephonically at 0736468087 or e-mail me at [email protected]
Yours sincerely
Sharon Ryan
115 APPENDIX B: CONSUMERS QUESTIONNAIRE
SECTION A – DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION
This section of the questionnaire refers to background or biographical information. Although we are aware of the sensitivity of the questions in this section, the information will allow us to compare groups of respondents. Once again, we assure you that your response will remain anonymous. Your co-operation is appreciated.
Gender
1.1 Male 1 1.2 Female 2
Age (in complete years)
Ethnicity
3.1 Black 1 3.2 White 2 3.3 Coloured 3 3.4 Indian 4 3.5 Asian 5
Your highest educational qualification?
4.1 Grade 11 or lower (std 9 or lower) 1 4.2 Grade 12 (Matric, std 10) 2 4.3 Post-Matric Diploma or certificate 3 4.4 Baccalaureate Degree(s) 4 4.5 Post- Graduate Degree(s) 5
Employment status?
5.1 Employed Full-time 1 5.2 Employed Part-time 2 5.3 Self-Employed 3 5.4 Retired 4 5.5 Student 5 5.6 Unemployed 6
116 SECTION B
This section of the questionnaire explores the ingredients and your knowledge of the nutritional information of each food item of the street-vended food commonly known as the “Kota”
Which of the below listed ingredients are used to make a basic “Kota”? Mark all that are applicable.
1.1 White bread 1 1.2 Fried potato or ‘slap’ chips 2 1.3 Cheese 3 1.4 Polony 4 1.5 Russian 5 1.6 Patty 6 1.7 Egg 7 1.8 Tomato Sauce 8 1.9 Mango Atchaar 9 1.10 Other, Please Specify: ______10
How are the fillings of a “Kota” cooked? Please select one method for each ingredient.
Deep No Boiled Grilled Braaied Fried Stewed Baked Cooking 2.1 Potato or ‘slap’ Chips 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 2.2 Polony 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 2.3 Russian 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 2.4 Patty 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 2.5 Egg 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 2.6 Other, Please Specify: 1 2 4 5 6 7 8
Please answer the following questions on how healthy the Kota is?
Yes No 3.1 Is the “Kota” a healthy meal? 1 2 3.2 Do you think that the existing “Kota” needs to be replaced with a healthier 1 2 version? 3.3 Do you think that customers that buy “Kotas” are concerned about following a 1 2 healthy diet? 3.4 If the current “Kota” is replaced by a healthier version, do you think that customers 1 2 would still buy it?
117 Which of the below ingredients do you think should be in a healthy Kota?
Yes No 4.1 Salads (Tomato, Lettuce, Cucumber, Onion) 1 2 4.2 Lean Meat 1 2 4.3 Chicken Breast 1 2 4.4 Fish 1 2 4.5 Wholegrain or High Fibre Bread 1 2 4.6 Low Fat Diary Products (Cheese and Butter) 1 2 4.7 Nuts (Almonds, Pecan Nuts, Walnuts, Peanuts) 1 2 4.8 Grains (Barley, Brown rice, Whole-grain corn, Sorghum) 1 2 4.9 Beans (Baked Beans, Kidney Beans, Lima Beans, Butter Beans, Chickpeas) 1 2
SECTION C
This section of the questionnaire explores your food safety knowledge and hygiene practices as a food handler.
What formal training in food safety, hygiene and/or food handling do you think that street food vendors have?
1.1 None 1 1.2 Certificate 2 1.3 Diploma 3 1.4 Degree or Higher 4 1.5 Other, please specify: 5
What are the reasons that you think street food vendors should use the correct food safety and hygiene practices? Mark all that are applicable.
2.1 To avoid food contamination (food poisoning) 1 2.2 To avoid accidents while cooking 2 2.3 It ensures that food tastes good 3 2.4 To keep food fresh 4 2.5 Because you will complain if the area is dirty 5 2.6 To avoid foreign objects from falling into the food 6
118 How important is each of the following to you:
Not Not Neutral Important Very Important Important Important At All 3.1 Seeing a clean vending stall 1 2 3 4 5 3.2 Ensuring that you are eating fresh 1 2 3 4 5 food 3.3 Ensuring that you are eating food 1 2 3 4 5 that is safe and will not cause illness 3.4 The business that you purchasing 1 2 3 4 5 being known to sell safe food to eat 3.5 The price that you buy the Kota for 1 2 3 4 5 3.6 The quality of ingredients used to 1 2 3 4 5 prepare the Kota 3.7 Whether the Kota is considered 1 2 3 4 5 healthy or not
Please answer the below questions on your perception of street food vendors basic food preparation skills.
Yes No Unsure 4.1 Do you think that street food vendors know how to weigh or measure 1 2 3 portions? 4.2 Do you think that street food vendors know how to prepare ingredients 1 2 3 before cooking them? 4.3 Do you think that street food vendors know how long each ingredient 1 2 3 should be cooked? 4.4 Do you think that street food vendors know how to check if an ingredient 1 2 3 is properly cooked? 4.5 Do you think that street food vendors know which knife to use to prepare 1 2 3 different ingredients? 4.6 Do you think that street food vendors know how to use the stove 1 2 3 properly? 4.7 Do you think that street food vendors know how to properly use the 1 2 3 oven? 4.8 Do you think that street food vendors know how to prepare ingredients 1 2 3 using different cooking methods? 4.9 Do you think that street food vendors know how to garnish food 1 2 3 appropriately? 4.10 Do you think that street food vendors know which packaging is best 1 2 3 suited for takeaway meals?
119 How often do you think that street food vendors that you purchase from follow the below hygiene practices when preparing/cooking food?
Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always 5.1 Wear clean uniform or other clean suitable 1 2 3 4 5 clothing daily 5.2 Wear a clean disposable hair net daily 1 2 3 4 5 5.3 Wear a fresh, clean apron daily 1 2 3 4 5 5.4 Use disposable gloves when preparing 1 2 3 4 5 food. 5.5 Use disposable gloves when serving food. 1 2 3 4 5 5.6 Use a clean cloth to wipe surfaces that food 1 2 3 4 5 is prepared on 5.7 Use a disinfectant chemical to wipe 1 2 3 4 5 surfaces that food is prepared on 5.8 Overall, follow good hygiene and food 1 2 3 4 5 safety practices
Thank you for taking the time to complete this survey questionnaire
120 APPENDIX C: STREET FOOD VENDOR QUESTIONNAIRE
SECTION A – BACKGROUND INFORMATION
This section of the questionnaire refers to background or biographical information. Although we are aware of the sensitivity of the questions in this section, the information will allow us to compare groups of respondents. Once again, we assure you that your response will remain anonymous. Your co-operation is appreciated.
Gender
1.1 Male 1 1.2 Female 2
Age (in complete years)
Ethnicity
3.1 Black 1 3.2 White 2 3.3 Coloured 3 3.4 Indian 4 3.5 Asian 5
Your highest educational qualification?
4.1 Grade 11 or lower (std 9 or lower) 1 4.2 Grade 12 (Matric, std 10) 2 4.3 Post-Matric Diploma or certificate 3 4.4 Baccalaureate Degree(s) 4 4.5 Post- Graduate Degree(s) 5
Employment status?
5.1 Owner 1 5.2 Employee 2
How would you describe the area in which you are selling your Kotas?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………..
121 SECTION B
This section of the questionnaire explores the ingredients and cooking methods used to prepare the street-vended food commonly known as the “Kota”
Which of the below listed ingredients are used to make a basic “Kota”? Mark all that are applicable.
1.1 White bread 1 1.2 Potato or ‘slap’ chips 2 1.3 Cheese 3 1.4 Polony 4 1.5 Russian 5 1.6 Patty 6 1.7 Egg 7 1.8 Tomato Sauce 8 1.9 Mango Atchaar 9 1.10 Other, Please Specify: 10
How are the fillings of a “Kota” cooked? Please select one method for each ingredient.
Deep No Boiled Grilled Braaied Fried Stewed Baked Cooking 2.1 Potato or ‘slap’ Chips 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 2.2 Polony 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 2.3 Russian 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 2.4 Patty 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 2.5 Egg 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 2.6 Other, Please Specify: 1 2 4 5 6 7 8
Please answer the following questions on how healthy the Kota is?
Yes No 3.1 Is the “Kota” a healthy meal? 1 2 3.2 Do you think that the existing “Kota” needs to be replaced with a healthier 1 2 version? 3.3 Do you think that customers that buy “Kotas” are concerned about following a 1 2 healthy diet? 3.4 If the current “Kota” is replaced by a healthier version, do you think that customers 1 2 would still buy it?
122 Which of the below ingredients do you think should be in a healthy Kota?
Yes No 4.1 Salads (Tomato, Lettuce, Cucumber, Onion) 1 2 4.2 Lean Meat 1 2 4.3 Chicken Breast 1 2 4.4 Fish 1 2 4.5 Wholegrain or High Fibre Bread 1 2 4.6 Low Fat Diary Products (Cheese and Butter) 1 2 4.7 Nuts (Almonds, Pecan Nuts, Walnuts, Peanuts) 1 2 4.8 Grains (Barley, Brown rice, Whole-grain corn, Sorghum) 1 2 4.9 Beans (Baked Beans, Kidney Beans, Lima Beans, Butter Beans, Chickpeas) 1 2
SECTION C
This section of the questionnaire explores your food safety knowledge and hygiene practices as a food handler.
What formal training in food safety, hygiene and/or food handling do you have?
1.1 None 1 1.2 Certificate 2 1.3 Diploma 3 1.4 Degree or Higher 4 1.5 Other, Please Specify: 5
What are the reasons for you to use the correct food safety and hygiene practices? Mark all that are applicable.
2.1 To avoid contamination (food poisoning) 1 2.2 To avoid accidents while cooking 2 2.3 It ensures that food tastes good 3 2.4 To keep food fresh 4 2.5 Customers will complain if the area is dirty 5 2.6 To avoid foreign objects from falling into the food 6
123 How important is each of the following to you:
Not Not Neutral Important Very Important Important Important At All 3.1 The customer seeing a clean 1 2 3 4 5 vending stall 3.2 Ensuring that the customer eats 1 2 3 4 5 fresh food 3.3 Ensuring that the customer eats 1 2 3 4 5 food that is safe and will not cause illness 3.4 Your business being known to sell 1 2 3 4 5 safe to eat food 3.5 The price that you sell the Kota 1 2 3 4 5 3.6 The quality of ingredients used to 1 2 3 4 5 prepare the Kota 3.7 Whether the Kota is considered 1 2 3 4 5 healthy or not
Please answer the below questions on basic food preparation skills.
Yes No Unsure 4.1 Do you know how to weigh or measure portions? 1 2 3 4.2 Do you know how to prepare ingredients before cooking them? 1 2 3 4.3 Do you know how long each ingredient should be cooked for? 1 2 3 4.4 Do you know how to check if an ingredient is properly cooked? 1 2 3 4.5 Do you know which knife to use to prepare different ingredients? 1 2 3 4.6 Do you know how to properly use a stove? 1 2 3 4.7 Do you know how to properly use the oven? 1 2 3 4.8 Do you know how to prepare ingredients using different cooking 1 2 3 methods? 4.9 Do you know how to garnish food appropriately? 1 2 3 4.10 Do you know which packaging is best suited for takeaway meals? 1 2 3
124 How often do you follow the below hygiene practices when preparing/cooking food?
Never Rarely Sometimes Often Always 5.1 Wear clean uniform or other clean suitable 1 2 3 4 5 clothing 5.2 Wear a clean disposable hair net daily 1 2 3 4 5 5.3 Wear a fresh, clean apron daily 1 2 3 4 5 5.4 Use disposable gloves when preparing 1 2 3 4 5 food. 5.5 Use disposable gloves when serving food. 1 2 3 4 5 5.6 Use a clean cloth to wipe surfaces that food 1 2 3 4 5 is prepared on 5.7 Use a disinfectant chemical to wipe 1 2 3 4 5 surfaces that food is prepared on 5.8 Wash your hands before handling food 1 2 3 4 5 5.9 Wash your hands after using the toilet 1 2 3 4 5 5.10 Wash your hands after blowing your nose 1 2 3 4 5 5.11 Use clean water to wash dishes 1 2 3 4 5 5.12 Use clean cooking utensils and equipment 1 2 3 4 5 during food preparation 5.13 Change cooking oil often 1 2 3 4 5 5.14 Use separate cutting boards for different 1 2 3 4 5 types of ingredients
Thank you for taking the time to complete this survey questionnaire.
125 APPENDIX D: ETHICS CONSENT FORM
126 APPENDIX E: GRAMMARIAN CERTIFICATE
Napie 7270 Overberg Western Cape
4 December 2019
LANGUAGE & TECHNICAL EDITING
Cheryl M. Thomson
Consumer needs for a healthy Kota sold by street vendors in the Soweto District
Supervisor: Dr Hema Kesa
This is to confirm that I, Cheryl Thomson, performed the language and technical edit of the above-titled Master’s dissertation of SHARON ILANA RYAN, student number 200801850, at the UNIVERSITY OF JOHANNESBURG, in preparation for submission of this dissertation for assessment.
Yours faithfully
CHERYL M. THOMSON
Email:
Cell:
127