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Forensic Ecology, Botany, and Palynology

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Forensic Ecology, Botany, and Palynology FORENSIC SCI SEM Patricia E.J. Wiltshire. Forensic ecology, botany, and palynology. FORENSIC SCI SEM, 2016, 6(1): 32-42. 2157118X.6.1R3 Peer Reviewed Received 10 April 2016 Received in revised form 2 June 2016 Accepted 3 June 2016 Available online 18 June 2016 orensic Ecology, Botany, and Palynology: Some FAspects of Their Role in Criminal Investigation Patricia E.J. Wiltshire *, a a Department of Geography and Environment, University of Aberdeen, Elphinstone Road, Aberdeen AB24 3UF, UK; and Department of Natural and Social Sciences, University of Gloucestershire, Swindon Road, Cheltenham GI50 4AZ, UK. * Corresponding Author. E-mail : [email protected] Abstract Ecology, botany, and palynology are now accepted as part of the armoury of forensic techniques. These disciplines have been tested in court and have provided evidence for contact of objects and places, location of clandestinely-disposed human remains and graves, estimating times of deposition of bodies, differentiating murder sites from deposition sites, and provenancing the origin of objects and materials. It is important that the forensic palynologist is a competent botanist and ecologist. Sadly, not all practitioners have this essential background and, therefore, produce work inadequate to withstand scrutiny in court. Palynology involves the identifi cation of many classes of microscopic entities, the most important being pollen, plant spores, and fungal spores. The practitioner needs to be able to identify palynomorphs in damaged and decayed states and this requires experience and skill. However, identifi cation is still the lowest level of palynological expertise, and interpretation of palynological assemblages requires knowledge of plant distribution, developmental responses, and phenology, as well as ecosystem structure and function. The forensic palynologist must also understand highly manipulated and artifi cial systems, and the complexities of taphonomic processes. There have been attempts to make forensic palynology ‘more scientifi c’ by the construction of test trials, the application of current statistical techniques, mathematical modelling, and reference to aerobiological data and pollen calendars. But these appear to be of limited use in the forensic context where outcomes are scrutinised in court. There is a high degree of heterogeneity and variability in palynological profi les, and every location is unique. It is impossible to achieve meaningful and forensicallyuseful databases of the palynological characteristics of places; predictive models will always be crude and unlikely to be of practical value. In spite of this, the experienced ecologist/palynologist has been able to identify places, demonstrate links between objects and places, estimate body deposition times, and differentiate pertinent from irrelevant places very successfully. Nevertheless, there has been no substitute for examination of every pertinent place, and every relevant exhibit in each criminal investigation. Keywords: Forensic ecology, Botany, Palynology, Criminal investigation, Forensic Science. Introduction in the public domain, they are only science but, to be of use to a criminal accessible through court and police investigator, the essential requirements Ecology is the study of organisms records. are knowledge of soil, and of aquatic together with their environments The crime scenes which benefi t and terrestrial sediments. – the study of ecosystems. By its from palynological help are invariably Soils and sediments exhibit great nature, palynology is a subdiscipline ecosystems themselves but they may variability in the origin of their parent of botanical ecology and, to work in be highly modifi ed by human activities. materials, structure, and chemistry but a forensic context, the palynologist Therefore, as well as the understanding it is important for the forensic ecologist must have a sound botanical and of natural and semi-natural habitats, and palynologist to realise that soil is ecological training. In Britain, forensic the forensic ecologist/palynologist particularly complex because of its palynology is an acknowledged aid must also appreciate the complexities dynamic nature. It provides a habitat to criminal investigation, providing of highly manipulated systems, such where communities of organisms live valuable evidence in cases of murder, as gardens, parks, rubbish dumps, and complete their life-cycles, and manslaughter, rape, and abduction. The plantations, ponds, canals, roadsides these organisms profoundly affect the body of literature for the discipline in verges, hedgerows and wasteland. chemistry of the inorganic matrix as peer-reviewed journals is relatively Because of the breadth of the well as any organic object or material small and, although many reports and discipline, the forensic ecologist cannot present. interpretive material are technically be expert in every aspect of ecological Most plants rely on soil as a 32 Forensic Science Seminar Volume 6 number 1 Patricia E.J. Wiltshire. Forensic ecology, botany, and palynology. FORENSIC SCI SEM, 2016, 6(1): 32-42. FORENSIC SCI SEM source of mineral nutrition, water, and it for cross examination in court on The study of palynomorphs gave physical support. Depending on their many occasions. Table 9.1 lists a range rise to the science of palynology, fi rst responses to climate, microclimate, and of objects and matrices from which I coined by Hyde and Williams in the their ecological tolerances and needs, have analysed thousands of samples 1940s (Hyde and Williams 1944). the geographical distribution of plant (see also Milne et al. 2005). There are Its derivation is from the Greek verb species can refl ect historical geography, many cases where ecology, botany, and palynein, meaning ‘to spread or and the patterning of soil types at local, palynology have successfully helped sprinkle around’. Hyde and Williams regional, and national levels. Plant in: (i) linking objects and places (e.g. were aeropalynologists, concerned with distribution is also profoundly affected Wiltshire 2006a; Mildenhall, 2006); airborne allergens, and had little interest by biotic factors – other plants, animals, (ii) locating hidden human remains and in soil palynomorphs. Their work micro-organisms and people. Again, provenancing of objects (Brown et al. involved trapping airborne particles the forensic ecologist and botanist 2002; Wiltshire 2005a); (iii) estimating and identifying temporal sequences must have an understanding of the temporal aspects of deposition of of anthesis (pollen release) for the factors underlying plant distribution, remains (Szibor et al. 1998; Wiltshire construction of ‘pollen calendars’. plant response to change, and to have 2002a; 2003b); and, (iv) differentiating The discipline of palynology is a grasp of the variability created by murder scenes from deposition sites now over 100 years old. The founder human intervention. This is achieved (Wiltshire 2002b). of modern pollen analysis was Swedish by strengthening and modifying Knowledge of the anatomy of geologist, Lennart von Post, but the theoretical knowledge with extensive plants, animals, and other organisms subject was developed and promoted fi eld experience. helps in the identifi cation of what by fellow Swedish botanists Rutger Over time, organic components victims have eaten or inhaled Sernander and Gustaf Lagerheim. The of soil will decompose to their before death, and whether or not an fi rst major work in the subject was constituent molecules. The speed of object is of biological rather than published by Erdtman (1921). decomposition will depend on the manufactured origin (Wiltshire 2003a, The fi rst recorded cases of communities of resident decomposer 2004a; 2006b). An understanding of palynology being used as a forensic organisms, and their function depends plant and fungal development, and tool were described by Erdtman (1969). largely on the physico-chemical nature the activity of scavenging animals, Although applied occasionally (e.g. Frei of the soil itself. Palynomorphs are has given valuable information on 1979; Nowicke and Meselson 1984), important organic particles in soils and the length of time a corpse has lain it has only been used more routinely sediments and, in recent years, these in situ or the length of time since in the last 15 years or so. Mildenhall have provided valuable trace evidence an offender walked on vegetation pioneered the techniques in New in criminal investigation. Originally, (Hawksworth 2008a; Wiltshire 2007a, Zealand, Bryant in the United States the term ‘palynomorph’ was used to b). Knowledge of soil stratigraphy, (Mildenhall 1982; Bryant et al. 1990; describe pollen grains and plant spores. coupled with plant development and Bryant and Mildenhall 1998), and I Over the years, however, the term has distribution, has resulted in establishing have developed forensic palynology, expanded to include: other microscopic the premeditated nature of a victim’s forensic ecology, and forensic botany plant remains such as trichomes grave (Wiltshire 2005b). Finally, in the British Isles. (plant hairs and glands); fungal spores exploitation of knowledge of plant and and other fungal bodies; diatoms; fungal taxonomy (Hawksworth 2008b; Palynomorphs and Their cyanobacteria; and microscopic animals Wiltshire 2005c, 2008) has been used Identifi cation such as testate amoebae, nematode in assessing the potential of plants eggs and mouth parts, mites, and other being involved in attempted murder The range of palynomorphs arthropod
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