Evaluating Captive-Breeding Techniques and Reintroduction Success of the California Condor (Gymnogyps Californianus)
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Loma Linda University TheScholarsRepository@LLU: Digital Archive of Research, Scholarship & Creative Works Loma Linda University Electronic Theses, Dissertations & Projects 6-2010 Evaluating Captive-breeding Techniques and Reintroduction Success of the California Condor (Gymnogyps californianus) Amy C. Utt Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarsrepository.llu.edu/etd Part of the Biology Commons, Natural Resources and Conservation Commons, and the Ornithology Commons Recommended Citation Utt, Amy C., "Evaluating Captive-breeding Techniques and Reintroduction Success of the California Condor (Gymnogyps californianus)" (2010). Loma Linda University Electronic Theses, Dissertations & Projects. 852. https://scholarsrepository.llu.edu/etd/852 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by TheScholarsRepository@LLU: Digital Archive of Research, Scholarship & Creative Works. It has been accepted for inclusion in Loma Linda University Electronic Theses, Dissertations & Projects by an authorized administrator of TheScholarsRepository@LLU: Digital Archive of Research, Scholarship & Creative Works. For more information, please contact [email protected]. LOMA LINDAUNIVERSITY School of Science and Technology In conjunction with the Faculty of GraduateStudies Evaluating Captive-breeding Techniques and Reintroduction Success of the California Condor (Gymnogyps californianus) by Amy C. Utt A dissertationsubmitted in partialsatisfaction of the requirements forthe degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Biology June 2010 C 2010 Amy C. Utt All Rights Reserved Each person whose signature appears below certifies that this dissertation in his/her opinion is adequate, in scope and quality, as a dissertation for the degree Doctor of Philosophy. , Chairperson William K. Hayes, Professor of Biolos6C Ronald L. Carter, Provost Stephen G. Dunbar, Associate Professor of Biology (1.4 Floyd E. Hayes, Professor of Biology, Pacific Union College than R. Wall, Assistant Professor of Biochemistry, School of Medicine 111 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank the many people and organizations for their assistance in making my dreams a reality. First, I would like to thank my committee members for their undying support, good advice, and most of all, believing in me. I have learned so much while working on this project, and I have Dr. William K. Hayes (Loma Linda University), Dr. Stephen G. Dunbar (Loma Linda University), Dr. Nancy Harvey (previously with CRES; Zoological Society of San Diego), Dr. Ronald Carter (Loma Linda University), Dr. Floyd Hayes (Pacific Union College), Dr. Laurence McCloskey (La Sierra University), and Dr. Nathan Wall (Loma Linda University) to thank. I would like to thank the Zoological Society of San Diego for allowing me to study the California Condors at the Wild Animal Park. In addition, I appreciated the condor keepers at the Wild Animal Park for their interest and cooperation in my research and data collection. I would especially like to thank Don Sterner and Tom Levites for going above and beyond and sharing their experiences with the California Condor recovery project, making sure I had access to whatever information I needed, and taking me behind the scenes to witness newly hatched California Condor chicks. I am forever grateful for the time, attention, and friendships of the condor keepers. I would also like to thank the Ventana Wilderness Society, Pinnacles National Monument with the National Park Service, and Hopper Mountain Wildlife Refuge Complex with the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, for allowing me to observe California Condors at their respective release sites. The time I spent in the field has been valuable to iv me in so many ways. Several people I would like to single out include Joe Burnett, Bruce Palmer, Kelley Sorenson, Jessica Koning, Rebecca Leonard, Tom Leatherman, Greg Austin, and Mike Stockton. There are so many other people I have had the honor of working with while in the field, thank you. I want to share my gratitude with Los Angeles Zoo, Susie Kasielke, and Mike Clark for their cooperation with my research. My discussions with Mike at the Los Angeles Zoo offered me new insights into California Condor behaviors, and will be forever appreciated. I would like to thank the Department of Earth and Biological Sciences of Loma Linda University for helping to fund my research, along with a Grant in Aid of Research from the National Academy of Sciences (Administered by Sigma Xi, the Scientific Research Society), and a privately funded grant through the Zoological Society of San Diego. In addition, data collection would not have been possible without research permits from the National Park Service and the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. I am grateful that there are so many people and organizations supporting conservation and behavioral research. I would like to thank my husband, Jonathan J. Rickard, who married me in the midst of this project. He supported my efforts, put up with me not being home for weeks at a time during our early years of marriage, and trusted in my ability to finish this project. He believed in me even when I didn't. Finally, I would like to thank my son, Benjamin, for sharing the first two years of his young life with mommy and her dissertation work. Your zest for life and intense curiosity in all things renewed my own child-like wonder in the natural world. There is nothing like experiencing the world though the eyes of a toddler! Thank you my sweet baby boy. I love you! vi For my son, Benjamin Reid Utt Rickard You are my sunshine... - vii CONTENTS Approval Page iii Acknowledgements iv List of Tables xii List of Figures xiv List of Abbreviations xv Abstract xvi Chapter 1. Life History and Conservation of the California Condor 1 Species Description and Taxonomy 1 Habitat and Distribution 3 Historical Distribution 4 Current Distribution 5 Reproduction & Development 6 Courtship 6 Parental Care 10 Chick Development 11 Causes for Decline 11 Past Threats 11 Current Threats 13 Conservation Efforts 13 Conservation Controversy 13 Conservation Measures 17 In Situ Conservation 17 Ex Situ Conservation 18 Reintroduction 20 Objectives 21 viii References 23 2. The Effects of Rearing Method on Social Behaviors of Mentored, Captive- reared Juvenile California Condors 28 Abstract 29 Introduction 31 Materials and Methods 35 Cohort 1 (2003) 36 Cohort 2 (2004) 43 Social Behaviors 47 Dominance Relationships 49 Statistics 50 Results 51 Juveniles: Rearing Method versus Mentoring Phase 51 Adult Mentors: Rearing Method versus Mentoring Phase 55 Dominance Rankings 55 Discussion 60 Future Considerations 64 Conclusions 65 Acknowledgments 66 References 67 3. Predictors of Behavioral Problems and Survival Following Release of Captive-reared California Condors 72 Abstract 73 Introduction 75 Materials and Methods 80 Data Compilation 80 Statistical Analyses 83 Results 86 Behavior Problems 86 Survival 90 Discussion 94 ix Sex 96 Facility 98 Rearing 99 Mentoring 100 Release Site 102 Age at Release 103 Population Size 104 Conclusions 105 Acknowledgements 106 References 107 4. Evaluating Captive-breeding and Reintroduction Methods in Avian Conservation: A Review 117 Abstract 117 Introduction 118 Multiple Clutching 131 Parent Rearing 134 Foster Parent Rearing 136 Intraspecific (Conspecific) Rearing 137 Interspecific (Cross-foster) Rearing 140 Puppet and Hand Rearing 144 Imprinting and Development Phase 147 Puppet Rearing 152 Hand Rearing 154 Group versus Isolate Housing 156 Behavior Management 157 Pre-Release Training 160 Mentoring 162 Predator Avoidance 166 Obstruction Avoidance 170 Release Methodologies 171 Hard Release 171 Soft Release 172 Acclimation 173 Predator Control 173 Supplemental Feeding 175 Monitoring 176 Hacking 177 In Situ versus Ex Situ Conservation 178 The Future of Captive Breeding 181 Defining Success 183 Conclusions 184 Acknowledgements 185 References 186 5. General Conclusions 208 Future Considerations and Implications 211 References 217 Appendices 221 A. Data Summarization 221 B. Order of Observations 226 C. Research Permits 229 D. IACUC Certification Certificate 233 E. Release Site Questionnaire and Results 235 F. Graph of Release Age California Condors (1996-2005) 239 xi TABLES Table Page 1. Definitions of mutually exclusive behaviors quantified in California Condors 48 2. Mean acts per hour for each of 17 social behaviors exhibited by juvenile California Condors 53 3. Mean acts per hour for each of 17 social behaviors exhibited by adult puppet-reared and parent-reared California Condors 56 4. Dominance rankings of individuals from cohort 1 and cohort 2 57 5. Relationship diagnostics from dominance hierarchy analysis of "combined dominance" 58 6. Dominance matrix indicating frequency of "combined dominance" interactions for cohort 1 and cohort 2 59 7. Established population size (number of free-flying individuals) of California Condors (Gymnogyps califomianus) by year and release site 84 8. Summary of results for juvenile California Condors exhibiting behavioral problems at 1 and 2 yr after release into the wild 88 9. Logistic regression results for analyses of behavioral problems in juvenile California Condors 89 10. Summary of results for juvenile California Condors survival at 1 and 2 yr after release into the wild 91 11. Logistic regression results for analyses of survival in juvenile California Condors at 1 and 2 yr after release into the wild 93 12. Summary