Kултура / Culture, 10 / 2015

UDC: 316.35.022.4(436:=163.6)

Staged Memories: Spanish Drama and Cinema, Andalusian Identity Emilio J. Gallardo-Saborido and MusicUniversity in of ,Argentina and Mexico

Abstract: Culture, particularly cinema, drama resource to represent that country during that period, and music, played a key role in order to keep migrants from different regions could recognize a and reinforce the identity of Spanish migrants common notion of the Spanish identity in them. In in Argentina and Mexico during the first part of this sense, ‘home’ could be staged, remembered, the 20th century. For decades, these countries had fictionalized and, obviously, idealized. received thousands of migrants from Spain, and by the period following the Spanish Civil War (1936- Keywords: Spanish migrations, theatre/cinema and memory, 1939) a notable colony of them settled in Buenos flamenco music, Buenos Aires, Mexico City, . Aires and Mexico City. At the same time, several artists arrived to these places escaping from the I. war, political repression or, simply, looking for new work opportunities. For instance, famous singers, Introduction actors and flamenco players and dancers (v.g. Miguel de Molina, Angelillo, Niño de Utrera, or Sabicas) Could culture be a resource to heal wounds? achieved overwhelming successes in Buenos Aires How theatre, cinema and music can help to mitigate and Mexico City’s theatres. Even more, they created distance and nostalgia? Could cultural and social a parallel Spanish stardom abroad. identity be considered as a mean to afford the Hence, this proposal summarizes the contribution of menaces of war and exile? In Spain, the Civil War some of these artists and the fusion between theatre (1936-1939) forced many artists, writers and and cinema, and typical Andalusian music as flamenco musicians to migrate in order to avoid violence and to preserve and evoke the collective memory of such a poverty. Many of them arrived to , faraway motherland. Since Andalusia (the Southern especially to Argentina and Mexico. There, they region of Spain) and its culture acted as a metonymic found new opportunities and, in the case of Mexico, a political context (Lázaro Cárdenas’ government) 76that helped them to thrive economic and socially. Staged Memories... one of the main features of these refugees that shared habiti Therefore, these migrants set communities of (in the Bourdieusian flamenco artists. Of course, there were sense) that reinforced their self-image as a singular some notable exceptions as Angelillo group (with obvious and multiple differences). or Miguel de Molina; nonetheless Clearly, after the end of the war, many of them generally they had escaped from Spain perceived themselves as the inheritors of the fleeing from violence and poverty civilized spirit of the Spanish II Republic in front of d. instead of political repression. the barbaric dictatorship of Franco. In Mexico, they established their own schools, hospitals, and they The shows offered had mainly an visited the same cafes as the Tupinamba in Mexico aesthetic or playful value more than an City or the Iberia in Buenos Aires. They even got ideological one. used to marry among them. Certainly, they were pro- II. Franco Spaniards in both cities, and many of them had previously arrived as economic migrants. There The Forced Voyage of were tensions between these two groups, even direct Amalio Alcoriza’s Company fights, but I presume spectators from both groups Grand Spanish Company enjoyed the shows of the Spanish artists living in of MusicalIn this Comedies regard, it of could Alcoriza be interesting. This theatre to group check these two countries in theatres or night clubs. In the case of the so-called this sense, I assume the public of flamenco music and dance shows was probably heterogeneous,1 specialized in Andalusian and flamenco comedies including both Spanish and Latin American people. was in the province of Cadiz when the Civil War broke There coulda. be some reasons to explain this point: out. According to the words of the son of one of the actors –Florencio Castelló–, they fled to Gibraltar, Flamenco music is particularly close the British colony in Spain. Fortunately, they had to the southern region of Spain, called a contract to work abroad and performanced in Andalusia; nonetheless, it had –and Tangier and then, they took a boat from Marseille it has– many followers all around the to Buenos Aires. They obtained several successes b. country. singersthere with as aPena particular hijo kind of plays where acting and flamenco music were combined thanks to The type of shows that were offered , Niño de Utrera, and lately usually combined flamenco dance with Florencio Castelló, or guitar playersFather as Castanets the well-. other folkloric expressions from other known Sabicas, his father and his brother. One of regions of Spain as Galicia, Valencia or the major successes was the play c. . Since the protagonist was a priest who sang, the main singers of the company were reluctant to Normally, political –and specifically feature this role. This was the chance for Castelló 77 Republican– commitment was not who embodied the character Father Castanets in Kултура / Culture, 10 / 2015 hundreds of performances along Latin America Miguel de Molina and his frequent representation and even recorded a vinyl with the songs of the of subaltern masculinity in musical shows and films. play. The company of Alcoriza travelled around Nowadays, when we watch or Luces the performancesde candilejas, Latin America and they finally arrived to Mexico of Miguel de Molina in films like the Argentine City where they dissolved the group. productions Ésta es mi vida This company exemplifies a transplantation of we experience the sensation of being contemplating the Spanish culture to Latin American lands. Its work a pretty particular show that could be described as contributed to mitigate the feeling of nostalgia of the ‘campy’. He had an unmistakable style performing motherland. Moreover, they knit a net of common that enhanced with his marvellous2 and creative meanings and references which underpinned the wardrobe and his set designs. This section is notion of community through resources as theatre devoted to study the implications of the description and flamenco music. Lastly, it should be interesting of these spectacles and Molina himself as campy. to check the nature of the spectators who paid The use of this adjective. in this case points at the for this kind of shows, since commonly, at least in expression of diverse types of otherness thatBotín cross de Mexico, the audience of flamenco performances was guerraMolina’s War life andSpoils work usually formed by Mexican and Spanish people. In Miguel de Molina’s autobiography entitled this regard, Alcoriza was continuing the far-reaching ( ) was published in Spain in 1998. tradition of Spanish theatre companies that went It offers a fascinating testimony of Molina’s tireless across Latin American featuring plays by well- aspiration of artistic success and, at the same time, the known authors such as Jacinto Benavente, José de story of constant persecution that eventually forced Echegaray or the Álvarez Quintero brothers. Then, him to migrate from Spain to Latin America. As he Alcoriza and his partners were also contributing declared (Molina, 1998: 131), he had sympathy for to keep the Hispanic references in a geographical the Republican cause because of his humble origins, context compound by to some extent recently but he never belonged to any political party or felt emancipatedIII. nations. special interest in politics. Nevertheless, his sexual orientation (he was openly homosexual) and his Looking Back with ‘Campness’: participation in performances for the Republican Miguel de Molina and Nostalgia army during the Spanish Civil War were enough to copla in this condemn him to a series of diverse punishments. The There is another case which could help us to most serious one was his kidnapping and torture by understand how Spanish folk music – three men in 1939, after one of his performances at example– and its relation with show business the Pavón Theatre. However, he did survive and after acted as resources that had an impact on social his recovery began to sing again. The next scandal assumptions and codes of the Spanish communities occurred in 1940 at the Teatro Cómico, where a in Latin America and on the image of this country group of ultra-right agitators shouted at him: “We do abroad. I am talking about the actor and singer not want faggots! This commie should not be allowed 78to work!” [Translated by the author](Molina, 1998: Staged Memories...

4 164). After this incident, Molina was confined in fit with the mainstream behaviour and opinions Cáceres and Buñol until the beginning of 1941. One in the 1940’s Spain. Molina behaved with pride year later, he decided to travel to Argentina, in the and courage in a historical context characterized hope of escaping from the continuous humiliation by the official imposition of a morality based in an that he had experienced in Spain. extremist conception of Catholicism. Currently, the figure of Molina has been recovered This revision of Molina from our present position even institutionally since in 1992 the king Juan Carlos allows us drawing on a later aesthetic category, I bestowed him an important decoration (“Orden i.e. “Camp”, in order to think and understand his de Isabel la Católica”). Moreover, he has receivedMiguel profile but his contemporary influence as well. In detributes Molina: through el Musical different artistic expressions such this regard, the notion of “Camp” has traditionally... as a theatrical show devoted to him called stressed the importance of reception as a creative by Jacinto Esteban, or a poem act. Richard Dyer summarizes this idea stating: “ written by one of the finest contemporary Spanish Camp is far more a question of how you respond poets,Miguel i.e. de José Molina. Hierro Arte (Huerta y provocación Calvo et al., 2005: 482- to things rather than qualities actually inherent 483). More recently, specifically in 2009, a book in those things. [...] Basically, it is a way of prising ( ) was edited in the form of something away from its content, of order to commemorate the hundredth anniversary revelling in the style while dismissing the content of his birth. During that year, there were other events as trivial” (Dyer, 2002: 52). But could we consider to remember and celebrate his career such as an Molina’s filmic interventions as campy products? In exposition directed byLa hiscopla grandnephew quebrada titled “Art3 order to answer this question, we will draw on one and provocation”. Furthermore, another drama was of the classical approaches to this phenomenon, say, staged in his honour ( , Borja Ortiz). Susan Sontag’s text called “Notes on Camp” (1961). Moreover, Molina’s repercussion has jumped beyond Molina’s performance clearly expressed an the Spanish speaking world.Ojos verdes, So, for Miguel example, de Molinain March in alternative version of masculinity that had nothing5 memoriamof 2010 it was presented by the theatre group La Barni to do with the contemporary hegemonic views. a performance called For instance, by embodying young gallants in his at the University of Birmingham, sponsored Spanish short films Molina removed himself from by the Department of Hispanic Studies. the fascist filmic interpretations of masculinity. Ideologically speaking, his work and figure Military heroes suchRaza as the characters of Alfredo challenge us to rethink the relationship between Mayo in the productions: ¡A mí la legión! (Juan de power and the Andalusian folk music. His Orduña, 1942) or (José Luis Sáenz de Heredia, performances, through some of his lyrics and his 1942) constituted an evident representation figure himself, offer an alternative view of this kind of hegemonic masculinity in cinema, linked of cultural products. Molina’s image is a far cry from ideologically with the new political hierarchy. In the cliché that links the Andalusian folk stars from this regard, it is possibleAs to a maketaste inthe persons, first assertion Camp the 40s-60s to the Francoist hierarchy. Finally, his of Molina’s performances in terms of being campy, attitude towards his sexual orientation does not 79since Sontag asserts: “ Kултура / Culture, 10 / 2015 responds particularly to the markedly attenuated that homosexual behaviour is more tolerated in and to the strongly exaggerated. The androgyne is the world of show business. In the Spanish context certainly one of the great images of Camp sensibility. of the 1940s, the figure of Molina was selected as [...] What is most beautiful in virile men is something a synthesis of non-desirable masculine features so feminine; what is most beautiful in feminine women repressive forces turned him into an ideological and is something masculine. . . . Allied to the Camp taste moral target. His visibility triggered his following for the androgynous is something that seems quite damnation. Maybe it was easier for him to show different but isn’t: a relish for the exaggeration of his homosexual desire during the II Republic years, sexual characteristics and personality mannerisms. due to his work as an artist, but that situation was For obvious reasons, the best examples that can be inverted with the onset of the dictatorship. cited are movie stars” (Sontag, note 9). Lastly, the whole aesthetic dimensions of And, later, she will add: “Camp is the glorification his filmic performances show Molina’s concerns, of character”. Indeed, the relationship between especially on those occasions where he hadÉsta more es homosexuality and Camp is highlighted in Sontag’s freedom to direct his shows, for example or duringLuces text. Here, in the history of snob taste, homosexuals dethe candilejas Argentinean period with films like Here, his are deemed to be the inheritors of aristocratic values. mi vida (Román Viñoly Barreto, 1952) These inheritors are described as: “an improvised (Enrique Carreras, 1956). self-elected class, mainly homosexuals, who character as a total artist, who cared infinitely constitute themselves have a peculiar as aristocrats affinity of taste” (note about the configuration of every part of each of his 50). According to Sontag (note 51), these collective productions, shines through. Indeed, his attraction experiences with Camp; for innovative costume designs (blouses are the although this does not mean that there is a complete6 best example) refers contemporary audiences to equivalence between Camp and homosexualvanguard and tastes. the “the love of the exaggerated, the off, of things-being- mostAnd, articulate finally, Sontag audience argues the reason why she what-they-are-not” (note 8) that Sontag points out. considers homosexuals as the The idea of Molina as a total artist is linked with the is linked with an ethics stress of Camp on artifice over nature (“Nothing of poetics. In the note 52, this writer adduces that in nature can be campy . . .”, note 7). Furthermore, aesthetic sense has been a useful tool in order to Molina’s insistence on representation and spectacle make homosexuals’solvent integration of morality into society easier. as a way of life connects with Campy ideal of theIn this playful regard, sense Camp’s of life emphasis instead of on moral artifice, indignation joy and. theatricality (note 43). aesthetics, acts as a and enhances Therefore, Molina can be considered a Spanish campy reference, but at the same time the value of With regard to Molina’s performances, maybe his performances does only not rest on their style. it is necessary to question the cliché that states It is more than a matter of aesthetics. Indeed, there

80 Staged Memories... are ideological implications on his work because The Spanish protagonists of many of these his expression of masculine otherness challenged productions were the Andalusian folk song stars an authoritarian gender and moral framework that Lola Flores and Carmen Sevilla. Apart from these tried to subsume Molina’s attempt to live and work actresses, settled in Spain, other Spaniards living without fear. IV. in Mexico were frequently hired to embody other characters. That was the case of the already Exportable Divas mentioned T Florencio Castelló who took part in dozens of films in Mexico. To conclude, I will just briefly mention another hese productions staged recurrent stories of case of study that could help us to understand the international brotherhood among Spanish-speaking relationship among the Spanish communities in countries favouring the development of the notion of Latin America, the remembrance and construction “Hispanity” and taking profit of the use/construction of the image of Spain, and certain cultural products. of a twofold star-system. In this sense, the producer The attraction that the Andalusian folklore, symbols Cesáreo González and his company were and images had in and out of Spain was also used two of the main actors in this enterprise. Obviously, in the Mexican cinema of the golden years to film a the economic interests basically underpinned these productions but at the same time they allowed to series of joint productions with Spain. Thesecharro films resorted to some national stereotypes (e.g. the export, reinforce and rethink certain clichés related to Spanish female gypsy and the Mexican ) to the image of Spain abroad. create a transnational star-system. They played with Hence, the production and consumption recognizable and powerful references that became of these films offer another way to understand quite profitable. In these productions Spanish different issues linked to the presence of the artists that fled their country during the war or the Spanish communities of flamenco artists in Latin post-war period appeared next to others that had American during our period. I refer to issues as the spent most of the last years working inside Spain. work chances of these artists, the representation of Considering the high-level of codification of the Spain abroad, or the interests of the Spanish cinema stereotypes, we could think that Spaniards living in spectators living in Mexico and Argentina in relation Mexico and Argentina probably watched them as to to the remembrance of the motherland. some extent parodic or at least a playful revision of HybridFinally, Cultures I would like to quote the Argentinian the Spanish identity. The well-known stereotypes scholar García Canclini who in his influential book and the comical nature of many of these films helped stated: “It is necessary to register those aspects that keep different in mixings” to play withLola the typical images of Spain/Andalusia. [Translated by the author] (García Canclini, 2009: In this regard, resources as cross-dressingLa gitana (fory el XVI). Consequently, we have still to reflect on how charroinstance in Torbellino, René Cardona, 1955) or musical/dance parody were used (e.g. 7 flamenco and Andalusian folklore contributed to , Gilberto Martínez Solares, 1963). underpin the memories of the Spanish refugees in 81Mexico and Argentina and how they supported a Kултура / Culture, 10 / 2015 process of common meeting among these refugees possible meanings, of a whole sector of relations in and their Latin American neighbours. This effort a societynatural or culture;, inevitable and (b), takenthat it forcarries granted with about it the will help us to understand more accurately the stamp of legitimacy –it appears coterminous with mechanisms of memory and representation in other [6] However,what is it can be argued if actually there is something the social order” (Hall, 2006: 172). contexts where violence or poverty have impelled that can be named “homosexual taste” (and at least in other groups of artists to leave their countries. singular). [7] It would be interesting to analyze the presence of [1] Endnotes parodies of the Spanish stereotypes in other kinds of contemporary Mexican films such as the comedies In this text I offer some basic impressions on the of Tin Tan (e.g. El rey del barrio, Gilberto Martínez composition of the public of the shows related to Solares, 1949). flamenco music and dance. Nonetheless, I recognize [8] that more work is needed to be done in this regard in order to obtain a more detailed and comprehensive References [2] understanding of this issue, including the differences [1] N. Garc and similarities of the cases of Mexico and Argentina. LucesNevertheless, de Candilejas the singularity of this kind of creations [2] ía Canclini, Cultura híbridas, México D.F.: could just being completely enjoyed in his last film Debolsillo, 2009. . There Molina acted in two [3] M. de Molina, Botín de guerra: autobiografía, [3] musical performances that were shot in colour : Planeta, 1998. despite the rest of the film was in black-and-white. [4] J. Huerta Calvo et al., Teatro español (de la A a la Z), More information about this commemoration. can Madrid: Espasa Calpe, 2005. [4] be found in the website of the Foundation Miguel de D. Galán, in Miguel de Molina. Arte y provocación, “Molina: www.fundacionmigueldemolina.orgcopla in a [5] Madrid: Comunidad de Madrid. Servicio de According to Huerta et al. (1998: 481), Molina: documentación y publicaciones, 2009, pp. 160-197. made popular a singular way of singing [6] S. Sontag, Contra la interpretación y otros ensayos, sissy way. This fact turned him into ahead of his time Barcelona: Debolsillo, 2007. artist since he bravely assumed his homosexuality” S. Sontag, “Notes on Camp”. [Online]. Available: [translated by the author]. Nevertheless, Diego http://interglacial.com/~sburke/pub/prose/ Galán (2009: 161) points out that, according to those [7] Susan_Sontag_-_Notes_on_Camp.html [Accessed [5] Stuartones that Hall watched has defined him atthe stage, notion he emphasized of the “hegemonic his April 9th 2010]. viewpoint”sissiness in as the follows: films. S. Hall, “Encoding/decoding”. In M. G. Durham, [8] D. M. Douglas (Eds.), Mediaueers, London: and Cultural Routledge, Studies. 2002. “[It] is (a) that it defines within Keyworks, Oxford: Blackwell, 2006, pp. 162-173. its terms their mental horizon, the universe, of R. Dyer, The Culture of Q

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