Instructional Practices When Using Video Authentic Resources in the Fles Classroom

INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES WHEN USING VIDEO AUTHENTIC RESOURCES IN THE FLES CLASSROOM

ERIC M. INBODEN

A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF EDUCATION

UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA

2019

To my whole family, especially, Emma, Scarlett, and Lydia Inboden

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The work in this study would not have been realized if I did not have the support, assistance, and inspiration of a variety of people. I would like to thank all the scholars that came before me whose work contributed to the knowledge gained and shared in this study. Without the work of these scholars, there would be empty journals and libraries. Your contribution is duly noted and appreciated beyond the words that you so competently apply. I would like to thank my advisor, Dr. Swapna Kumar, who supported me throughout this entire process. She was continually available to guide me through the mired pathways necessary to complete the dissertation journey. Thank you for keeping me true and for not pulling your punches when criticism was due.

Additionally, gratitude is deserved by my esteemed committee members: Dr. Elizabeth

Bondy, Dr. Kara Dawson, and Dr. Mark Hart. The counsel you bestowed upon me improved this work tremendously and for that I extend many thanks. I am also appreciative of the University of

Florida’s outstanding faculty and staff in the School of Teaching and Learning who molded and supported me through innovative coursework and outstanding organizational assistance.

I would like to thank the members of Cohort 4 of the EdTech Ed.D. program. You all are such smart people and were a constant source of inspiration. My most sincere gratitude is due to

Dr. Alfredo Leon who took the time and care to respond to late night text messages, listen to gripes, and offer excellent advice for writing, analyzing, and persevering. Thanks B. Much gratitude is also due to “Team Muchos Nachos Take the Daisy Train:” Dr. Sarah Brandt and Dr.

Johnathan Frankel. You all made this process much more comfortable and enjoyable. We shared laughs, tears, beers, and more while traversing this doctoral journey.

I would also like to thank my family and friends. My parents supported me with encouragement and continued inquiries about how I was progressing. I am glad that I got this

thing done before you died. I love you. Smile. To my sisters, their husbands, and my nieces and nephews, thank you for always making me smile. I should add to my sisters, “I’m smarter than you are and I’m Mom’s favorite.” I must thank my friends for providing me with the mental respite I so desperately needed during this entire process. I appreciate the role you played in my simultaneous attainment of knowledge and loss of brain cells. Cheers, homies.

Finally, I would like to send the biggest shout out of all to my daughters and wife. Emma and Scarlett, you are the reason I endeavored to get a doctorate degree. I want you to be proud of me in the way that I am proud of you. I want to model for you both that achievement in education is the impetus for ongoing success in life. This thing took a bit longer than expected, because of all the fun we needed to have during the writing process. I can honestly say that I did not miss a minute of your lives while I was on this adventure and that made the undertaking enjoyable and worthwhile. I love you both dearly.

The highest level of gratitude is due my wife, Lydia. You are the reason I am in education. You saw something bright in me when I saw nothing but grey and darkness. You pulled me from a deep hole and placed me on a pedestal. You registered me for my first education course, pushed me through my master’s degree, and did the research to find this doctoral program at the University of Florida. Despite your deep interest in my successes, you also knew when to get that glazed look on your face when I started talking about the research and findings during this study. That encouraged me to stop talking about it and just be with you. The laughs and love that we share are timeless and for that I am eternally thankful and indebted to you. I love you.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

page

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... 4

LIST OF TABLES ...... 10

LIST OF FIGURES ...... 11

ABSTRACT ...... 12

CHAPTER

1 INTRODUCTION ...... 14

Professional Context ...... 15 Authentic Resources at Whistle ...... 17 Problem of Practice ...... 19 Purpose Statement and Central Phenomenon ...... 20 Research Questions ...... 21 Sub-Questions ...... 21 Research Design ...... 21 Limitations ...... 22 Significance ...... 23 Definition of Terms ...... 24 First Language (L1) ...... 24 Foreign Language in Elementary Schools (FLES) ...... 24 Foreign Language Exploration (FLEX) ...... 24 Basic Qualitative Study ...... 25 Second Language (L2) ...... 25 Second Language Acquisition (SLA) ...... 25 Early Childhood...... 25 Independent Schools ...... 25 Input ...... 26 Output ...... 26 K-12 ...... 26 Authentic Resource (AR) ...... 26 Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) ...... 26 Summary ...... 27 Overview ...... 27

2 LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 29

Types of Elementary School Foreign Language Programs ...... 29 Exploratory Language Program ...... 30 Language Focus Program ...... 30 Immersion Program ...... 31

Second Language Acquisition ...... 31 Earliest History of SLA ...... 32 20th Century SLA – Theoretical Bases ...... 33 Structuralism...... 33 Behaviorism ...... 34 Chomskyan Revolution – Cognitivism ...... 35 SLA Pedagogy Post-Chomsky ...... 37 Krashen’s Theory of Second Language Acquisition ...... 39 Input: Going Deeper ...... 41 Sociocultural Approaches to SLA ...... 44 The Emergence of SCT in SLA...... 44 Various Applications of SCT for SLA ...... 45 Linking SLA Theory to Communicative Language Teaching ...... 47 Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) Approach ...... 48 Terms and Definitions with CLT ...... 48 CLT and Theory ...... 50 Authentic Resources ...... 51 Related Terms ...... 52 Defining Authentic Resources ...... 52 History of Authentic Resources: Text to Multi-media ...... 53 Texts ...... 53 Early Childhood Authentic Texts ...... 54 Multi-Media, Audio-Visual: Video Authentic Resources ...... 54 Early Childhood Authentic Song...... 56 The Benefits of Authentic Resources ...... 57 The Drawbacks of Authentic Resources ...... 61 AR Section Conclusion ...... 63 Conceptual Framework ...... 64 Summary ...... 67

3 METHODOLOGY ...... 68

Research Questions ...... 68 Research Design ...... 68 Research Context ...... 70 Sampling and Participants ...... 70 Data Collection ...... 72 Initial Interviews ...... 73 Observations ...... 74 Post-Observation Interviews ...... 75 Data Analysis...... 80 Trustworthiness ...... 84 Limitations ...... 87 Ethical Considerations ...... 89 Subjectivity Statement ...... 89

4 RESULTS ...... 92

Participants and Classroom Observations ...... 92 Summary of Classroom Observations ...... 110 Interview Results ...... 112 Finding VAR ...... 112 Using VAR ...... 119 Routines with VAR ...... 136 Benefits of VAR ...... 139 Summary ...... 146

5 DISCUSSION ...... 147

Study Summary ...... 147 Discussion of Findings ...... 148 Socio-Cultural Theory, Communicative Language Teaching and Second Language Acquisition ...... 148 Research Question 1: Instructional Practices with Video Authentic Resources ...... 149 VAR for receptive and productive skills ...... 149 Culture for SLA ...... 152 Music for total physical response ...... 153 Frequency of VAR use ...... 154 Sub-Question 1: Perceived Best Instructional Practices ...... 154 Sub-Question 2: Alignment to Instructional Goals ...... 159 Additional Findings ...... 162 Music for Comprehensible Input ...... 162 Stickiness of VAR with Music ...... 163 Autonomy ...... 164 Possible Concerns of VAR Use ...... 164 Research Implications ...... 165 Implications for VAR in My Professional Practice and Institution ...... 165 Implications for VAR Practices of FLES Teachers in ISAS ...... 168 Implications for Instructional Practices within the World Languages Field ...... 169 Implications for Instructional Practices within the World Languages Field ...... 171 Limitations ...... 172 Recommendations for Future Research in the Field ...... 173 Conclusion ...... 175

APPENDIX

A PERMISSON EMAIL TO HEADS OF SCHOOL ...... 178

B RECRUITMENT EMAIL REQUESTING PARTICIPATION ...... 179

C INFORMED CONSENT FORM ...... 180

D INITIAL INTERVIEW GUIDE/PROTOCOL ...... 182

E OBSERVATION GUIDE ...... 183

F POST-OBSERVATION INTERVIEW GUIDE ...... 186

REFERENCES ...... 187

BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH ...... 204

LIST OF TABLES

Table page

4-1 Participants in study ...... 93

4-2 Categories and codes for finding VAR ...... 112

4-3 Categories and codes for using VAR ...... 120

4-4 Categories and codes for benefits of VAR ...... 140

5-1 Practices and recommendations for teaching with VAR ...... 170

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure page

2-1 Conceptual Framework ...... 64

3-1 SLA theoretical alignment with Interview Questions and Research Questions ...... 77

Abstract of Dissertation Presented to the Graduate School of the University of Florida in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Education

INSTRUCTIONAL PRACTICES WHEN USING VIDEO AUTHENTIC RESOURCES IN THE FLES CLASSROOM

Eric M. Inboden

August 2019

Chair: Swapna Kumar Major: Curriculum and Instruction

There has been an increase of new foreign language in elementary schools’ (FLES) programs in the K-12 context across the United States. With this growth, it is important to understand what is occurring in existing FLES programs to support these new implementations.

Experts from a variety of contexts in the field of second language acquisition (SLA) have reported that using authentic resources (AR) for instructional practices reduces affective influences on SLA and increases student learning outcomes (Bacon & Finneman, 1990;

Rodngam, & Somphong, 2011). Authentic resources are media created by the target culture for the target culture and not crafted specifically for language teaching and learning. Additionally, the growth of video sharing websites has increased the availability of video authentic resources

(VAR). Faculty in the elementary world language context have used VAR for instruction and reported improved learning outcomes, proficiency, engagement, and enthusiasm when teaching with VAR.

While many reports have shown the impact of AR on SLA, there is little information about instructional practices with VAR or about alignment of VAR with instructional goals in

FLES programs. Thus, the focus of this study is on understanding the instructional practices of

FLES teachers when using VAR. This study was conceptualized using socio-cultural theory

(SCT) and communicative language teaching (CLT) to better understand the instructional applications of VAR in the FLES context.

Using a basic qualitative approach, FLES practitioners were observed teaching with VAR and then interviewed about their instructional practices with VAR. The analysis of data contributed examples of these instructional practices with VAR and how the participants align

VAR to instructional goals. The variety of instructional practices included pausing and muting the VAR to encourage listening and speaking skills, total physical response with VAR containing music, multiple student exposures to VAR, and engaging students as a means of lowering their affective filters. As a whole, this study provides insight into the instructional practices of FLES teachers with VAR, provides implications for FLES teachers’ professional practices with VAR, and offers recommendations for continued research.

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

The human experience is dependent upon communication and language. Knowledge, information, data, scholarship, opinions, ideas, experiences, and concerns are enabled through the application of language. When one achieves the skill of communicating in a plurality of languages, doors are opened to global cultures and interactions, thus augmenting, ameliorating, and adding to the human experience through their intercultural competence (Deardorff, 2009).

This provides the opportunity to better understand ourselves and how humans got to where we are today. For many years, educators, researchers, families, and governmental policy makers have attempted to develop a system within our schools aimed at better equipping K-12 students to be capable and competent global citizens by promoting communication in world languages

(Scott, 2005; U.S. Department of Education, 2008). Providing students natural exposure to world languages in the early childhood and elementary contexts is the most effective way to ensure higher levels of proficiency than that of those who begin at an older age (Krashen, Long &

Scarcella, 1979). If a young learner continues their world languages acquisition throughout their

K-12 schooling, they increase their world language proficiency and thus increase their global competency (Lo Bianco, Liddicoat & Crozet, 1999).

It is estimated that 4.2 million elementary school students out of the 27.5 million in the

United States study a WL at school (Pufahl & Rhodes, 2011). However, world language course offerings are decreasing in elementary schools. From 1997 to 2008 elementary schools offering world languages decreased by 6% and middle schools decreased by 17% (Pufahl & Rhodes,

2011). Slashed budgets, the adverse effects of various national education policies, and a general ambivalence toward world languages in K-12 schools have adversely affected existing programs and have hindered the creation of new programs (Center on Education Policy, 2009; Hu, 2009;

Lizama, 2009). However, with these decreases there are also plans for new implementations, with 5% of public and 25% of private elementary schools planning to start offering world languages in the coming years (Pufahl & Rhodes, 2011). In lieu of these decreases and plans for new implementations, it becomes more necessary to understand what is happening within existing elementary world language programs and to give a well-rounded explanation of the instructional practices used in the classroom. Gaining a better understanding of what is occurring in existing programs may help steer the development of new programs, provide more information and support these newly developed programs, increase the efficacy of existing programs, and steer future research.

Professional Context

I teach a content-based foreign language in an elementary school (FLES) program at The

Whistle School (Whistle) in Dallas, Texas. The FLES program is part of a campus-wide initiative and goals to provide students with the second language (L2) resources necessary for global interactions and leadership. This FLES program is designed for students at various levels from early childhood to 4th grade. The goal of a FLES program is for students to gain an intermediate world language proficiency in speaking, listening, reading, and writing before embarking upon their next language learning journey outside of the elementary context (ACTFL,

2012; Ñandutí, 1989). These FLES programs extend through a long articulated sequenced program that is vertically aligned to predetermined world language curricula in the middle school grade levels (ACTFL, 2012; Ñandutí, 1989). Whistle’s FLES program follows this definition.

Ideally, a FLES program will provide a base for further world language learning, increase the student’s world language proficiency, and prepare elementary aged students for the transition into middle school world languages programs (ACTFL, 2012).

Whistle is an independent K-12 school located in the Dallas/Ft. Worth (DFW) greater metropolitan area. Whistle services students from Pre-Kindergarten (Pre-K) through the 12th

Grade. World language instruction in Pre-K, Kindergarten, 1st, and 2nd grade is geared toward the acquisition of speaking and listening skills. These skills develop continually as literacy skills, such as reading and writing, are approached in the 3rd and 4th grades. My FLES teaching responsibilities are for one section of 1st Grade, one section of 2nd Grade, three sections of 3rd

Grade, and three sections of 4th Grade.

The world languages department in the elementary context within my professional practice is divided between Spanish and French. The students are introduced to both languages in an exploratory fashion in Pre-K and Kindergarten. In the Pre-K and Kindergarten years the students’ language learning journeys are divided in half, with one half of the year dedicated to

Spanish and the other to French. The time allotted for instruction in the Pre-K and Kindergarten years is limited to 30 minutes and is divided into two separate meeting times. The students are thus exposed to world languages in this exploratory fashion, where functional acquisition of the language is not the goal, but rather involves an exposure to language and culture. This is commonly called Foreign Language Exploration (FLEX) (ACTFL, 2012; Ñandutí, 1989).

When the students reach 1st grade, they transition out of the exploratory program into the

FLES program where they choose a Spanish or French track. There are two Spanish teachers.

One teacher is the lead teacher for Pre-K, Kindergarten, 1st, and 2nd while the other teaches 3rd and 4th. I am the 3rd and 4th grade lead Spanish teacher and I assist with some sections of 1st and

2nd. There are two French teachers. One teacher is the lead teacher for Pre-K and Kindergarten and the other teacher is the lead for 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th. More students choose Spanish than

French. Thus, the lead French teacher who is responsible for 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th grades has fewer overall sections, and can take on additional grade levels.

Whistle is a member school of the Independent Schools Association of the Southwest

(ISAS), which provides formal ongoing accreditation to the member schools that meet the ISAS standards (ISAS, 2018). ISAS schools are located in 6 states including Arizona, Kansas,

Louisiana, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas (ISAS, 2018). The ISAS reports to their parent association, The National Association of Independent Schools (NAIS), which oversees the servicing of over 1,500 independent K-12 schools in the United States (NAIS, 2018). An independent school is a non-profit private school with an independent mission, management, a board of trustees, and financing (NAIS, 2018). Independent schools are accountable to their respective school communities and accreditation is procured through regional independent school associations and the school’s resident state (NAIS, 2018).

The ISAS schools in the DFW area tend to coalesce into pockets of collegiality which involves sharing, collaborating, and networking with other member schools within a close proximity. The world languages departments of D/FW’s ISAS member schools gather once a year in a synchronous face-to-face networking event to share instructional practices, resources, and promote further collegial conversations throughout the rest of the calendar year via asynchronous digital communications.

Authentic Resources at Whistle

Within world language instruction, the pedagogical application of authentic resources

(AR) has been widely identified as a strong instructional practice for students to acquire the four essential language skills of speaking, listening, reading, and writing (Brown, 1994; Cook, 1981;

Gilmore, 2007, Gilmore, 2011). An AR in the world languages classroom is defined as a media, text, or cultural experience intended for the target culture that was not created for the specific

purposes of language teaching or learning (Berardo, 2006; Gilmore, 2007; Gilmore, 2011;

Swaffar, 1985). An AR is created by native speakers of a target language for native speakers of the target language (Berardo, 2006; Gilmore, 2007; Gilmore, 2011; Swaffar, 1985). In world language instruction, the four essential language skills develop through the deployment of various media. Listening skills may use AR in the form of TV commercials, TV shows, TV news, radio news, popular movies, songs, and videos published on the internet. Many different types of visual materials are used to stimulate conversational speaking skills, including photographs, paintings, pictures, pictures from magazines, postcards, or other appropriate visual supplements disseminated from the target culture to the target culture. Authentic printed materials are applied to develop reading and writing skills that are promoted through the inclusion of newspapers, magazines, comic books, menus, tourist information brochures, advice columns, and other print mediums into the class content (Berardo, 2006). Any AR can also be used to teach cultural learning goals. When AR are applied following good practices, scholarship demonstrates that they assist in the development of the four essential language skills and cultural knowledge (Damiani, 2003; Gilmore, 2011; Kilickaya, 2004).

In the FLES program at Whistle, video authentic resources (VAR) are considered one of several vital instructional components to enhance listening and speaking skills. The VAR are applied as supplemental instructional devices for the learning goals identified in the curricular units. While the VAR are used frequently, they exist primarily as a support to instruction that is presented during class time. Within the FLES context, especially in the early childhood grades of

Pre-K, Kindergarten, 1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th, the application of VAR is limited to those resources that help to develop listening and speaking skills. Research warns about instruction centered on reading and writing in the early childhood grades of Kindergarten, 1st, and 2nd grade (Lipton,

1969; Ñandutí, 1989). Good practices show that the primary focus of the early childhood FLES classroom should be listening and speaking skills development (Lipton, 1969). In the 3rd and 4th grades the FLES instructional focus at Whistle pivots to reading and writing skills, with a continuation of the development of listening and speaking skills through the ongoing use of a variety of instructional practices, including teaching with VAR.

In the Whistle FLES program, the VAR used by teachers in the classroom are aligned to the identified learning goals for each curricular unit and are always in the target language. The utilized videos are crafted specifically for young viewers and for non-instructional purposes and always intended for the specific use by those from the target culture. These videos, when used during instruction, are found primarily from video sharing sites.

Problem of Practice

In my previous work context at the Highland Park Independent School District (HPISD) from 2013–2016, I developed a FLES program for four elementary schools and one middle school. I created the FLES program for Kindergarten – 6th grades, by defining the parameters of the program, writing the curriculum, designing the instruction, coordinating the instruction, hiring the required teachers, implementing the program, and studying the efficacy of the program and implementation. During this process, I was fortunate to travel around the United States to observe some of the things that were taking place within some already existing FLES programs.

These observations revealed how many schools were utilizing AR and VAR in the classroom.

The VAR used for instruction came from video sharing sites and were aligned to instructional goals.

I just completed my 2nd year at Whistle. I joined Whistle in the 2017 - 2018 academic year. I was hired as the replacement of a highly regarded thirty-five-year FLES practitioner who retired. It was understood that I would work to refine the existing curriculum and introduce new

instructional practices aligned to best practices for instruction as detailed in the FLES literature and based on my already established instructional practices in the FLES classroom. Additionally,

Whistle hired me to eventually offer FLES seminars that will attract pedagogues from across the country to take part in a larger scale effort for collegiality and collaboration within the FLES field. Whistle, in the past, played a vital role for the dissemination of best instructional practices in the FLES classroom by offering some of the first national FLES seminars.

The teachers in the world languages program, including myself, while veterans and content area experts in our respective FLES contexts, are relative novices in the application of

VAR for instruction. There is a need for understanding what instructional practices with VAR are used, what are the perceived best instructional practices with VAR, and how VAR are aligned to instruction goals within the FLES context. The best way to learn about what is occurring in the FLES context is to approach similar schools to observe and interview FLES teachers to find out what occurs in the FLES classroom when teaching with VAR.

Purpose Statement and Central Phenomenon

The purpose of this basic qualitative study was to learn about FLES teachers’ instructional practices with VAR, their perceived best instructional practices with VAR, and how they align VAR to instructional goals. The knowledge gained will be used to improve the instructional practices with VAR for a variety of contexts. The central phenomenon under investigation are the instructional practices with VAR in the FLES classroom. The goal of this study was to fill in the gaps in the literature about instructional practices for teaching with VAR and contribute to future research to establish what instructional practices FLES teachers are using when teaching with VAR in a variety of contexts.

The following research question and two sub-questions were explored:

Research Questions

1. What instructional practices are used by FLES teachers at ISAS schools while using video authentic resources during instruction?

Sub-Questions

• What do FLES teachers at ISAS schools perceive as best instructional practices when using video authentic resources during instruction?

• How are FLES teachers at ISAS schools aligning video authentic resources to instructional goals?

Research Design

This study was initiated at ISAS schools that are similar in nature to my professional practice. A basic qualitative approach discovered the instructional practices of FLES teachers when using VAR during instruction. The results of this study represent my understanding of the participants’ understanding of the central phenomenon (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).

The participant institutions were purposefully selected for inclusion in the study because they met a minimum set of requirements that establish the institutions’ relevance to understanding the central phenomenon (Creswell & Poth, 2018). The individual teacher participants, from the qualifying ISAS institutions in D/FW, had to be FLES teachers, had to have more than two years’ experience in a FLES classroom, and currently use VAR during instruction. A communication was sent to the institutions’ Heads of Lower School or the appropriate administrator as an inquiry to obtain the contact information of their FLES teachers.

Then a recruiting email was sent to the FLES teacher participants to initiate a conversation and inquire about their availability for inclusion in this study. The total number of participants for this present study was eight.

In a basic qualitative study, the intention is to identify, during analysis, the persistent patterns that are represented in the data (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). An initial interview was

conducted by phone to determine if the participant met the minimum criteria for inclusion in the study. For those who met the minimum criteria for inclusion and agreed to participate in the study, an observation of a lesson using VAR was scheduled. Then a post-observation interview was conducted. The focus of the post-observation interview was to gain a description of the instructional practices and perceived best practices in place when VAR were used for language instruction. Also, the participants were questioned about how they aligned VAR to instructional goals. Each of the participants were interviewed using an interview protocol within a face-to-face setting.

Constant comparative analysis was used to analyze the data iteratively. As data came in, it was put through analysis, reviewed, coded, and compared constantly during the entire data collection and analysis period. No matter whether data was collected early in the data collection process or at the end, they were compared to one another to find commonalities and themes

(Birks & Mills, 2015). I categorized the data into themes and categories through open coding, axial coding, and selective coding. The conclusion of this study provided a better understanding of the instructional practices with VAR, perceived best instructional practices with VAR, and how VAR were aligned to instructional goals.

Limitations

A basic qualitative study is embodied with certain natural limitations like transferability, reliability, and validity (Anderson, 2010). The transferability of this study to other contexts was difficult as the setting of the study was within a niche segment of world language education. To minimize this limitation, a rich and thick description of the participants’ context was provided to readers with a holistic account of the setting. Thus, making generalizing or transferability of the results to another population or setting with similarities more tenable (Anderson, 2010). The credibility of the findings could come into question especially when considering that I, as the

researcher, am also a member of the ISAS. Ratcliffe (1983) points out that “one cannot observe or measure a phenomenon/event without changing it” (p.149). With this in mind the lessons observed, and answers provided during the interviews, may not represent the most accurate body of data, as participants might have reserved their responses out of a fear of loss of anonymity. To combat this inhibition for credible responses and insincere observed lessons, I put the participants at ease by protecting their confidentiality through pseudonyms and the codification of their respective institution’s name (Kaiser, 2009).

As a novice researcher, the skills that I brought to the study were limited. This limitation could have allowed bias to seep into the study as my personal views and opinions about the research questions could have readily influenced the findings, for I am currently a FLES teacher utilizing VAR during instruction. Minimizing bias is one of the most challenging aspects of a qualitative study and this was accomplished by reflectively creating a research journal.

Additionally, I created interview and observation protocols, used a Think Aloud protocol, and a review by two experts in the field of education. This served to focus the observations and interviews to the salient topics necessary to answer the research questions and simultaneously reduced the influence of my biases.

Significance

I have a personal connection to the findings of this research, as they provided me a comprehensive understanding of how practitioners in the FLES context used VAR for instruction, their perceived best instructional practices with VAR, and how they aligned VAR to instructional goals. The findings from this study will be shared with the other ISAS schools in the D/FW and my colleagues within Whistle’s world languages department. The contribution of this research to my own pedagogical craft was significant. The interactions with the participants illuminated VAR that was new to me, helped to establish new instructional practices with VAR

and provided direction for aligning VAR to instructional goals. Also, this study opened up opportunities for growth within my professional context, because with expertise comes leadership, expanded responsibility, and monetary gain.

Analysis of the data from the participants informs FLES instructional development when teaching with VAR. Outside of the participants in this study, there are other FLES teachers teaching with VAR, but do not have any sort of data regarding instructional practices, perceived best instructional practices, and how to align VAR to instructional goals. The findings of this research will be presented at various language learning conferences. I believe the potential for applying VAR is not limited to a homogenous contextualized group of FLES teachers, as it certainly extends beyond the FLES context. World languages teachers, of all types in the K-16 context, can potentially take away much from the findings of this study.

Definition of Terms

First Language (L1)

One’s first language can be called native language or native tongue (Cook, 2003). This means, for the most part, a language that was acquired from early childhood and is oftentimes the language with which a speaker feels the most comfortable. Applying and keeping this language requires little effort because it is the language in which one thinks.

Foreign Language in Elementary Schools (FLES)

FLES is a term that can be interchangeably applied to describe the various types of world languages programs that span from the early childhood to 6th Grade (Lipton, 1988; Lipton,

1998).

Foreign Language Exploration (FLEX)

FLEX provides world languages exposure to a variety of languages within limited weekly meetings with the understanding that students will have limited language acquisition

opportunities, limited language proficiency outcomes, and exposure to the target language’s culture (Lipton, 1998).

Basic Qualitative Study

Also known as generic, exploratory, or interpretive qualitative studies (Merriam &

Tisdell, 2016). Basic qualitative studies are an approach to qualitative research that do not fall within the parameters of other more commonly used qualitative approaches like ethnography, phenomenology, grounded theory, case study, etc. Basic qualitative studies deploy a tapestry of qualitative methods used commonly across the various qualitative approaches to gain insights and offer conclusions.

Second Language (L2)

A second language is one that is acquired after one’s native tongue (Cook, 2003;

Krashen, 1989).

Second Language Acquisition (SLA)

This term refers to the acquisition of a second language after the establishment of one’s first language or mother tongue (Haynes, 2005). This refers to language acquisition that is set within acquisition-like scenarios that approximate the way a learner’s L1 or native language was acquired (Cook, 2003).

Early Childhood

This term defines a student from the age of 4 to 6 who are in developmentally appropriate educational programs spanning Pre-K to Kindergarten (Copple & Bredekamp, 2009).

Independent Schools

The NAIS (2018) defines independent schools as:

Non-profit private schools that are independent in philosophy: each is driven by a unique mission. They are also independent in the way they are managed and financed: each is governed by an independent board of trustees and each is

primarily supported through tuition payments and charitable contributions. They are accountable to their communities and are accredited by state-approved accrediting bodies. (NAIS, 2018, para 2)

Input

When a learner is exposed to authentic language from a variety of sources such as text, video, audio, teacher, native speaker, other learners, or the surrounding environment, they are receiving an input (BBC, 2009). Krashen (1989) references input frequently in his SLA theoretical stances and argued that L2 acquisition is motivated by input. Input is a receptive language skill.

Output

This is the act of producing a L2 by a learner, where one’s L2 knowledge is applied through the use of the L2 in a productively to get an idea or set of ideas across via a verbal or written platform (Swain, 1995).

K-12

This term references all school grades from Kindergarten to the last year of school that are tasked with preparing their alums for entrance into higher education.

Authentic Resource (AR)

This term is defined as any media applied to world language acquisition that are produced by native speakers within the target language and disseminated for native-speaker use, without the specific intention of language instruction (Brown, 1994; Cook, 1981; Gilmore, 2007,

Gilmore, 2011).

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

This concept, as first posited by Lev Vygotsky demonstrates what a child can do without help and what a child is incapable of doing (Vygotsky, 1980). Essentially, is the child within a developmental range to have the ability to complete a task independently or with some help from

an instructor? (Dixon-Krauss, 1996). Or is the child not within a developmental range to complete the task independently and is therefore incapable of completing the task even with support? (Dixon-Krauss, 1996).

Summary

In summary, the application of VAR in the FLES context for instruction presents some unique challenges for the world languages teacher. Video sharing sites are populated with thousands of videos a day. The preponderance of videos shared is overwhelming to search without some sort of guidance. This vast availability of potential material presented a viable and encouraging body of resources to support learning. With little available data on VAR in the

FLES context, it became apparent that research must be conducted in this area to further the development of instructional practices with VAR. This emboldens future teachers, administrators, and researchers to develop a strong basis for the good instructional application of

VAR to already-set instructional goals. This study, using a basic qualitative approach, contributed to understanding how VAR were used instructionally, the perceived best instructional practices with VAR, and how VAR were aligned to instructional goals within the

FLES context.

Overview

The contents of this dissertation span five chapters. Chapter 1 provided a general overview of how the study took shape focusing on the problem of practice, purpose, and significance of the study. This was followed by Chapter 2, which provides a review of the literature in the field, including second language acquisition theory and concepts to situate the study. Chapter 3 provides a detailed description of the basic qualitative research methodology used for this study. Chapter 4 reports on the results of the data collection and analysis. A

discussion of the findings in relation to the research questions and literature, implications of the findings, limitations, and recommendations for continued research are presented in Chapter 5.

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW

The purpose of this study was to explore the participants’ instructional practices with

VAR, what they perceived as best instructional practices with VAR, and the alignment of VAR to instructional goals. This chapter began with an overview of the types of elementary school world languages programs. Following this, a description of SLA theory, AR, and

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) were synthesized. It should be mentioned here that the synthesis of scholarly literature surrounding the field of SLA was vast, with approaches that were scattered and based on findings and postulations from various larger fields like psychology, philosophy, educational theory, and linguistics.

The SLA section of this literature review provides an overview of the most prominent historical and contemporary theories in the field of SLA, demonstrating how one discovery led to another in this maturing field. The SLA section attempts to demonstrate how SLA theory, pedagogical and philosophical approaches to SLA, and other SLA methodologies, are intertwined, where one singular approach does not account for how SLA occurs universally.

Additionally, the section postulates that an alliance of the various SLA methodologies and theories coalesced together in a piecemeal manner make up the current state of the SLA field

(Herschensohn, 2000). Following, the theoretical tenets in SLA provides a model and description on how VAR can be applied to instructional methods through CLT. Finally, the gaps that exist in the literature on video AR are uncovered with particular attention to the elementary context and alignment to SLA theory.

Types of Elementary School Foreign Language Programs

Before moving into the literature, it was important to understand the different types of world languages programs in the United States. There is variance in each of these programs.

Primarily, the differences are attributed to time in class, amount of target language used in class, a language learning focus, or a content-based focus.

Exploratory Language Program

These programs are often referred to as foreign language exploration, exposure, or experience (FLEX). Through FLEX, early childhood or early primary elementary students are exposed to language and culture which allows them to develop an interest in foreign language for future study (Ñandutí, 1989). Students learn basic words, phrases, and commands, but do not follow a long articulation plan (Ñandutí, 1989). The L2 learning goals are often directly translated to the learner’s first or native language (L1) (Met & Rhodes, 1990). Cultural aspects of the target culture are examined primarily to give the student an idea of widely known cultural aspects (Pufahl & Rhodes, 2011).

Language Focus Program

This Language Focus program is often called Foreign Language in Elementary Schools

(FLES). The goals of a FLES program are to acquire listening and speaking skills (Ñandutí,

1989). Literacy and writing skills are also a focus in the later elementary school years (Met &

Rhodes, 1990). Generally, these programs are based in a long articulation that extends from kindergarten or early elementary grades into the intermediate and middle school grades

(Campbell, Gray, Rhodes, & Snow, 1985). The focus of instruction is a blend of language and core academic content (Met & Rhodes, 1990). Campbell et al. (1985) point out that these programs are often vertically aligned to the middle school and high school curriculum. A deeper understanding of the target culture that goes beyond cursory understanding is typical (Pufahl &

Rhodes, 2011). The focus of this dissertation centers on FLES programs.

Immersion Program

A growing area for elementary SLA is language immersion (Howard, Sugarman, &

Christian, 2003; Lindholm-Leary, 2005; Short, 1993). Immersion programs can be monolingual or bilingual with the ultimate goal of high proficiency in the learner’s L2 (Barnett, Yarosz,

Thomas, Jung, & Blanco, 2007). A monolingual program focuses on a student’s L2 for teaching most academic content, with the L1 being supported through limited course offerings and home support (Barnett et al., 2007). L1 instruction is limited in early elementary grades, but as the learner grows in the immersion program, a greater focus is put on L1 development. A bilingual immersion program can go by many different names such as dual-language, two-way immersion, or dual immersion. These programs are identified by the amount of target language used and the demographics of the students (Pufahl & Rhodes, 2011). Generally, 50% of the instruction is in the target language which includes core academic subject matter (Pufahl & Rhodes, 2011).

There are many variations to these definitions of world languages programs, and each is unique to its respective context. The variations are so nuanced that creating an individual category for each variety would be arduous and likely impossible as these contexts vary between teachers, classrooms, districts, and philosophies. Most programs that introduce a world language in the elementary context self-identify as FLES programs regardless of their approach, time commitments, or other identifying elements. For the purposes of this study, the language focus or

FLES model will be central to answering the research question and sub-questions.

Second Language Acquisition

Second Language Acquisition (SLA) has been widely discussed and debated by psychologists, linguists, education scholars, and philosophers. How one acquires an L2 has been questioned often in contemporary times and is rooted in the antiquity of classic philosophical thought (Thomas, 2013). In an effort to gain an understanding of how the field emerged, it is

imperative to begin this section with an historical account of its origins. Then, take a look at the various theoretical bases of SLA and the conflicting opinions of scholars in the field. As SLA embarked upon a reorientation in the late 1950s, 1960s, and early 1970s, with new positions being taken, an examination of some of the leading scholars responsible for these shifts and their critics were conducted. Naturally, a review of the ever-growing body of contemporary literature which had a strong influence on the field of SLA were examined. Finally, a connection is drawn between SLA and the research questions in this study to further illustrate the relevance of the questions on the field of SLA.

Earliest History of SLA

Thought around the acquisition of language dates back to ancient philosophers and the earliest thinkers in documented human history. In the 6th Century, romance vernaculars emerged, and Latin became less relevant, remaining pertinent only in Christianity and education. As a result, Roman scholars began to ponder the nature of second language learning to better understand the needs of those who undertook formalized education, which was shifting from

Latin to Greek and other emerging languages (Thomas, 2013). The conceptualization of SLA by the Romans never actualized in any formal thought nor in any universally adopted conclusions about learning an L2, but it did set the table for many centuries of scholarly thought about the subject. Many individuals have informally or formally set out to understand various aspects of the discipline (Thomas, 2013). In the 16th Century, scholars began to make distinctions between

L1 and L2 or native and non-native languages (Thomas, 2013). Thomas (2013) demonstrated that scholars identified native languages as spoken naturally and non-native languages were those picked up through effort, time, and study.

In contemporary times, an early study of how language is acquired can be traced back to

Tiedemann’s Record of Infant Life from the late 18th Century (Soldan, 1890). This work provided

a set of empiricist and comparative observations of a developing infant that was framed in the rejection of the idea that humans have innate abilities from birth (Campbell & Wales, 1970;

Dietrich, 1976). Other studies followed in the same vein of historical-comparative linguistics from scientists and psychologist such as Charles Darwin, M. Taine, William Preyer, James Sully,

Werner Leopold (Campbell & Wales, 1970; Levelt, 2014, Thomas, 2013). The 19th Century investigators made great strides in understanding SLA by engaging in rough theoretical discussions, facilitated through thoughtful descriptions of their observations and limited publication in journals on pedagogy. However, their efforts were primarily focused on understanding early childhood development more than SLA (Campbell &Wales, 1970). Each of the contributions from early scholars predated the structuralism and behaviorism movements which opened doors for modern and contemporary studies of SLA and many larger subsequent theoretical assumptions and postulations that dominant contemporary SLA thought.

20th Century SLA – Theoretical Bases

In the beginning of the study of SLA much of the theory was borrowed from other scientific, psychological, and philosophical disciplines. From the mid-20th Century to the present, when most of the advances in SLA were widely recognized and accepted, the discipline was dominated by the theoretical assumptions of structuralism, behaviorism, cognitivism, and socioculturalism which all emerged within a 70-year period. This assisted practitioners and scholars to account for the origins of SLA (VanPatten & Williams, 2006). The early 20th Century work of scholars in linguistic structuralism helped to establish the modern era of SLA, namely behaviorism, cognitivism, and socioculturalism.

Structuralism

Structuralism in linguistics was born from the work of Ferdinand de Saussure, a Swiss linguist who shifted the focus of language study from a diachronic or historical study to a

synchronic or non-historical study (De Saussure, 2011). The focus of structuralism is on language as a structured phenomenon and the theory posits that languages are taught, studied, and learned by understanding the smallest parts of a language consisting of morphemes, phonemes, lexical categories, noun and verb phrases, sentences, and the varied combinations of the smaller parts (Searle, 1974, Thomas, 2013). A learner combines these rules about structures, linguistic forms, and elements of a language in order to make more coherent utterances in a hierarchical fashion, moving from a lower level to a higher level in a pyramidal organization

(Johnson, 2008). The study of SLA, thanks to Leonard Bloomfield, an American structuralist, became more of a scientific process. Through his work and postulations, he contributed many fundamental elements to future theories (Meier, 2012). In his later work, the influence of behaviorism became readily apparent and was a major driving factor in his later studies. This marked the beginning of a trend in SLA theory development where one school of thought contributed to subsequent developments within the field, a phenomenon readily observable throughout most of the social sciences.

Behaviorism

Behaviorism in SLA, in the mid-20th Century, based the SLA approach on learned habits from a stimulus with positive or negative reinforcements (Baum, 2005; Johnson, 2008). Habits and habit formation in SLA were in step with the basic fundamentals of the behaviorism paradigm. Specifically, in language instruction and learning, this entailed patterns, repetition, and an appropriate response based on learned routines (Johnson, 2008). Fries (1945), an early behaviorist, held that pedagogy in language was a repetitive practice used to develop L2 habits and that the teacher should compare L1 with L2 to demonstrate the differences to the learner.

Behaviorism took an especially large step in SLA when Skinner (1957) published Verbal

Behavior, which was valued as a seminal work and a major influence on SLA even though it

primarily developed L1 acquisition studies. This work described the tenets of behaviorism as it applies to language and sets the stage for the SLA field (Skinner, 1957). Saville-Troike (2006) posits that behaviorism, as a theoretical basis for learning language, is in step with existing theory for EC L1 acquisition. The difference is that SLA requires learners to combat their learned habits from the learner’s L1, which interferes with learning L2 (Johnson, 2008; Saville-

Troike, 2006). Lado (1957) coined the comparison of L1 to L2 as “contrastive analysis” where pairs of languages are analyzed to discover differences and then that information is applied to

SLA.

Contrastive analysis remained the focus among behaviorism linguists and the pedagogical approach that emerged from this line of thinking became known as the audiolingual method for language learning (Lado, 1964; Newmark, 1966). The audiolingual method or Army method was born out of the United States military and focused directly on instructing language, focusing on speech and listening as primary skills, with reading and writing as secondary skills

(Woodsworth, 1967). Through grammar drills, rote memorization, and repetition, students were thought to have the best chance at becoming proficient in an L2 (Woodsworth, 1967). This method prevailed as the primary method of FL instruction in the mid-20th Century. Many subsequent approaches to FL pedagogy started supplanting, augmenting, and eventually replacing this approach as the body of SLA theory and educational philosophy became more deeply investigated through empirical studies.

Chomskyan Revolution – Cognitivism

The current state of SLA theory and research, as it is known today, manifested in the second part of the 20th century and continues with vigor, always evolving, into the 21st Century

(Thomas,1998). The prominence of structural linguistics and behaviorist linguistics, while important steps in the theoretical development of SLA, began to run short in the late 50’s and

early 60s because of a lack of significant empirical evidence for the structuralist-behaviorist claims about SLA (VanPatten & Williams, 2006). This ushered in the Chomskyan revolution in the cognitivist linguistic framework or nativist, which includes the researcher’s theories of generative grammar such as the language acquisition device (LAD) or universal grammar (UG)

(Koster, 2013).

Noam Chomsky (1959) began to think about how the brain processed information and postulated theories based on cognitive processes surrounding SLA, specifically rebutting

Skinner’s (1957) Verbal Behavior, where language acquisition is considered a conglomeration of verbal and aural habits perpetuated through reinforcement (Chomsky, 1959). The majority of

Chomsky’s formalized or linguistic work from the ‘50s, ‘60s, and ‘70s was centered upon the notion of a predetermined set of rules for language development within the mind, which mirrored some basic tenets set forth by other practicing cognitive psychologists (Saville-Troike, 2006).

The first foray into this theoretical cognitive linguistic concept surfaced with Chomsky’s LAD

(Levelt, 1975). This postulation formalized linguistic discovery as inherent mechanisms that incorporate language input from one’s environment and processing those inputs to eventually yield an output (Levelt, 1975). The LAD is more simply explained as a theoretical concept of a series of processes, or a tool of the brain, that is inherent in all humans and which promotes early childhood L1 acquisition and communication. The LAD theory was later changed by Chomsky as he moved on to his theory of UG to make sense of early childhood language development

(Levelt, 1975). UG is regarded as one of the earliest cognitivist linguistic perspectives, later deemed nativist. It has been referenced, debated, supported, and refuted frequently in contemporary SLA literature, from its first postulation to present day (Gontier, 2017; Moyal-

Sharrock, 2017).

UG posits that language acquisition is based on a set of structural rules innate in human cognition that fosters the development of a coherent set of language skills (Chomsky, 1975). UG has been theoretically situated in nativism and innatism and can often be referred to in the literature with these terms (Azizi & Sadighi, 2014). UG postulates that the human brain is predetermined to learn language as a course of natural human development (Chomsky, 1975).

Chomsky (2007) mentions that language acquisition is a result of some years of experience early in a person’s development and millions of years of the evolutionary development of mankind which has resulted in a specific and necessary neural organization pivotal to human survival.

Chomsky (2007) goes on to give three requirements of UG stating:

Evidently, development of language in the individual must involve three factors: (1) genetic endowment, which sets limits on the attainable languages, thereby making language acquisition possible; (2) external data, converted to the experience that selects one or another language within a narrow range; (3) principles not specific to faculty of language. (p. 3)

While this theory remains relevant today, especially in the study of L1 acquisition, it is not transferable to SLA because of the differences that exist in L1 acquisition and L2 acquisition

(Lantolf, 2000). However, the influence of the theory on SLA literature remains intact and has been the impetus for much scholarly generation.

SLA Pedagogy Post-Chomsky

As the “Chomskyan revolution” unfolded, others began to closely examine the idea of innate, biologically based and predetermined language acquisition abilities as an explanation about why children, when in a language rich environment, acquire their L1 without direct instruction (Lenneberg, 1967). The notion that biology steers L1 acquisition has influenced thinking around SLA and SLA pedagogy and stands in direct contrast to the behaviorist’s audiolingual pedagogy (Newmark, 1966).

Pedagogical approaches began to shift to a nativist or naturalistic approach where students no longer compared L1 and L2 to acquire language through study. Instead, teachers allowed learning to occur in the classroom as it would occur in L1 acquisition (Corder, 1967).

Essentially, a pedagogy was developed that exposed students to learning opportunities which closely approximated the processes that take place during L1 acquisition, shifting toward a natural course of acquisition versus contrived direct instruction and that sought learning on the part of the learner (Newmark, 1966). This resulted in a reconceptualization of the SLA learning processes with a shift to the learner’s developing SLA system (Newmark, 1966). This view suggests that L1 acquisition and L2 acquisition contain similar properties and are promoted cognitively through creative internalized processes and mental mechanisms (Bailey, Madden &

Krashen, 1974; Selinker, 1972).

Schumann (1978) shifted the focus specifically to SLA and language production and made direct correlations in SLA between the learner and the target culture. He posited that when a learner feels acculturated to the target language, they are closer to the language community they are trying to learn about and will thus make the most progress (Schumann, 1978). This SLA pedagogy demonstrates one of the earliest postulations of the importance of target culture in the

SLA classroom and can arguably be the earliest move toward the appropriation of authentic resources as an instructional input in the SLA classroom. Input in SLA is in reference to linguistic forms or meaningful speech, writing, and recordings that may include morphemes, words, sentences, or various other combinations of linguistic forms (Long, 1980). Interaction references the functions that are delivered by these linguistic forms, like repetition and clarification (Long, 1980). Input and interaction emerged as a pedagogical approach in the late

70’s and was expanded upon in the early 80’s and into the present (Long, 1980). The SLA field

began to look more deeply at the type of input learners were exposed to, how learners interfaced with input, and the quality of the input received (Long, 1980). This was explored more later in this chapter.

Krashen’s Theory of Second Language Acquisition

Linguists began to look at the interactions and roles of implicit and explicit knowledge in

SLA by making the case for the presence of conscious processes or learning and subconscious processes or acquisition (Bialystock,1978; Krashen, 1981; Krashen, 1985). Krashen (1981) made his indelible contribution to the SLA field with his Monitor Model theories and hypotheses. His work in the SLA field remains one of the most influential after the Chomskyan revolution. The

Monitor Model consists of five hypotheses that posit that learning and acquisition are different processes (Krashen & Terrell, 1983). Acquisition is viewed as an unconscious process of learner- constructed knowledge, like linguistic forms and vocabulary, not acquired through direct instruction (Krashen, 1981; Krashen & Terrell, 1983). Conscious learning does not influence acquisition, but rather provides the learner with a tool to monitor how they are applying language that was acquired (Krashen, 1981; Krashen & Terrell, 1983). Acquisition is achieved through interactions that are meaningful to the learner, natural, and communicative in nature (Krashen,

1981). According to this theory, learning is formalized instruction, such as individual vocabulary words and grammatical rules, where knowledge is sought out through direct instruction or learner effort (Krashen, 1981). The monitor model has been met with accolades and criticism in the SLA field and continues to be applied commonly by educators and practitioners as an alluring answer to real-world classroom world language instruction (Payne, 2011). However, some in the SLA field see Krashen’s theories as plausible, but untestable and possibly defective when applied in actual language classrooms (Payne, 2011).

The five hypotheses that Krashen put forward are: acquisition versus learning hypothesis; the natural order hypothesis; the monitor hypothesis; the input hypothesis; and the affective filter hypothesis (Krashen & Terrell, 1983). A brief definition of each of these hypotheses follows. Acquisition versus learning states that there are two systems that are independent of one another in SLA (Krashen, 1982). As mentioned before acquisition is a subconscious system and learning is a conscious system. Through this distinction, learning cannot lead to acquisition, but it can help a learner to monitor their speaking and make necessary corrections to be clearer (see monitor hypothesis below) (Krashen, 1988).

Natural order hypothesis was developed by Krashen following the work of Dulay and

Burt (1973) where grammatical morphemes and structures are acquired following a predictable pattern in the learner’s L1 and during SLA (Krashen, 1982). Monitor hypothesis takes the differences in acquisition and learning and makes sense of their individual application in utterances of a language (Krashen & Terrell, 1983). Proficiency is derived from the acquisition of a language where the language is initiated naturally without much cognitive effort and is deeply maintained in the neural processes of the learner (Krashen, 1982). By contrast, learning functions as an editor or monitor of speech and writing where the learner identifies errors made in language production from learned grammar and then the learner self-corrects through active monitoring (Krashen, 1982).

The input hypothesis will be more fully approached in the following section, but it essentially relates the input a learner receives to being most valuable when it goes just beyond what the learner can comprehend (Krashen, 1982). The affective filter was first conceptualized by Dulay and Burt (1977) and then adapted by Krashen (1982). This hypothesis states that emotions or affective factors such as motivation, self-confidence, and anxiety play a role in the

acquisition of a language. A raised affective filter, where learner anxiety is high, and motivation and self-confidence are low, hinders SLA (Krashen, 1982). Conversely, a lowered affective filter, with low learner anxiety and increased motivation and self-confidence, promotes SLA

(Krashen, 1982).

Input: Going Deeper

While the above exploration into Krashen’s Theory of Second Language Acquisition just scratches the surface of his investigations, this section intends to dive deeper into input in world language teaching and the input hypothesis. Not only does this section examine how input plays a role in SLA, but it also explores how morpheme studies and the role of input in sequenced curricula are necessary for the acquisition of appropriate grammatical patterns. The relevance of input to the research questions in this study is high as I seek to understand how a certain input,

VAR, is used during instructional practice, the perceived best instructional practices with VAR, and how VAR is aligned to learning goals.

Input is especially important to understand when dealing with early childhood learners and how they tend to engage during instruction (Long, 1980; Pica, 1983). Input not only refers to the type of material that learners are exposed to, but also can extend to morpheme order studies which posit that, while acquiring an L1 or L2 curriculum, learners follow a set order of grammatical morphemes that are essentially building blocks for language acquisition (Bailey,

Madden & Krashen, 1974; Dulay & Burt, 1982; Larsen-Freeman, 1976). Morpheme order studies demonstrate that students use a staging process to progress from a point of little or no knowledge to a complete understanding of grammatical rules and usage (Brown, 1973; Dulay &

Burt, 1974). Brown (1973) conducted a longitudinal study of three children and found that:

Children work out rules for the speech that they hear, passing from levels of lesser to greater complexity, simply because the human species is programmed at a

certain period in its life to operate in this fashion on linguistic input (pp. 105– 106).

These findings follow the generative, nativist, and/or cognitivist approach to linguistics mapped out by Chomsky and his LAD and UG theories (Chomsky, 1975). While studies show that there are various stages during language development that learners must traverse to acquire sufficient grammar structures, other studies have found that these structures do not necessarily follow a set pattern and depending on the input provided to the learner, can feasibly happen out of a predetermined and staged order (Munoz, 2006; Sajavaara, 1981). Thus, the input provided to the learner during the acquisition process is best based on following a set protocol of timely and appropriately sequenced and staged input. However, SLA is not entirely dependent on a sequence when variations to the sequence manifest from various applications of diverse input.

These variations include: frequency of input, type of input, semantic complexity, and perceptual salience (Goldschneider & DeKeyser, 2001; Pica, 1983). Frequency and type of input reference number of exposures to an input and the particular instructional device (i.e. conversation, textbook, AR, etc.). Semantic complexity refers to the various meanings that a linguistic form might take, while perceptual salience refers to the ease of perception of a linguistic form like phonemes, syllables, and sonority (Goldschneider & DeKeyser, 2001).

Krashen (1978) championed this as a natural order and made great strides in disseminating this theory in his natural order hypothesis (Krashen, 1982). Going even further, he developed his input hypothesis to account for the type of instructional material presented to the learner and how that can factor into the SLA process (Krashen, 1985). Krashen (2009) explains that, “the input hypothesis attempts to answer what is perhaps the most important question in our field, and gives an answer that has a potential impact on all areas of language teaching” (p. 20).

The Input Hypothesis deals with acquisition, the subconscious learning system, and not learning

or the conscious learning system (Krashen, 1985). From this hypothesis, Krashen (1985) posits that SLA occurs in a natural order when the input goes just beyond a learner’s competence and comprehension. This is called comprehensible input and is formulaically displayed as i + 1

(Payne, 2011).

Krashen (1985) explained that SLA occurs in a foreseen and anticipated natural order, in that teachers could examine the learning patterns of their students and apply input just beyond their comprehension level. This would then result in automation of the delivery of the required grammar necessary for the natural order as long as comprehensible input is provided in the proper amounts and sufficiently that the learner can acquire the new linguistic forms through frequent exposure (Krashen, 1985).

These hypotheses have come under scrutiny through the years by SLA scholars and theorists who critique the model and question the testability of the postulations, which in turn renders the theories empirically unsatisfactory (McLaughlin, 1978; McLaughlin, 1987; Payne,

2011; Taylor, 1993; Zafar, 2011). Researchers suggest that learners not be exposed to comprehensible input alone, but rather that they be afforded the opportunity to produce the language through comprehensible output (Ellis, 1991; Swain, 1985).

Schmidt (1990) took the position that comprehensible input is inadequate in the SLA journey, but the researcher suggests that the learner must notice or make a conscious entry into a linguistic form as an intake. Others espouse discourse hypothesis where less of a focus is put on the innateness of language development as on automatic processes of the brain derived from the sequenced input of linguistic forms (Hatch, 1978) This turns the lens toward a more gradual process where utterances become more complex and meaningful, and comprehension grows with experience and time (Hatch, 1978). With this in mind, Hatch (1978) proposed that the function of

language must not be studied without careful consideration of the linguistic forms. This marks an early reach into the sociocultural approach to SLA and a departure from the prevailing school of thought forwarded by Chomsky and Krashen.

However, the basic elements of SLA proposed within the input hypothesis are still in practice presently, as evidenced by the large body of recent publications on input, anecdotal accounts from world languages practitioners in current blogs, and the continued work of Krashen on his theories (David, 2016; Krashen, 2017; Stewart, 1998). In relation to this investigation, the work of scholars on input has a direct correlation to the line of questioning conducted with the

FLES practitioners interviewed for this paper. The scholarship surrounding input and input hypothesis represents one component of the communicative language teaching approach that underpins the conceptual framework for this current research.

Sociocultural Approaches to SLA

Departing from nativism and cognitivism, the conversation pivots to the examination of sociocultural theory (SCT) within SLA, following the Vygotskyan approach, where human development initiates through social activity. The focus of this section is SLA, as it appears in

SCT scholarship, in that it takes place through a multitude of social interactions within a learning environment involving a complex web of input and output in a socially mediated manner.

The Emergence of SCT in SLA

Long and Porter (1985) believed that comprehensible input is required for SLA.

However, as posited by Hatch (1978) and Swain (1985), they also believed that comprehensible input alone could not account for a learner’s acquisition of language sufficiently enough to bring about true acquisition like scenarios. An additional requirement of output was necessary for

SLA. The researchers pointed to social interaction as a vital output necessary to ensure language acquisition in a child’s L1 learning experience and a compulsory component for SLA (Long &

Porter, 1985). In order for the learner be exposed to comprehensible input and gain naturally ordered and correct grammatical structures, they must make use of the input that supersedes their knowledge set through the functional application of extralinguistic cues, context clues, and learner schema (Hatch, 1978, Long & Porter, 1985; Swain, 1985). Swain found that a communication breakdown through a discourse where an alternate means to deliver the message was used, resulted in the most fruitful output scenarios for SLA. Swain (1985) noted that these breakdowns still delivered an intended message, provided an opportunity for communication correction, and further bolstered the notion that function prevails over form. The steps made by these researchers paved the way for SCT to be applied to SLA.

Frawley & Lantolf (1985) published scholarship in the mid-1980s which examined a social mediated approach to L2 acquisition. Seven years passed before other scholars reviewed the role of SCT in SLA. This then opened the floodgates for improved SLA theory, pedagogy, and learning (McCafferty, 1992). The concerted effort to understand SCT in the SLA process began earnestly in the mid-90s with the aim of understanding how the Vygotskyan sociocultural framework for SLA espoused that learning was not an individual process, but rather a socially situated series of processes embarked upon by the learner (Aljaafreh & Lantolf, 1994; Brooks &

Donato, 1994; Donato & McCormick, 1994; Lantolf, 1994). This in turn marked a movement and an extension of the already-established field of sociolinguistics, because it was the first foray of challenges to the popularized SLA schools of thought in cognitivism and a further departure from the almost abandoned behaviorism approach.

Various Applications of SCT for SLA

Lantolf (1994) argued that the lens of SLA learning should point toward socioculturalism as viewed from the Vygotskian perspective. This perspective is continually approached throughout scholarship in SCT for SLA. Van Lier (1996) conducted an analysis of teaching and

learning and concluded that scaffolding on the part of the teacher within the learners’ Zone of

Proximal Development leads to socially constructed conversations among learners that went beyond repetition and stepped into functional discourse. This further supports the claim by

Brooks and Donato (1994) that learner engagement with peers in the SLA classroom is a vital part of learning and helps the learner to regulate understanding through their internalized speech and the subsequent output from that private speech. Donato (1994) goes further to assert that the discourse between learners, after instruction, and within their zone of proximal development furthers their capability to construct linguistic forms collaboratively. This goes beyond the instruction present in the classroom and demonstrates that acquisition can occur from the additional input that was present during the instruction and the natural application of the instructed goals during student discourse.

Dicamilla and Anton (1997) found that when peers interact socially on a learning task through dialogue and writing, they are better equipped with the processes necessary to complete the learning task because it is mediated through the application of repetition in both the peers’ L1 and L2. Vygotsky (1967) espoused the role of play on a child’s development. Based on this postulation, another study endeavored to demonstrate the value of play on SLA and concluded that it was a requirement of SLA (Lantolf, 1997). Each study has demonstrated that in the SCT

SLA pedagogy the richest learning took place when the learners were engaged in a social activity that required getting instruction and applying that instruction within a communicative social activity in the SLA classroom. Negueruela (2008) backed this notion up through an empirical study that demonstrated that pedagogy should start with a conceptual understanding of the learning goals through direct instruction and then be solidified with a communicative activity.

The applications of SCT within this section demonstrate that SLA is, at least in part, a communicative process that is mediated in social interactions.

Linking SLA Theory to Communicative Language Teaching

Clearly, there is no gap between the theoretical and pedagogical practice of SLA concerning the various theoretical approaches. The work of the structuralist, behaviorist, cognitivist, and socioculturalist linguists laid the foundation for the greater empirical study of

SLA that continues to expand. Their contributions have pried open the doors necessary for empirical investigations into the way students acquire language. Current studies are motivated by these earliest language acquisition theories, and now the scholarly lens delves deeper into the necessary pedagogical elements for SLA through communicative language teaching.

It was demonstrated that SLA is more about the coalesced theoretical approaches to pedagogy, ruling out a panacea or singular approach method taken by SLA’s earliest scholars.

For example, the call and response aspects of the audio-lingual method born of behaviorism could be one aspect of input in a sequenced pedagogy for teaching vocabulary or grammar.

Additionally, it is clear that learners have in their minds the basic building blocks that support the idea of a UG to develop speech. However, further research has demonstrated that L1 and L2 speech are developed with heavy consideration given to the environment and that SLA abilities are limited to one’s exposure to input and the ability to output.

Finally, if a learner is going to acquire a language, they should have a chance to produce output socially, where they are internalizing input at the same time as outputting in a way that is sensible and worthy. In order to gain authentic SLA experiences, learners must have an appropriate exposure to the language and make use of their genetically-determined mental endowment. This in turn lays the groundwork for understanding the instructional practices with

VAR, perceived best instructional practices with VAR, and how VAR is aligned to instructional goals.

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) Approach

This section investigates the literature surrounding communicative language teaching

(CLT). I begin by providing some of the various terms that have been used for CLT and definitions of the CLT approach from practitioners in the field of SLA. This will be followed by a review of the theoretical backgrounds that are present in the development of the CLT approach and how they helped to develop some of the salient and key characteristics of CLT. Finally, attention is given to explaining how the application of VAR as an instructional approach is communicative in nature and aligned to the CLT approach.

Terms and Definitions with CLT

CLT is a relatively new approach to L2 teaching that emerged roughly in the mid-60s and early ‘70s (Savignon, 1983). The origins of the approach are not clear, but Savignon (1991) asserts that it likely emerged concurrently out of a need for situational language instruction from

European and American developments. Essentially, educators and SLA theorists began to focus their efforts on communicative proficiency in the culture of the L2, versus dexterity in knowledge over linguistic forms as espoused in the audiolingual method and other prominent instructional methodologies (Richards & Rogers, 1986).

A few terms have been used to describe some of the tenets of CLT including, communicative competence (Chomsky, 2014; Hymes, 1972: Savignon, 2006), and communicative performance (Campbell & Wales, 1970; Chomsky, 2014). Communicative competence refers to one’s ability to apply inherent grammatical competence within various situations that require communication (Hymes, 1972). Competence, in linguistics, can be related to a learner’s knowledge surrounding a language and then their subsequent performance within

real-life scenarios (Chomsky, 1965). Communicative competence is more far-reaching than communicative performance and is situated in the development of ability over the capability to perform. Performance can relate to a temporary condition while competence is the aggregation of ability that goes beyond the interim, as promulgated by the term performance.

The definitions for CLT vary only slightly. While SLA scholars do not fully agree, the majority of researchers believe that CLT is communicative in nature and contains meaningful interactions that are genuine and realistic. CLT is responsive to the learner’s needs, able to be practiced readily through experience, encourages fluency and accuracy, promotes the innovative indirect teaching of linguistic forms, promotes speaking, listening, reading, and writing skills, and is considered an approach, not a methodology (Bagarić & Djigunović, 2007; Canale &

Swain, 1980; Larsen-Freeman, 2013; Littlewood, 1981; Richards & Rodgers, 2001). It is considered an approach because the application of CLT in the classroom is not based on determined and clear appropriations of classroom practices but rather on sound approaches for the development of communicative abilities by the learner as facilitated by the instructor (Banciu

& Jireghie, 2012). By and large, scholars have a consensus that communication is the ultimate goal of language, and by proxy SLA. This makes the CLT approach sensible in that it surrounds the learner with opportunities to communicate competently through socially mediated interactions with peers and teachers to negotiate meaning, problem solve, and transfer information (Celce–Murcia, 1991; Richards & Rodgers, 2001). CLT is primarily an approach used by students to apply productive and receptive skills in the target language as facilitated by a teacher in an effort to bolster learning goals specifically crafted for a set curriculum and instruction that is sequenced logically to support the acquisition of knowledge about linguistic forms through indirect acquisition, such as scenarios (Breen & Candlin, 1980; Brown, 1994).

CLT and Theory

As explained by Littlewood (1981), CLT works to increase the capacity of learners and teachers in the development of the structural and functional facets of a lexicon. This means that the ultimate goal of CLT is to procure a utilitarian potential for communication in the targeted language by the student, whereby the instructor applies their knowledge of the learner’s competence and subsequent understanding of what and when to facilitate the learning goals

(input) necessary for effective communication (output) in the L2 process (Littlewood, 1981). The goals of CLT for SLA then fall in line with the theoretical applications of cognitivism and SCT, as detailed in previous sections of this literature review.

Cognitivism is best approached through a sequenced curriculum that follows the needs of the learner to best approximate the acquisition like scenarios in a natural order, or input

(Chomsky, 1975; Krashen, 1983; Littlewood, 1981). The natural order or the cognitivist theories are represented in the teaching aspect of CLT. However, it must be noted that these inputs

(teaching) are communicative as well because communication is required for an input to occur in

CLT. SCT is mediated through social interactions which involves input and output (Van Lier,

1996). Social interactions are not limited to output, because communication is two-way, reciprocal, and requires both input and output within a discourse or activity. It is reasonable to suggest that in order for CLT to have the greatest effect on SLA, there must be various occasions for the learner to apply different inputs and outputs of the target language, such as listening and speaking activities or writing and reading activities (Harmer, 1994).

CLT drives the impetus for this investigation, which seeks to understand the instructional practices with VAR, perceived best instructional practices with VAR, and how VAR is aligned to instructional goals. Since communication naturally involves both input and output, the application of VAR in the classroom provides the student with a form of input that is rich in the

language, authentic to the L2 culture being studied, and provides ample opportunity for a discourse or output in regard to the learning goals that were supported instructionally in the VAR or other productive opportunities for the learner that are facilitated through instruction by the teacher.

Authentic Resources

SLA in the elementary context varies with what occurs in middle, intermediate, and high schools (Lipton, 2001). Teaching in the early elementary school context centers on developing listening and speaking skills. The focus pivots slightly to the development of reading and writing skills in later elementary grades (Lipton, 2003). The focus in the secondary K-12 context extends to the competencies in the four areas of SLA, listening, speaking, reading and writing (Pufahl &

Rhodes, 2011). These four skills are essential to the SLA process and work toward building communicative competence as they expressly build one’s ability to converse and convey information (Usó-Juan & Martínez-Flor, 2006). Within each of these K-12 contexts, a great deal of attention is given to increasing the use of authentic resources (AR) in instruction. This prevailing sentiment has gained traction and credence since the 1970s (Shrum & Glisan, 2000;

Kelly & Kelly & Offner & Vorland, 2002).

CLT places a great deal of emphasis on a learner’s effective use of language, both productively and receptively (Brown, 1994). This can best be facilitated by bringing AR into a classroom systematically to expose the learner to an AR that allows the learner to gain methods and strategies for dealing with the language in real life situations (Rogers & Medley, 1988). This section includes an overview of authentic resources including the related terms and definitions, historical application of AR, and current manifestations of AR in the world language classroom.

Related Terms

Authentic resource (AR) is a term used throughout this dissertation. Many in the field of

SLA and throughout the literature use the term “authentic materials.” Authentic resources and authentic materials can be used interchangeably and do not vary in definition and use. Within my professional practice and within the world languages department at Whistle, the term AR is applied to describe any and all materials from the target culture made by the target culture and applied during instruction for the purpose of SLA and instruction. Given that this is a professional practice doctorate and dissertation, the terminology that is most applicable to my professional context is adopted for the entirety of this document.

Defining Authentic Resources

There are several definitions of AR. Most scholars believe that AR refers to texts, media, and film that were not created for language learning (Bacon & Finneman, 1990; Guariento &

Morley, 2001; Martinez, 2002). Instead, they are materials created by native language speakers for the consumption of other native language speakers, not for the purposes of L2 instruction or acquisition (Adams, 1995). Morrow (1977) claims that “an authentic text is a stretch of real language, produced by a real speaker or writer for a real audience and designed to convey a real message of some sort” (p. 13). AR can also represent exposure to authentic language production within a community via experts in person, telecollaboration, or through some sort of recording

(Kilickaya, 2004). An AR can include written or oral language usage. Examples may include magazine articles and ads, newspaper stories and ads, television broadcasts, television commercials, film, radio broadcasts, radio commercials, native speaking L2 teachers, native guest speakers in the classroom, virtual guest speakers through telecollaboration, menus, video sharing websites, general websites, blogs, and beyond. Essentially AR encompasses any part of a language system that is not purposed intentionally for language instruction or contrived.

History of Authentic Resources: Text to Multi-media

One of the first mentions in literature about authenticity in texts for language learning can be traced back to the late 19th Century (Gilmore, 2007). Sweet (1899) stated, “The great advantage of natural, idiomatic texts over artificial ‘methods’ or ‘series’ is that they do justice to every feature of the language” (p. 178). Sweet (1899) was an early proponent of AR and espoused the benefits of these texts over “artificial systems” (p. 178) that were developed for the purpose of SLA because “natural texts…do justice to every feature of the language” (p. 178). In the late 1960s and early 1970s, authenticity in SLA began to steer towards competence in communication that went beyond knowledge of grammatical forms (Gilmore, 2007). Chomsky

(1965) and Hymes (1972) both revived the discussion for using AR. This gave way to a deeper emphasis in language learning through the focused application of communication in context

(Gilmore, 2007). These perspectives have moved the pervasive school of thought in the world language teaching and learning community to CLT over the past several decades (Gilmore,

2007).

Texts

Texts represent early methods for how AR was applied pedagogically for SLA (Sweet,

1899). AR texts have played a key role in developing reading and writing skills in world language learners (Baird & Redmond, 2004). Applying these AR texts to the world language classroom has demonstrated positive effects on language learners and their development of language skills (Akbari & Razavi, 2015). It has been shown that the use and application of AR text in the world language classroom has led to the development of oral language abilities, and thus to higher levels of proficiency (Bacon & Finneman, 1990; Miller, 2005). It has also been confirmed that the application of AR text helps to develop higher levels of reading comprehension, because learners are exposed to language forms and elements such as new

vocabulary and idiomatic expressions that would otherwise be ignored by texts contrived for the specific purposes of language instruction (Berardo, 2006).

Early Childhood Authentic Texts

Picture books and stories from the target culture provide a unique opportunity to target

SLA in early L2 learners in the elementary context. With these texts, students are exposed to the target language that goes beyond their understanding but are supported with illustrations. This follows the tenets of comprehensible input (Krashen, 1982). Early childhood AR texts highlight action and dialogue, can support a learner’s SLA, and introduce a cultural context, especially when considering the young learner’s limited L2 abilities (Moffit 2003). A student’s motivation to learn from the AR text would increase, because the student is immersed in the content of the text, which will lower their affective filter, thus increasing motivation and decreasing inhibition and anxiety (Krashen, 1982; Moffit 2003).

Multi-Media, Audio-Visual: Video Authentic Resources

World language instructors have purposed AR using several mediums, apart from texts, that include aural resources such as radio and music or audio-visual applications in film and video media (Ghaderpanahi, 2012; Mayer, 2001). The multi-media application of audio-visual

AR is a growing approach in internet friendly schools due to the vast promulgation of video sharing websites (Ghaderpanahi, 2012). Audio-visual AR exposes the learner to visual and auditory elements from the target language and cultures (Garza, 1991; Joiner, 1991). These AR are aimed at developing the learner’s listening skills, speaking skills, and cultural competency.

Listening comprehension is the most commonly used language skill necessary for daily communication (Morley, 2001; Nunan, 1997). Krashen (1995) identified listening comprehension as the extraction of information from materials that are presented through an audio or verbal source. Listening can also be paired with some visual stimuli, such as film and

video. A video stimulus in an AR can provide the learner with contextual information necessary to decode the language being used in the video (Kaiser, 2011). In the early childhood world language classroom, the aural aspects of the VAR are most aligned with the targeted learning functions appropriate to the development of the learner’s L2 and vital for developing speaking and listening competence (Kaiser, 2011). When learners watch VAR, they are exposed to authentic inputs and develop the ability to comprehend native speakers who use language in a native manner true to real world application (Nunan, 1997). Speaking is regarded as the most difficult aspect of the language learning process (Celce & Olshtain, 2000). The learners are able to emulate the authenticity of the accents through listening and this provides them with a sincere ability to produce language true to native speaking form and a greater ability to understand situational and cultural context (Rogers & Medley, 1988). Additionally, the learner can gain a greater understanding of the stimulus presented in the VAR by aligning the imagery to the audio.

Through exposure to VAR the learner may experience audio, visual, and cultural aspects of the target culture with a higher degree of accuracy than from the printed text (Stephens; 2001).

Altman (1989) remarked that applying film pedagogically in the world language classroom requires the learner to process simultaneously the six S’s. These are “sounds, segmentation, semantics, syntax, systems of discourse, and systems of culture’’ (Altman, 1989, p. 5).

Instructors must be certain that they are applying the VAR reasonably and appropriately for the learners’ developmental age. This means approaching VAR with proper preparation and alignment to instructional goals, video previewing its appropriateness to the learner, providing background information to the learner to fill in gaps, allowing for several showings of the video, and pausing to check for understanding (Altman, 1989). When pedagogically appropriately applied, the learners not only utilize their listening comprehension skills by seeing imagery

accompanied by sound, but they also make connections to cultural aspects of the target culture

(Stephens; 2001). The instructional practices with VAR, perceived best instructional practices with VAR, and how VAR are aligned to instructional goals by FLES teachers are the focus of the research question and sub-questions.

Early Childhood Authentic Song

Studies have demonstrated how learning music and SLA can be related (Miché 2002;

Schön et al. 2007). In the early childhood context, music has been used to implement learning across all academic subjects (Kolb, 1996). A young learner who sings in a world language learns better pronunciation, especially when the example song is sung by a native speaker from the target language (Miché 2002). When the teacher is not a native speaker, finding various native- sung songs and VAR with songs that are aligned to the instructional goals is important to support the early childhood learner’s speaking and listening needs. Also, the learner can retain the knowledge from the song with pedagogical support from the instructor through a process called mental rehearsal or din (Barber, 1980; Krashen, 1983). Krashen (1983) defines the word din as

“an involuntary rehearsal of words, sounds, and phrases” (p. 41). Krashen (1983) also theorized that the mental rehearsal of a song in a world language indicates that a natural process is taking place in acquiring a new language. Authentic music from the target culture can teach new vocabulary as well as reinforce cultural elements (Failoni, 1993). If a VAR features elements embedded into instruction for listening comprehension, storytelling, imagery, music, cultural context, and are reasonable and appropriate for the early childhood learner’s abilities, it is feasible that this type of AR could be highly suitable for promoting CLT for SLA in the early childhood classroom. Additionally, if a song or story is paired to video, the learner has the chance to make contextual connections of the meaning of the song or story by interconnecting the action within the video to the lyrics of the song or the content of the story. This would follow

the input hypothesis of Krashen (1983) especially as it pertains to comprehensible input. The lyrical content of the song or story can go just beyond the learner’s comprehension, but they could make sense of the audio input by drawing a connection based on the visual input in the

VAR.

The Benefits of Authentic Resources

Many potential benefits of AR have been discussed thus far in this document. This section endeavors to closely examine some of the various pedagogical applications of AR and to expand upon potential advantages. As noted, the potential for AR to enhance instruction in the world language classroom is vast. With pedagogically appropriate approaches and sound preparation, an instructor has a virtual limitless bevy of AR to choose from, considering the vast amount of published material already available on the internet (Ghaderpanahi, 2012).

One of the key components of applying AR in the world language classroom is to expose students to the target language and culture in a way that is authentic to how a person from the target culture might experience the language. This can provide them with coping mechanisms for dealing with authentic experiences and language that will emerge in real life communicative language scenarios (Hedge, 2000). Take Spanish for example. It is the second most spoken language in the world with over 400 million native speakers from 21 countries worldwide that maintain Spanish as their official language (Mansfield, 2014). The language has a reach that touches South, Central and North America, the Caribbean, Europe, and even Africa (Mansfield,

2014). The vastness of the Spanish language can readily demonstrate a sociolinguistic phenomenon called language change (McKay, 2017). Language change references the changes over time and distance of a language (McKay, 2017). Language is always changing, and the incessant nature of this change can be troublesome for world languages teachers who are using canned, outdated, or contrived materials from textbooks. With AR, a teacher can find different

ways the language is used in various regions of the world and discuss the dialectal and lexical differences of the target language. This can occur in virtual real time through the application of the most current and relevant AR extracted from current published materials on the internet.

As an analogy, within hip-hop music, language is continually changing and has left an undeniable mark with an overwhelming level of influence on languages across the globe (Price,

2006). The hip-hop example and how it is can be applied instructionally to demonstrate the various lexical forms or regional language, including grammar, usage, and dialect, embodies the tenets of AR. World language teachers can find ways to identify the various uses of a word or phrase in a regionally specific song and assign meaning through either formal or colloquial language. This demonstration can illustrate dialect and word variance within language. The potential for the application of AR can support multicultural and global learning and can provide ample opportunity for students to construct knowledge and motivate SLA (Huang, 2008).

AR have the potential to play an important role in the ongoing enrichment of a students’

SLA experience, isolated vocabulary acquirement, understanding of linguistic forms, increased cultural awareness, and increased level of attention when undertaking world language learning

(Castillo-Losada, Insuasty, & Jaime Osorio, 2017). Castillo-Losada et al. (2017) point out that

AR can impact a student’s communicative competence and enrich proficiency, although a student’s headway cannot be fully attributed to the application of AR because other variables exist that steer a learner’s SLA. Communicative competence is a key aspect of CLT. AR can increase on-task behavior and concentration, thus increasing the learner’s engagement in the learning target that manifests as higher levels of SLA accuracy than what may come from contrived materials. (Peacock, 1997). AR are certainly positive factors in the conglomeration of

pedagogical approaches applied in the classroom necessary for SLA, but they’re not a panacea for SLA (Castillo-Losada et al., 2017).

Comprehensible input as defined previously in this document, is the exposure to language that goes beyond the world language learner’s ability (Krashen, 1983). The input from an AR can be considered an authentic input in the early childhood classroom and a function as comprehensible input, because it is dependent on the type of input the novice student is exposed to and will likely go beyond what the early childhood student can comprehend (Bacon, 1992).

Aligning to Krashen’s (1983) input hypothesis and the learner’s exposure to comprehensible input can foster the acquisition of grammar rules, new vocabulary, and the functional application of language. Functionalism in linguistics can be defined as the various forms of language that have been acquired and applied in the application of communicative function (Bates &

MacWhinney, 1981).

If a student is exposed to the language forms necessary for communicative function, they gain strategies to deal with genuine language interactions within or outside of the language classroom (Al Azri & Al-Rashdi, 2014). Genuine language interactions with native speakers is a form of AR and the subsequent conversation will contribute to the exposure to language forms that meet Krashen’s (1983) requirements for comprehensible input and satisfies some of the tenets of CLT (Holliday, 2006). A world language learner can benefit from AR as an input that supports language production, ease of SLA, and increased confidence in their SLA (Hamer,

1994). When a student displays an increase in confidence in the production of their L2, they are more capable of learning from new inputs, produce better outputs and language usage, and have a positive impact on a learner’s linguistic and affective domains as hypothesized by Krashen

(1982).

According to Krashen (1982, 1985, 1988, 1991), negativity from low self-esteem, higher levels of anxiety, and lowered motivation can stand in the way of SLA. Oxford (1996) claims that the affective domains in SLA are often the most significant contributors to the triumphs or collapses of the SLA process. Krashen (1982), posits that language teachers play an intricate role in fostering an environment that gives the L2 learner a greater level of comfort, motivation, and confidence. The role of the teacher during CLT is as a facilitator of SLA and AR when applied as a supplement to instruction helps facilitate SLA.

Teachers can also benefit from the application of AR in their pedagogical practices in the

L2 classroom. Losada, Insuasty, & Osorio (2016) found that the application of AR in the classroom can enhance and improve the professional performance of the world languages teacher by increasing the variety of authentic inputs, tasks, and functional activities such as, oral reports, presentations, group discussions, debate, creative writing, and other projects. Understanding the application of VAR in the early childhood classroom can be especially salient to the world languages teacher, for it is recommended to apply numerous learning opportunities within a single classroom session to maintain the attention of the learners and to appeal to students with developmentally appropriate practices (Paro et al., 2009).

VAR opens up the door of possibility for the teacher to create authentic learning tasks that are aligned to the overall learning goals and varied in the instructional approach.

Additionally, given the preponderance of material available on the internet for AR, students can actively participate and select their own resources as facilitated by an instructor, and they can work to actively construct their own knowledge of the L2 during the SLA process. This allows the teacher ample opportunity to function as a facilitator of SLA.

As outlined above, the value and benefits of the use of AR in the classroom are numerous. Such positive outcomes associated with target language and cultural exposures include SLA, L2 language development, and linguistic flexibility in a fast changing world. In addition, these outcomes align to various SLA theoretical applications and pedagogical improvements in disseminating learning goals and facilitating SLA through a plethora of learning activities, which demonstrates the plurality of viable applications of AR in the world language classroom.

The Drawbacks of Authentic Resources

This section endeavors to examine some potential disadvantages of the application of AR in the classroom and offer suggestions that may combat the potential drawbacks. While the good outweigh the bad, in the interest of sound scholarship the potential negative aspects of AR should be addressed.

The most dangerous aspect that a teacher may encounter when applying AR in their classroom is that they may rely too heavily on the AR as an instructional panacea and not look for other ways to reach the learner that are beyond AR. Learning a language is a complex process and as noted in previous sections, should not be approached within a singular pedagogical or theoretical context. A teacher must see each learner as an individual and integrate some context into their learning that addresses the learner’s needs, style, and shortcomings. Also, there are various objectives for SLA and certainly each objective should not be approached as possibly facilitated through the application of AR.

AR has the potential to expose students to material that goes far beyond what they are capable of comprehending and could work to increase their language frustration levels thus raising their affective filters (Krashen, 1983; Martinez, 2002). The AR may overwhelm students with vocabulary that is irrelevant to the learning goals and a student’s language requirements

(Lansford, 2014; Martinez, 2002). Additionally, the various linguistic forms applied in the AR have the potential for creating confusion and error when producing the L2. When this is not properly addressed, it could lead to the acquisition of the errors over the functional acquisition of the correct forms of the language (Martinez, 2002).

Another drawback to AR in the world language classroom is the potential for the teacher to encounter difficulties when selecting AR for instruction (Miller, 2005). They may find it challenging to find the time to select materials that are properly aligned to the learning goals and thus edit and prepare AR in a way that increases the potential for changing the resource to a contrived resource for language learning (Miller, 2005).

Teaching is a time-consuming process. When considering the other duties required of a teacher and the application of a new element to teaching, such as AR, could potentially hinder their chances to develop expertise in that area.. A teacher might fall into a slippery slope of inefficient time to manage their teaching load while applying new AR into their instructional practice. They must be concerned with sound pedagogy, but also avoid overlapping learning goals in a way that confuses the learner and hinders SLA. The AR is not filler but can quickly fall into this trap, if a teacher does not have a well-thought-out instructional plan or well-aligned instructional goals. Thus, the commitment to AR might be too much or too little and the potential for its application in both instances is diminished. Once again, the materials can only work to facilitate acquisition and should be paired with tasks in the classroom that provide the students with ample opportunity for input and output in tasks that are well thought out and authentic to the learner.

Using AR could potentially raise a learner’s affective filter and thus hinder the SLA process (Krashen, 1983). This could come from poor planning on the part of the teacher, in that

they do not have the proper planning time to review an AR, help students learn through preparation, and have limited time for instructional pre-teaching and planning. Additionally, they could be using an AR that is not appropriate for the learner, one that is unaligned with their age and ZPD. Thus AR use could fall short of providing the student with the potential for SLA

(Vygotsky, 1967).

AR Section Conclusion

This section describes the potential for AR as aligned with the underlying theoretical and instructional approaches for SLA. While many scholars espouse the tenets of using AR in the classroom, the job of fully understanding AR is just beginning. An AR is communicative by nature because it is a media resource allocated by a teacher for language instruction. It is intended to expose learners to a medium that is authentic to the target culture, not contrived specifically for language teaching, and is applied as a pedagogical input for SLA (Bacon &

Finneman, 1990). CLT is concerned with a student’s productive and receptive skill procurement in the target language (Brown, 1994). Applying VAR pedagogically as a rounded approach to

SLA seems natural following the various theoretical tenets espoused in the literature in recent years.

Further research on the comparison of AR to those that were crafted for the purposes of teaching a language should be conducted. While experts may agree that AR is more viable in a learning environment than contrived materials, these postulations should be further investigated and demonstrated with deeper empirical evidence. However, it is clear that the application of AR in the world language classroom has the potential to meet several theoretical and pedagogical approaches to SLA, and this is firmly aligned to the theory in this particular educational sphere.

Conceptual Framework

Second Language Acquisition

Constructivism (Merriam & Tisdale, 2016).

Socio-Cultural Theory (Jaramillo, 1996; Lantolf, 1994; Scott, & Palincsar, 2013; Van Lier, 1996)

Activities Artifacts Concepts (Lantolf, (Lantolf, (Lantolf, 2006) 2006) 2006)

Input Receptive Skills

(Brown, 1994) T

Instructional Practices VAR c

with VAR e

r Output Productive Skills (Brown, 1994)

Communicative Language Teaching Approach (Richards, 2005)

Figure 2 -1. Conceptual Framework

This conceptual framework (Figure 2-1) draws its primary inspiration for SLA from the guiding theories and concepts that were revealed within this chapter. Special attention was paid to the constructivism learning paradigm, SCT, and CLT.

First, it should be reiterated that this study is situated within the constructivist learning paradigm under the assumption that knowledge and understanding about the world comes from experiences and reflection on experiences in a form of mental construction (Bada & Olusegun,

2015). Essentially, when individuals have an interaction with something previously unknown, they check it against their previous knowledge and experiences, and possibly augment their reality or realities based on the new information, or reject the new knowledge based on their already constructed meaning and reality.

SCT has a symbiotic relationship to the constructivism learning paradigm where both

SCT and constructivism are mutually complimentary. SLA most frequently occurs under SCT as developed from the Vygotskian perspective (Lantolf, 1994). SCT requires that SLA take place in a socially mediated way (Van Lier, 1996). Typically, this requirement manifests in the interactions between individuals from a variety of knowledge levels such as children and caregiver, experts and novices, or teachers and students (Scott, & Palincsar, 2013). The SCT position for SLA is regularly upheld in SLA scholarship. Lantolf (2006) argued that under SCT, there are three integrated human psychological processes: activities, artifacts, and concepts.

Examples of activities include play, education, and work (Lantolf, 2006). Instances of artifacts could include books, music, art, language, computers, and other technology (Lantolf, 2006).

Concepts may represent the physical, mental and social worlds, religion, or community constructs (Lantolf, 2006). The CLT approach encompasses these three human psychological processes and thus falls under SCT.

CLT is aimed at developing L2 proficiency by allowing the learner to engage in interactions that are meaningful, comprehensible, with continuous communication from the learner despite constraints on the learner’s L2 abilities (Richards, 2005). Proficiency is increased when the activities in the classroom make students decipher meaning, communicate with others via a variety of strategies, have misunderstandings corrected by the facilitation of a teacher, and avoid communication breakdowns (Richards, 2005). At its very core, CLT requires the learner to develop receptive skills in the form of exposure to an input. They then perform an output or a productive skill in a social mediated scenario (Breen & Candlin, 1980; Brown, 1994). Following the psychological processes in SCT mentioned by Lantolf (2006), the CLT approach is an activity as it entails education. It is an artifact as it presents material in the form of language.

Lastly, it is a concept as it takes place in the physical, mental, and social worlds. The application of VAR as facilitated by a teacher falls under the CLT approach.

VAR can be used for SLA. This follows the psychological processes for SLA though

SCT as argued by Lantolf (2006). A VAR represents an activity, artifact, and concept. VAR for

SLA is an activity because learning is taking place. VAR is, at its core, an artifact. VAR also acts as a concept in the physical, social, and mental spaces. When applied in the world languages classroom, VAR represents an input to the students that entails the development of receptive skills, primarily in the form of listening skills and sometimes in the form of reading skills. When a teacher facilitates instructional practices with VAR which requires output from the learners, the learners are engaged with a social mediated task through the output of a productive skill. This takes form principally in the FLES classroom as a speaking skill, but can occasionally occur as a writing skill. Knowledge from a VAR is socially constructed by the learner through the

application of VAR as an input to learners. The instructional practices facilitated by the teacher represent how an output is encouraged from the learner.

This conceptual framework drew inspiration from the established theories of SCT and

CLT for SLA as discussed within this chapter. This represented the launching point for the current study and provided guidance during the course of the study.

Summary

Within this chapter, the literature review examined some of the types of world language programs that currently exist in the elementary context, the various historical and theoretical approaches used in the SLA field, the extant literature surrounding AR, and the concept of the

CLT approach. SLA in the FLES context has a broad array of methods for teaching and learning that are extracted from fields like psychology, philosophy, educational theory, and linguistics.

The theoretical foundation of SLA, in its current state, builds from one theory to the next, with each new generational application borrowing, piecemeal, certain viable and necessary elements to inform the most current applications. Conceptually in this study, the application of current

SLA theory situates within SCT and the CLT approach, where teachers facilitate acquisition-like scenarios through instructional practices with VAR as the input and teachers’ illicit output from students through a variety of socially mediated classroom practices. This study is centered on understanding instructional practices with VAR, perceived best instructional practices with

VAR, and how VAR are aligned with instructional goals.

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY

The purpose of this study was to explore the instructional practices by FLES teachers when using VAR. This chapter provided details on the research methodology and procedures that were applied during this study. This chapter began with the research questions, followed by details about the research design, research context, participants for the study, and the data collection and data analysis processes. In the conclusion of the chapter, I provided details about my role as a researcher, trustworthiness and limitations of the study, and a subjectivity statement.

Research Questions

The key research question for this study was, “What instructional practices are used by FLES teachers at ISAS schools while using video authentic resources during instruction?” In support of the central question for this study, the following sub-questions were developed to further inform the central phenomenon of this investigation.

1. What do FLES teachers at ISAS schools perceive as best instructional practices when using video authentic resources during instruction?

2. How are FLES teachers at ISAS schools aligning video authentic resources to instructional goals?

Research Design

Social, educational, behavioral, and health science research have traditionally been approached through a process of inquiry known as qualitative research (Creswell, 2016).

Qualitative research embarks upon a naturalistic and interpretive inquiry where the focus of the study is based on an actual, real-world settings inductively generating meaning through rich narrative descriptions of the discoveries encountered during the research appraisal (Creswell &

Poth, 2018).

As the research questions indicate, this present study intended to discover what instructional practices, perceived best practices, and instructional alignment to learning goals that

FLES teachers used when delivering lessons with VAR. A basic qualitative approach (Merriam

& Tisdell, 2016) was used as the approach to the inquiry within this study. Positioning this present research as a basic qualitative inquiry had the greatest potential to understanding instructional practices with VAR by FLES teachers.

Merriam and Tisdale (2016) stated that a “central characteristic of all qualitative research is that individuals construct reality in interaction with their social worlds” (p.24). Constructivism is thus the paradigm that underscores a basic qualitative study (Merriam & Tisdale, 2016).

Denzin and Lincoln (2005) established a few foundational ontological, epistemological, and methodological assumptions about the constructivist paradigm relating it as a “relativist ontology

(there are multiple realities), a subjectivist epistemology (knower and respondent co-create understandings), and a naturalistic (in the natural world) set of methodological procedures”

(p.24). These theoretical stances can be observed in and are the premise of the conceptual framework posited as a means to shepherd along this research endeavor. Throughout this present study, these theoretical positions were utilized to make sense of and conceptualize better the central phenomenon as well as to answer the posed research questions.

To meet the ultimate intention of this project, the “lived experiences” of each participant were explored and interpreted into conclusions (Creswell & Poth, 2018; Given, 2008). The world in which we exist is best understood by our socially constructed and reflective creation of meaning (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). These authors point out that researchers of a basic qualitative study have three primary interests from their research participants; the interpretation of their experiences, “how they construct their worlds,” and the meaning they associate to their

past lived experiences (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, p. 24). As the researcher for this project, I was interested in learning about the participants instructional practices with VAR, perceived best instructional practices with VAR, and the alignment of VAR to instructional goals.

Research Context

As described in Chapter 1, the context for this study consisted of some FLES programs within the Independent Schools Association of the Southwest (ISAS). The ISAS online school directory was accessed to discover that, currently, there are 95 schools in the ISAS in six states including Arizona, Kansas, Louisiana, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas (ISAS, 2017). In these six states, there are thirty-three cities that have schools in the ISAS, five of them in D/FW metropolitan which comprise a total of twenty schools (ISAS, 2017). The entirety of this study was conducted at ISAS member schools within in the D/FW Metroplex.

Sampling and Participants

Once the D/FW ISAS schools were identified, data was collected from their respective websites to ascertain whether those ISAS schools were a fit for inclusion in this research project.

The criteria for the schools’ inclusion in this study consisted of membership in ISAS, being located in the D/FW metropolitan area, and having an active FLES program. Of the twenty

D/FW ISAS schools, six were eliminated for inclusion in the study. Two of the ISAS schools in the targeted region served students with learning differences, do not have a FLES program, and were therefore omitted from the research pool. Two of the ISAS schools in the targeted region did not meet the criteria for inclusion in the sample because they did not contain primary age programs, thus no FLES program. Two of the ISAS schools in the targeted region were omitted as they did not meet the minimum criteria for inclusion in this study since they offer no FLES programs. From the pool of twenty ISAS schools in the D/FW metroplex, fourteen ISAS schools were identified for possible inclusion in this study.

Participants who have experienced the central phenomenon were the most salient point for the origination of interview and observational data about the central phenomenon (Morse,

1989a; Morse, 1989b; Thorne, Kirkham, & MacDonald-Emes, 1997). In this basic qualitative study, the research participants were purposefully selected based on their propensity and ability to provide insights into their lived experiences, appropriate to the requirements and needs of the present study (Glasser & Strauss, 1967; Thorne et al., 1997). The processes for identifying and connecting with the FLES teachers included in this study initiated. The websites for the fourteen

ISAS schools deemed fit for inclusion in the study were searched to locate the names and email addresses of their Heads of Primary Schools. An email was sent to each of the ISAS Heads of

Primary Schools from the fourteen identified schools fit for inclusion in this study (Appendix A).

These emails introduced myself as the researcher, provided them with some background information on my doctoral program and this present study, asked for permission to come to their campuses, and for the contact information of their relevant FLES teachers. The email also asked that they do not approach their FLES teachers about the study because that responsibility was mine. This was done to try and ward off any possible top-down influence from the Head of

School to their teachers where they might encourage the teachers’ participation in the study. Of the fourteen emails to the Heads of Primary Schools, ten replied. Each respondent granted me permission to come to their campuses to conduct observations and interviews, and provided me with the contact information for their respective FLES teachers and permission to contact them.

Upon receiving the email responses from each of the Heads of Primary Schools, a recruitment email was drafted to the possible FLES participants (Appendix B). This email served as an introduction to the potential participants, described my doctoral program, outlined an overview of the study, detailed the initial interview, observation, and post-observation interview

processes, discussed some of the tenets of informed consent, and invited the teachers to volunteer to take part in this present study by signing the included informed consent (Appendix C). While ten Heads of Primary Schools responded to the email, the total of possible participants contacted for this study was eighteen, because some Heads of Primary Schools provided multiple potential participants to take part in the study, when they had more than one FLES teacher on their campuses. Of the eighteen possible participants contacted with the participant recruitment email, ten responded. Two of the respondents declined to take part in the study. The remaining eight potential participants agreed to take part in the initial interviews, returned the signed informed consent, and their logistical data were added into a contact sheet. A comprehensive list of these eight potential participants was generated and kept in the research journal with information that included: affiliated school, the teacher context, teacher contact information, pre-interview logistics, interview and observation dates, times, locations, and confirmations.

The participants consisted of a semi-homogenous group of individuals as necessary for the discovery of pertinent emergent categories that manifested during the analysis of the data

(Creswell & Poth, 2018). The participants were described as semi-homogenous, because they came from similar contexts, but were not precisely the same in all aspects of their professional descriptions. Institutional Review Board approval from the University of Florida prior to the start of this study ensured the ethical review of this participant selection process.

Data Collection

The main impetus for this study was to explore and understand the central phenomenon under investigation from the perspectives and actions of FLES teachers who used VAR during instruction. This was facilitated through the use of observations and interviews. Observations are a vital means for the accumulation of rich data in many qualitative research undertakings

(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Creswell & Poth, 2018, p.166). As DeMarrais (2004) stated, “An

interview is a process in which a researcher and participant engage in a conversation focused on questions related to a research study” (p.54). Interviews are powerful data that are used in most forms of qualitative research and sometimes as the only data set (Creswell & Poth, 2018;

Jamshed, 2014; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). The techniques for conducting interviews and observations in a basic qualitative study were much the same as other qualitative investigations

(Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). This study used informal semi-structured initial interviews, observations, and semi-structured post-observation interviews to gain the perspectives of the participants.

Initial Interviews

The initial interviews were used for several reasons. While a comprehensive recruiting email was sent to potential research participants, a deeper understanding of the teacher’s context and instructional practices were best facilitated through one-on-one informal initial interviews.

The initial interviews took place over the phone after the participants agreed through email to take part in this phase of the study by giving informed consent. These were informal and semi- structured phone interviews that served as an introduction and verified that the participant met the minimum criteria for inclusion in this study. The participants must have had a minimum of two years teaching in the FLES context at their respective ISAS school, must already have used

VAR during instruction, and were willing to volunteer to be observed and interviewed. These interviews followed the initial interview protocol (Appendix D). Notes were taken during the initial interview and recorded by hand on the initial interview protocol document and kept with the field notes in the research journal. The qualifying minimum factors were met by all eight participants who took part in the initial interviews.

Once it was discovered through the initial interview questions that the participants met the minimum criteria for inclusion in the study, and they demonstrated interest in further

participating in the study, we moved forward. The phone conversations pivoted to logistical necessities where we worked out details surrounding scheduling the observations and post- observation interviews, as well as answering any questions the participants had regarding the entire process.

Observations

Interviews are an integral part of qualitative research; observations are also considered

“key tools for collecting data in qualitative research” (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Creswell &

Poth, 2018, p.166). Observational data can be a primary data source, supplementary, or substantiating data (Gray, 2013; Jamshed, 2014; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016).

In the current study, the observations consisted of one of the two primary data sources and were used in conjunction with the interviews for informing the analysis and conclusions and answering the research questions for a better understanding of the central phenomenon. The data gained from the observations represented the actions of the FLES teachers who use VAR in practice and informed the direction of the semi-structured post-observation interviews. The observations provided an insight into the context in which the participants taught, and subsequently a portrait of practice as applied to a thick and rich description of the participants’ environment in Chapter 4. Also, the observations helped to add depth to the semi-structured post- observation interview questions. For example, I observed participants actively muting or pausing the VAR during instruction. This was an instructional practice that was unique to those participants, and I added questions in real time to the post-observation interviews in an effort to better understand the reasoning for these observed actions of the participants.

As the researcher, I was a nonparticipant observer, who observed from within the room without direct participation in the lesson (Creswell & Poth, 2018). With each observation, I sat in on one class meeting, as chosen by the participant being observed. An observation guide was

used to steer the notations made during the observations (Appendix E). This guide was adapted following a “lists of things to observe” that comprised a “checklist of elements likely to be present in any setting” (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016, p.140). During the live observations, I made field notes and populated the fields of the observation guide with observational notes in real time. These notes informed any augmentations or new and additional questions necessary for the semi-structured post-observation interviews.

After the observations and interviews concluded, I iteratively evaluated the notes and the voice-recorded interviews to start the process of memoing, coding, and analysis. During the review of notes, if a need for clarification arose about a process or action during the lesson, that was not addressed in the post-observation interview, a follow-up email was sent to the observed participant for clarification. The observational data were not analyzed in the same manner as the post-observational interview data because the observations were intended to provide a representation of the teaching environment and helped steer the direction of the semi-structured post-observation interviews.

Post-Observation Interviews

The post-observation interviews were semi-structured interviews used to gain insights into the participants’ instructional practices with VAR, some perceived best instructional practices with VAR, and alignment of VAR to instructional goals. A post-observation interview guide was created to guide the post-observation semi-structured interviews (Appendix F). Birks and Mills (2015) suggest a less-structured interview technique, or a semi-structured interview, so the interview can traverse a route with the participant that allows for a natural conversation to occur. The observations that were conducted just prior to the post-observation interviews informed how the semi-structured interview would transpire. If something occurred during the observations that was of particular salience to the investigation or was not addressed in the line

of questions pre-written in the interview guide, it was addressed during the semi-structured post- observation interview. Also, developing a rapport with the participant helped to bring forth the most salient aspects of the central phenomenon through a discourse that allowed the research participants to “engage in the process freely without merely responding to researcher-generated questions” (DeMarrais, 2004, p.53). This does not mean passivity in the interview, but rather I, as the interviewer, functioned as a coordinator of the discourse toward a dialogue about the central phenomenon (Birks & Mills, 2015; Corbin & Strauss, 2006).

To validate the questions contained in the post-observation interview guide, two experts from my professional context examined the content using a Think Aloud protocol (Van Someren et al., 1994). My colleagues were asked to say whatever they thought or felt as we went through each of the questions. We engaged in a discourse about their thoughts and came to a consensus about any changes we thought would improve the questions. Changing the language helped to make the questions clearer. The changes were minimal and only represented clarification of the language used and not the core content of the questions.

Creswell and Poth (2018) posit that the interview questions should focus on learning about how a process is experienced by the individual and should seek to understand the various steps applied during the process (p. 87). The research questions generated for the current study are aligned to the theoretical and conceptual positions that were explored in Chapter 2. These research questions were drafted with alignment to the constructivist paradigm. Specifically, socio-cultural theory, communicative language teaching, and aspects of Krashen’s monitor model sufficiently informed the creation of the necessary research questions to create analysis and conclusions about how VAR was used in the FLES context. Figure 3-1 provides an outline for the alignment of the research question, theory, and the interview question.

Research Question(s): Second Language Interview Question: Acquisition Theoretical Alignment: What instructional practices are Communicative Describe a typical instructional used by FLES teachers at ISAS schools Language Teaching and period in your classroom. while using video authentic resources Socio-Cultural Theory during instruction? Communicative What are your processes for Language Teaching and planning for classroom instruction? Communicative Describe a lesson where you used Language Teaching video authentic resources in your classroom. Socio-Cultural Theory, How would you describe your Communicative Language institution’s policy on the application Teaching of authentic resources in the classroom? How are FLES teachers at ISAS Socio-Cultural Theory What role do you have in aligning schools aligning video authentic instructional resources to instructional resources to instructional goals? goals within your institution? Communicative What role do you have in the Language Teaching and creation of the instructional goals used in your classroom? Communicative What kinds of processes do you Language Teaching have in place for finding video authentic resources? Communicative Describe the ways authentic Language Teaching resources affect learning in the FLES classroom? Communicative Describe how you go about Language Teaching planning the use of video authentic resources during instruction? Communicative What kinds of processes do you Language Teaching have in place for deciphering whether a video authentic resource is authentic to the target culture? What do FLES teachers at ISAS Communicative How would you describe good schools perceive as best instructional Language Teaching and instructional practices in the FLES practices when using video authentic Socio-Cultural Theory classroom? resources during instruction? Communicative How would you describe good Language Teaching and instructional practices when using Socio-Cultural Theory video authentic resources? Communicative What best instructional practices Language Teaching and do you perceive as pivotal to Socio-Cultural Theory successful learning outcomes when using video authentic resources?

Figure 3-1. SLA theoretical alignment with Interview Questions and Research Questions

The post-observation interviews were conducted personally with the participants face-to- face. This allowed for an interpretation of the participants’ body language during the interviews,

and the nuanced interface that emerged from these personal communication clues during the interviews were recorded in field notes (Birks & Mills, 2015). Active interviewing, as developed by Holstein and Gubrium (1995) was conceptualized to provide researchers with a theoretical tool for exploring the real-life experiences of interviewees. The idea is that the interview process is an active process between the participant and the interviewee, where both parties are engaged in the discovery (Holstein & Gubrium, 1995). The participant is not merely a repository of information that is transmitted in a one-way and linear manner to the interviewer, but rather a collaborator with the interviewer in the construction of knowledge and the dissemination of experience (Holstein & Gubrium, 1995). Active interviews are aimed at ascertaining the hows and whats of the experience under investigation through an improvisational interview style that is semi-structured within loose parameters established by the interviewer (Holstein & Gubrium,

1995). This was relevant to the current study because the interview must lead to the dissemination of the participants’ perspective about the application of VAR, conversationally

(Birks & Mills, 2015). With too much structure, the participant can be led down a path that is predetermined by the interviewer’s rigorous adherence to an interview protocol. This, in turn, could hinder the discourse necessary for the discovery of themes and may subsequently stand in the way of inductively creating meaning about the central phenomenon and answering the primary research question and sub-questions (Corbin & Strauss, 2008).

The post-observation interviews generally took place immediately following the observations and in the same classroom space that the observation just occurred. Seven of the participants took measures to ensure that time was available for the post-observation interviews immediately following the observation. One participant, despite best efforts, could not arrange their schedule to do the post-observation interview immediately after the observation period

concluded. This post-observation took place two hours after the observation period and had no effect on the dynamics of the conversation, as this interview took shape in the same manner, apart from timing, as the other seven post-observation interviews.

Each of the post-observation interviews took place in the participants’ world languages classroom and as such, we sat in a location that was comfortable for the participant. I reiterated the confidentiality of the post-observation interviews by explaining the process for stripping the data of the participants’ and institutions’ identifiers. Then I asked each participant if they were comfortable with the interview being recorded and transcribed into a text document. Each participant expressed comfort and demonstrated knowledge that they were aware of the process per the information shared during the initial interview correspondences and from the informed consent.

The eight interviews lasted between thirteen and sixteen minutes and were recorded on my iPhone. Upon the conclusion of the post-observation interviews, the recording was stopped, saved, sent to a cloud-based storage, and readied for transfer to an air gapped solid-state hard drive. Once the recorded interviews were transferred to the hard-drive they were stripped of identifying data and deleted from the cloud-based storage and my iPhone.

After the post-observation interviews were fully concluded, the participants were informed of the next steps and told that any additional communication regarding the data was to be conducted through email communications. Additionally, all eight participants agreed at this point that if they would like to certify the findings before final submission, they would have a chance to review the analysis chapter prior to publication as a measure to enhance trustworthiness.

Data Analysis

Data analysis during this basic qualitative research project borrowed from the data analysis techniques and methods deployed in a grounded theory study. This was an iterative process that required data analysis during and immediately after data collection (Birks & Mills,

2015). Glaser and Straus (1968) warned about the impulse of the researcher to conduct analysis deductively, as opposed to allowing the emergent themes to materialize inductively from a controlled and patient methodology. Data analysis initiates upon the onset of data collection where data was reviewed, coded in several instances, and compared in a process deemed constant comparative analysis (Corbin & Strauss, 2008; Strauss, 1987). Initial codes emerged from the onset of interviewing and observation following the coding process outlined later in this section. These codes were compared continually to earlier generated codes and themes for verification (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). The patient methodology that was deployed during constant comparative analysis led to the inductive creation of themes and categories and eventually inductively crafted conclusions.

Constant comparative analysis, as its name indicates, is constant. This means that the collection, examination, and breakdown of data into codes, themes, and categories occurred simultaneously and throughout the process of data collection, memoing, coding, analysis, and conclusions (Strauss, 1987). The term comparative indicates that the researcher, throughout the entire process, went back to initial memos and codes and compared differences and similarities in the emergent themes and categories, thus enabling inductive memoing, coding, and conclusions from parallel and divergent themes. This was the exploration of variation within the cumulative data aggregation for a study (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). Glaser and Strauss (1967) mention that knowledge is cumulative by nature and is represented by the sum of data and facts.

Elliot and Jordan (2010) describe constant comparative analysis as it “begins by comparing

incident to incident. But as it progresses, it is the increasingly abstract process of comparing concept to incident and concept to concept that further integrates coding” (pp. 34). In this present study, conclusions emerged once all the codes and categories from interviews and observations reached the point of saturation and nothing more could be extracted from the available data and the analysis of codes. Coding in the present study consisted of several stages: open coding, axial coding, and selective coding, and were discussed at length later in this document (Creswell &

Poth, 2018; Strauss, 1987; Strauss & Corbin, 1998).

Memos are the notes from the interactions between the participants and the interviewer, and observations represent a vital component to the analysis process (Creswell & Poth, 2018;

LaRossa, 2005). Lempert (2007) describes memoing as a fundamental and vital element used to develop a rich theoretical understanding of the central phenomenon. Memos can be jotted down during an interview or observation and may contain casual observations about the setting of an interview and observation, the mood of the interview and observed lesson, or any other related element that might emerge and influence data collection and analysis. While memos can occur very early in the process, they tend to exist more frequently within all the stages of coding and more commonly serve to move thinking forward to the abstract (LaRossa, 2005). For the current study, memos were appropriated to provide a map of the occurrences experienced during interviewing and observations and supported the rationale for the determinations that were made during analysis. The memos provided an additional level of support for an audit trail, documentation of potential problems, illuminated procedural and analytical judgements, and described the development of conclusions and recommendations. (Birks & Mills, 2015). The following paragraphs demonstrate the coding efforts used for analysis of the data collected during this investigatory process.

Data analysis was composed of open, axial, and selective coding. Open coding was data analysis aimed at identifying, naming, categorizing and describing some phenomenon investigated during a research endeavor (Leedy & Ormod, 2001). Open coding extrapolated key points from data into more consumable parts through close examination, contrastive and comparative thinking, and pondering in a metaphorical catechism to elicit “indicators” (Strauss,

1987, p. 25). In order to achieve this, I became familiar with the data by reading and re-reading the transcriptions from all eight interviews. During this step, the relevant texts and phrases that directly related to addressing the research questions of this present study were highlighted. In the next step of open coding, the data was coded, iteratively discovering codes from all eight interview transcripts. As new codes were found in the transcripts, they were added to nodes within NVivo. As the coding process took form, new codes or better-defined codes would be entered into NVivo. These new or better-defined codes then steered the necessary changes required of the previous defined codes from earlier coded interviews. This iterative coding process, of coding and better defining codes and thus augmenting previous codes, adhered to the tenets of a basic qualitative inquiry.

At this point a peer coder was introduced to the coding process. This was done to ensure that the coding and category development was on target. The peer coding process involved a cohort member of my doctoral program who had already conferred the doctoral degree. His review of the process and of the transcripts assisted in developing categories as aligned to the research questions and pushed the process forward to the next phase for axial coding.

Axial coding was performed to develop core categories from the codes and memos generated during the open coding stage. In the third step, I started to develop categories by grouping similar codes and categories to form broader and better-defined categories. Each

category had a direct relationship to addressing the research question of the study. At this point I was between a no-man’s-land of open coding and axial coding and it was incumbent upon me to resituate the categories through a validation process that entailed looking for dominant categories over the other emergent minor categories (Strauss, 1967). This was a cursory organizational effort that was supplanted by the final round of coding. Essentially, it was time to allow the data to speak for itself and to avoid categorizing it in a way that was formulaic by moving the data into core categories.

Upon the identification of the core categories, I proceeded with selective coding. The focused and concerted coding process guided the remaining analysis within the research (Strauss,

1987). The identified core categories were the central focus of this study’s analysis. Selective coding dominated the remaining portion of the data analysis (Corbin & Strauss, 2008). In this final step, I identified the final list of categories by determining how the individual instances of codes could be grouped by making any necessary changes, adjustments, and ameliorations to all the codes. As selective coding neared completion, I determined the ultimate outlay of codes and categories which provided a map to answering the research questions, drawing conclusions, and proffering recommendations for further research.

In an effort to better explain the process of open, axial, and selective coding, I have provided this example of how an open code was changed and relegated to a final category. An initial code that appeared from the interview transcripts was “teamwork.” This code represented the effort of world languages teams to work together to share VAR that they found. The word

“teamwork” represented my initial thought and did not represent any deeper analysis. Through the process of constant comparative analysis, this code was later changed to “team.” Then, during axial coding it was changed to “collegiality” and now depicted a larger category for any

reference to a professional or peer interaction, not necessarily within a single world languages team, but through camaraderie inside and outside of a single campus’ team that worked toward sharing about use of VAR. The code “team” was still being used but the term “collegiality” better encapsulated how the comments from participants were intended. Later, as final categories started to emerge during selective coding, the category “collegiality” remained, but no longer represented a greater category. Instead, this was moved under a broader category called “Finding

VAR.” Thus, the ultimate hierarchical outlay from initial codes to the final category was: Team,

Colleagues, Network > Collegiality > Finding VAR. This example can also be seen in Table 4-2.

Trustworthiness

This current study deployed a few dependable strategies frequently found in qualitative scholarship to enhance the strength of the findings. The actions and responses of the participants who applied VAR during instruction provided the necessary data for this present study to be considered credible and trustworthy. Validity is a term rooted in the positivist approach. Its function is to determine that a study actually measures what it had initially set forth to measure, as well as the trustworthiness of the outcomes (Joppe, 2000; Winter, 2000). Trustworthiness is a naturalistic term that was used in place of validity in this study (Davis & Dood, 2002; Lincoln &

Guba, 1985). To maximize the trustworthiness of this study, member checks were deployed along with peer coding.

Member checks conducted periodically during and after the interviews and observations, increased the accuracy of the findings in this study and ensured that the data was received correctly (Creswell & Poth, 2018). The participants in this study were provided a transcript of the interviews and a copy of their classroom descriptions or portraits of practice via email correspondence. They were then asked to add or remove items as they saw fit. This certified that the participants’ points of view were depicted precisely, in accordance with the statements given

during the interviews, and increased the trustworthiness of the study. Additionally, member checks had the potential to clear up any misconceptions that might emerge from the observations and interviews. The participants universally thought that the transcriptions and portraits of practice were accurate and did not seek to change any of their responses or descriptions.

Peer coding of the transcripts from the interviews was carried out to provide trustworthiness by demonstrating multiple points of view during coding, a review of the researcher’s overall approach to coding, and to review the codes that were generated during the analysis process. Additionally, discussions between a peer and my dissertation chair, through intermittent synchronous and asynchronous meetings, added another level of review and contributed to the dependability of this study. After the initial round of coding was completed, a peer and recent doctoral graduate from the University of Florida College of Education, looked at the data and assisted with developing categories, organization of codes, and provided general advice for the coding process. Dependability was increased through the accurate portrayal of the data and codes, thus ensuring the interpretations were trustworthy and aligned with the overall goals of the study.

Additionally, multiple sources of data were accumulated for this study. Each vein of data, be it from interviews or observations, contributed to the trustworthiness of this present study through triangulation (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016; Patton, 2015). The purposeful sample of eight participants provided unique data, placed through analysis to find emergent themes.

Constant comparative analysis was used to iteratively analyze, confirm or refute any of the emerged categories throughout the entire analysis process. These various data sets represented individualized participant perspectives from assorted times, places, and contexts and the analysis for codes from each of these viewpoints were a launching point to vet the emergent categories

discovered during coding (Healy & Perry, 2000; Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). Triangulation of the data sets added strength and rigor to the conclusions and recommendations that were advanced in

Chapter 5.

Within the results section of this study in Chapter 4, a thick and rich description of the processes undertaken was provided, as well as a portrait of practice for each participant

(Creswell & Poth, 2018). These descriptions provided a detailed account of the participants and their specific academic settings and contexts so that the reader could understand and relate to the findings precisely and accurately. In doing so, evidence was supplied to future researchers about the findings and their probable applicability to similar populations, scenarios, and contexts

(Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Lincoln and Guba (1985) assert that the researcher must, “provide a data base that makes transferability judgements possible on the part of potential appliers” (p.

316). Basic qualitative studies are anecdotal and are generally specific to the environmental context of the research, and thus limited in transferability to outside fields (Leung, 2015).

Generalizability is a characteristic not typically expected from a qualitative research endeavor

(Leung, 2015). However, the aim of the research is to understand instructional practices of teachers using VAR for the improvement of FLES instruction across various contexts and to guide future research. For this study, verifying that the situational contexts of the interviews and observations were precisely articulated was vital to providing at least a minimum level of trustworthiness.

While trustworthiness as presented increased this study’s rigor, it is noteworthy that, as the researcher, it is incumbent upon me to increase rigor through an in-depth presentation of the results of the study. This was achieved through an audit trail that contains a sincere record of all the processes that took place to embark upon the research effort. Providing an audit trail was

necessary. This contained all the relevant research information, including participant communication documentation, logistical planning, schedules, recordings of the semi-structured interviews in the form of raw data, transcriptions of interviews, researcher notes, memos, coding processes, and diagrams of the researcher’s method for inductively producing conclusions and recommendations. Such a record provided an in-depth narrative account of the subjects and their portrait of practice, a rich description of the situational events surrounding the interviews, and a rich and thick description of the methods for aggregating the data and their subsequent analysis.

Limitations

Bias is impossible to remove from any research undertaking because the researcher has some sort of preconceived position on the study before it is initiated (Silverman, 2000; Mehra,

2002). Bias tends to seep into a study during the research topic selection or during the process of conducting research (Denzin & Lincoln, 1989; Silverman, 2000). Aligned with the notion of dependability, as mentioned in the previous section on trustworthiness, is another term, replicability. Replicability demonstrates consistency between the findings of researchers who embark upon the same or similar research projects, which increases the dependability of the results (Hill, Thompson, & Williams, 1997). The replicability of this research effort was difficult to achieve, especially within such a niche focus and specific context, and thus presented a limitation. This limited the ways that the findings and conclusions from this study could guide further researchers within the context of world languages.

The study is limited in that it can only be applied to a theoretical exploration of the relationship between participant anecdotes on VAR as purposed in the FLES context and the subsequent alignment of these resources to the development of instruction. This fails to address any other forms of AR that have the potential for impact on instruction. Furthermore, this limits

the applicability of the knowledge generated within this current study to those contexts that are similar in context and subject matter.

The data came from ISAS schools that currently have a FLES program. This limited scope ignored other independent schools not in the ISAS in the D/FW metroplex. Also, public schools with FLES programs within the D/FW metroplex were not considered for inclusion in this study. This limited the perspective of the study to eight FLES teachers from ISAS schools in

D/FW. Any FLES work being done in those contexts outside of the ISAS in the D/FW area were not considered and their application of VAR for instruction was not studied.

For a novice researcher, any research effort can be daunting because of the scope of the interview and observation processes undertaken. This particular research endeavor leaned heavily on the analysis methods used in grounded theory research. Grounded theory analysis requires constant comparative analysis throughout the project. Deploying constant comparative analysis can be daunting for the novice researcher (Strauss & Corbin, 1998). To minimize this limitation, special attention was spent understanding the basic tenets of constant comparative analysis and reviewing some of the seminal works forwarded by scholars who collectively espouse the benefits of constant comparative analysis during studies.

While these limitations were numerous, the ability to minimize them was a tenable undertaking. Precision and alignment to the available scholarship was required at every stage of the research process. This forced me, the novice researcher, to stay true to the recommendations of expert researchers who have worked and set the stage on their foundational research projects.

As the primary researcher in this study, it was incumbent upon me to continue reviewing the available scholarship throughout the research process, staying abreast of any new publications

that arose in the interim, and reviewing the longstanding disseminations that have guided basic qualitative research over the years.

Ethical Considerations

Within the study of social sciences, a researcher must always be aware that they are investigating people and how they interact with a certain community or society. I am a relatively new member to the ISAS group, and I do not hold a position of authority or influence over any of the study’s participants or programs. As a member of the ISAS, participation in this study was not influenced by my membership and the close knit-nature of the D/FW ISAS schools.

Additionally, the D/FW ISAS FLES teachers gather annually for collegial conversations regarding instructional practices and curricula units. I took part in the 2018 annual meeting of

ISAS FLES teachers, but this meeting was more about cordiality and introductions than an expectation of sharing and collegiality. My role in the most recent meeting was minimal, as the more experienced members of this particular FLES network took on the majority of the collegial responsibilities. Participation with this research effort was completely voluntary and any anecdotal data gathered was done in confidence and anonymously, with identifying features eliminated from the descriptions. Additionally, the particulars about my professional context, each participant, and their participant school were obfuscated with the application of pseudonyms and the codification of the institutions to prevent their specific identification.

Subjectivity Statement

As I collected all the data and conducted the analysis for this present study, I remained cognizant of my subjectivity and biases throughout the entire process. Peshkin (1988) defines subjectivity as “the quality of an investigator that affects the results of observational investigation” (p. 17). A researcher’s subjectivity affects the results of every investigation, whether they are qualitative or quantitative (Peshkin, 1988). Bias is also omnipresent in all

research at any stage in the research process, is impossible to remove or eliminate, and impacts the rigor and findings of a study (Smith & Noble, 2014). The risks associated with subjectivity and bias can be minimalized by systematically identifying them during every aspect of a study

(Creswell & Poth, 2018; Peshkin, 1988). I was reflexive during the entire study and identified my specific role in my professional context to lessen the impact that subjectivity and bias might have on the outcomes of this study.

I had a vested interest in understanding the central phenomena of this study, in that I am a

FLES teacher at an ISAS school that is currently using VAR to support learning and aligning the

VAR materials to support the already existing curriculum. Having personally applied VAR within my professional context, I am familiar with the processes that I have used in my professional practice. I am, like most educational practitioners, ever interested in the improvement of the pedagogy in my class and interested in improving student learning outcomes. As I see these types of resources gaining popularity in world languages teaching circles, I am focused on improving how VAR teaching methods can support the instructional practices I already have in place. My personal opinions, views, and practices had the potential to impact the findings of this research, especially when considering the interview portion of the data collection process. To help minimize researcher subjectivity and bias, I followed Glaser’s

(1998) approach to crafting interview questions. The interviews began with broad statements to allow participants to talk openly about the manner in which they are interacting with the phenomena being investigated. When appropriately apportioned during a study, the participant has the opportunity to disseminate their lived experiences without any major influence from the researcher’s biases seeping into the questions and leading the responses (Mitchell, 2014, p. 2).

I believe that developing a grander understanding of the applications of VAR within the world languages classroom, which is mindfully set within the existing instructional framework, can improve teacher instructional practices, alignment of instructional materials to instructional goals, and student learning outcomes. With my firsthand knowledge as a practitioner in this area, and my already existing position with the central phenomenon under investigation, I used special care to reflect on my biases throughout every stage of this research process (Creswell & Poth,

2018). One way I minimized the effect of bias was to stay cognizant of how my biases could impact the study through the active use of a research journal to gather my thoughts and reflect on how the study was developing. The readers of this study will benefit from the clear delineation of my biases and subjectivity and will be able to seriously consider my predispositions when pondering the study’s findings, implications, recommendations, and conclusions.

CHAPTER 4 RESULTS

The purpose of this qualitative study was to gain an understanding of the central phenomenon under investigation, the instructional practices of Foreign Language in Elementary

School (FLES) teachers within the Independent Schools Association of the Southwest (ISAS) who were teaching with video authentic resources (VAR). The present study was designed to fill in some of the gaps in the literature about instructional practices with VAR, perceived best instructional practices with VAR, how VAR are aligned to instructional goals, and to contribute to future research in this field.

Participants and Classroom Observations

The participants for this study were a purposefully selected sample. The semi- homogenous sample of eight FLES teachers are part of the ISAS from the Dallas-Fort Worth

(DFW) greater metropolitan area. They have a minimum of two years teaching FLES at their respective institutions, currently use VAR during instruction, and agreed to be interviewed and observed in contribution to this study. These properties meet the minimum requirements for inclusion in the study. All the participants were female. The participants and the institutions were given pseudonyms and codified to protect their identities. They were organized and described by the order in which they were interviewed (Table 4-1). During the observations and interviews, observational notes were kept, to describe the situation within which each participant interview was conducted, and to evaluate the setting and circumstances. The following sections contain descriptions of the participants and their respective contexts as a means of providing a thick and rich portrait of practice.

Darla. Darla is a seasoned veteran in the FLES arena, who has been teaching FLES for

12 years and has been teaching at institution A for 28 years. Her current duties include teaching

Spanish to first, second, third, and fourth-grade students within the lower school division of her institution. Additionally, her institution encourages the vertical alignment of learning goals which requires her to communicate with some frequency with other divisions, including the early childhood, middle school, and upper school divisions. While she has no formal responsibility for instruction outside of her direct grade level teaching responsibilities, collegiality among those divisions is encouraged by her institution. She is a non-native Spanish speaker who has spent considerable time traveling and living abroad in Spanish-speaking countries, including an extended amount of time in Guatemala.

Table 4-1. Participants in study FLES Interview Order Name Institution Language Experience 1 Darla 12 Years A Spanish 2 Marta 8 Years B Spanish 3 Regina 30 Years A Spanish 4 Betsy 27 Years C Spanish 5 June 13 Years D Spanish 6 Carrie 15 Years E Spanish 7 Shelia 8 Years E French 8 Melody 12 Years F Spanish

Her classroom is a dedicated world language classroom that presents a festive environment, decorated with realia and meaningful objects from various Spanish speaking countries. The term “realia” is used by classroom teachers to describe various articles catalogued for use in teaching, particularly by foreign language teachers. The classroom also included plenty of descriptive vocabulary labels in Spanish of the various classroom items, materials, and the physical environment (i.e., window, door, wall, etc.). The classroom is set up in a way designed to promote multi-sensory learning opportunities, with a prominently placed smartboard, readily available digital and analog resources, carpeted areas for floor activities, full bookshelves

that serve the dual purposes of a reading center and as partitions for activities in other centers, and desks for writing and art activities.

During the observation period, she addressed the various learning styles of her students through the incorporation of teaching strategies that promoted the relevant and varied learning characteristics of a plurality of learners. Darla has a teaching style that is highly involved and interactive. She is an extroverted and loving teacher with a carefully selected lexiconic approach to addressing students in a direct but non-threatening way. I observed her actively checking for understanding and comprehension, redirecting students to new activities when the need arose, and circulating continually for the entire instructional period. Guatemalan marimba played throughout the lesson and activities, paused only for the incorporation of the VAR into the instructional period. She spoke in the target language for the majority of the class period, only using English for clarification.

During the interview, Darla expressed the importance of the integration of technology within her own teaching philosophy and how this was supported by the endeavors for technological integration across all divisions of her institution. She also expressed a propensity for the use of technology as a means to engage students. But she stressed that in her classroom the students are required to complete tasks that are split between digital and non-digital activities. She described the majority of the instruction within her class as focused on meeting the needs of the students. Finally, she shared that her use of VAR in the classroom tends to lean toward sharing a cultural experience through music for engagement, cultural lessons aligned to the geography of the target cultures, and other cultural explanations.

Marta. With extensive experience in the FLES community, Marta is viewed as a FLES leader in the D/FW ISAS community and is well-regarded for her leadership and coordination of

FLES networking events. She has been teaching FLES for 8 years and has been teaching at institution B for 12 years. Her pedagogical duties extend to teaching Spanish to all sections within the lower school division, Kindergarten through Fifth grades. She works closely with the other world language teachers in her division and beyond, ensuring horizontal and vertical alignment of the learning goals between the Mandarin Chinese and Spanish FLES programs. She is a native Spanish speaker.

Her classroom was a dedicated world language classroom. The classroom was minimally decorated, not sparse and cold, but rather with an apparent deliberate rejection of all that was unnecessary to the learning that was to take place in this cozily apportioned space. The decorative items that were in the class were directly aligned to the learning goals for the present and observed unit of study, "The Day of the Dead." The room was set up to allow students to flow seamlessly between whole group floor activities on a decorative carpet and small group activities at the three crescent-shaped tables. The tables and carpet were on separate sides of the room with a prominently placed mobile multi-touch interactive flat screen panel between the two areas. The room was arranged in a way that the multi-touch interactive flat screen could be easily viewed from anywhere in the room. The room was otherwise partition-less. Near the carpeted area, there was a magnetized whiteboard wall that was decorated with moveable elements of a calendar and handwritten objectives. A countertop at the rear of the room was full of digital and non-digital resources including iPads, paper, pencils, art supplies, notebooks, and books.

During the observation period, Marta made good use of the entire space. She moved around the room, traversing within and among the learners. She maintained attention with a dynamic teaching style that shifted from analog calendar activities on a whiteboard, to VAR on the multi-touch interactive flat screen, and on to table-top activities. There were several pauses in

her instruction, including pausing the VAR, that she utilized for comprehension checks. The lesson was predominantly centered on culture, with a quick introjection of the multi-cultural views of the world’s celebrations of the “Day of the Dead,” that resembled the American

Halloween celebration. These cultural themes were supported by a VAR.

Marta purposed the VAR to present a song that was familiar to the students, as she led the students in singing and dancing. She made use of total physical response teaching strategies, by demonstratively acting out terminology that went beyond the students’ comprehension. The various VARs used in the observation period reinforced concepts outside of the learning goals adhering to the SLA tenet forwarded by Krashen’s input hypothesis through exposure to comprehensible input (Krashen, 1983). She used Spanish for the majority of the class period, including during instruction and at points where clarification was needed. English was rarely used.

During the interview, Marta described how using VAR, especially for the songs, has made a difference in reinforcing learned concepts as well as encouraging long-term retention of the learned concepts. The application of VAR within her class is certainly focused upon solidifying the concepts surrounding cultural learning goals. She applies the VAR as a way of bridging the distance between the target cultures and her classrooms, allowing students to see and experience the target culture in a more authentic way. Marta spoke to the benefits of teaching in a cross-curricular way, supporting learning that goes beyond grammar, vocabulary, and syntax. She found that using the VAR in a cyclical manner can support previously introduced learning goals from earlier in the year, ensuring that vocabulary elements are not forgotten as the year progresses. Finally, Marta stated that she incorporates the VAR as a way to

get students to recall and share the things that they see and hear within the Spanish classroom as they approach pen to paper activities, specifically writing.

Regina. Regina, an art teacher by trade, has taught FLES for over 30 years and has taught at institution A for 9 years. Her current duties include teaching Spanish and Art to Pre-school,

Pre-Kindergarten, Primer, and Kindergarten students at the institution’s early childhood campus.

She plays a key role in the FLES program, as she sets the tone for a vertically aligned curriculum and stays in constant communication with her school’s other WL teachers. Her formal responsibilities do not extend beyond her current teaching context. However, she regularly communicates and plans with the other school divisions including lower school, middle school, and upper school. Her native tongue is Spanish.

Her classroom serves two purposes. One side of the room was dedicated to Spanish instruction and the other side was for art instruction. While having a dual purpose, the Spanish side of the room maintained a vibrant WL atmosphere. There was an area rug that was decorated with colors, shapes, numbers, and school supplies, all labeled in Spanish. The rug was situated in a way to promote floor activities and also served as the main area for Spanish instruction. There were tables for art, crafts, and writing that were laid between the Spanish and art sides of the classroom. In front of the carpeted area, there was a Smart Board and a whiteboard. Next to the carpeted area were shelves and windows decorated with age appropriate realia and other instructional materials. On the shelves there were nicely organized bins, full of supplies for teaching Spanish. These included such items as puppets, stuffed animals, paper, pencils, crayons, markers, books, and other teaching supplies.

The observation period started with Regina addressing each Kindergarten-aged student with a common Spanish greeting. The students would then draw a shape, color, or school supply

from a bowl, identify the item in Spanish, and then proceed to that spot on the decorated rug.

Once seated, the instruction began with a review of animals in Spanish. After the review, the

VAR was introduced. A quick video about animals began, one that the students were familiar with, as Regina used various teaching strategies to explain what was occurring in the video.

Throughout the lesson Regina would conduct comprehension checks. She would kindly address each student and allow them to present to her a favorite animal. The instructional period was short, but full of activity. Regina remained in close proximity to the students and spoke with a very calm and direct voice. Her teaching style embraced the strengths and weaknesses of each of her students. She remained in the target language for approximately 75% of the observation period, breaking into English only when clarification or a need for redirection would arise.

While conducting the interview, Regina made reference to her use of VAR in the classroom as something that she has been doing for a long time and which allows her to have many resources at the ready. However, she also understands that video sharing sites are expanding regularly, and she cycles back to those cites to find new material each new academic year. Making cross-curricular connections is important to Regina, as she likes to incorporate aspects of her art coursework and coursework from the core-curriculum into her Spanish lessons.

Her use of VAR leans toward interactivity, music, and student participation, as well as bridging what is familiar to the students in their first language. Lastly, she mentions that her experience as a mother has helped her to better understand what kids desire from their learning experience, which led her to conclude that the VAR she uses must be something that will remain with her students, namely the music within the VAR.

Betsy. Betsy brings a wealth of knowledge to the FLES and bilingual education field with over 27 years of teaching experience in this context. She has taught FLES specifically at

institution C for 10 years. She teaches Spanish to preschool, pre-Kindergarten, and Primer. As a lower school and early childhood teacher, she teams with the other lower school teacher and the teachers in the early childhood division to craft a curriculum that grows with the students as they make progress in the WL program. The lower school and early childhood divisions are designed to be in constant communication within her institution. This collegial rapport creates an environment of oneness, even though the divisions are considered separate. She is a non-native

Spanish speaker who has travelled extensively to the target culture for study, recreation, and continued learning. She maintains a high profile among the ISAS FLES teachers and contributes actively to her peers within the network, seeking any opportunity to share knowledge to her colleagues in the field.

The classroom that I visited was an enticing environment that was dedicated to world language instruction, full of rich color, purposeful décor, and a sincere approximation of an immersive environment that one would find while studying abroad. There were two large tables, a Spanish decorated rug, and areas that were dedicated to centers. At the front of the room sat a large smartboard just in front of the rug. The rug was placed centrally in the classroom and took the form of the most prominent learning area as it was situated facing the smartboard. Around the edges of the classroom were typical classroom materials, whiteboard, pencils, papers, markers, crayons, other art supplies, and books. There were centers for creative play with

Spanish realia, and listening centers. The tables could be purposed for table-top writing and art activities. The room was spacious and well-lit with large windows for natural sunlight. There were Spanish labels around the room indicating the names of common physical elements of the classroom. The materials in the classroom were organized into shelves and bins and kept tidy and neatly arranged. Overall, it was a very welcoming learning environment.

Throughout the observation, Betsy spoke in a calm and direct manner with her students.

Her discourse with her pupils exuded the confidence of a disciplined pedagogue with classroom management wisdom. The interactive and loving approach kept the room tranquil and serene.

The students took pre-appointed seats on the Spanish decorated rug and Betsy opened the class with a quick greeting and song. She reminded the students that the previous unit of study had ended and that they were about to start on a cultural lesson about Halloween and its similarities to Día de Los Muertos (Day of the Dead). She began to read a story to the students about

Halloween, which was an apparent daily routine in her class. While reading she checked for comprehension and used the imagery in the book as context clues about the terminology for this unit of study.

After connecting with the Spanish book about Halloween, Betsy talked about how

Halloween is at a similar time as Día de los Muertos, but with a different meaning. One is scary, one is not. She described the holidays through a new song for the students that played on the smartboard as a VAR. The song was a cumbia. The students danced with the VAR as the teacher highlighted the terms that were in the video using the total physical response teaching strategy.

She then played another VAR and made comparisons between it and the first VAR, as it made use of similar terminology. The two VAR were paired with comprehension checks, as a reinforcement for the vocabulary terms surrounding both holidays. Finally, she closed the instructional period by asking the students to use terms in the video to describe the costumes they were going to wear on Halloween. She translated the costumes into Spanish and had the class repeat the terms. She remained in Spanish for approximately 80% of the observation period, using English for clarification and for classroom management.

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During the interview, Betsy mentioned how her autonomy in her position allows her to make decisions about how she is going to use VAR within her classroom. She described the use of VAR primarily as an engagement piece that centered upon using music to teach the targeted vocabulary and cultural elements. Betsy spoke about using the VAR to link the students’ home culture to that of the target culture. She purposes videos, or songs through VAR, that the students have a familiarity with and can relate to because they are a Spanish version of something the students have already viewed. A final element from the interview was how she applies a new

VAR in order to keep old learning goals new, or as a means of recycling old material so that it remains fresh and forward in the mind.

June. June, a native Spanish speaker, is well-respected within the D/FW ISAS FLES community. She has been teaching for 20 years. She has taught FLES Spanish for the past 13 years and is currently in her 12th year at institution D. She is one of two Spanish teachers within her school. June is solely responsible for teaching first through fourth grades with no teaching duties beyond her current context. In her school, the Spanish department is broken into two divisions, early childhood and lower school. Each division is responsible for their own learning goals, but they are encouraged to plan vertically to maintain fluidity and alignment of both of the demarcated divisions. June cultivates collegial interchange between the other local ISAS schools through active participation in the D/FW ISAS annual networking event. Additionally, she maintains her subject matter knowledge by attending conferences and workshops, as well as engaging in self-study of the new and most salient teaching techniques within the FLES field.

The FLES classroom was not an open concept, but Institution D uses an open learning concept for their school and classroom layouts. It is an area that was not originally intended for instruction, as it was repurposed because of limitations in the school’s available facilities. This

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unique classroom was tucked into a loft-like area on the campus. There were winding stairs leading up to the door-less classroom that opened up to a tri-level classroom. Each level within the classroom took on a rectangular shape with the main level elevated in the center and flanked by two smaller, sunken levels. The whole room was warm and inviting with wood tones and vaulted ceilings, giving it a cabin-like feel. There was plenty of space for student movement, participation, and work. Within each level were divided areas dedicated to center activities and other small group opportunities. The main area was designed for whole-group learning activities, lectures, and presentations.

June’s classroom was decorated with Spanish realia, that was meaningful and not overdone, nor gaudy. The classroom has digital resources that included a Smart Board, computer, listening stations, and audio and video systems. The Smart Board was centrally located on the main level of the tri-level classroom just in front of a floor area that was covered with a rug decorated with Spanish vocabulary terms. There were also several shelving areas throughout the room full of books, pens, pencils, markers, paper, art supplies, textbooks, notebooks, folders, games, manipulatives, and other STEAM materials. There were four tables that were also on the main classroom level for tabletop activities.

The observation period began with a calendar activity that was student led and took place in one of the sunken areas in the classroom. June watched the activity closely, only interjecting for clarification or to assist the student leader when they needed additional direction or reminding.

The lesson then moved to the rug in front of the Smart Board. She questioned the students about some of the foods they had studied in the past and used this activity to recycle previously covered learning goals. At this point the VAR was started. A “how to” video played

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which demonstrated the ingredients and steps necessary for making a fruit smoothie. June made a point to speak to each student and paused the video on several occasions to check for comprehension. She remained front and center during the video and continued to pepper in questions to the students about things occurring in the video. Upon the conclusion of the VAR,

Betsy reviewed what just happened in the video, including reviewing vocabulary terms and the meaning of certain often applied verbs. After the lesson, she initiated a game that required the students to interact with the Smart Board, each other, and the teacher in order to recall, read, and identify the class period’s learning goals in rapid succession. She spoke in Spanish for the entire class period, never using English. June often used the total physical response instructional practice as a means of clarifying what she was saying when needed.

Throughout the interview, June made many references to autonomy, teacher time, and the ways that she purposed the VAR for engagement and the benefits of music within VAR.

Autonomy was mentioned as something that she valued within her professional context.

However, she made reference to the ways that autonomy can place a burden on her to apply much of her time, when planning for the application of a VAR, and on her review processes of the VAR that are available on video sharing sites. The inquiry into the VAR was spent on alignment to learning goals and appropriateness for her learners. She mentioned engagement and how the application of technology, especially the relevant VAR, were attractive to students and could increase their engagement.

Carrie. Carrie specializes in early childhood SLA, with 15 years of FLES experience and

10 years teaching FLES at institution E. Her current instructional responsibilities are Pre-

Kindergarten through 2nd grade. She occasionally helps out with a section of 3rd grade Spanish and a section of 4th grade Spanish. Her lower school WL division teams together regularly for

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curriculum alignment, vertical planning of learning goals, and to ensure equitability among the other world language coursework. In addition, all divisions within her institution regularly meet to map curriculum and discuss the alignment of learning goals among the upper school, middle school, and lower school divisions. Carrie is a non-native Spanish speaker. She regularly attends conferences, networking events, continuing education, self-study, and embarks upon extensive travel to the target culture to maintain and improve upon her language skills.

She teaches in a dedicated world language classroom that was spacious and inviting. The room was decorated with Spanish realia, with labels, maps, student work, a large chroma blue wall for filming students for blue screen purposes. There were large windows that overlooked a colorful playground that allowed plenty of natural light into the room and made the space feel like it spills into the outdoors. Along the perimeter of the classroom were pencils, paper, books, crayons, markers, sharpies, other art supplies, puppets, and student cubbies filled with notebooks and folders. The room had a multi-touch interactive screen in the center of the main instructional area. On either side of the main portion of the classroom were large cabinets where teacher and student materials were stored, including a closet for dress-up, games, more art supplies, and other instructional materials. There was plenty of technology in the classroom including a teacher computer, laptops, and just outside the classroom was a full set of iPads. In the middle of the classroom were four tables for tabletop activities set just behind the main instructional area. It was an inviting room with space for movement and opportunities for an immersive environment.

Carrie was observed actively engaging with her students in a nurturing way. Her voice quietly commanded the classroom in a way that was tranquil, and this quietude seemed to place the students at ease. The pace of instruction was fast, but not hurried, transitioning from one learning activity to another in a routine that seemed natural and intuitive. The way the class was

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designed to ensure that all learners, no matter their learning style, were afforded an equal opportunity to comprehend the learning goals. The VAR was used sparingly and introduced rather early in the class period. Carrie used the VAR to explain the way a game that is common in Spain was played. There were pauses for comprehension checks and Carrie used the total physical response instructional strategy to explain any difficult or confusing elements from the

VAR. She then put on a costume and the students played a game with her as the central character, just as was seen in the VAR. Carrie used the target language for the majority of the class period and only reverted to English to explain some complex aspects of the game.

Carrie made reference, during the interview, to the various ways she purposed VAR within her classroom, including, as a cultural element for exposure to the target culture, musical elements, and native accent development. Working within the early childhood context, she saw a need for purposing VAR as an engagement piece or a hook for her students. Her use of VAR was a decision that she made autonomously as she is in charge of her lessons, her curricular sequence, and selecting instructional materials. She made reference to the value she sees in using

VAR as a musical element to make students sing and move, and she couples this with instructional strategies such as total physical response and pausing the VAR for comprehension checks. Finally, Carrie revealed the process that she undertook to find, authenticate, and review the VAR that she has used in her classroom.

Shelia. Shelia is a French teacher who has been teaching for more than 10 years and has taught FLES for 8 years at institution E. She is primarily responsible for teaching 1st through 4th grades, but regularly helps teach pre-kindergarten and Kindergarten. She is a teammate of Carrie in a school where the lower school world language teachers work with one another regularly for alignment, vertical planning of learning goals, and to ensure equitability among world language

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coursework. She meets regularly with the middle and upper school teachers to vertically align the goals of the lower school French class with their goals. She is a non-native French speaker.

Shelia maintains her French through continued study and regular travel to France. She also attends networking events with the ISAS and national language conferences as a means to keep up with her instructional skills.

Her dedicated classroom was fashioned after a Parisian café or cityscape. The exterior of her classroom had some circular tables that were covered by an awning. Near the tables were a few interior windows that looked out over the tables and onto a wall of scenes in the form of posters, from France and other French-speaking countries. The interior of the room was decorated in realia from all over the world, but mostly from France. There was artwork from famous French artists, paintings of the French countryside, paintings within a window frame designed to appear as if one was looking out a window. There was plenty of student work around the room, primarily surrounding the desk. The room was brightly appointed with functional furniture that made it appear as if one were in a domestic Parisian flat. The room was full of opportunities to immerse one’s self in the French language, including labels on the physical structures of the room with French vocabulary terms, as well as instructional resources that adorned the walls, windows and shelving.

On the perimeter of the room there were pencils, paper, markers, crayons, other art supplies, books, student notebooks and folders, as well as bins stuffed full of instructional materials. There was a puppet theater with several puppets on a stand next to it. Off to one side of the room were large cabinets full of teaching materials. The room was separated by a rug that had several chairs sitting on it and that faced a conspicuously-placed multi-touch interactive screen. This area functioned as the main whole-group instructional area. On the other side of the

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room were two wooden rectangular tables, set end to end, giving the appearance of a dining room table. The table was covered with learning materials for the day as well as some art supplies. There were digital resources readily available for the students just outside of the room, which included access to iPads and a fully functioning computer lab.

During the observation, Shelia used numerous instructional strategies to keep engagement high. These included a VAR as a hook, direct instruction, manipulatives, realia, and student pairs. The use of the VAR was introduced early in the lesson and set the tone designed to relate to the students the learning objectives for the class period. The students were familiar with the song, but it was the first time they were seeing this particular video and song combination.

Shelia built on prior knowledge and then went forth reiterating the learning goals for the unit of study and for the lesson. She reminded, restated, and reinforced what the students were doing and used English only to clarify meaning. The material was presented clearly as Shelia used other still images as a support for what she was teaching, much like total physical response.

Shelia had a solid command of her classroom and the routine seemed to be paramount in her approach to classroom management. She spoke with a very firm voice, making it clear when she was delivering instruction that attentiveness was expected from her pupils. The loving tone and kind smiles that she flashed throughout the observation period modeled caring, respect, and a contagious enthusiasm for teaching and learning.

During the session, the students broke into pairs and Shelia circulated throughout the pairs to maintain constant vigilance. She interjected comments and interacted with the groups as they had conversations with puppets. The class ended with a song that was part of the class routine and Shelia took one final opportunity to pepper the students with some questions about

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what they had just learned. The class was taught in the target language for most of the class period, with English used only for clarification.

For the interview, the conversation was centered on VAR as a music element, teacher autonomy when teaching with a VAR, and the process for finding VAR. Shelia made mention of how the VAR she used in her classroom almost always involved some type of music element.

She also relayed that music plays a large role in her world languages department and was partly the reason she gravitated toward it. She also has the complete freedom to decide what she allocated as an instructional resource in her classroom, but was ever mindful of what her lower school world language team was doing. As a French teacher, she found it more difficult to discover VAR than the Spanish teachers on her team, for with French VAR, there tended to be less variety. The VAR that she has found takes a long time to find and is generally not age appropriate for the early childhood context. Finally, she mentioned that the use of VAR as a support for cultural elements of the target culture was her dominant application of VAR.

Melody. Teaching Spanish in the elementary context has dominated the career of Melody as she enters her 12th year as a FLES teacher and her 9th year at Institution F. Her instructional responsibilities include teaching Spanish in the lower school to students in grades 1st through 4th.

Her school introduces Spanish to students in the early childhood division and the instruction continues into middle school. She has worked regularly with the other divisions for purposeful planning and vertical alignment of the learning goals with the end goal of students reaching a conversational proficiency. She is a heritage Spanish speaker.

The classroom environment was a colorful homage to the Spanish language culture.

There were elements of realia from all parts of the Spanish speaking world. All the typical elementary school classroom materials were present including art materials, paper, pencils,

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markers, crayons, notebooks, and books. The room was separated between a smartboard area and whiteboard tables. The smartboard was front and center in the classroom and situated just in front of an area rug that was purposed for floor activities. Behind the area rug were four whiteboard tables that students were free to draw on with dry-erase markers during center activities. Along the walls were a large calendar, whiteboards, bulletin boards of student work, maps, games, puppets, and pictures with labels. In addition, throughout the classroom, there were colorful labels that named the items in the physical space.

During the observation, Melody made use of the entire instructional space. The students entered the classroom and followed a pre-set routine. They sang a welcoming song and as they entered, Melody handed out fruits to each of the students, and they took their place on the rug in front of the smartboard. In the fast-paced classroom, she interacted with the students from the moment they walked in until the moment they left. She spoke with students kindly but remained firm in her delivery, with a consistent tone. A brief English discussion of the expectations for the lesson was given, and then she switched back to Spanish for the remainder of the class period.

She introduced the VAR early in the lesson with a song about fruits from a Spanish children’s show. The students watched the video one time while seated. At this point, they simply watched it and were not interacting. Then they watched it a second time while standing, dancing, singing, and interacting with peers. Melody stood front and center during the video, pausing for comprehension, and muting to hear the students produce the language. She was extroverted and in constant communication with the students. After the VAR, the students quickly moved into center activities with some students on table-top activities, puppets, conversation stations, and the audio from the VAR that was utilized earlier in the lesson played on repeat.

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As we began the interview, it was clear that Melody was busy. She was preparing for the next class to enter as we conversed. She spoke freely, though, about how she deployed VAR as part of her daily routine, how VAR has helped to reinforce the learning goals, and the importance of music in the VAR. Melody mentioned how the use of VAR was a perfect opportunity to solidify the vocabulary elements. She expanded upon that by explaining that not only do vocabulary elements come from the VAR, but it also exposed the students to the structure and grammar of the language. Finally, she shared how, throughout the class period, she used the mute button to gauge how well the students were using the language from the VAR. She learned this technique through a collegial exchange at a networking event.

Summary of Classroom Observations

During the observation period, each of the participants demonstrated a wealth of experience in their respective contexts. This observed expertise contributed to the overall identification of the salient instructional strategies purposed by the participants while using VAR in the FLES classroom. The use of VAR was never forced. On the contrary, its use materialized as part of the participants’ classroom routines and was allocated with relative ease across all the observations.

Conducting these observations allowed for deep understanding of the participants’ respective classrooms and revealed their applied strategic instructional minutia, and the nuances that customarily occurred during their instruction. The participants commonly used their physical spaces and materials, in conjunction with the VAR, as a means of reaching each of the students more readily. With this in mind, the use of VAR strategically contributed to instructional variety and assisted with positioning the participants’ instruction within a diverse set of learning modalities. The participants’ universal application of comprehension checks while purposing

VAR had diverse strategic applications. Each singular use of comprehension checks was

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exceptionally applied for ascertaining the students’ understanding. This could be done by pausing, muting, stopping, or clarifying what occurred during a video.

The use of VAR with music accompanied many of the observations and proved integral to many of the lessons observed as it materialized almost universally throughout the observations. VAR permeated into this observed FLES teaching landscape as a means to assist in the students’ retention of vocabulary, grammar, and cultural topics. The assortment of teaching strategies with the VAR were rarely replicated and each participant approached teaching with

VAR distinctively. Overall, the observations provided meaningful insight into some of the core strategic applications of VAR within the FLES classroom.

The prevailing thoughts on VAR from the participants were positive. The participants deemed the use of VAR as a vital teaching element and adapted to using it with frequency.

However, they did comment regularly on the limitation of its use in time, scope, and sequence.

Many of the teachers discussed their autonomy to purpose whatever resources they saw fit for instruction, with no overall edict from school divisions or world language departments about the use of VAR in the FLES classroom. This gravitation toward VAR concentrated on engaging young learners with lessons utilizing a resource, regarded by most of the participants as a high value option for the students because of the ubiquity of online videos in their lives outside of school.

Each of the participants considered music in VAR a critical component of a VAR and they individually imparted how musical elements in the VAR endowed the learners with strategies for the retention and recall of the material routinely presented in class. The insights gained during the observations and interviews provided important information for the analysis carried out in the following sections.

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Interview Results

The following sections present the results that emerged from the interview data. The findings are organized into four themes: Finding VAR, Using VAR, Routines with VAR, and

Benefits of VAR.

Finding VAR

To understand how VAR were being used by FLES teachers, it was necessary to understand what steps they regularly took to locate the VAR. The participants discussed how the responsibility for locating VAR fell solely on them. During the interviews, they also discussed the importance of teacher autonomy, internet searches, collegiality, age appropriate VAR, need- based searches, and time spent searching when considering the steps required to find the right

VAR. (Table 4-2).

Table 4-2. Categories and codes for finding VAR Categories Codes Teacher Autonomy Autonomy Freedom Alignment Internet Searches Video Sharing Websites Search Engines Social Media Collegiality Team Colleagues Network Age Appropriate VAR Review Elementary Students Need-based Searches Time Spent Searching Time Allocated

Teacher Autonomy. Participants had autonomy to create curriculum or find whatever learning materials they thought necessary to teach their subject. They mentioned autonomy, freedom, and alignment. Autonomy was mentioned in reference to the teacher finding whatever resource they thought appropriate and the liberty to use that resource during class as they saw fit.

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All eight participants said that they had the autonomy and the privilege to select their resources or create curriculum for their classes.

June described this autonomy as “complete freedom.” Betsy said she also had full autonomy. “I do everything. Nobody creates the curriculum for me. I just create my own curriculum. Complete autonomy.”

As noted by Regina, this freedom sometimes must be aligned with specified goals:

We have subjects that are supposed to be covered; I think there are about 10, including color, shapes, numbers, family members, clothing, weather, etc. Days of the week and months of the year I added, because it just seems like they were absorbing it so quickly. I'm not told how to teach it, so it's up to me to come up with my own lesson plans and the ways of teaching it.

Shelia also had autonomy, and mentioned how her team worked together to agree upon what was taught. The autonomy that she was granted was shared with the other teachers within her lower school world languages department, in an effort to ensure the equitable distribution of learning goals among the instructed languages. Shelia added, “But I have full autonomy and control over what I teach in my classroom.” Teacher autonomy helped to increase teacher satisfaction. Shelia described enjoying the freedom to teach what she enjoyed as long as this ensured that the student learning outcomes were realized and aligned to the learning goals determined by the lower school world languages team.

Darla also noted that freedom came with the obligation for curricular alignment and cycling back to her peers to verify that any changes she decided to make were appropriate:

I would say I play a big role in how the children learn. And in developing the curriculum in what I think is the best way, the natural language approach in learning the language. And luckily my school gives me the freedom to change things up if I need to. Obviously, I need to check with them, but to make it the best learning environment for the kids… And I also have my mapping, which we create curriculum. And we just want to make sure we're aligned with the different levels. The lower school, middle school, and upper school. As long as we're aligned with them, we're fine.

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Melody explained that within her institution there were thematic units that must be covered as a requirement by the world languages department. She went on to explain that she was the only person responsible for finding the activities and resources necessary for teaching those predetermined thematic units. Similarly, Carrie explained that it was her responsibility to develop lessons that reached the learning goals necessary for the age and developmental stage of the students:

I have the responsibility, and I have the freedom, to create the lessons that I feel are best-suited for the students' age-appropriate level that they are on. I have the freedom to find the resources and to develop an instructional curriculum that spirals with the vocabulary, and reviews, and comes back, and circles back to cover all of the material that we hope to cover to give them a good foundation at their age.

Internet Searches. All the participants explained that they primarily found their VAR on the internet by allocating a search within an inquiry launched through some type of search engine. The participants often referenced video sharing websites, search engines, and social media. As Betsy noted, “I spend a lot of time looking for the resources online.” She went on to describe how frequently she conducts searches to add to her growing online library of VAR. “I'm always trying to bring new things in. Because every time I get to a new subject, I'm always looking to see if there's a new video out there.” June looks for VAR that may appeal to her students through online searches, “I have to find something that is online, that is authentic, something that I find that is attractive to the students… it's just looking and trying to search for something good online.”

Regina explains that she is continually updating and refreshing her VAR and tends to gravitate to some of the more frequently used internet sites that proved fruitful such as Google and YouTube. She found that saving resources from year to year can be troublesome and unnecessary. As she explains, “there’s so many new things.” Thus, Regina found that she

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engaged in continual exploration for an enhanced means to instruct and allocate the new materials collected from the various online searches.

Shelia also described her searches for VAR through online sources. She mentioned using

Google with some frequency but portrayed her YouTube inquiries as representing 90% of her searches via the web. Uniquely, Shelia also relied on her understanding of web addresses to assess whether the video was authentic and if the origin of the video was from one of the target countries for her language of instruction. Similarly, Carrie makes mention of how she not only conducts searches, but digs deeper into the individual VAR found in an effort to find clips or pieces within a whole video that are relevant to her lesson:

I've been utilizing YouTube, searching for things. And it does take some time to look through and preview various things on the internet. But when you find something, I try to bookmark it, and look at it, view it, and keep the part that I think is going to be key for the kids to see.

Darla searches clips, and like Carrie, reviews pieces of clips that are found through web searches. She then digs deeper into a video to find the most pertinent and applicable portion of a

VAR for the purposes of her lesson, “I like looking up stuff. Whatever I may teach in the next month, I start looking at videos, and I might not even use a whole video. I might use like 30 seconds of it.” Carrie went on to share that the smaller pieces within a larger video were an important way to share content with the students because they are more readily consumable, were not too long, and still hit the intended learning goals. Marta continued in this vein by mentioning the research she conducts on the internet to find videos and then only purposing the pieces that she can use. “If I see something, I need to teach them… I start researching and see what I can use… showing only what I want to show.”

Unlike the previous participants, Melody uses social media, specifically Twitter and

Facebook, in addition to the other more commonly mentioned search engines and video sharing

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websites such as Google and YouTube. She purposed her teacher networks as established through social networking sites in an effort to learn about what VAR they are using. By activating her network of peers and their recommendations, she can facilely locate VAR content that was school appropriate and suitable for the age of her learners. Enabling collegial networks through social media sites opens up opportunities for expanded cooperative interaction among colleagues. Further exploration of collegiality as a means for finding VAR is discussed in the following section.

Collegiality. Some of the teachers noted that they relied on collegiality to help find and aggregate the VAR. They reported doing so through their networks, teams, and colleagues.

Marta explained, “I have a group of teachers. I have personal friends in different schools in the area that I meet with… A network. We share.” Carrie goes on to explain that she too uses collegial relationships within her own organization to compile VAR. Melody and Carrie similarly mentioned finding VAR and learning teaching techniques through the actuation of the peer networks within and outside of their organization. Carrie elaborated on the way she plans with her team of teachers and how they share the VAR that they find with one another. Shelia said she relied heavily on colleagues within and outside of her school, because of the difficulties she encountered when trying to locate VAR in the French language.

Age Appropriate VAR. Several of the participants described a major component to locating VAR was determining whether the VAR was appropriate for the age group that they intended it for. Regina recounted a time when she did not review a video that touched on a subject matter that was not appropriate for the students under her auspice:

Well, I review it first, which one time I didn't and that was a big mistake. For Día de Muertos, I found so many things, because for second grade they're drawing their skulls…and they were making the sugar skulls in Spanish…And I thought, “Oh, this is good.” It had like thousands of views. But then they were talking

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about children in prison and I had to stop it and find something else. So, it taught me a lesson to really review the whole entire thing first.

June continued this thought on VAR and noted the struggle to find materials which met the needs of her younger learners in the FLES context. Ensuring that the found VAR was not too old for her students proved to be difficult for June. Many of the resources that she encountered while searching for VAR tended to be more appropriate for the middle and upper school contexts and she revealed the challenges when situating elementary level materials. June related that one must take into account the grade level of the students when allocating a VAR. She explained that what was good for one grade level was not necessarily suitable for another:

We need to think a little bit like them [students] to try to assess if the videos are appropriate for different ages, but the videos are useful…I mean, it's just like trying to find what is appropriate or adequate for first grade versus fourth grade.

Shelia acknowledged that it was challenging to find age-appropriate content, particularly for VAR in the French language, because the VAR for native speakers of French in the elementary school context often superseded the abilities of her learners. These VAR can go beyond the level necessary for students to experience comprehensible input. And while these advanced VAR may be appropriate for native French-speaking children, they do not meet the needs of the classroom teacher when purposed as a resource for SLA. The following section examined how the participants discovered VAR for incorporation and alignment into specific lessons or units.

Need-based Searches. Need-based searches refer to how participants search for and appraise VAR by how well they met the demands for inclusion in the lesson that they wanted to teach as they approached new units or a new school year. Some of the participants cited this as criteria for evaluating VAR during their searches. As Darla started looking forward to what learning goals would be touched on in the coming months, she related:

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“Whatever I may teach in the next month, I start looking at videos.” Melody specifically looks for VAR that reaches the students at the level of their language skills:

Sometimes I find activities that are really the best ones for my kids and the – the best ones for the population that I am working with. And sometimes I find the resources, and sometimes I do the accommodations, depending on the kids and depending on the level of [proficiency in] the second language.

Two other participants noted that finding need-based VAR is often a matter of revision. As June articulated, her learners grow, and she must alter and enhance her application of VAR from year to year:

I do have to revise them all the time. I try to use the same topics, the same units, but I have to modify them every single time because, of course, we don't have the same group of kids every single year. I have to modify it all the time, so every single year, I'm deleting some stuff or I'm adding.

Betsy divulged that the process is ongoing, adding that the ever-expanding volumes of

VAR to video sharing websites helps her to find and connect them to the new thematic units covered from year to year:

I go to look to see if there's anything new that I didn't see last year and, hopefully, it will be something, one or two bits for each theme that I'm doing. I always go and look to see if there's something new and fresh that I haven't seen before.

Time Spent. Overall, the amount of time spent finding resources varied between participants. Betsy relays that the research for VAR is ongoing, and she is continually on the hunt for new resources on a weekly to bi-weekly basis. “I do it each week or so, each couple of weeks…like with perros, I did that for three weeks. So, each week I'm looking to see if there's anything new coming out.” June, on the other hand, noted that the process was laborious, but depended on the lesson:

It's really time-consuming, and sometimes it's challenging because I don't have the time to, you know, come up with the most creative lessons just because we don't have the time. It depends. For this one, I think it took me maybe an hour and a half…It depends every single time. Sometimes I found videos right away, like quickly, and sometimes it, it takes me longer.

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To answer a question about the time she spends looking for resources, Melody explained that the time frame is never set in stone and can vary. She noted that, “It depends.” Finally,

Shelia explained that finding time within a busy teacher schedule can limit the scope of her research to find VAR. She saw teacher time as very limited and felt she would enjoy the opportunity to allocate more time toward research for finding VAR. Conversely, she proposed that the time spent finding VAR could also be a burden, as it took up more time than she liked.

Locating a VAR to use within the FLES classroom delineates only the first steps in a series of actions the participants in this study undertook in order to purpose VAR. In the following section, the lens was turned to the ways this present study’s participants directed the use of VAR.

Using VAR

Participants were asked how they integrated the use of their found VAR to their curricular needs, instructional needs, and goals. All eight participants said that their planning practices included using VAR that connected to specific lessons that they already had in mind.

Throughout the interviews, participants shared instructional approaches needed to achieve their instructional goals through the application of VAR. This was done through several specific instructional practices perceived by the participants as good instructional practices when teaching with VAR. Participants described these as: four skills in language learning, comprehension checks, connection to various lessons, authentic cultural experience, differentiation, repurposing previously used VAR, and supplement instruction (Table 4-3).

Four Essential Skills in Language Learning. It was revealed during the interviews that several of the participants made use of VAR as a means of exposing students to the four essential skills in language learning: listening, speaking, reading, and writing. A majority of VAR, by natural course, contains some type of audio component, be it a dialogue or lyrics in music. This

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can fulfill the essential listening skill sought by the present study’s participants. In particular,

VAR are often accompanied by a visual element such as animation, filmed or video pieces which

Table 4-3. Categories and codes for using VAR Categories Codes Four Skills in Language Learning Listen Speak Read Write Comprehension Checks Checking Pausing the VAR Reinforcement Stickiness Connection to Various Lessons Hook Cultural Cross-Curricular Authentic Cultural Experience Native Speakers for Accent Development Various Authentic Uses Differentiation Repurposing Previously Used VAR Cycle Back Repeat Supplement Instruction Supplement Variety of Activity are occasionally accompanied by some kind of textual element, in fulfillment of the reading skill.

The participants described their own unique approaches to eliciting the other skills of speaking and writing. Within this category, participants delineated the various practices that are deployed within their classrooms to meet the students’ needs for the presence of the four essential skills in language learning when using VAR for instruction in the FLES classroom.

Most of the participants made some reference to the four essential skills in language learning during their respective interviews. Each teacher portrayed a different application of

VAR to meet these needs. They would often use a singular VAR to fulfill one or more of these indispensable skills in one instructional application. For example, Marta connects her lessons to listening and writing as part of the four essential skills in language learning. “As a language

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teacher, I think that, for example, the videos where they can, eh, see them, hear, and then write whatever they see and they hear, is a wonderful thing.” Shelia plans connections to lessons beyond her limitation as a non-native speaker, and uses VAR as an opportunity to connect students to authentic listening activities with native speakers. “I think it's always beneficial to hear a native speaker speaking. I'm not a native speaker, so I think it's always beneficial to hear the accent.”

Melody explained that repeating a video two times allows students to listen to the video first, and then on the second showing, they start replicating the speech that they were just exposed to as a connection to vocabulary units and the integration of speaking skills:

I just exposed the whole video, and I just play it. In that way they will be able to listen to get the whole piece of the video. And then the second part, I just wanted them to produce the vocab. I mean, this week is the vocab of the frutas (fruit), that was the main idea of that.

She also discussed the use of VAR to connect and introduce listening activities as a review of vocabulary. “Sometimes I just try to find good educational videos that help me to review the vocab that I use when teaching.”

Reading, a necessary skill to language learning, is also mentioned as a factor in the use of

VAR. Betsy articulated, “I like for there to be closed captions, so that the kids can read it as well as sing it.” June expressed the importance of text in VAR as a way to solidify the unique aspects of the Spanish alphabet within her lessons:

I think when they do the text, it enhances, um, the reading part, for example. They practice more because the sounds in English and versus Spanish are not exactly the same, and I can tell we have a lot of trouble with the J, for instance. So, when they see it, and my fourth graders know how to read well, so they see it…I think they make the connection with the sounds that each letter makes. So, I think it's an important part.

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Shelia contributed the idea that text within the VAR is used within her classroom to demonstrate a phonetic connection between the word and its pronunciation for elementary level

French learners:

They will recognize words, sight words perhaps, that they would see and hear, and they click to that. That's actually probably the best authentic resource, for me, especially teaching French, because it's not phonetic. And so, for them to see the word written and then pronounced can really help with their language learning at this level.

Betsy uses VAR as a means of getting students to feel comfortable with speaking the language by encouraging communication through singing the songs that are presented in her lesson, “Well,

I think in just getting kids to verbalize and to communicate because they may not communicate just regularly in speaking and having a conversation, but they can communicate, and I think singing is a form of communication.”

Comprehension Checks. Throughout the interviews, the participants mentioned using

VAR to check for understanding. They demonstrated a variety of ways that VAR could be used for comprehension checks. All eight of the participants stated that checking for comprehension of the VAR, or making certain that the materials within the VAR stuck with the students, were effective practices and argued that this was a viable use of VAR. These practices varied somewhat among the participants, but all the methods were grounded in using VAR to check for comprehension of new concepts in real time, emphasize the learning goals of current lessons, and to assess for the retention of previous learned material. These various strategic implementations were devised by the participants to build knowledge from the use of VAR. The participants mentioned checking, pausing, or stopping the VAR, reinforcement, and stickiness.

Regina developed a method of pausing the VAR and questioning her students about what they had just seen as a way to reinforce learned material and to encourage a deeper level of engagement with the VAR:

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And I like to stop. So, when I do play any kind of video, I usually stop and I say, "What are they saying?" or, "What's happening?" I don't just play the whole loop, so I want them to interact with it.

When further questioned about this particular practice and whether it had an effect on student learning outcomes, Regina remarked, “Oh, definitely. Otherwise, you don't know, or you can't really tell, if they're absorbing it.” This continued interaction between teacher, student, and video was considered vital by Regina because of the real time feedback the teacher could capture. “So, checking periodically helps them to absorb it better than waiting until the end to check, I think.

Small bites.” This was a strategic practice that Regina developed through experience as she recognized a flaw in her practice and made a change to align her practice to another subject she teaches, art. She considers learning language with VAR a step-by-step process like learning art:

Interacting. We have to keep interacting, because at first, I used to just play it and then I would ask them at the end. And it's just like with art class, this really helps me, too, because for instance the clay pumpkins that they made in art class, it had maybe five or six steps. So, I first told them all the steps and I showed them how to make it and then they went to their desk and did one step and they come back. Then, we reviewed step number two and then they went back to work.

Chunking out a VAR, with starts and stops, helps to keep the students in the moment and scaffolds their learning, by not presenting them with too much material at once. This helps construct knowledge, rather than bewilder the students with a preponderance of information.

June found that this pertained to both long videos and short clips:

I noticed that it's not overwhelming to them when I pause and I stop to check because when I show the whole video, I notice they miss a lot. So, for example, I have a cartoon that I show them on special occasions, and it's just a fun cartoon. Nothing really important about it. It's just fun. But they love it. It’s a 15-minute video, and if I don't stop, I think they miss key elements of the chapter or the story. So, I try to do it whenever I show little clips, too.

June makes a correlation between her own language acquisition journey and uses this experience as a strategy in her instruction of Spanish. She relates how more proficient learners

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can see the whole video, but with young learners, early in the SLA process, stopping and starting is more fruitful:

I think it's really important and every single time I do stuff like this, I think about myself when I was learning English and it was better for me when you are more proficient. Yes, show the whole video without stopping. But with my students, they are not so advanced. We need to stop and make sure that we are getting what we are supposed to be getting. Understanding what happens in the video.

Carrie also uses comprehension checks, in the form of pauses in the VAR in an effort to put the learners more at ease and to check for understanding:

With the video I used today, I don't know if you noticed, I stopped it a few seconds into the video to ask the students, "What did you hear spoken?" and got some feedback from the students. So, that was a good way to check that they were understanding. And then I continued the video to see that they had the comfort level and that they understood.

Melody used comprehension checks in a way unique to the other participants. She was checking for comprehension, participation, and language production by using the mute button during a VAR:

I mute so they need to interact. And sometimes they do it as a whole group, and sometimes they do it with the partners. The main idea is I need to push really hard and that way that they can talk, and they can practice Spanish every time that they come. That is the main idea of any lesson.

Melody goes further to demonstrate how the mute button during a VAR can be used to help hear the students use the language and check for comprehension and proper production of the language:

I want to hear the students talk in the second language. They know that every time that I mute, they need to be talking, and they need to be producing. I don't want to hear my voice. I just want to hear the sounds they know. Learning a second language, sometimes is hard. I just want that they just have the opportunity to feel able or to have the freedom that they need to speak. I don't want them in automatic mode.

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In a similar fashion, Betsy lowers the volume on a VAR that is playing as a way to assess whether all the students are actively participating in singing and then makes the determination about whether the students comprehend the lesson:

I was actually sitting there assessing them because I'm playing all these songs that we've been going over, and I actually have the music turned down just a little bit so I can actually tell who's singing the songs. I can tell if that child picked up on what we are doing.

For other teachers, the act of reinforcement alone was an essential element in VAR. For example, Shelia and Melody both purposed VAR as a means to reinforce vocabulary or the learning goals for the daily lesson. In both cases, the participants explained that the reinforcement of the classroom terminology expanded the students’ use of the terms. Melody observed that when the students witnessed the terms in use within the context of various sentences in the VAR, it contributed to comprehensible input and broader meaning making.

Finally, two teachers described the effectiveness of VAR via retention throughout the school year and in subsequent years beyond the FLES context. Betsy described this as the application of a comprehension check, but she also explained the importance of the student’s ability to replicate the material on their own. Betsy and Marta used the term “sticky” or a common variant of the word, to characterize student comprehension and retention of the material and content contained in the various used VAR. Betsy described comprehension from the music contained within a VAR as something the kids can do on their own after practicing with the

VAR on several occasions and related this to the “stickiness” of the lesson or material. Marta continued this further as she demonstrated how she ascertains whether students are comprehending what they are learning from VAR by how well the materials contained within a

VAR stuck with students that were several years removed from her classes. “For example, if you

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go to eighth grade here and ask them, ‘Guys, do you know the, the capital of Venezuela?’ They will start singing the song. They will, believe me. It is sticky.”

In the same vein as “stickiness,” Darla linked the memories of her students’ previously learned elements through the use of informal comprehension checks. Darla responded to a question about the use of VAR during which music was played from a YouTube video that made use of the marimba. It was played for a large portion of her class, from the beginning as they entered the classroom, and then was restarted as the students moved to participate in centers. She outlined how, early in the school year, she pulled up some version of music made with a marimba from YouTube and asked, “Does anybody remember this music?” Darla further checked for comprehension surrounding this cultural item by then questioning the students about the origins of the music, followed by an anecdote about her personal experience with a marimba in her own home while she studied and traveled to Guatemala. She used a variety of her real-life experiences, cultural elements, and the content of the VAR to connect to the learning goals.

Connecting VAR to lessons was explored in more detail in the subsequent section.

Connecting VAR to Various Lessons. Participants were asked how they went about using the VAR when considering their already-created curriculum sequence or when looking to integrate a VAR into a lesson. Several participants in this present study provided insight into their use of VAR and how the VAR were connected to specific lessons. They described purposing VAR to grab the student’s attention, increase cultural understanding, and activate cross-curricular connections.

Some participants utilized VAR as a hook to gather student attention and engagement early on within a lesson sequence. June explained that connecting to the lesson by utilizing a

VAR as something that was attractive to the students represented a hook for the lesson. “For

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example, if I focus on fruits or vegetables, in this case, the game is about making licuado

(smoothies). So, I have to find something that is online, that is authentic, that I find that is attractive to the students.” Similarly, Darla explained that on occasion she used VAR to open up an instructional period. “Sometimes I'll have a video and I'll go into a lesson from that.” These connections stem from the perceived necessity to help the students more deeply engage with the material early in a lesson sequence by allocating a VAR because of its appeal to elementary aged learners.

While a hook engages students with a VAR early in a lesson, a VAR can also maintain engagement by bringing students closer to a cultural concept by digging deeper into that topic that would otherwise be difficult to grasp without the accompaniment of a VAR for visual support. For Betsy, connecting a VAR to a lesson on the manufacturing of chocolate was perceived as effective as a vital piece representing the regional economy in Latin America.

“There's one that I use when we were, for some reason, I think when we were just studying

South American chocolate, and I found a little video just so they could see what it looked like for a chocolate cocoa bean.” For Marta, connecting a VAR to a lesson becomes multi-faceted as she uses it to support a cultural topic and the targeted vocabulary elements simultaneously:

They support the lesson that I am giving. For example, if I teach el Día Los Muertos, I find something on the internet that I can show to students in order to make them realize what the vocab means in Spanish.

Analogously, Marta mentioned how a cultural lesson can be purposed to target a variety of lessons synchronously as she described using VAR to forge a cross-curricular connection between history, culture, and vocabulary:

My way to teach is not just teach one subject at a time. I try to make connections between different subjects. So, if I'm teaching them about the Conquistadors who came to America and how we received the Spanish language in South America, I would take them all the way from Columbus to the Aztecs. Then to one of the legacies of the Aztecs, like the celebration of El Día Los Muertos. I will show

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them videos from Peru, of the different civilizations – you know Incas, Mayas, and Aztecs. Then I do a review about the vocabulary and what they learned.

As an Art and Spanish teacher, Regina described how she also teaches with VAR by connecting her two subjects together with a lesson that spans across subject matter and also maintains a focus on the vocabulary:

I can do cross-curricular with videos, where if it was a different teacher, it wouldn't be that easy. So, when I'm focusing on animals in Spanish, I'm focusing on animals in art. Like when we're painting, they have to name the colors in Spanish that they're using. Or like when they made their pumpkins in art class, we call them calabazas. And I show “Penguin and Pumpkin,” and every time they say the word pumpkin, they had to say calabaza.

Authentic Cultural Experience. The authentic exposure to the target culture was a key element in the use of VAR for several participants of this study. A common instance between some of the participants under this category included providing the exposure to native speakers to assist with accent development. Moreover, some of the participants shared that their use of

VAR for additional cultural authenticity within the classroom enabled the students with an ideal

SLA environment for a variety of reasons.

Native Speakers for Accent Development. The development of native-like accents for the second language learner stands as a pivotal aspect of SLA. Without proper accent and pronunciation, efforts to communicate can become obstructed and meaning is often lost. The participants in this study mentioned the learner’s proclivity toward the development of native- like accents through exposure to native speakers of the target language using VAR. June sees

VAR as a model of the language for the students, “They [VAR] have to contain native speakers of the language, uh, so they can model, you know, better.”

Shelia is a non-native-speaking French teacher. She explains how she applies VAR in her classroom in an effort to benefit her students with native exposure to the spoken language, “I'm

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not a native speaker, so I think it's always beneficial to hear the native accent.” Shelia mentions the perceptions of her students when listening to native accents in VAR:

Oftentimes, it's a little frustrating for them because they do talk, in their mind, faster. And it's maybe harder for them to understand because they are speaking at a pace that's natural but seems fast to a non-native speaker. So, there's a little bit of that, maybe a little bit of frustration level, but that's learning in itself, how to decipher words when it's a native speaker speaking in an authentic resource or environment that might be perceived faster-paced than I would maybe teach something.

Purposing VAR with native speakers was valued by Carrie. She referenced the lesson she delivered for this study, where her students watched a video of a common game played by children from the target culture:

I wanted the students to see how the game is played in the Spanish-speaking countries through native Spanish speakers, and to hear the game explained in the target language, and also an example of how children who speak Spanish play the game…. I like to look for native speakers, and it needs to be a video that takes place in a Spanish-speaking country or is made by some Spanish producers. It must not be something that has been designed to teach the language, but rather, a video that is a real-life…to teach the kids in the native language.

Shelia indicated she felt the same, noting that native accents from native speakers were useful elements to expose the learners to in order to hear the sounds produced in the target language. Furthermore, she explained that as non-native speakers, the students take away a discernible benefit toward a native-like accent development when they hear the language used and pronounced by a native speaker.

June continued to explain that the authentic exposure to the target culture through a VAR is a perceived best practice for her, because, in her experience, the students are able to decipher when the speakers in a video are non-native speakers. Native speakers contribute to the cultural realism and the most immersive environment that she is striving for when using VAR for instruction. She mentioned that her duty is to provide the students with as many authentic exposure opportunities to native speakers as possible. She viewed this as the most logical way to

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expose students to the ways that the language is spoken in a functional manner within the target culture. June proceeded to recall an instance where a video, not from the target culture, was discovered by her students as contrived and not authentic. She then related how authenticity is important for her application of VAR:

I think they appreciate when they see something that is realistic, not cartoonish or made up. I see their reactions to some of the videos I have shown them. For example, we were working on the house unit. I introduced a video from this teacher in California, whose Spanish is wonderful, but some of them were able to identify, “He's not a Spanish speaker.” I don't know why they got that. They know the difference, so I'm thinking if I do something that is not authentic or is not realistic or is not the real thing, I feel that I'm cheating them if I do. It's not the real thing.

Various authentic cultural uses. Using the VAR as a way to expose students to relevant cultural elements unique to the specific target cultures was further described as necessary by several of the participants for a variety of reasons. For Carrie, exposing students to an authentic cultural experience through the use of VAR allowed for alignment with her school’s goals as well as engagement through entertainment of the students:

It is under the umbrella of our diversity goals in our school to create expanding cultural education to the student body over the course of their experience and help them expand their exposure to culture. I found a group from Spain that filmed dancing to entertain young children in Spain. And it was filmed either for television or just a show. And I showed the kids that video. And they could see not only the show, but they saw the audience, which was a Spanish audience, and they were children just the same age. So, they could understand what it was like in the country.

Carrie explained that these authentic cultural experiences played a role in engaging the students anew as they revisited previously learned materials. She viewed the VAR as a tool for not only bringing culture to the students, but as a means of reviving already covered cultural materials with a bit of a twist from the first presentation. Carrie then espoused that the learning outcomes she noticed when exposing students to a VAR displaying the target culture, had aroused student

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curiosity:

To see a real-life example of something going on in a Spanish-speaking country piqued their interest and made them curious about the culture. It's also developed questions –they've asked questions about things that, maybe, they've never seen before, that they are expanding their horizons. So that has been really good. And depending on the video, if it's age-appropriate and it really piques their interest, they will learn it faster than if you didn't have the video.

Marta also described the importance of exposing students to authentic cultural experiences: “I think the video is giving to them the real thing. You know? This is happening in

Argentina, and we can see it in the video. You know, it takes them somewhere else.”

Darla explained that giving the students an authentic cultural experience can connect students to authentic musical artists from the target cultures and also connect to a geography lesson:

I introduce them to different artists. For example, where are these guys from? Okay. This is a video and they have four guys. This guy is Argentinean. This guy is from Colombia. And then we bring out the map. And we start talking about – it goes into more of a geography-type lesson, like where is this country?

Shelia incorporated VAR to support her classroom’s authentic cultural experiences, as a reinforcement of cultural learning goals. This added interaction also became a cultural lesson where students could actually see a cultural item that was discussed in class:

For example, the one that you saw, le pont, has the culture because we showed the actual pictures of the bridge and the city where it is. And then they dance, and then they learn some of the vocabulary through the song. And it's an authentic song.

Differentiation. Differentiation is organizing teaching and learning to accommodate the individual demands of each child to improve the instructional standard received by all children in a single classroom (Bearne, 2006). Comments provided by the participants included describing how the various learning styles of students are engaged and activated when using VAR for instruction.

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Carrie applied VAR to make certain that all learning styles were activated. She described how some of the various modalities of learning could be activated when a VAR was used for instruction. During the observation, she used various activities, changing the pace and timing of each one frequently and then went on to describe this as a means for maintaining student engagement. The various activities involved listening to the description of a game in a lecture, a demonstration of a game in the VAR, students playing the game, and finally the students made a drawing of what occurred in the game while sharing with their peers. While the students drew, the video was played in the background, and they referenced it with quick glances at various points during the art activity.

Betsy noticed that the students engaged at different levels. Some would produce a song that was presented in a VAR, while other students approached the videos in a different way. She noted that not all students fully figured out how to sing a song that was contained in a VAR and continued to explain that a VAR was not necessarily a panacea for all learning in the FLES classroom. Marta mentioned that engaging with the goals of the school to reach every learner in their unique learning style was a strategic way to utilize VAR in her instruction:

Because one of the goals that we have in our school is to differentiate, we work with diversity. We work with cultures. We work with a variety of programs. The idea is to give the student different types of learning. For that, as I plan my instruction, I use a lot of videos, music, and technology. You, you can see that all the time.

Differentiation with VAR can assist the teacher in making the student feel comfortable, in that they will engage quicker and make learning straightforward and effortless because they are operating within a sphere where they feel comfortable as expressed by Darla:

I just think when children feel comfortable in a classroom, the instruction comes easier. When they're given a choice, it comes easier because they're interested in it. I want to offer them different activities or options of what they might feel best. Then, I would jump in on that. And it helps me differentiate – also I can jump in with a student who might prefer to work on this, but then I will add more

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activities to that. I think the best instruction is to try and find where they most feel comfortable. I don't want to say manipulating them to learn the language, but sometimes it keeps them from being afraid to learn the language.

Repurposing previously used VAR. The participants found unique ways to revisit old instructional goals and reuse VAR that was previously shown in the classroom. For many of the participants, the reuse of VAR could be coming back to something learned earlier in the same academic year or recycling a VAR year after year as learners advanced on to the next grade level.

Darla illustrated how a VAR can be purposed on separate occasions as a means of spurring the recollection of students, “I use the VAR the same way that they use it in the video, to try and remind the kids.” Likewise, Betsy indicated how she applied a VAR in song in the classroom to teach a unit about animals and basic commands as she recycled old learning goals through a video

which tied into the week before, because that's part of the reason I do dogs a lot is I do a lot of commands and things with dog commands. I do a whole section with dogs, having them jump and roll over and beg…They had already gone through a lot of that when they were turning like they were dogs. And then I had a lot of plastic dogs that I have them doing stuff.

Shelia also showed videos, “Fairly regularly and cycled back.” She described the process as showing the students a VAR that could be purposed for a public performance and cycling through the video with the students on several iterations within one class period, and again in subsequent class meetings. Sheila commented that the students would oftentimes ask for a VAR that they were familiar with to be shown again, demonstrating their affection for the VAR.

Carrie stated, “Repeat them at various times. And not overuse them. But use them strategically in places over the course of the year that will help enhance the curriculum and excite the kids, too, when they see those things again.” Shelia had a similar thought, noting the most effective

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practice was, “Probably the repetition of using the resource and the learning that goes on with that.”

Melody found that the students oftentimes need to see a learning element through a VAR reiterated and explained. She continued to elucidate that students needed plenty of repetition and visual stimulation. She described VAR as “one of the most important resources” within the world languages class for the purpose of repeating and providing a visual. The use of VAR was viewed as not just a random activity with students merely sitting and getting information, but rather a catalyst for language production and activity.

For Regina, recycling the used VAR aligned to what was happening in other contexts within her institution and she incorporated that into her own classroom:

Upstairs, they were learning about apples and things like that in K2 [Kindergarten 2], and so I've brought that in a video. That's when I started talking about the food groups. Because I really believe in layered learning. But yeah, so if they're learning a certain way in English, then I bring it in, do it in Spanish, do it again – it’s the same.

Carrie noted that her instructional goals with VAR are cyclical, and she focuses on bringing them back year after year, from Pre-K to kindergarten, and even on to first and second grades. “I try to tie it in together and add elements to make it more age-appropriate for each level as they mature. Bring back the same material, but in a way that is perfect for the age they’re in.”

Supplemental instruction. The use of VAR to supplement instruction was associated with aiding the already planned instruction within the classroom through the utilization of a

VAR. From this tool, participants would complement instruction in addition to functioning as a diversion, a re-engagement piece, and add to the variety of activities within a class period.

Regina likes the focus in her classroom to be the learning target and she therefore arranges the use of VAR as an addendum or a diversion to the regularity of teaching, “We do a lot of cross-

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curricular stuff. So, I just think anything that supplements, because I use it as a supplement versus the focus. So, it's just fun to break it up and mix it up a little.”

June finds that using a VAR can actually be a strategic additive to her planning, especially when challenged with the formulation of teacher-created instructional materials. The

VAR can be a complement to what she generates:

I have to create my material. I have to come up with my own PowerPoints or activities on paper. I have to design that or find it somewhere else. So, it's really time-consuming and it's challenging because I don't have the time to, you know, come up with the most creative lessons. A quick video helps this.

June asserted that the age-appropriateness of the video can make it a vital supplement to learning in the early childhood context. She noted that no matter the student’s age, the videos had a high value and the value that the students assigned to the VAR made them a vital piece to complement classroom instruction. Carrie went on to highlight how supplementing instruction was essential to maintaining the engagement of the students and pointed out that the variety changed frequently during the observed lesson:

So, I use various elements to create the lesson and a lot of different activities to engage all the kids at different learning styles. So, in the lesson that you saw, you could see that we had a variety of activities, including the video, that changed frequently to keep the kids active and engaged.

Darla thinks the videos play a major role in her classroom, and she tries to connect the

VAR to the learning goals she is focused upon. “It doesn't play the full role, because obviously kids need a teacher to teach them, especially a language. However, it plays a big supplemental role in my classroom. And I try and connect it to all my lessons.”

This section illustrated many of the methods deployed by participants when using VAR in their respective FLES classrooms. Understanding how the participants used the VAR painted only a portion of the picture about the ways that VAR are applied in their classes. In order to gain a richer understanding of VAR in the FLES classroom, it is important to understand the

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routines that are used by the participants when deciding to use VAR. The following section focuses on the routines commonly used during a typical classroom period with a VAR.

Routines with VAR

To better understand the use of VAR by the participants in the FLES classroom, it was necessary to understand where in the course of events the VAR was used. The participants each had a running idea of how they routinely presented their VAR during a lesson within some type of sequence that was appropriately timed and introduced into the instructional period when perceived as pedagogically suitable.

While discussing what occurs in the classroom, the participants referenced timing on various occasions. Some of the participants mentioned how they timed the application of the

VAR based on the age of the students and how long they intended to show a VAR. Timing the use of the VAR delineated either how long the VAR was used during one class period or the number of times a particular VAR or various VAR were shown within one instructional period.

A sequence referred to various points in time during a class period that the VAR were shown.

The use of the VAR generally was kept short and shown early in a lesson. Darla sometimes limited the use of a VAR to less than a minute. “I might not even use a whole video. I might use like 30 seconds of it. Throw it in there when the kids come into class and then we move on.” However, she stated later in the interview that her use of short videos was not exclusively set aside for the beginning of a lesson. The routine of showing a video can be completely outside of what one might consider a standard routine. In fact, Darla mentioned that it can be used to break up the routine:

They add a lot to the lessons because when they start falling off a little, if they're getting a little bored, we throw that in there. And we just see little bits here, bits there. And it kind of makes the whole environment more exciting, because there are a lot of different options for their learning. Let it be a video, iPad, teacher, center. And so, it just gives them more. It adds excitement.

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How long the video was shown was a point of concern for the participants as they did not want students to come to their classrooms simply to watch VAR. Shelia gave a percentage of class time that should be allocated to VAR and she was a proponent of keeping the VAR short throughout the class duration. “Oh, maybe 10% of class. They're usually very short. The actual resource is maybe just no more than three minutes long out of a forty-minute period.” Betsy similarly stated:

But I don't really feel like they're coming to sit with me to watch videos, that I'm really pretty clear about that. So, most of the stuff we're doing, it's short. It doesn't have that much time. They're maybe two minutes max. I think maybe one of them was three. Sometimes I like it when they go back, so the kids can sing it again.

Regina had a complementary thought, forgoing the use of VAR as a dominant instructional element while keeping in mind the zone of proximal development of the students and what was age appropriate for a student’s ability to concentrate:

It shouldn't dominate a lesson; it should be a supplement. I guess it depends on the age group. For kindergarten, you don't want them sitting longer than five or six minutes. You have to keep it moving. And for the older grades, I think they could go longer.

This sentiment was echoed by Carrie. She indicated that the VAR shown should be proportionate to the age of the student and their ability to remain attentive during a VAR. “I would say every student usually really pays good attention during the videos as long as you make the videos age-appropriate, with the shorter videos for the younger kids. It can go longer with the older kids.” Carrie indicated how a VAR could be used frequently and multiple times during an academic year to maintain student learning and keep long-term interest. This demonstrated that the use of VAR within an instructional sequence is not limited to one class period, but aligned to a curriculum sequence over the course of an academic year. “So, I would encourage them to find a few key videos that are perfectly aligned with whatever curriculum they're working on and to put those into their curriculum.”

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VAR was used routinely used by many of the participants as an opening to an instructional session. This came into fruition as a salutation early in the lesson and was regularly reinforced through a song, as explained by Melody:

We do a lot of routines. And at the beginning (of the observed lesson), they were doing the greetings. We practice the greetings. We practice a song or a book, and many vocabulary terms. And this week, we have been learning the food. We have been learning the name of the fruit, the color, the quantity, and some phrases in Español, like, quiero, what do I want, que te gusta, what do you like?

Some noteworthy elements from Melody were the alignment of vocabulary and grammatical elements within the routine, how this alignment in the opening sequence of her lesson set the stage for the rest of her class period, and how the song was contained within a VAR and shown to the whole group. Similarly, for Betsy, the routine involved greetings with a song encapsulated within a VAR and books:

We greet them. We sing a welcome song. I spent probably the first month teaching them different welcome songs, and so I vary the different welcome songs that we sing. There's a couple that I use just to change things up. Then, I always read a book. Then, we always do a song. Then, depending on time, we do centers, and then they're dismissed because it's only 30 minutes.

It should be noted that the welcoming songs used by both Melody and Betsy were accessed through a VAR shown to the students early in the observed lesson and accompanied by movement in the form of a dance performed by the students. The movements used were modeled by the teacher in a teaching method known as “total physical response” where the movement demonstrated coincided with the lyrics of the song.

Regina described her routine as well, noting, “When the children come in, they'll choose their spots, their Sit Spots, identifying the color and the shape. And then we usually sing a song and play at least three games.” The songs that Regina sang with the students were like those of

Melody and Betsy, songs regarding salutations contained within a VAR. Regina also situated the games she played with her students within the VAR. She was observed presenting a familiar

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VAR to the students about animals. The VAR was paused and then the students would answer questions about the music and the imagery, based on what was contained in the VAR. Shelia also described a diverse set of activities as part of her everyday routine:

We always start out with a little meeting, sort of a warmup, and then I do a lesson, usually vocabulary or grammatical lesson based on a theme. And then I try to incorporate a video authentic resource aligned to the theme.

Darla indicated that drawing a connection between the lesson of the day and the VAR shown to the students early in the instructional lesson was a sequence she regularly apportioned:

Basically, I have my lesson and I try and start the day off with a quick video that would connect with something that they're doing in their different areas. And whatever my lesson is, I try and connect it with some type of activity, whether it be a quick 2-minute YouTube video or whether it be an activity that we normally do.

The prevailing use of VAR to start a lesson as routine within the course of events of a class period was described as “very typical” by June within her daily routine. She located a VAR that demonstrated to the students, early in the class interval, how to make a smoothie using fresh fruit. Not only was the use of the VAR a daily piece of her instructional sequence, but she also applied it to pre-teach, review, and preview a coming unit. When asked about the typicality of the observed lesson within an instructional period, June stated, “We're getting ready to do our restaurant unit, and so we're kind of refreshing on fruits and vegetables and then we're going to get into real food. So yes, it is very typical.”

Benefits of VAR

FLES teachers disseminated various perceived benefits of using VAR during their respective interviews. Many of the participants had a unique perspective about the benefits of VAR in the FLES classroom. Others maintained a common view of how the use of VAR in class benefited student learning outcomes. Their various points of view

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were coalesced and presented as the benefits of VAR with the inclusion of music in a

VAR, student engagement, student entertainment, and student enthusiasm. (Table 4-4).

Music. Each of the eight participants in the present study utilized, in a similar fashion, the use of a VAR in the form of music. Throughout the interviews, many of the participants mentioned music as the primary content of the VAR they allocated for instruction. The participants brought up songs contained within their found VAR, students singing along to the music in a VAR, or music itself. The context of their remarks varied but the underlying meaning centered on music as a catalyst for spurring memory and learning.

Table 4-4. Categories and codes for benefits of VAR Categories Codes Music Music Song Sing Movement Movement Motions Actions Engagement Screen Visual Attention Enthusiasm Excitement Fun

As previously stated, all of the participants in the present study used music as a part of their VAR in the classroom. This meant incorporating music videos and VAR that contained music into lessons regularly for a variety of purposes. As Marta noted, this type of learning stays with students for a long time:

I use a lot of videos, music videos. They will never forget them. I have 11 years working here. One of my first graduating students here saw me and said, “I know the capitals because you taught me the song, the capitals of the Spanish speaking countries, because you taught me the song when I was in first grade.” The songs and the music, that is a resource what will help you forever. It's an ornament that you will carry forever.

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Darla noted that the use of a music VAR is fairly consistent, applied for both specific lessons but also for ambience or background. When questioned about the music playing during the observation period, she remarked that music regularly plays in the background when it is appropriate and will not distract the students. She usually plays some sort of culturally suitable music like marimba or salsa as the students enter her classroom. She purposed the music as a way of teaching cultural topics.

Carrie also discussed the importance of dance and movement that comes from the music videos as a point of engagement and a chance for vocabulary development:

The ones that I've used that have had an element where there's movement, particularly with the little kids, when they can get up and dance with the video or repeat the words, and do movements with the words, those have been the most fun and engaging. They seem to really catch on, and just jump right in, and enjoy the video more.

The remaining participants emphasized the way in which music within a VAR benefited students in their learning as they purposed it as an entertainment element. As Regina said, “They love singing. To me, they just learn better when they're learning it in song.” June added that music speaks to the students: “I think music is important for them to really say, ‘Oh.’ It gives them clues that some parts are important. For my kids, they are more entertaining, I think.” The way that the music assists in students’ learning was also crucial to Shelia as she explained that her use of VAR almost exclusively consisted of authentic videos with music. This was done to fulfill a philosophical pedagogical approach to teaching world languages in the elementary context at her school. Music is a fundamental aspect of her regular lessons and for that reason she is naturally drawn to music resources. She maintained the view that the VAR with music are the best.

Betsy explained that she allocated VAR with music because of the ways they can fulfill educational and entertainment objectives at the same time, “I want them to have a good time.”

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She stated that the videos must be consumable for the students, in that the students replicated the song they were hearing readily. She added that the inclusion of closed captioning fulfilled an essential reading skill as the students read along with the lyrics as they sang. Melody further described techniques for playing VAR with music as well as the importance of music as a means for practicing crucial language skills:

If I play the video, I have been telling them that I just want to listen to their voice, that they can pay attention to the pictures. But the idea is that they come, and they practice Spanish. And that is the reason, because I have it on mute because every time that I just mute the video is because they know that they need to sing.

Overall, the use of music seemed to pervade discussions about the application of

VAR as a customary participant practice. As the participants elected to use VAR with music as a generalized practice for benefitting language instruction, they also suggested that movement was a benefit that frequently accompanied the use of VAR with music and was further proffered as a general benefit of using VAR.

Movement. Moving with a VAR or a song contained within a VAR had some perceived and espoused benefits based on the responses of many of the participants in this study. This benefit can be related to the use of music as an instructional element contained in a VAR.

However, the commentary from the participants argued for the benefits the students gain from doing movement along with a VAR. The three codes that contributed to the creation of this category were movement, motions, and actions.

When Betsy was asked what she looks for in a song, she explained, “I love it when they have actions that the kids could do, and I like it when the kids can really act out what's going on in the song.” She expanded upon this by describing a VAR in which she created some complementary physical materials for the students to use during the song:

There's one that we do that is the mochila (backpack) song. I have a backpack full of all the stuff. So, we do this song, and then I pass out all the different things in

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the backpack. Then the kids each have a different item like a notebook or a pencil or whatever it is in the song. And then they lift it up as it's mentioned in the song.

Regina tends to look for VAR that have an interactive element which includes movement.

“I gravitate towards ones where the kids can participate a lot in, and they're not just watching but moving. So that it's more interactive.” Melody found the students are fonder of the VAR that have interactivity and movement built into the VAR, as she described a video that was utilized during the observation:

For example, every time that they come, they practice the greetings. And the first video, they love that one because it has a lot of movement, has a lot of gestures, and they can interact with their friends, and they can practice the routine.

Melody described a VAR that she recently found that allows the students to recall and practice vocabulary items through movement, “I just found another good one for grammar and a good one to describe the name of the fruit and the color through motions.” The following sections look at how student engagement, enthusiasm, and comfort are additional benefits.

Engagement. For many of the participants, the rationale behind their use of VAR was described as the usefulness of engaging the students with VAR as a way to captivate the students and get their attention. Participants described these activities in various ways, but the common thread was engagement with the VAR activity. At various points in the interviews, the participants mentioned screens, visuals and attention.

The proliferation of screens, such as iPads and smart phones within the lives of young learners, came up during the interviews. They reported the use of VAR as a mechanism for engaging young learners, who were accustomed to being visually stimulated by screens. Betsy described the motivating factor of visuals and screens:

The amount of time these kids spend in front of the screen has grown exponentially since I first started. So, in order to really engage them, I feel like they need that at this point. They need more than just hearing the song, they need to be able to see the song. They need a lot of visual engagement.

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Other teachers mentioned how the students’ screen time was something they were aware of, and so they used the videos as a way of gaining the attention of the students. As Regina explained,

“Kids have a lot of screen time nowadays and that's something they can easily relate to. They don't just want somebody in front of them, lecturing them. So, they're looking more for something that's relatable to them.” Similarly, Shelia has found that students do not want to hear it from a teacher, because they want to see it in action. As Shelia noted, “I think visually, seeing something instead of imagining it, for lack of a better word, by it being described to you, solidifies learning in most people.”

Regina mentioned that if she shows a cartoon that has been translated into Spanish, which the students are familiar with, it increases engagement because of familiarity. “I like Peppa Pig because they think it's funny and they've seen it in English at home. So, when they hear it in

Spanish it makes more sense to them.” Regina goes on to explain that she is able to decide what will be fun and engaging to the students based on her previous experiences with what her own children engage with. “Well, I have three kids of my own, so it's kind of like, what do they like to do, you know? It's just having fun interacting with them.” Carrie goes on to describe the quick nature of children and how videos can help add an element of variety to a lesson:

These kids are thinking quick. They need a lot of entertainment in the lesson to keep their engagement. You've got different kinds of learners that pay attention to certain things more than others. And so sometimes, the video breaks it up and just adds an element of change where the kids are focused in on that.

Furthermore, Carrie explains, “It also helps the teacher have something fun he or she can present.

It’s something that she or he can't explain to the kids. She can actually show it in real life on the video.” The following section explored the ways student enthusiasm entered into the discussions concerning the perceived student benefits when using VAR.

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Enthusiasm. Many of the participants recognized the enthusiasm that their students have for learning with a VAR and recognized the advantages during their interviews. Enthusiastic use and reception of the VAR drove up the excitement and fun that the students and participants had for learning and teaching with VAR.

Darla described how the VAR “added excitement” and noted that the application of the

VAR can help to break up the monotony of a classroom period and bring back student and teacher interest. This element of interest was essential to the use of VAR as raised interest creates curiosity and thus enthusiasm for learning the material.

Carrie described this, “They have learned the material with the videos that I've used very quickly and have been interested in it. That's the main thing. They're curious about it.” Shelia agreed, bringing attention to the idea that the students have a propensity to be drawn toward or attracted to VAR. As she noted:

They are very engaged with it when it comes to paying attention. As long as they're short enough, they will pay attention more to authentic resources than, maybe something else. Videos, especially. They just seem to be drawn to those.

Melody added that enthusiasm turns into motivation, and this is an indispensable element to the reason why she utilizes VAR within her classroom. She went on to further illustrate that student motivation begets participation and consequently language production, which was the primary goal for her FLES classroom. Melody continued to expound on how she made the decision to use a VAR multiple times after the initial showing based on the reaction that the students had to it, “Well, I just always want to see the students’ reaction. That is one of the main things… I just wait for the student response.”

As Betsy explained, these VAR allow for fun, which raises the level of enthusiasm for the students and thus benefits learning. She described a song that was originally in English but

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was translated into Spanish by Spanish speakers as a complimentary instructional piece on a unit about animals:

They were going to hear all the songs again, and we were just going to have a dance party. Well, at that point, I'll bring in that song that was “Who Let the Dogs Out” in Spanish, which isn't necessarily one [VAR]. I wouldn’t spend the whole lesson doing it, but the kids love it... I'll throw it in, and we'll spend two minutes doing it.

In addition, Carrie imparted the importance of reinforcing similar content in a different way using the VAR videos:

The videos are a great tool to bring not just the authentic culture aspect to the students, but also, it's a new, exciting way to present the same material in a different way for them. Something they haven't seen before, but material that they've learned. I use the video to excite them again for learning that material.

Summary

The results of this study indicated that, in an effort to help their students learn, the participants had to deploy a variety of strategies while using VAR as an instructional tool in order to ensure it was done in the most fruitful manner. The participants had to spend time searching and finding VAR that was aligned to an instructional goal. Then after locating the appropriate VAR, they utilized them in what they perceived as the most effective manner.

Beyond the simple application of VAR as an instructional tool, it was discovered that the participants had a customary practice with the VAR that manifested in a regular routine. Each participant also shared that they had discovered a variety of advantages that appeared when they used the VAR with regularity and consistency. These practices were argued to be effective and frequently contributed to the student learning outcomes. The conclusions forwarded in the following chapter will discuss more fully the findings, implications, and recommendations for future research that emerged in the course of this qualitative examination.

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CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION

This chapter focuses on the discussion of findings surrounding the instructional practices of FLES teachers within the ISAS who were using VAR during instruction. It begins with a brief summary of the research study, followed by a review of my findings as they aligned with the research questions and literature and additional findings. It then includes implications that were formulated as recommendations for my professional practice, FLES teachers, and the world languages field. The chapter concludes with implications for my professional practice, the limitations of this research, and recommendations for future research.

Study Summary

This research was conducted to explore the instructional practices of FLES teachers who teach with VAR at ISAS institutions. The ISAS is a non-profit voluntary membership association of independent schools that is regionally divided throughout the United States of America. The schools that have membership in the ISAS are autonomous, with complete control over their curriculums. The FLES teachers at each member ISAS school in the D/FW area are collegial and occasionally share instructional strategies and practices through a networking event each year.

To gain insight into the lived experiences of the participants from similar, but not precisely the same context as mine, a basic qualitative approach was selected. Purposeful sampling was used to identify the participant institutions and FLES teachers from the ISAS in D/FW. Data were collected through observations in each classroom where teachers taught with VAR and face-to- face semi-structured interviews with teachers from ISAS member schools about their teaching practices with VAR. I gathered this information from multiple data sources to answer the following research question and two sub-questions:

• RQ: What instructional practices are used by FLES teachers at ISAS schools while using video authentic resources during instruction?

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• SUBQ1: What do FLES teachers at ISAS schools perceive as best instructional practices when using video authentic resources during instruction?

• SUBQ2: How are FLES teachers at ISAS schools aligning video authentic resources to instructional goals?

Overall, the findings of the study helped to provide a clearer picture of how each FLES participant used VAR for instruction. Of particular interest were the actual instructional practices observed and described, the participant perceptions about best instructional practices with VAR, and how VAR are aligned to existing instructional goals. The information gained during this study can be used as guidance for FLES teachers as they use VAR instructionally within the

FLES classroom. The findings are discussed in the following sections as they relate to the research questions, sub-questions, and literature.

Discussion of Findings

Socio-Cultural Theory, Communicative Language Teaching and Second Language Acquisition

The conceptual framework for this study was grounded in the ways that sociocultural theory (SCT) and communicative language teaching (CLT) influence pedagogy with VAR. SCT was born of Vygotsky’s postulation that cognition comes from social interactions that demand communicative and cognitive functions (Aimin, 2013). Second Language Acquisition (SLA) is rooted in the human exchanges with people or the things found in their environment (Lantolf,

2007). CLT requires the learner to engage and connect with the people and things in the environment, because it requires the learner to be receptive and productive (Brown, 1994). The findings in this study are consistent with the conceptual framework and built on the existing literature. A variety of elements from SCT and CLT showed up in the findings and are described under the respective research questions.

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Research Question 1: Instructional Practices with Video Authentic Resources

The primary research question of this study was, “What instructional practices are used by FLES teachers at ISAS schools while using video authentic resources during instruction?”

According to the literature, AR have a positive impact on SLA, when used in combination with other pedagogical approaches (Castillo-Losada et al., 2017). Further, Losada, Insuasty, and

Osorio (2016) suggested that AR in the classroom has the potential to enhance teacher practices and professional execution of pedagogical approaches through the expansion of their instructional repertoire. The data collected from the observations and from the post-observation interviews in this study revealed that the participants universally deployed a variety of instructional practices when teaching with VAR. This is consistent with the literature, as the variety of practices deployed by the participants has encouraged them to add to their teaching talents and take on new instructional approaches as they become more proficient and comfortable with instruction using VAR.

VAR for receptive and productive skills

The instruction that occurs in the earliest years of the FLES classroom is aimed at the development of listening and speaking skills (Lipton, 1969). Lipton (2003) argued that this changes, somewhat, when considering students’ tenable academic capabilities, which develop further in the later elementary years, thus allowing instruction with reading and writing to be more readily incorporated into FLES lessons. Consistent with the literature, the participants in the present study communicated that they applied VAR for the purposes of activating and enhancing student communicative competences in their L2, facilitated through one or more of the four essential skills for language learning. The participants universally chose instructional practices that were appropriate for the age and grade level of their students and that met the students’ needs for the development of listening and speaking skills.

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Usó-Juan and Martínez-Flor (2006) define the ability to interpret and produce a spoken or written piece of communication as a part of discourse competence or communicative language teaching. They argued that it is a direct result of learning the four skills for language learning.

The participants confirmed that they purposed VAR in a way that promoted communication competencies, and they viewed the use of VAR as an excellent opportunity to engage the students via listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills. The participants in this study were found to purpose VAR in their classroom as a means of enacting two of the four skills, listening and speaking, in an effort to meet the communicative needs of their pupils as they traverse the language acquisition journey. I believe that this trend will continue to grow in the world languages classroom as teachers become more familiar with the expansion of VAR on video- sharing websites. Also, participants are becoming more and more familiar with instructional practices with VAR through the continued application of a variety of instructional practices designed to meet the needs of their students to communicate in a socially-mediated environment.

This corresponds to the conceptual framework of this study – it follows true to the theoretical postulations of SCT and adds to the current body of knowledge available for the CLT approach for SLA.

Additionally, the participants felt that using VAR with young learners was a point of engagement for them, where they felt comfortable when interacting in a communicative manner with VAR. Therefore, purposing VAR with regularity in the FLES classroom was viewed by participants as an innovative approach to maintaining the focus of their learners, while at the same time exposing them to authentic opportunities for interactions with parts of the world that are far away but accessible online. The four essential skills for language learning contribute to the development of the learners’ overall communicative abilities and competence, which is

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consistent with SCT for SLA and CLT. Using VAR as a means of improving CLT adds to the current body of scholarly work. The following sections discuss what instructional practices with

VAR were used in this study for teaching two of the four essential skills for language learning, listening and speaking.

Listening. The participants in this study regularly engaged the students in activities during instruction with VAR that contained the four essential skills for language learning. The most commonly used language skill within normal L2 interaction during SLA was listening

(Morley 2001; Nunan, 1997). In alignment with the literature, the participants actively encouraged listening to the audio inputs contained within the VAR through a variety of approaches. The participants utilized comprehension checks while teaching with VAR to determine the level of understanding of the VAR that was occurring in real time. They regularly paused or muted the VAR and subsequently actively questioned the students about what had occurred. They also reviewed the meaning of the vocabulary inputs they had just been exposed to. As a consequence, the participants limited the amount of input the students were exposed to at any given time to avoid the material becoming overwhelming and keep the input comprehensible. Audio and imagery contributed to the messages received from the VAR, making the audio elements easily comprehended (Kaiser, 2011). This, in turn, made the students better understand the presented learning goals, which was in concert with the tenets of the CLT approach.

Speaking. The formulation of speech in the L2 is widely recognized as the most difficult of the four skills during SLA (Celce-Murcia & Olshtain 2000). Congruent to the findings on listening skill development, the participants regularly combined the skills of listening and speaking simultaneously in an effort to build communicative competence. Teaching with VAR

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allows the learner to mimic the accents of the native speakers in the VAR when encouraged by the teacher. This is consistent with the literature, where emulation of native accents by the learners who interacted in the L2 left them better equipped to speak with native-like pronunciation (Rogers & Medley, 1988). Furthermore, the participants shared that pausing or muting the VAR during the students’ exposure to VAR allowed them to hear and determine whether the student language production was accurate. Determining accurate pronunciation by the students contributed to assessing learning. The use of listening and speaking skills in the L2 is aligned to the descriptions of the CLT approach. The findings in this study show that VAR contributes to student input and output when facilitated through a teacher. With regard to the

CLT approach, this finding contributes to the body of scholarly work in the field of SLA.

Culture for SLA

While VAR played a vital role in supporting the receptive and productive skills of students, it is important to highlight how participants in this study also used VAR during instruction to support cultural topics and SLA. Culture is a vital component to SLA as both culture and language are inseparable (Kuo & Lai, 2006). Consistent with the literature, the participants used VAR as a means for supporting the acquisition of knowledge surrounding cultural topics from the target culture. The participants shared a variety of ways to draw a connection between lectures on cultural topics by exposing those topics to the students in a VAR.

Showing the cultural elements in a VAR not only supported the cultural classroom instruction but also served as an additional way for teachers to invigorate the students and further support their engagement in the lessons and SLA. Including cultural topics into lessons supports the way

SCT is incorporated into SLA because disseminating such topics exposes the learner to certain sociological aspects of the target culture that would be difficult to explain and thus better illustrated within a VAR. For example, a participant shared that using a VAR to explain a

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popular children’s game was essential to demonstrating to the students the importance of the game in the target culture. It showed children from the target culture playing the game and interacting with one another during actual game play. The explanation about the game and playing of the game would have sufficed to meet the SLA goals surrounding colors and numbers.

However, the combination of the teacher’s commentary and the VAR helped to support the claims from the teacher about the popularity of the game in the target culture. It also served to expose students to actual language produced by children from the target culture as they played the game. This further illustrated the inextricable connection between language and culture as necessary elements for SLA and was enhanced in the world languages classroom through instruction with a VAR.

Music for total physical response

Music has long been applied in academic contexts for retention of knowledge and skills

(Kolb, 1996). The findings from this study correspond with this postulation. All the participants in the study emphasized the importance of music contained within a VAR and argued that it contributed to student learning outcomes in a variety of ways. The participants used total physical response (TPR) as an instructional practice when using a VAR that contained music.

TPR is a method of teaching language, vocabulary, grammar, and cultural concepts through the coordination of speech and action, such as using physical movements to clarify the verbal input transmitted in the target language (Asher, 1969; Er, 2013). Consistent with the literature, the participants added movements that corresponded with the lyrics and vocabulary terms that were being presented in the VAR, with music as a means of communicating the meaning of the lyrics to the students as input. Students would also mimic the movements while repeating a representation of the output, from the input received, and thus they developed a two-way communication consistent with the CLT approach.

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Frequency of VAR use

Linguists assert that acquisition differs from learning in that acquisition entails the subconscious obtainment of new knowledge, whereas learning entails putting conscious effort forth for the attainment of new knowledge (Bialystok, 1978; Krashen, 1981; Krashen, 1985).

During the present study, participants described the instructional practice of reintroducing a

VAR on various occasions. This was described as using a VAR on several occasions during one instructional period, several times throughout an academic year, or in a sequence of subsequent academic years. This is compatible with the literature that espouses the role for frequency of interactional input and output when considering the number of presentations of instruction presented to a student for SLA (Gass & Mackey, 2002; Goldschneider & DeKeyser, 2001). The participants offered plenty of opportunities for input to the students by frequently showing VAR at a variety of times after their initial exposure to the input. The CLT approach requires the student to have ample exposure to L2 input. Frequently exposing them to the same input or VAR gives students a good opportunity for SLA.

Sub-Question 1: Perceived Best Instructional Practices

In order to better understand the participants’ perceptions of the best instructional practices when teaching with VAR, the first sub-question was, “What do FLES teachers at ISAS schools perceive as best instructional practices when using video authentic resources during instruction?” The findings from the observations and interviews presented a diverse set of evidence to answer this question. CLT requires that teachers facilitate learning through a variety of inputs based on the needs of the learners and outputs from the learners in response to the input. Therefore, understanding what the participants perceived as best instructional practices with VAR highlights the ways the participants used VAR to elicit efficacious student learning

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outcomes, both productively and receptively, based on the belief that these practices did the most to contribute to SLA.

Lowering the affective filter. Krashen (1981) proposed the monitor model as an explanation for how an L2 is acquired. The participants in this study regularly described instructional practices that were in alignment with the affective filter hypothesis from Krashen’s monitor model (Krashen & Terrell, 1983). An affective filter is described as the emotive factors, like anxiety or motivation, that can contribute to or hinder SLA (Krashen, 1982). It was found that using VAR as an instructional resource allowed teachers to draw in students into a lesson or hook them, and thus it was argued that this increased student enthusiasm. When the participants in this present study applied VAR in the classroom, they found that it contributed to the motivation of the students, as the students were entertained and took pleasure in engaging and interacting with the VAR.

When teaching with VAR, motivation, confidence, and engagement were perceived to be high and anxieties were lowered. The participants would then apply a variety of perceived best instructional practices to increase the potential for SLA. One instance in particular that demonstrates this was when a participant used VAR to explain a new game. The students were engaged with what was occurring in the VAR that depicted the game being played by members of the target culture. The students showed great enthusiasm for playing the game immediately after the VAR ended. The participant then questioned the students about some of the terminology they heard in the VAR and made direct connections to those terms and the rules of the game. The students enthusiastically played the game while using the new vocabulary and spoke, mostly, in the target language. Their engagement, enthusiasm, and motivation for the game lowered their

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affective filters and primed them for SLA. The students received the input, and through teacher facilitation, they responded to the input with output in the target language.

Diversifying VAR for the right instructional moment. Rogers and Medley (1988) argued that learners can attain language use strategies for real life circumstances through some sort of systematic exposure to AR in the classroom. Aligned to this postulation, the participants in this study found that reception of language by the learner was greater when VAR was incorporated into an instructional sequence at a specifically planned time. There were various accounts about how the instructional decisions were made to apply a VAR. Using VAR early in the instructional sequence hooked the attention of the students, thus increasing engagement with the lesson and learning goals for the entire instructional period. This instructional practice was often done daily and was perceived as a best practice by the participants because it lowered the affective filter and thus the quality of the inputs received from the VAR were increased.

Participants in this study also described a best practice with VAR, which was to go beyond providing an initial engagement piece, and using it as a delivery method for adding context mid-lesson. This is consistent with a finding by Gilmore (2007) who made the argument that language learning with AR should be centered upon communication within a set context.

Adding context to the lesson through the utilization of a VAR lowers the affective filter by introducing a new input to instruction, thus keeping the learning activated through input that is relevant for the learner.

The participants described how a best practice was to keep the use of VAR to a minimal time frame, to prevent promoting a learning environment centered on watching the VAR for a large portion of the class period. The participants argued that this type of learning environment would not encourage communicative competences because the students would be relegated to a

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“sit-and-get” style of instruction. This is consistent with the literature, which discourages stagnant learning activities, where students get information as a one-way communication versus a guided learning experience with a discourse (King, 1993). Furthermore, scholarly work discourages language learning from long form exposure to a video as an instructional practice.

Learning from one-way teacher-directed drills was a practice from the behaviorist theoretical perspective of the mid-20th century, known as the audio-lingual method. This method was historically applied without much success and later abandoned by most in the field of SLA because of insignificant empirical evidence of the benefits (VanPatten & Williams, 2006;

Woodsworth, 1967). The participants in this study used VAR sparingly during the instructional period and limited the time of exposure based on the age of the learners and the need for instructional reinforcement.

To expand upon this, the participants shared that a perceived best instructional practice with VAR must take into account the zone of proximal development of the children. Participants described keeping the use of the VAR shorter for the youngest of students and reserving longer

VAR for older students. This is aligned with the scholarship that encourages teachers in the primary elementary context to apply mixed instructional approaches in fractional portions to maintain developmentally appropriate practices (Parker & Neuharth-Pritchett, 2006). If, in the early childhood context, a VAR is too long, it could hinder SLA by limiting the learner output or losing the students’ attention, thus decreasing engagement and raising the affective filter.

SLA Through a plurality of VAR views. The instructional practice of using a VAR on several occasions also assisted with the lowering of the affective filter, as the participants commented that students would get excited to see a known VAR again. Exciting the students and engaging them anew was perceived by the participants as a best instructional practice and was

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consistent with the disseminations of some SLA scholars. Gass and Mackey (2002) argue that frequency of interactional input and output has a role in SLA. Additionally, this practice served as a way to enhance listening comprehension (input), to encourage language production (output), and ensure that the input from a VAR was messaged to the students more than once.

The power of entertainment. Entertainment in the world languages classroom serves as an extension of Krashen’s (1983) affective filter hypothesis where SLA is promoted through instructional practices that maintain the motivation, and self-confidence among learners, while keeping anxiety low.. The findings of this study indicate that VAR in the world languages classroom has the potential to lower the students’ affective variables when the students are entertained. It was communicated by the participants that the learners were entertained by the interactions of instruction with VAR. Such entertaining interactions with VAR represent an instructional opportunity for aligning the learning goals to the curricular needs of the students in the form of a high value input. However, input represents just one direction of CLT, because

CLT is not just receptive. It requires an output in response to an input received (Breen &

Candlin, 1980). Additionally, the ways students are encouraged by their teacher to respond to an input or create an output supports SLA (Brown, 1994).

Movement. In this study, VAR accompanied with some type of movement was perceived as a best instructional practice. This demonstrates another application of TPR. The participants reported that if they used movement to help the students understand what they were seeing and hearing in a VAR, this increased student comprehension of the material. This approach was purposed by the participants in order to teach vocabulary items in isolation as well as grammar elements. Interactivity during SLA is in harmony with what scholars have posited in regard to communicative language teaching (CLT) in the world languages classroom. Richards and

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Rodgers (2001) stated that the CLT approach enables the learner to have the opportunity to problem solve and negotiate meaning. When the student is able to negotiate meaning because they receive a message that is clarified through movement, the language teacher has thus empowered the learner with confidence and motivation, and increased the likelihood of SLA

(Krashen, 1982).

Sub-Question 2: Alignment to Instructional Goals

The third and final question for this study was, “How are FLES teachers at ISAS schools aligning video authentic resources to instructional goals?” In order to apply VAR within the

FLES classroom, it was necessary to understand how the participants aligned VAR with instructional goals. The findings from the interviews provided sufficient support for answering this question.

Discovery and time. Morrow (1977) defined AR as using real language that is generated by a genuine speaker for a veritable audience to transmit some sort of communication. Kilickaya

(2004) argued that AR is a communal activity that sometimes can be encapsulated in a synchronous telecommunication or pre-recorded audio or video. Video, in this particular instance, represents the media that makes up the variety of AR explored in this present study, and represents a resource not crafted for the specific purpose of teaching a language (Bacon &

Finneman, 1990; Guariento & Morley, 2001; Martinez, 2002). The participants in this study remained true to the definitions provided in the literature surrounding AR in a WL class, as demonstrated by the selection of videos used during the observations. All the videos used were truly VAR. Exposing the learner to the found VAR has few limitations and has the potential to uncover listening activities, visual stimuli, and cultural items with more precision than any other individual AR (Stephens, 2001).

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Altman (1989) argues that teachers who appropriately apply film in the world languages classroom have the potential to exhibit a variety of “sounds, segmentation, semantics, syntax, systems of discourse, and systems of culture” (p. 5). He further suggested that teachers who use

AR with proper preparation and with adequate planning enable the students with the opportunity to make meaningful connections to the audio, visual, and cultural aspects of the targeted culture that were presented in the AR (Altman, 1989). In agreement with current research, the participants in the present study allocated much of their planning time to search and review the

VAR, and in doing so, subsequently aligned the VAR to established learning goals.

Time Gained Through Collegial Interactions. The pedagogical approach to apply VAR is quickly becoming more common in schools, especially with the tremendous growth and popularity of video sharing websites (Ghaderpanahi, 2012). The participants conveyed a sense of urgency in the need to purpose a VAR and argued that children in the classrooms gravitate to and engage with, videos. This has motivated the participants to apply much of their valuable planning time to searching the internet for VAR, selecting the appropriate VAR, and aligning the VAR to instructional goals. It was found that many participants resorted to collegiality and peer groups to cut down on the time required to find the VAR that they used in their classes. This open discourse and sharing of resources among colleagues, within and outside of their institutions, was regarded by the participants as an enhancement to their instruction, because they gained extra time to plan and align the VAR to instructional goals.

Freedom. The participants communicated that they had the liberty to use whatever VAR they saw fit, as long as the VAR was in alignment with instructional goals. Participants also had autonomy to write instructional goals. This autonomy was highly valued by the participants. It allowed the teachers to effectively find and align the most salient VAR to instructional goals

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without constraints. As a result, the teachers were able to purpose whatever VAR they saw fit in order to meet the instructional needs of the learners and thus increase the chance for SLA.

Musical Alignment. The participants described aligning their already existing instructional goals to a VAR that contained music as a tenable practice. They further associated teaching an L2 with music, in any sense, be it within a VAR or some other recording, as fundamental to SLA in the early childhood context. The participants argued that a VAR with music had the potential to increase engagement and concentration on the VAR, thus increasing the potential for SLA through a lowered affective filter. Hence the participants in this study actively sought out VAR with music that was aligned to instructional goals. This finding was consistent with what Peacock (1997) argued, that applying AR can cause elevated focus and accurate SLA.

Cultural Balance. Culture plays a vital role in SLA (Taha, 2014). The participants in this study actively sought out VAR that supported cultural instructional goals. They also noted the engagement that students have with cultural learning goals. Of particular importance is to realize how the early childhood student engages with material, and to make certain that the material presented is appropriate (Long, 1980; Pica, 1983). The findings of this study indicate that aligning the cultural learning goals to the VAR would increase the students’ authentic experience and engagement, thus contributing to SLA.

In this study, a cultural connection often had a cross-curricular function in the classrooms. The participants described how the students would engage more deeply with a VAR if they made a connection to the things occurring in the VAR as they related to their academic coursework outside of the world languages classroom. This alignment was described as meeting the requirements not only of the world languages instructional goals, but also of the institutional

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goals. It was found that the participants placed high value on cross curricular connections when teaching in the world languages context.

Instructional Goals as Afterthought. While sufficient data was learned from the participants to answer all the research questions, it should be noted here that the participants did not put as much thought into aligning VAR to instructional goals as they did their instructional practices with VAR. Goals were present, but did not dominate the process for finding and applying VAR in the classroom. The participants had sufficient autonomy to decide which direction they would like to go with their daily instruction and would make decisions based on the needs of the learners. These decisions did not necessarily always align to the instructional goals and were made in response to a need that the participants deemed pertinent to their current instruction or to whatever situation that might arise from their previous experiences with the learners. While the goals were ultimately given plenty of thought by the participants, the alignment of VAR to instructional goals was not a prevailing thought that steered every decision made about the application of VAR for instruction.

Additional Findings

The findings provide support to answer the primary research question and two sub- questions introduced in this study. Additionally, two additional themes emerged from the literature pertaining to the role of music and teacher autonomy that are discussed in the following section. In addition, there is a discussion about some concerns that could stand in the way of

SLA when using VAR for instruction.

Music for Comprehensible Input

It was surprising to learn how large a role comprehensible input played in instruction with VAR that contained music. When learning with AR, students cannot be expected to know all the language used. The VAR with music as taught by the participants was no exception. The

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content went beyond the students’ language level and comprehension. Comprehensible input deals with the acquisition of language through the subconscious and not with conscious efforts on the part of the learner (Krashen, 1985; Payne, 2011). The participants were aware of the theoretical stance of comprehensible input and they applied it instinctively to teaching with VAR that contained music. However, it was argued that VAR with music was a major contributor for

SLA, and a regularly applied instructional practice. This is consistent with the literature, as

Failoni (1993) reinforced the notion by describing the use of music from the target culture as a logical means for introducing new vocabulary items and supporting cultural learning goals. This instructional outcome is a natural consequence of teaching with a VAR, but it was enhanced by using a VAR with music. While I expected that music in VAR would play a large role in this study’s findings, it did not occur to me that it would be such a large contributor to comprehensible input. Comprehensible input satisfies one facet of CLT approach, but as the next section demonstrates, music in VAR can also support the other tenet required of CLT, output.

Stickiness of VAR with Music

In this study, the participants provided anecdotes about former students recalling music that was learned from VAR. They argued that teaching cultural learning goals increased with music in a VAR. This finding was supported in the literature, as Barber (1980) outlined the retention of knowledge from music as the activation of mental rehearsal or “din.” Krashen

(1983) explained the din as some level of involuntary reciting of language expressions acquired in the target language. Krashen (1983) further explained that mental rehearsal signals a natural process for SLA has occurred. This aligns with consistencies in the literature and instructional practices of using VAR to bestow upon the learner an acquisition-like scenario where the subconscious processes significant inputs more accurately during SLA versus learning as a conscious decision. The processing of these inputs through the mental performance by the

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students, including recall of facts learned from music, can constitute an output. This further demonstrates how Music in VAR contributes to the CLT approach.

Autonomy

The participants described how they had the liberty to choose what learning goals were taught and when they wanted to teach them, and this contributed to SLA. While such processes are somewhat expected at independent schools, it is noteworthy that this seemed to be a universal truth. However, the participants and their institutions did not have a policy in place regarding the allocation of resources for instruction. The absence of policy contributes to a culture that is free to explore. Richards and Rodgers (2014) argue that a variety of ways to teach a language reveal unique designs by the teacher for language teaching. I suspect that this might be the thought process in place when giving teachers virtually unlimited independence in resource selection, which likely helps SLA. The next section discusses some concerns regarding the ways in which

VAR are being used.

Possible Concerns of VAR Use

The freedom that the participants shared they have in their classroom is a huge benefit, but can also potentially work against SLA. This freedom to explore may hinder learning, as it can induce experimentation that is unvetted. This is not to cast aspersions on anything that was learned about the participants or institutions and the policies that are in place, but rather is an attempt to highlight an interesting finding that may need deeper exploration.

The literature warns that authentic resources tend to contain language that is too dense or complex for learners, in that the unfamiliar language would cause confusion (Lansford, 2014).

The VAR that were used during the observed instruction regularly contained language that was more complicated than the language abilities of the learners. While this could contribute to comprehensible input as they are presented with material that is beyond their abilities, it has the

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potential to raise the learners’ affective filter and thus hinder SLA (Krashen, 1983; Martinez,

2002). The teachers also regularly described that they used some particular VAR for the first time to align the VAR to the instructional goals of the lesson. This freedom to experiment, while welcomed by the participants, could also hinder SLA if teachers use material that has not previously returned improved student learning outcomes.

Research Implications

FLES programs are growing in the United States, with approximately 5% of public and

25% of private elementary schools gearing up to offer some kind of world language study

(Pufahl & Rhodes, 2011). With this level of growth, a need exists to provide information to these growing programs about what is occurring in the already established FLES programs. The results from this study provide insight into the instructional practices, perceived best instructional practices, and alignment to instructional goals that FLES teachers used in their classrooms when teaching with VAR. The following sections describe the implications for my professional practice and my institution, for the FLES teachers in ISAS, and the world languages field in general. In addition, the limitations of this study are included, with recommendations for future research. Finally, my conclusions are given, with connections drawn to the impetus of this research and the outcomes.

Implications for VAR in My Professional Practice and Institution

This research provided me with a clearer picture of how FLES teachers in the ISAS use

VAR during instruction, their perceived best instructional practices when teaching with VAR, and how they aligned VAR to instructional goals. The findings of this research informed me that my professional practice can improve if I develop a template for finding and aligning VAR to my instructional goals. In doing so, I can minimize the time spent planning instruction with VAR and shift my focus to other vital instructional elements. The template should aim for a

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streamlined process for authentication of VAR. It should also contain a method for evaluating the VAR for the potential use of a variety of instructional practices, and include key identifiers necessary for alignment to learning goals. It is important to set parameters for the desired time to use the template. This would limit the time allocated to this process. An annual review of the template should be built into the design to respond to limitations or inefficiencies and steer revisions and refinements. As a collegial and active member of a world languages team, I will share the template with my team with opportunities for them to provide feedback. With a template in place, I believe that teacher planning time will be improved and increase the efficiency for using VAR instructionally. Moreover, this template can be used within my institution by the middle school and upper school teachers as they plan for instruction with VAR.

As a FLES teacher who regularly teaches with VAR, I found myself teaching with the instructional practices that I saw during the observations. It was difficult to observe such unique and efficient ways to teach, as used by the participants, and not allocate them toward my instruction immediately. This was in response to the needs of my learners. If something from the observations would benefit them or have an immediate impact on their SLA, it was enacted in my classroom. I feel that by doing this, I was able to better equip my students with SLA opportunities that they would otherwise have missed out on. Therefore, I was able to put into practice some of the participants’ shared instructional practices before fully completing this study.

From this study, I discovered a variety of best instructional practices with VAR that could be used immediately in practice. The lower school world languages team in my institution, is a team of three, myself included. We all currently teach with VAR. Sharing these instructional practices within the team can improve our existing instructional practices with VAR and improve

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student learning outcomes. A practice I will share with the lower school world languages team is to use VAR not only as a hook, but as a way of adding context to a lesson that has already started.

Currently, I am mostly using VAR as a hook in my classroom. This practice has the potential to break up routine and thus keep the students engaged, because they are not doing the same thing day in and day out. I think we would benefit from various instructional practices with

Music in VAR, such as lowering the volume or muting the sound to hear what the students are producing. Also, showing a VAR on several occasions in one lesson period, and at various times during the school year after the initial exposure, could help my teammates increase the L2 input.

If these practices are implemented together or in isolation, we can experiment with what works best and share our results. This has implications for improving SLA and language proficiency for all students in the lower school. Also, encouraging collegiality among the lower, middle, and upper school, through academic camaraderie about the instructional practices used with VAR in the lower school, can better prepare the middle and upper school teachers for student transitions between the divisions. Knowledge about the instructional practices the students have been exposed to has the potential to make the transition easier for student and teacher.

Whistle historically has been a leader in the national FLES community by offering FLES seminars that were attended by FLES practitioners from around the United States. These early forays into FLES dissemination among practitioners sought to explore more collegial understandings of the instructional practices and best instructional practices in the FLES classroom. However, these FLES seminars were discontinued about 10 years ago.

When I was hired at Whistle, it was expressed that they would like it if I led an initiative to bring back the FLES seminars. Upon the conclusion of this research, I intend to revitalize the

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FLES seminars at Whistle in an effort to bring my newfound expertise from this research into the continuation and revitalization of the FLES seminars within my professional context. The insights gained regarding VAR in the FLES context have the potential to illuminate new instructional avenues for FLES practitioners from around the nation.

The results of this study can support data-driven improvements to the FLES instructional practices of members of the ISAS in the D/FW metroplex. The collegial interactions that occur between ISAS schools in D/FW take place at an annual networking event and via email threads used for sharing ideas around instruction, resources, and conferences. The unitization of ideas gained from this study and shared with ISAS schools beyond a formal face-to-face synchronous annual networking meeting and asynchronous electronic correspondences has the potential to increase the efficacy of all ISAS FLES programs. The cooperative interaction between myself and colleagues can conceivably help to ameliorate current instructional practices with VAR and improve SLA at ISAS institutions. The opportunities for collegial exchange of the findings of this study could possibly open up the potential for more sharing across all ISAS institutions beyond the D/FW metroplex.

Implications for VAR Practices of FLES Teachers in ISAS

Based on the things learned in this study, I intend to offer a presentation at the next synchronous D/FW networking event to share the instructional practices with VAR that were provided during this inquiry. Additionally, I intend to share the first iteration of the template for finding and aligning VAR to instructional goals. With this presentation, I hope to encourage the

FLES teachers to use and offer suggestions for improving, revising, and refining the template.

With the feasible chance of a plurality of adopters of the template, the opportunity exists for the development of a robust and succinct practice for finding and aligning VAR to instructional goals. The potential for improving instructional practices with VAR across several institutions

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potentially could strengthen the student SLA outcomes. This could lead to more available VAR with a clear plan about how the VAR can be used, as well as a distinct roadmap for demonstrating how it could be aligned to a variety of learning goals within the FLES context.

This would require buy-in from the heads of lower schools at the ISAS institutions, some relinquishment, but not all, of the autonomy on the part of the participating teachers, and the adoption of shared goals to effect change within the individualized systems that currently exists on separate ISAS campuses. The ISAS institutions may come to some sort of collegial understanding for sharing. However, if this is not possible, the autonomously operating teachers who have membership with the ISAS can elect to adopt some of the shared perspectives on instructional practices with VAR, and to participate in the implementation and refinement of the template for aligning instructional goals with VAR.

Additionally, Table 5-1 contains a list of practices and recommendations for teachers who would like to teach with VAR. Table 5-1 will be shared with the ISAS teachers in the D/FW area as a tip sheet based on the observations and interviews from this study. The table, while not a comprehensive list of all the practices and recommendations for teaching with VAR as observed or discussed during the interviews, represents the most tenable and salient instructional practices with VAR in the FLES context.

Implications for Instructional Practices within the World Languages Field

This study and the contributing literature review unveiled a gap that exists in the literature when considering how VAR are used, not only in the FLES context, but also in the greater world languages field within the K-12 context. The findings of this study can inform

FLES programs that are currently using VAR and are not part of the ISAS. In fact, those FLES programs and teachers from independent schools that are not part of the ISAS or that are from the public-school context, do not differ vastly from the FLES programs in this study.

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Table 5-1. Practices and recommendations for teaching with VAR Practices Recommendations Muting and pausing Pausing or muting the VAR as way of conducting a comprehension check helps the teacher better understand how students are producing and receiving the language. The teacher shows the VAR and elicits a response in the form of a productive skill in an effort to ascertain that accent development and student production is congruent to the outcomes expected by the teacher. Or the teacher can pause the VAR and ask questions to ascertain the level or receptive skills activated while listening to a VAR. This can determine the students’ listening comprehension and whether they are absorbing the information contained in the VAR.

Music and total The VAR with music is aligned with certain movements that can offer clarification about physical response the meaning of vocabulary terms contained in the VAR. This can take the form of simple (TPR) movements aligned to the lyrics in the song, or can be a more complex series of movements like a choreographed dance. The teacher should consider how the imagery in the VAR and the movements can be complementary to one another.

Cultural VAR has the potential to demonstrate to students a variety of elements about the target connections culture that are otherwise abstract or too complex to learn from a lecture. The teacher should align teaching cultural elements to a VAR that demonstrates the cultural component with the highest degree of accuracy. This can serve a dual purpose, as a means to solidify and confirm certain cultural topics and as a way of increasing engagement.

Frequent Showings Showing a VAR on several occasions, in one class period, over an academic school year, or over several school years, can increase familiarity with a topic or work as a reinforcement and review of previously learned topics. SLA is better achieved with frequent opportunities for input and output.

Routines Using a VAR as part of a daily routine can add familiarity to a classroom routine in that it can be a typical practice during each instructional period. This can serve as a hook and acclimate the students to the world languages classroom. Conversely, a VAR can also break up the routine and be used as a means of changing up the status quo in an effort to keep the world languages classroom fluid.

Lowering the When students demonstrate an elevated level of anxiety, low motivation, and decreased Affective Filter self-confidence in the world languages classroom, a strategy to reactivate the student in the classroom can come through a VAR. The teacher can simply find or reuse a VAR that is entertaining to the students and apply it as a means of increasing motivation, increasing self-confidence, and decreasing anxiety.

Limit Time of VAR VAR are not a panacea for SLA and the time spent teaching with a VAR should be limited in favor of other instructional activities not associated with a VAR. While a VAR can be a great resource for SLA, it should be used within the Zone of Proximal development of the student. For students in the elementary context, too much information expressed in a VAR can stand in the way of learning. Therefore, the VAR should be allocated to meet the needs of the learners’ age, where older learners can be exposed to longer VAR and the younger students should have the VAR limited to shorter exposure periods.

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immersion programs. Therefore, based on the knowledge gained from this study and my previous experiences with FLES program development and implementation, I plan to develop a consultation plan that can be offered for a variety of programs in the elementary context for the use of VAR instruction. The ultimate outcome from a consultation program would be to offer a variety of instructional practices with VAR and a template for aligning VAR to instructional goals.

Implications for Instructional Practices within the World Languages Field

Additionally, the instructional practices within the FLEX context do not differ greatly from what is done in FLES programs. The instructional practices that are used in FLES programs, especially when purposing AR, are similar to those instructional practices with AR in the immersion programs. Therefore, based on the knowledge gained from this study and my previous experiences with FLES program development and implementation, I plan to develop a consultation plan that can be offered for a variety of programs in the elementary context for the use of VAR instruction. The ultimate outcome from a consultation program would be to offer a variety of instructional practices with VAR and a template for aligning VAR to instructional goals.

The findings of this study do not only pertain to the FLES context but can also be applied to the middle school and upper school world languages contexts. As the proliferation of new

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video content continues to grow, with more frequent submissions on video-sharing websites in a variety of languages, the opportunities for age appropriate content that can be purposed in the lower, middle, and upper school contexts will also grow. While the types of VAR used in the elementary school context vary from those that are used in the middle and upper school, one can deploy a variety of informed instructional practices with VAR, regardless of the division. The variety of instructional practices with VAR described in this research can be repurposed and applied with some modification to many world language contexts. These practices may not be limited to the K-12 context and can potentially impact instruction with VAR in the K-16 context.

Limitations

This study aimed to explore FLES teachers’ instructional practices with VAR. The sample population for this study was limited to FLES teachers who taught at ISAS member schools in the D/FW metropolitan area. There are many other contexts that have FLES programs outside of the ISAS. There are other independent schools, parochial and non-parochial, that do not have membership in the ISAS that have thriving FLES programs. Additionally, there are many public schools in the D/FW area and nationally that have FLES programs that could contribute to the findings in this study. This does not take into account the individual applications of VAR during instruction from institutions that are not part of the ISAS. It should be surmised that the findings from this study do not contain all the instructional practices used when teaching with VAR.

The participants from this study self-identified as VAR practitioners. However, the discussions that took place in the initial interview may have had an impact on the type of VAR the participants used for instruction. Thus, the instructional practices observed may not have represented the typical classroom instructional practices with VAR. There is no way of knowing whether the manner in which they taught during the observation was true to their typical

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instructional practices with VAR, although I attempted to ask during the interviews that followed if this was typical of their practice. This is a limitation to the trustworthiness of the findings in the current study. However, there is value in seeing any practices with VAR, despite being under the scrutiny of an observation. The researcher is then presented with the participants’ best efforts within the observed practice. Any time best efforts are put forth in classroom observation, the observer benefits from seeing the teacher’s top level of instructional practice.

Recommendations for Future Research in the Field

This research in the world languages context provides a framework for other world languages researchers to embark upon similarly aligned research in regard to the application of

VAR for instruction. My hope is to continue with investigations into how VAR contributes to second language acquisition (SLA). Since this research sits upon the precipice of an emerging practice, a great deal of potential exists for additional research, including longitudinal studies on the potential applications of VAR in the greater world languages context. Also, quantitative research should be initiated to vet the instructional practices with VAR in respect to student learning outcomes, and to scrutinize the sturdiness of the participants’ perceived best instructional practices with VAR. The results of this study have implications for future studies as described in this section.

A substantial theme that emerged from the study was the importance of music within the content of VAR. The participants continually espoused the benefits of music within VAR and argued that music in a VAR played a vital role for the retention of vocabulary and cultural instructional goals. I suggest further study of this theme to determine the specific content of music in VAR that teachers found most beneficial for the retention of instructional goals.

Furthermore, future investigations should examine the efficacy of music in VAR for retention of

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learning goals such as vocabulary, grammar, and syntax, and cultural themes through a quantitative or mixed-methods study.

Another theme that came up regularly in this study was the alignment of VAR to instructional goals and the time spent doing so. While the participants gave ample examples of how they find and align the VAR, they also noted the inefficiencies in their process and accounted for spending and dedicating an inordinate amount of time searching for appropriate

VAR. Further research would help to understand the practices used to find VAR and to help develop a systemized application for identifying and ensuring alignment to VAR. Uncovering the practices for finding VAR, and dedicating time to develop a process for systematic alignment could reduce the time spent searching and allow the instructor to allocate time to other instructional areas in support of student learning outcomes.

Several of the participants explained that they decided to use VAR for instruction because of the pleasure the students got from viewing and interacting with the VAR. I suggest further research into the variety of pedagogy that can be utilized in the world languages classroom when teaching with VAR since this will lower students’ affective filters and increase student learning outcomes. Additionally, new research that examines the students’ perceptions of

VAR and what specific elements cause the students to have a positive affective response, and thus increase the likelihood of SLA, would be valuable.

This study was limited to eight participants from the ISAS in the D/FW. There are many other FLES contexts outside of the ISAS, including independent schools that have a parent membership in the NAIS from other regions of the United States, independent schools that are not part of the NAIS system, parochial independent schools, public schools, charter schools, and beyond. This represents a large variety of potential contributors to the knowledge in this vein of

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study. More research should be conducted within a variety of FLES contexts to gain a corpus of knowledge about the instructional practices with VAR, perceived best instructional practices with VAR, and alignment of VAR to existing instructional goals. The results could be applied to inform all FLES contexts that are using VAR for SLA.

Conclusion

The younger students are when exposed to L2, the more likely they are to have superior outcomes in the ultimate attainment of L2 than older children and adults (Krashen, Long, &

Scarcella, 1979). Early language exposure is frequently perceived as a panacea for all problems in SLA (Nikolov & Djigunović, 2006). However, early exposure cannot be fully recognized as the only contributor to SLA success among early language learners because the pedagogy that the learners are exposed to may have an impact on the efficiency and efficacy of SLA (Ellis &

Shintani, 2013). Within the FLES community there is growing enthusiasm for embracing the resources that are found online for inclusion in class, especially as extracted from the ever- growing preponderance of materials retrieved from video sharing sites. Recent trends in the SLA community have championed the importance of bringing authentic resources into the classroom to support student learning outcomes (Rogers & Medley, 1988).

The use of AR in the classroom is growing, as is the importance assigned to the allocation of AR by SLA scholars. Given the growing body of video resources available on video sharing sites, this investigation endeavored to explore the ways that eight FLES teachers in the

ISAS use VAR for instruction. Their perceptions of best instructional practices with VAR, and how they align the VAR to existing instructional goals were also explored. This study was particularly important to ISAS schools as a majority of the schools in D/FW that have membership in the ISAS have FLES programs. Understanding what occurs on campuses that share some similarities and have a common membership in the ISAS was of particular

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importance to this investigation. The global objective for this research was to share the findings among the ISAS member schools in the D/FW to strengthen existing practices of the teacher and improve the student learning outcomes. Moreover, this investigation can add to the body of literature surrounding VAR in the FLES classroom and work to fill the existing gaps in the literature around VAR.

This study revealed that FLES teachers have a bevy of instructional practices that they deploy when teaching with VAR that include comprehension checking, establishing routines, using TPR and movement, recycling old learning goals, and supplementing vocabulary instruction. Additionally, a perceived best instructional practice included using VAR with music and extracting a verbal output from the input received from the VAR. Finally, aligning VAR with existing instructional goals was found to be a challenge to teachers as it requires much planning time searching for videos that are age-appropriate and videos that will fill the needs of the teacher and the learner. This process for aligning VAR to instructional goals requires further refinement and the development of a method to make the process more tenable. The findings suggest that using VAR in the FLES classroom is considered an important addition to the teaching repertoire of FLES teachers.

Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) involves input facilitated by an instructor and output from the student (Littlewood, 1981). This two-way communication is socially mediated, with the meaning of the input mentally constructed by the learner as a receptive skill. Then an output, or productive skill, was encouraged through a variety of instructional practices facilitated by an instructor. This thus demonstrates the interrelatedness of CLT, which is theoretically situated under SCT. The participants described numerous ways they facilitated VAR through a variety of instructional practices. Also, they recounted how they elicited outputs from students

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based on the input received from the VAR through what they perceived as best instructional practices. The socio-cultural application of the CLT method by FLES teachers who teach with

VAR can contribute to their teaching competencies and increase the learners’ receptive and productive skills in the target language. This study contributes to the existing literature, offers implications and recommendations for teaching with VAR in the FLES context, and addresses needs for future research on the instructional practices with VAR in the FLES teaching field.

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APPENDIX A PERMISSON EMAIL TO HEADS OF SCHOOL

To whom this may concern,

My name is Eric Inboden. I am a lower school Spanish teacher at the Whistle School in Dallas, a member of the Independent Schools Association of the Southwest. I am a doctoral candidate at the University of Florida within the College of Education studying Curriculum and Instruction with an emphasis in Educational Technology.

I am reaching out to you today to inform you that I will be reaching out to your lower school Spanish teacher(s) to see if they would like to volunteer to take part in my dissertation research. I am looking at how teachers in the ISAS in D/FW are using video authentic resources during instruction. This investigation is centered on the teacher and will not comprise of data from students. The only data that I will be gathering will be of and from the teacher. I would like permission to come to your campus to be a non-participant observer of your teachers’ lesson and to interview the teacher post-observation. All data collected during this research will de- identified and anonymized. I have attached my informed consent form for your review as it provides more information about the research.

I do not need anything from you in this process, apart from permission to come to your campus. I will gain the teachers contact information from your school’s website. Please do not reach out to the teacher on my behalf, nor encourage the teacher to take part in the research.

Thank you for taking the time to read this email and I look forward to your response.

Have a great day.

Sincerely,

Eric Inboden M.Ed. Lower School Spanish The Whistle School 11600 Welch Road Dallas, TX 75229 817.938.8906

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APPENDIX B RECRUITMENT EMAIL REQUESTING PARTICIPATION

Dear ISAS FLES Teacher,

My name is Eric Inboden. I am a lower school Spanish teacher at The Whistle School in Dallas, a member of the Independent Schools Association of the Southwest. I am a doctoral candidate at the University of Florida within the College of Education studying Curriculum and Instruction with an emphasis in Educational Technology.

I am reaching out to you to see if you would like to volunteer to take part in my dissertation research. I am looking at how world language teachers in the ISAS in D/FW are using video authentic resources during instruction. This investigation is centered on the teacher and will not comprise of data from students. The only data that I will be gathering will be of and from the teacher. I would like permission to call you and conduct an initial interview with you to see if you meet the criteria set to be included in this study. If you meet the criteria, I will come to your campus to be a non-participant observer of a lesson using video authentic resources and to interview you post-observation. All data collected during this research will de-identified and anonymized. I have attached my informed consent form for your review as it provides more information about the research (see attachment).

If you volunteer to take part in this research, please sign the attached informed consent form and return. An initial interview will be scheduled to ascertain if you meet the minimum criteria for inclusion in my study, please respond to this email with your best phone contact information. Please provide a few times and dates in the coming week that are convenient for you to talk by phone. If you would not like to take part in the research, kindly decline and I will cease and destroy all communications between us with regard to this present research project.

Thank you for taking the time to read this email and I look forward to your response.

Have a great day.

Sincerely,

Eric Inboden M.Ed. Lower School Spanish The Whistle School 11600 Welch Road Dallas, TX 75229 817.938.8906

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APPENDIX C INFORMED CONSENT FORM

TITLE OF STUDY Instructional Practices When Using Video Authentic Resources in the Foreign Language in Elementary Schools Classroom Study Number: IRB201802009

PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR Eric Inboden 5815 Velasco Ave Dallas, Texas 75206 817.938.8906 [email protected]

PURPOSE OF STUDY You are being asked to take part in a research study. Before you decide to participate in this study, it is important that you understand why the research is being done and what it will involve. Please read the following information carefully. Please ask the researcher if there is anything that is not clear or if you need more information.

In the foreign language classroom, authentic resources are the materials deployed by the teacher for language instruction, however the resources are not created specifically for teaching a language. The purpose of this research is to identify the instructional strategies of foreign language teachers in the elementary context as they teach with video authentic resources. These are videos that are created for the target culture by those from the target culture. This study intends to interview eight teachers that use video authentic resources when teaching, to gain a better understanding of their applied instructional strategies, perceived best instructional strategies, and better understand how they align the video authentic resources with existing instructional goals. The teachers will be observed and then immediately engaged in a semi- structured post-observation interview. By identifying these practices, we can better understand the use of these materials in the foreign language in elementary school context. This will allow for a deeper consideration of the elementary language teacher's instructional strategies when using video authentic resources in the elementary foreign language classroom and may direct future research on instructional strategies within this context and beyond.

STUDY PROCEDURES The study will have a duration of approximately 1.5 hours over one day. Teachers that volunteer to take part in this research endeavor will be kept anonymous and observed teaching a lesson in the classroom setting of their election while using video authentic resources. The researcher will record notes about the teacher and lesson during the observation. After the observation the teacher will be interviewed in a semi-structured interview to gain a perspective on their strategies, perceived best practices, and alignment to instructional goals when teaching with video authentic resources. The researcher will make notes during the interview. All of the observational data will be anonymized and de-identified and kept on a password protected solid- state hard drive available only to the researcher. All interviews will be audio recorded but these audio recordings will not be made available to anyone except the researcher and all transcripts

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will be anonymized and with all data de-identified and kept on a password protected solid-state hard drive available only to the researcher. RISKS There are no foreseeable risks involved with participation in this study. Nevertheless, you may decline to answer any or all questions and you may terminate your involvement in this present study at any time without reason if you so choose. BENEFITS Involvement in this present study offers no greater benefits to the volunteer participant. CONFIDENTIALITY The researcher observation and your responses to the interview questions will be kept anonymous and reported as de-identified data through a codification process known only by the researcher. Every effort will be made by the researcher to preserve your confidentiality including the following: • Assigning code names/numbers for participants and institutions that will be used on all research notes and documents. • Keeping notes, interview transcriptions, and any other identifying participant information on a password protected solid-state hard drive with access solely available to the principal investigator. CONTACT INFORMATION If you have questions at any time about this study, or you experience adverse effects as the result of participating in this study, you may contact the researcher whose contact information is provided on the first page. If you have questions regarding your rights as a research participant, or if problems arise which you do not feel you can discuss with the Primary Investigator, please contact the University of Florida Institutional Review Board by phone at (352) 392-0433 or via e-mail at [email protected]. VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION Your participation in this study is voluntary. It is up to you to decide whether or not to take part in this study. If you decide to take part in this study, you will be asked to sign a consent form (below). After you sign this consent form, you are still free to withdraw at any time and without giving a reason. Withdrawing from this study will not affect the relationship you have, if any, with the researcher. If you withdraw from the study before data collection is completed, your data will be returned to you or destroyed. COMPENSATION You will not receive any compensation for volunteering to take part in this study.

CONSENT

I have read the procedure described above. I voluntarily agree to participate in the procedure and I have received a copy of this description

Participant's signature ______Date ______

Investigator's signature ______Date ______

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APPENDIX D INITIAL INTERVIEW GUIDE/PROTOCOL

1. Provide your job title and overall role at your school. 2. Are you currently a foreign language in elementary school (FLES) teacher? 3. How long have you been in your current role at this school? 4. Please describe the FLES program at your school. a. What grade levels are included in your schools FLES program? b. How frequently do students come to the FLES classroom? c. How long are students in each FLES class meeting? d. What proficiency level do your students have upon completing the FLES program? e. When was the FLES program started? f. Were you involved in the planning of the FLES program? g. Were you involved in the implementation of the FLES program? 5. Could you please describe how you have used video authentic resources? 6. Researcher provides the teacher with the purpose of this study by reading this passage: a. In the foreign language classroom, authentic resources are the materials deployed by the pedagogue for language instruction, but they are not created specifically for teaching a language. The purpose of this research is to identify the instructional strategies of foreign language teachers in the elementary context as they teach with video authentic resources. This study intends to interview eight teachers that use video authentic resources when teaching, to gain a better understanding of their applied instructional strategies, perceived best instructional strategies, and better understand how they align the video authentic resources with existing instructional goals. The teachers will be observed and then immediately engaged in a semi- structured post-observation interview. By identifying these practices, we can better understand the use of these materials in the foreign language in elementary school context. This will allow for a deeper consideration of the elementary language teacher's instructional strategies when using video authentic resources in the elementary foreign language classroom and may direct future research on instructional strategies within this context and beyond. 7. Are you willing to volunteer to be observed using video authentic resources in your classroom? 8. Are you willing to volunteer to be interviewed post-observation about your use of video authentic resources in your classroom? 9. Can we work on establishing a time and date for the interview and observation to occur? 10. Do you have any questions or concerns about this process?

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APPENDIX E OBSERVATION GUIDE

Length of Activity: Observed Elements Descriptive Notes Reflective Notes The Physical Setting What is the physical environment like? What is the context? Is the classroom dedicated to FLES or a multi-purpose academic classroom? What is the layout of the classroom? What objects are found in the classroom? What digital resources are available in the classroom? What non-digital resources are available in the classroom? The Participant Who is the participant being observed? What are the relevant characteristics of the teacher being observed? Who are the learners? How does the teacher situate the lesson for the learners? How is the lesson presented to the students? What instructional practices does the teacher deploy with the video authentic resource? What instructional practice does the teacher use to introduce the video authentic resource to the students? At what point in the lesson does the teacher use the video authentic resource? Activity with Video Authentic Resources What is going on in the video? Does the video authentic resource meet the needs of the instructional target? How does the teacher interact with the video? How does the teacher interact with the video and the learners? How do the learners react to the video? How long does the video last?

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How did the learners connect to the material presented in the video authentic resource? Did it appear that the material was new to the learners? Did the video authentic resource reinforce concepts that were taught? Were there norms or rules about the video authentic resource that naturally manifested during the lesson? Was the video authentic resource age appropriate? What kind of activities supplemented the video authentic resource? What instructional transitions were present as the teacher traversed from one lesson element to another? Describe the instructional practices that accompanied the video authentic resource? Did the video authentic resource dominate the lesson? How did the video authentic resource supplement the intended learning target? How were the learning goals present in the video? Did the use of video authentic resources appear to be a typical practice? What unique presentational and instructional events occurred that were new to the researcher? Did cultural elements manifest in the video? Were there vocabulary items in the lesson present in the video authentic resource? Subtle Factors What informal activities took place during the lesson? What unplanned events took place during the lesson? What types of non-verbal cues were given during the observation period from the teacher to the learners? What types of non-verbal cues were given during the observation period from the learners to the teacher? Were there any relevant interruptions to learning that

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would have interfered with the observation? What did not happen during the observation that should have happened? The Researcher Did my presence in the room have an effect on the lesson? Describe any interactions with the teacher with learner’s present? Describe any interactions with the learners? How, in my opinion, did the presence of an observer effect the teacher? General Observer Comments, thoughts, and other relevant observational items. (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016)

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APPENDIX F POST-OBSERVATION INTERVIEW GUIDE

1. Provide your job title and overall role at your school. 2. Was the lesson I just observed typical of an instructional period in your classroom? 3. What role do you have in the creation of the instructional goals used in your classroom? 4. What role do you have in aligning instructional resources to instructional goals within your institution? 5. Describe how you go about planning the use of video authentic resources during instruction? 6. How would you describe good instructional practices when using video authentic resources? 7. What best instructional practices do you perceive as pivotal to successful learning outcomes when using video authentic resources? 8. What kinds of processes do you have in place for finding video authentic resources? 9. What kinds of processes do you have in place for deciphering if a video authentic resource is actually an authentic resource? 10. Describe the ways authentic resources effect learning in the FLES classroom?

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BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH

Eric Inboden attended the University of Texas at Arlington focusing his education on

Spanish. During his undergraduate studies, he traveled abroad for study and worked abroad in several Latin American countries and in Europe. He attended the University of Texas at

Arlington for his master’s degree in Educational Leadership and Policy Studies where he was first exposed to the tenets of scholarly work and scholarly literature in education. These experiences were fundamental in his development as a teacher and imbued him with the skills necessary for a fast rise through the education ranks.

Eric has worked in a variety of K-12 contexts including charter schools, Title I public schools, high performing public schools, and independent schools. This plurality of experience has given him a well-rounded view of the K-12 educational sphere, which in turn has contributed to his teaching and learning. He has designed elementary world languages programs, crafted curricula for the adoption of entire school districts, designed and carried out research to study world languages programmatic implementations, crafted educational instruments for elementary world languages programs, and presented his array of knowledge in education to his colleagues in an effort to enrich their professional practices. Eric believes in the power of collegiality among teachers as a means of bettering student learning outcomes and as a consequence, improving society as whole.

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