Geohydrology and Water Quality of the Unconsolidated Aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley, Town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York

Prepared in cooperation with the Town of Enfield and the Tompkins County Planning Department

Scientific Investigations Report 2019–5136 Version 1.1, May 2020

U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Geological Survey Cover. Left: Devil’s Parlor Falls at Robert H. Treman (Enfield Glen) State Park, Enfield, New York. Middle: Lucifer Falls (Enfield Falls) at Robert H. Treman (Enfield Glen) State Park, Enfield, New York. Right: Lucifer Falls (Enfield Falls) at Robert H. Treman (Enfield Glen) State Park, Enfield, New York. Historical photographs courtesy of Bill Hecht. Geohydrology and Water Quality of the Unconsolidated Aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley, Town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York

By Benjamin N. Fisher, Paul M. Heisig, and William M. Kappel

Prepared in cooperation with the Town of Enfield and the Tompkins County Planning Department

Scientific Investigations Report 2019–5136 Version 1.1, May 2020

U.S. Department of the Interior U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Department of the Interior DAVID BERNHARDT, Secretary U.S. Geological Survey James F. Reilly II, Director

U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Virginia: 2019 First release: 2019 Revised: May 2020 (ver. 1.1)

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Suggested citation: Fisher, B.N., Heisig, P.M., and Kappel, W.M., 2019, Geohydrology and water quality of the unconsolidated aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley, Town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York (ver. 1.1, May 2020): U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2019–5136, 52 p., https://doi.org/10.3133/sir20195136.

Associated data for this publication: Fisher, B.N., Heisig, P.M., and Kappel, W.M., 2019, A horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio soundings and depth-to-bedrock data for geohydrology and water quality investigation of the unconsolidated aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley, town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York, April 2013–August 2015: U.S. Geological Survey data release, https://doi.org/10.5066/P9ZFTDFY.

Fisher, B.N., Heisig, P.M., and Kappel, W.M., 2019, Records of selected wells for geohydrology and water quality investigation of the unconsolidated aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley, town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York, 2013–2018: U.S. Geological Survey data release, https://doi.org/10.5066/P90FOTQV.

Fisher, B.N., Heisig, P.M., and Kappel, W.M., 2020, Geospatial datasets for the hydrogeology and water quality of the unconsolidated aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley, Town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York: U.S. Geological Survey data release, https://doi.org/10.5066/P9T3U63J.

ISSN 2328-0328 (online) iii

Contents

Abstract...... 1 Introduction...... 2 Purpose and Scope...... 2 Description of Study Area...... 2 Methods of Investigation...... 4 Well Inventory, Test Drilling, and Water-Level Measurements...... 6 Horizontal-to-Vertical Spectral Ratio Seismic Sounding Surveys...... 6 Surficial Geologic Map...... 6 Streamflow Measurements...... 8 Water-Quality Sampling and Analysis...... 8 Depositional History and Framework of Glacial and Postglacial Deposits...... 8 Bedrock Surface and Thickness of Glacial Deposits...... 8 Glacial and Postglacial History...... 10 Glacial Aquifers...... 16 Groundwater Recharge, Discharge, and Withdrawals...... 17 Groundwater Recharge...... 17 Groundwater Discharge...... 23 Groundwater Withdrawals...... 23 Water Quality of the Unconsolidated Aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley...... 24 Surface Water...... 24 Physical Properties...... 24 Common Inorganic Ions...... 24 Nutrients...... 24 Trace Elements...... 24 Groundwater...... 28 Physical Properties...... 28 Common Inorganic Ions...... 28 Nutrients...... 28 Groundwater Age and Gasses...... 28 Trace Elements...... 33 Comparison of Groundwater and Surface-Water Chemistry...... 33 Summary...... 35 References Cited...... 35 Appendix 1. Well Logs of Test Wells Drilled in the Enfield Creek Unconsolidated Aquifer, Town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York...... 40 Appendix 2. Test-Well Hydrographs in the Enfield Creek Unconsolidated Aquifer, Town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York...... 45 Appendix 3. Air and Water Temperatures by Depth at Test Wells TM1075 and TM1077 in the Enfield Creek Unconsolidated Aquifer, Town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York...... 50 iv

Figures

1. Map showing the location of 17 stratified-drift (unconsolidated) aquifer reaches in Tompkins County, New York...... 3 2. Map showing physiographic features of New York and location of the Enfield Creek Valley study area in the town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York...... 4 3. Map showing extent of unconfined and confined aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley, town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York...... 5 4. Map showing thickness of unconsolidated deposits and locations of horizontal-to-vertical seismic soundings, town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York...... 7 5. Map showing streamflow and surface-water quality sampling locations, town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York...... 9 6. Map showing surficial geology of Enfield Creek Valley, town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York...... 11 7. Cross sections showing hydrogeologic sections across the Enfield Creek Valley, town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York...... 12 8. Maps showing locations of domestic, test, and production wells in the town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York...... 18 9. Graph showing water chemistry for surface-water and groundwater samples for the town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York...... 34

Tables

1. Streamflow sites and associated discharge measurements, town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York...... 10 2. Estimated groundwater withdrawals by users that reside over the unconsolidated aquifer in the Enfield Creek Valley, town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York...... 23 3. Physical properties and concentrations of inorganic major ions, nutrients, and trace elements in surface-water samples from Enfield Creek, town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York...... 25 4. Physical properties and concentrations of inorganic major ions, nutrients, trace elements, dissolved gasses, and chlorofluorocarbons in groundwater samples from stratified-drift aquifers in the town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York...... 29 v

Conversion Factors

U.S. customary units to International System of Units

Multiply By To obtain Length inch (in.) 2.54 centimeter (cm) inch (in.) 25.4 millimeter (mm) foot (ft) 0.3048 meter (m) mile (mi) 1.609 kilometer (km) Area square mile (mi2) 259.0 hectare (ha) square mile (mi2) 2.590 square kilometer (km2) Volume gallon (gal) 3.785 liter (L) gallon (gal) 0.003785 cubic meter (m3) gallon (gal) 3.785 cubic decimeter (dm3) cubic foot per second (ft3/s) 0.02832 cubic meter per second (m3/s) Flow rate gallon per minute (gal/min) 0.06309 liter per second (L/s) gallon per day (gal/d) 0.003785 cubic meter per day (m3/d)

Temperature in degrees Celsius (°C) may be converted to degrees Fahrenheit (°F) as °F = (1.8 × °C) + 32.

Datum

Vertical coordinate information is referenced to the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD 88). Horizontal coordinate information is referenced to the North American Datum of 1983 (NAD 83). Elevation, as used in this report, refers to distance above the vertical datum.

Supplemental Information

Specific conductance is given in microsiemens per centimeter at 25 degrees Celsius (µS/cm at 25 °C). Concentrations of chemical constituents in water are given in either milligrams per liter (mg/L) or micrograms per liter (µg/L). vi

Abbreviations

EPA U.S. Environmental Protection Agency MCL maximum contaminant level MCLG maximum contaminant level goal NWQL National Water Quality Laboratory NYSDOH New York State Department of Health SC specific conductance SMCL secondary maximum contaminant level USGS U.S. Geological Survey Geohydrology and Water Quality of the Unconsolidated Aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley, Town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York

By Benjamin N. Fisher, Paul M. Heisig, and William M. Kappel

Abstract groundwater flowing from bordering till or bedrock, and by flow from the bottom of the valley. Also, some recharge may From 2013 to 2018, the U.S. Geological Survey, in be occurring where confining units are absent or from confin- cooperation with the Town of Enfield and the Tompkins ing units with sediments of moderate permeability. County Planning Department, studied the unconsolidated Groundwater discharges to Enfield Creek, its tributaries, aquifer in the Enfield Creek Valley in the town of Enfield, and wetlands and is lost through evapotranspiration from the Tompkins County, New York. The valley will likely undergo water table or is withdrawn from domestic, commercial, and future development as the population of Tompkins County agricultural wells. About 700 individual well owners depend increases and spreads out from the metropolitan areas. The on the unconsolidated aquifers for their water supply. An esti- Town of Enfield, Tompkins County, and the New York State mated 28,300,000 gallons per year are withdrawn. Departments of Health and Environmental Conservation need Groundwater samples were collected from eight test geohydrologic information to help planners develop a more wells drilled for this study, and six surface-water samples comprehensive approach to water-resource management in were collected from five locations on Enfield Creek. Of the Tompkins County. eight wells sampled, two were finished in unconfined sand- The Enfield Creek Valley is underlain by an uncon- and-gravel aquifers, two were finished in confined sand-and- fined aquifer that consists of saturated alluvium, alluvial-fan gravel aquifers, and four were finished at or near the shale deposits, and ice-contact (kame) sand and gravel. A confined bedrock surface. aquifer of discontinuous ice-contact sand and gravel overlies Water quality in the study area generally met State and bedrock. Depth to bedrock in the valley ranges from about Federal drinking-water standards. However, some samples 50 feet below land surface from just north of the Enfield Creek exceeded maximum contaminant levels for barium (25 percent divide in the northern part of the aquifer to the confluence of of samples) and secondary maximum containment levels for Fivemile Creek to at least 140 feet below land surface from chloride (25 percent), dissolved solids (25 percent of samples), Fivemile Creek to where the valley orientation changes from iron (70 percent of samples), and manganese (75 percent of north-south to northwest-southeast. Depth to bedrock is much samples). Groundwater from 75 percent of the wells sampled shallower from the valley orientation change to the south- for methane had concentrations greater than the Office of eastern part of the aquifer because Enfield Creek has carved through overlying sediments into bedrock as the creek drops Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement recommended 450 feet into the Cayuga Inlet Valley. A small buried valley action level of 10 to 28 milligrams per liter. The two deepest running south to north was identified within the Fivemile wells sampled, TM1075 and TM1077, had the highest specific Creek drainage along the western edge of the town. However, conductance, chloride, and sodium concentrations of all wells the valley fill consists of glacial till, and no sand-and-gravel sampled. The chloride/bromide ratios of these samples suggest aquifer is present. the source may represent a mixture of saline formation waters The unconfined aquifers are recharged by direct infiltra- with shallow dilute groundwater and may receive recharge tion of precipitation, surface runoff, and shallow subsurface contribution from two tributaries overlying bedrock to the flow from hillsides, and by seepage loss from streams overly- west and southwest of the aquifer. In general, the highest ing the aquifer. The confined aquifers are recharged mostly yields are from wells completed within about 50 feet below by precipitation that enters the adjacent valley walls, by land surface, which may tap either type of aquifer. 2 Geohydrology and Water Quality of the Unconsolidated Aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley

Introduction Purpose and Scope

The Town of Enfield relies on groundwater as its sole This report describes the geohydrology of the unconsolidated aquifer in the Enfield Creek Valley in the town of source for drinking water. Unconsolidated aquifers like those Enfield, Tompkins County, New York. The report describes that underlie the study area are susceptible to contamination and illustrates (1) the geology of the study area, including the from manmade and natural sources. Elevated concentrations geologic framework of the unconsolidated aquifers and geohy- of sodium, chloride, total dissolved solids, and methane in drologic sections; (2) the groundwater-flow system, including groundwater are of local concern. information about groundwater levels, groundwater/surface- In 2000, the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) mapped the water interaction, and recharge and discharge conditions; and extent of the unconsolidated (sand-and-gravel) aquifer systems (3) groundwater and surface-water quality, including informa- in Tompkins County, New York (Miller, 2000). From 2000 to tion about concentrations of common inorganic ions, inorganic 2002, the USGS, in cooperation with the Tompkins County forms of nitrogen and phosphorus (collectively, nutrients), Planning Department, used this information to plan more trace elements, dissolved gasses, and chlorofluorocarbons. detailed studies to better understand these unconsolidated Evaluating, developing, and protecting these unconsoli- aquifers. The purpose of these studies is to provide town and dated aquifers requires information on the aquifer geometry county planners information to manage, maintain, and protect (the three-dimensional extent and distribution of glacial sedi- their groundwater resources as a drinking-water source. A list ments including aquifers and confining units), on sources of of 17 unconsolidated-aquifer reaches (fig. 1) was compiled, recharge and discharge, and on aquifer water quality. Aquifer and a plan to study them over the following years was devel- geometry was determined from test wells drilled for the study, oped. The extent of the stratified-drift unconsolidated aquifers driller’s logs from existing wells, topographic maps, light detection and ranging coverage, passive-seismic soundings, was based mostly on natural hydrologic boundaries, but, in field surveys, and field observations from previous studies in some cases, political boundaries were used as well. Between the area. The types of recharge were delineated, and stream- 2013 and 2018, the Enfield Creek Valley was the fifth (Miller flow measurements were made along Enfield Creek and its and Karig, 2010; Miller and Bugliosi 2013; Bugliosi and oth- tributaries to determine where the aquifer was being recharged ers, 2014; Miller, 2015) aquifer study to be investigated for from the overlying streams. Groundwater withdrawals were this county-wide program. estimated using values from USGS water-use reports (Horn The objective of this study is to improve the under- and others, 2008; Dieter and others, 2018) and from U.S. Cen- standing of the geohydrology of the unconsolidated aquifer sus Bureau (2012b) data and have been rounded to three in the Enfield Creek Valley. Specifically, the study provides significant figures. information regarding the (1) extent and thickness of geo- Stream samples were collected to characterize the quality hydrologic units, (2) hydraulic conditions in the aquifer of surface water under base-flow conditions (when the flow is (whether the units are under confined [artesian] or unconfined mostly from groundwater discharging into stream channels) conditions), (3) extent of groundwater/surface-water interac- and to determine whether there are similarities in water quality tion, (4) groundwater use (type and amount of groundwater between surface water and groundwater. Groundwater samples withdrawal), (5) water levels in the geohydrologic units, and were collected from wells that are finished in unconfined (6) general water quality of Enfield Creek and the aquifer. and confined aquifers to compare water-quality conditions. The study may benefit Federal, State, and county gov- Samples were collected from wells to characterize the quality of groundwater and to determine if the concentrations of any ernments and the residents in the study area by advancing constituents exceeded standards for drinking-water quality. knowledge of the regional geohydrologic framework of these types of valley-fill systems, by increasing the understanding of hydrologic processes in unconsolidated aquifer systems Description of Study Area in the glacial northeast, and by contributing data to national databases that are used to advance the understanding of the The town of Enfield is in the Appalachian Plateau physio- regional and temporal variations in hydrologic systems. Addi- graphic province of central New York at the transition between tionally, the information provides local government, water highly eroded, smooth interfluve areas of low relief between deeply eroded Finger Lake valleys and the dissected plateau managers, businesses, and homeowners with groundwater areas of moderate relief to the south (fig. 2). Relief between information to help ensure that the drinking-water supply will valley bottoms and adjacent hills at the northern end of town is be safe, water will be available for economic development, about 200 feet (ft); local relief just upvalley from Enfield Glen and aquatic environments will be healthy. The study builds at the southern end of town is about 600 ft. The topography of upon the USGS data-collection efforts in New York State and the plateau reflects millions of years of dissection by streams on the interpretation of the Nation’s water availability. and subsequent modification by several periods of glaciation. Enfield is underlain by gently southward dipping sedimentary Introduction 3

60 630 620

CAYUGA COUNTY TOMPKINS COUNTY

TWN F GRTN TWN F LANSING

SENECA COUNTY TOMPKINS COUNTY

TWN F ULYSSES

230

CORTLAND COUNTY CORTLAND TOMPKINS COUNTY TOMPKINS

TWN F TWN F ITHACA DRYDEN

CITY F TWN F ITHACA ENFIELD

Study area

TWN F CARLINE 220 TWN F NEWFIELD TWN F DANBY TOMPKINS COUNTY TIOGA COUNTY TOMPKINS COUNTY SCHUYLER CHEMUNG 0 2 MIES COUNTY COUNTY 0 2 KIOMETERS

Base modified from National Geographic Aquifers mapped by Miller, 2000 Topo Maps, 1:100,000, 2003

EPLANATIN Aquifer reach names

Cascadilla Creek Valley and upland Sixmile Creek Valley Taughannock Creek Valley and Taughannock delta Enfield Creek Valley Upper Buttermilk Creek and Danby Creek Valleys Lower Cayuga Inlet trough Upper Cayuga Inlet trough Lower Fall Creek Valley Upper Fall Creek Valley Lower Sixmile Creek trough (towns of Dryden and Ithaca) Upper Sixmile Creek and West Branch Owego Creek Valleys Owasco Inlet Valley Virgil Creek Valley Pony Hollow Valley West Branch Cayuga Inlet and Fish Kill Valleys Salmon Creek and Locke Valleys and Myers Point West Branch Owego Creek Valley and tributaries Lower Sixmile Creek and Willseyville Creek trough

Figure 1. The location of 17 stratified-drift (unconsolidated) aquifer reaches in Tompkins County, New York. 4 Geohydrology and Water Quality of the Unconsolidated Aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley

80 8 6 2 5 CANADA St Lawrence-Champlain Lowlands

CANADA Adirondack Mountains

Tug LAKE ONTARIO Hill Plateau

VERMONT NEW Mohawk 3 Ontario Lowlands HAMPSHIRE Valley Heads Lowlands Erie Finger Lakes and hills of the Moraine Lowlands Appalachian Plateau (severly eroded low Lowlands relief) TOMPKINS LAKE ERIE COUNTY Appalachian Plateau Appalachian Plateau MASSACHUSETTS (hills of moderate relief) Study area (hills of moderate relief) NEW YORK (in red) PENNSYLVANNIA New England Uplands

Hudson CONNECTICUT

Triassic Lowland NEW JERSEY Atlantic Coastal Plain ATLANTIC OCEAN

Base from U.S. Geological Survey digital data, 192 O 5O 10O MIES Modified from Cressey, 1966, fig. 9 1:2,000,000 Albers Equal-Area Conic proection Standard parallels 2030 and 530 O 5O 10O KIOMETERS central meridian –9600

Figure 2. Physiographic features of New York and location of the Enfield Creek Valley study area in the town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York. bedrock that primarily consists of shale and siltstone of the Creek drainage area is 30.6 square miles. Elevations in the Sonyea Group and the underlying Genesee Group (exposed in study area range from about 1,990 ft above the North Ameri- Enfield Glen), which are of Upper Devonian age (Rickard and can Vertical Datum of 1988 on Buck Hill, which is in the Fisher, 1970). southwest corner of the town of Enfield, to about 600 ft at the Enfield Creek begins at a watershed divide at the north- base of Enfield Glen in the southeast corner of town (fig. 3). ern edge of town just northeast of the intersection of County Route 170 (Halseyville Road) and County Route 139 (Hayts Road). Just downstream, Enfield Creek is joined by its main Methods of Investigation tributary, Fivemile Creek, as Enfield flows southward, then eastward through the main valley to Robert H. Treman State Data used for analysis in this study were collected Park. At the park, Enfield Creek has incised through unconsol- through geologic mapping, test drilling, passive-seismic idated deposits and into bedrock as it descends 400 ft through soundings, measuring groundwater levels, and surface-water Enfield Glen on the west wall of the Cayuga Inlet Valley. and groundwater-quality sampling; and through compiling Enfield Creek joins Cayuga Inlet and flows north into Cayuga existing data, including driller well records, and past geologic, Lake, which is part of the Oswego River Basin and the Lake soil, surficial- and bedrock-deposit maps and reports, which Ontario watershed (Michigan Sea Grant, 2019). The Enfield are described in the following sections. Methods of Investigation 5

60 W 638 W 636 W 63 W

o n n a k h e g e u r a T C

228 N

Unnamed tributry of Taughannock Creek

Five mile Creek

f i

e e

226 N Enfield Creek Tributary 4 at Robert H Treman State Park, NY HARVEY HILL ROAD Enfield Creek Tributary 3 at State Route 327 near Enfield Creek Tributary Bostwick Corners, NY at Bostwick Corners, NY

Enfield Glen Buck Hill 22 N

Base map image is the intellectual property of Esri and is used herein under license 0 1 2 MIES Copyright 201 Esri and its licensors All rights reserved EPLANATIN 0 1 2 KIOMETERS Confined aquifer Unconfined aquifer Town of Enfield boundary

Figure 3. Extent of unconfined and confined aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley, town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York. See also Fisher and others (2020). 6 Geohydrology and Water Quality of the Unconsolidated Aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley

Well Inventory, Test Drilling, and Water-Level water-level and water-temperature data every 4 hours, from Measurements which graphical representations of changes in water level and water temperature were made (app. 2). Well records (306 in total) within and outside the uncon- Land-surface elevations at wells were estimated using solidated aquifer were collected and compiled within the light detection and ranging technology with a horizontal accu- town of Enfield. Sources of well data include previous USGS racy of 1.000 meter root mean square error and a vertical accu- groundwater studies, the USGS National Water Informa- racy of 0.185 meter root mean square error. Also used were tion System, and well records obtained from the New York 1:24,000-scale topographic contour maps that were accurate State Department of Environmental Conservation Water Well to 5 ft. Depths to water below the measuring points were then Contractor Program. These data are available from Fisher and converted to water-level elevations by subtracting water level others (2019b, 2020). from land-surface elevation. Eight test wells were drilled in the town of Enfield and village of Enfield, New York, as part of the project (app. 1): Horizontal-to-Vertical Spectral Ratio Seismic • Well TM1075 is at the Town of Enfield Highway Sounding Surveys Department and was drilled 142 ft into gray and black shale bedrock and cased to 136 ft in sand and gravel. The horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio or passive- seismic method measures ambient seismic noise to determine • Well TM1076 is next toTM1075 and was drilled 60 ft sediment thickness overlying bedrock. This method uses a into sand and gravel and cased to 53 ft in sand and single, broad-band three-component seismometer to record gravel. the ambient seismic noise. The averaged horizontal-to-vertical frequency spectrum is used to determine a resonance fre- • Well TM1077 is behind an apartment complex in the quency that can then be interpreted using regression equations village of Enfield and was drilled 106 ft into gray and to estimate sediment thickness and depth to bedrock (Lane black shale and cased to 93 ft in sand and gravel. and others, 2008). Measurements were taken at 69 locations • Well TM1078 is next to well TM 1077 and was drilled (fig. 4) to refine aquifer geometry as determined from the data 60 ft into sand and gravel and cased to 56 ft in sand collected and described above. These data are available as a and gravel. separate USGS data release (Fisher and others, 2019a) and are shown on figure 4. This method works best when the shear • Well TM1079 is off Hayts Road and was drilled 61 ft wave velocities of bedrock and the unconsolidated deposits into gray and black shale bedrock and cased 48 ft in differ; stratified sediments over bedrock generally work best. sand and gravel. Dense glacial till over shale typically provides a weak peak or no peak, which results in either underestimated bedrock depth • Well TM1080 is next to TM1079 and was drilled 12 ft or unusable data and no estimate. The results of these analyses into sand and gravel and cased to 9 ft in sand and are noted with a “greater than” depth estimate or “na,” mean- gravel. ing no analysis was possible. Results are still useful because • Well TM1081 is on a private farm off Enfield Main they indicate that the unconsolidated deposits above bedrock Road and was drilled 142 ft into gray and black shale are probably till. There were several passive-seismic sound- and cased to 138 ft in sand and gravel; ings collected in till-dominated areas to the west and southwest of the study area valley. These soundings were collected • Well TM1082 is next to TM 1081 and was drilled 51 ft to investigate a possible buried valley thought to extend from into sand and gravel and cased to 42 ft in sand and the southwest to the northeast and terminate at the Fivemile gravel. Creek Valley. Well logs in the area indicated the existence Soil and rock samples were obtained with depth during of a buried valley filled in with till, which explains why the the drilling to help determine the underlying aquifer mate- passive-seismic soundings in the area were largely unable to rial. All wells, except for well TM1081, were completed as estimate the bedrock depth. open holes. The casing of well TM1081 was perforated from 77 to 79 ft deep and sealed at the bottom of the hole. Water- Surficial Geologic Map level and water-temperature data were collected at all eight USGS test wells during the study period after completing the The surficial geologic map of Muller and Cadwell (1986) test drilling. Water-level data loggers were installed in each was modified using information from topographic maps, of these wells to monitor seasonal water-level fluctuation. orthophotographs, soils maps, and well logs (Neeley, 1961). As the well data loggers were sealed, a barometric pressure Horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio seismic surveys were data logger in the USGS New York Water Science Center, used to determine the thickness of the unconsolidated depos- Ithaca office was used to compensate for barometric pressure its and bedrock-surface elevation to help refine the surficial changes recorded at each well. The loggers were set to record geologic map. Methods of Investigation 7

60 W 638 W 636 W 63 W

o n n a k h e g e u r a T C

107,29 108,30 109,11 110,33 129,50 123,na 124,na 111,na 125,39 228 N 122,29 127,67 128,na 157,47 126,na 153,48 156,46 155,48 154,49 Unnamed tributry of Taughannock Creek F e ive mile Cr ek 96,62

135,63 97,na n

136,60 f

103,na C

98,na e

e 99,38 104,na k 106,na 81,48 82,75 83,na 105,na 100,26 85,45 101,30 102,na 84,74 226 N

120,na 115,72 119,24 114,47 79,106 118,na 80,66 116,51 121,na 113,na 95,107 117,42 92,60 112,na 94,107 147,31 93,73 148,na 90,84 130,46 86,34 149,na 152,42 87,42 88,71 89,89 131,55 151,28 132,54 150,36 91,na 133,46 134,52 Enfield Glen 22 N ROBERT H. TREMAN

CONNECTICUT HILL

Base map image is the intellectual property of Esri and is used herein under license 0 1 2 MIES Copyright 201 Esri and its licensors All rights reserved 0 1 2 KIOMETERS EPLANATIN HVSR, horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio State park Thickness of unconsolidated deposits Town of Enfield boundary Less than 40 feet HVSR seismic survey location Greater than or equal to 40 feet 90,84 HVSR seismic sounding number with estimated 80 to 140 feet thickness of unconsolidated sediments

Figure 4. Thickness of unconsolidated deposits and locations of horizontal-to-vertical seismic soundings, town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York. See also Fisher and others (2020). 8 Geohydrology and Water Quality of the Unconsolidated Aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley

Streamflow Measurements Groundwater samples were collected on June 15, 2016, at all eight USGS test wells. One blank quality-control sample Synoptic streamflow measurements (Rantz and oth- was collected for nine groundwater samples. Wells were ers, 1982) were performed during base flow, or sustained purged until properties (temperature, SC, pH, and dissolved low-flow conditions in the absence of direct surface runoff, at oxygen) stabilized. Stability criteria allow variation between 12 sites along Enfield Creek and its tributaries to determine if five or more sequential field-measurement values. Stabil- streams were losing water to or gaining water from the aquifer ity criteria for each property are as follows: temperature is (fig. 5; table 1). The streamflow measurements for discharge plus or minus (±) 0.2 degree Celsius (°C; thermistor); SC is (stream width, stream depth, and stream velocity) were made ±5 percent of SC less than 100 microsiemens per centimeter at intervals along a longitudinal profile based on locations of at 25 degrees Celsius (µS/cm at 25 °C) and ±3 percent for tributaries entering the main stem using a SonTek acoustic SC greater than 100 µS/cm; pH is ±0.1 units (±0.05 units if Doppler velocimeter. These streamflow measurements were instrument displays two or more digits to the right of the deci- collected on September 17, 2015. mal); and dissolved oxygen is ±0.2 milligram per liter (mg/L; Measurements at all locations, except for sites 04233090 U.S. Geological Survey, variously dated). and 04233100, were made twice and averaged together for the final discharge value. The two locations mentioned above, with only one measurement collected, have greater uncertainty Depositional History and Framework of because of the lack of a verification (or second) measurement. In general, there may be relative uncertainty between all mea- Glacial and Postglacial Deposits surements made because of equipment uncertainty, possible human error in depth and width readings, and the absence of The Finger Lakes region has been subject to several uniform flows in the streams. periods of glaciation separated by interglacial periods during the Pleistocene Epoch, from about 2.6 million years ago until about 12,000 years ago (Fullerton, 1980). Since then, Water-Quality Sampling and Analysis the glacial deposits locally have been subject to erosion and redeposition as postglacial deposits including alluvium and Samples for this study were collected from surface alluvial-fan deposits and colluvium (not mapped as a separate water and groundwater. Water samples, including replicates unit in this study). and blanks, were collected in accordance with the USGS The town of Enfield occupies a high-elevation upland national field manual for the collection of water-quality data area (interfluve) between the two deepest valleys in the (U.S. Geological Survey, variously dated). Surface-water and region—the Cayuga Lake and Seneca Lake troughs. The main groundwater samples were analyzed at the USGS National valley within the town, occupied by Enfield Creek, ranges Water Quality Laboratory (NWQL) in Denver, Colorado, for from about 800 to 200 ft above the level of Cayuga Lake, physical properties, nutrients (Fishman, 1993; Patton and Tru- which lies 6 miles to the northeast. itt, 2000; Patton and Kryskalla, 2011), major ions, and trace elements (Fishman and Friedman, 1989; Fishman, 1993; Gar- barino, 1999; Garbarino and others, 2005; American Public Bedrock Surface and Thickness of Glacial Health Association, American Water Works Association, and Deposits Water Environment Federation, 1998). Groundwater samples were also analyzed at the USGS Groundwater Dating Labora- Unconsolidated deposits in the study area overlie bedrock tory in Reston, Virginia, for dissolved gases, chlorofluorocar- that has been eroded during glacial and interglacial periods. bons (CFCs), and age dating (Busenberg and Plummer, 2008, Bedrock primarily consists of shale and siltstone of the Sonyea U.S. Geological Survey, 2018). Group and the underlying Genesee Group (exposed in Enfield Physical properties were measured in the field at the time Glen), which are of Upper Devonian age (Rickard and Fisher, of sampling, aside from well depth. Well depth was deter- 1970). Williams and others (1909) recognized that glacial ero- mined during the test well drilling. The physiochemical prop- sion of bedrock was most pronounced in the deepest valleys erties (dissolved oxygen, pH, and water temperature) were where the ice was thickest and where valleys were aligned obtained using a YSI 6920 V2 multiparameter water-quality with regional ice movement, such as the Cayuga Lake and sonde. Specific conductance (SC) values were reported from Cayuga Inlet Valleys. The depth to bedrock in the Inlet Val- the laboratory. ley south of Ithaca is at least 350 ft and probably as much as Surface-water samples were collected on Septem- 450 ft below land surface (Lawson, 1977). Erosion by glacial ber 17, 2015. Samples were collected along Enfield Creek ice was least effective in upland areas or areas close to the overlying the aquifer boundaries and were collected at the ice margin (where ice was thinnest and flow weakest), and in same time as the discharge measurements that were performed valleys oriented perpendicular to regional ice flow. The north- for the streamflow synoptic. One replicate (or quality-control) south-oriented section of Enfield Creek Valley was parallel sample was collected—to ensure reproducibility in sample to ice flow (figs. 6 and 7), and although depth to bedrock is collection method—for six surface-water samples. about 50 ft just south of the northern through-valley divide Depositional History and Framework of Glacial and Postglacial Deposits 9

638W 636W 63W

228N

e e Fivemile C r r C ee k d l

e i f 04233051(0.031)

n E

04233053 (0.078)

04233060 (0.648)

226N

04233065 (0.794)

04233075 (0.031) 04233080 (1.23) 04233085 (1.30) 04233090 (0.048)

04233095 (0.008) 04233097 (1.42) 04233092 (1.75)

04233100 (1.56) 22N Enfield Glen

l l i

K h is F

Base modified from National Geographic 0 0.5 1 MIE Topo Maps, 1:100,000, 2003 0 0.5 1 KIOMETER

EPLANATIN

Confined aquifer Streamflow measurement/water-quality sampling location Unconfined aquifer Streamflow measurement location Gaining reach 04233092 (1.75) U.S. Geological Survey station identifier and discharge, in Losing reach cubic feet per second, measured on September 17, 2015

Figure 5. Streamflow and surface-water quality sampling locations, town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York. See also Fisher and others (2020). 10 Geohydrology and Water Quality of the Unconsolidated Aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley

Table 1. Streamflow sites and associated discharge measurements, town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York.

[ft3/s, cubic foot per second; mi2, square mile; Cr, Creek; Rd, Road; °, degree; ′, minute; ″, second; N., north; W., west]

Station Drainage identifi- Discharge Station name area Latitude Longitude cation (ft3/s) (mi2) number 04233051 Enfield Creek above Fivemile Creek at Millers Corners, New York 0.031 2.86 42°26′43.7″ N. 76°37′43.6″ W. 04233053 Enfield Creek below Fivemile Cr at Millers Corners, New York 0.078 7.47 42°26′41.8″ N. 76°37′43.4″ W. 04233060 Enfield Creek at Enfield Center Road 3 at Enfield, New York 0.648 8.43 42°26′09.6″ N. 76°37′47.6″ W. 04233065 Enfield Creek at Bostwick Road at Bostwick Corners, New York 0.794 10.2 42°25′17.9″ N. 76°37′28.0″ W. 04233075 Enfield Creek Tributary at Bostwick Corners, New York 0.031 2.94 42°24′54.3″ N. 76°37′36.5″ W. 04233080 Enfield Creek above State Route 327 at Bostwick Corners, New York 1.23 15.0 42°24′54.8″ N. 76°37′11.4″ W. 04233085 Enfield Creek at Hines Rd near Bostwick Corners, New York 1.30 16.5 42°24′39.4″ N. 76°36′27.3″ W. 04233090 Enfield Creek Tributary 3 at State Route 327 near Bostwick Corners, 0.048 0.40 42°24′29.4″ N. 76°36′06.5″ W. New York 04233092 Enfield Creek below Tributary 3 near Bostwick Corners, New York 1.75 17.4 42°24′28.6″ N. 76°36′04.6″ W. 04233095 Enfield Creek Tributary 4 at Robert H. Treman State Park, New York 0.008 0.28 42°24′22.9″ N. 76°35′51.3″ W. 04233097 Enfield Creek below Tributary 4 near Robert H. Treman State Park, 1.42 17.8 42°24′22.2″ N. 76°35′50.2″ W. New York 04233100 Enfield Creek at Robert H. Treman State Park, New York 1.56 17.9 42°24′12.9″ N. 76°35′39.2″ W.

of Enfield Creek, it increases to at least 140 ft within 1 mile as 125 ft) primarily underlies the drainages of Fivemile Creek downvalley (at the confluence with Fivemile Creek). This and an unnamed tributary of Taughannock Creek within the 140-ft depth is maintained at least until the valley orientation northwest quadrant of the town (fig. 4). Adjacent areas of thin changes from north-south to northwest-southeast toward the till may indicate that some thick till areas cover buried inter- Cayuga Inlet Valley. Reported depths to bedrock downgra- glacial gorges. dient from this point are shallower because Enfield Creek has incised through overlying sediments into bedrock as it Glacial and Postglacial History descends 450 ft into the Cayuga Inlet Valley. Tributary valleys of the Cayuga Inlet Valley are termed “hanging valleys” Most glacial deposits within the study area are derived because glaciation has eroded the bedrock floor of the Inlet from two primary Laurentide ice sheet advances and retreats Valley far below the bedrock floors of the tributary valleys. during the Late Wisconsinan substage at the end of the Pleis- For example, Enfield Creek, before it starts to incise into the tocene Epoch. Both advances completely covered the town valley fill, is greater than 600 ft higher than the Cayuga Inlet of Enfield. These include the maximum Late Wisconsinan ice flood plain at their confluence; the difference in elevation of advance that extended as far south as Pennsylvania (Nissouri the bedrock floors is greater still. Such differences in elevation Stade, about 23,000 to 16,500 years before present [2019]; have resulted in the development of a system of gorges along Muller and Calkin, 1993), and the Valley Heads re-advance the Cayuga Inlet Valley during interglacial intervals (Williams (Fairchild, 1932), which deposited moraines mostly in the and others, 1909; Miller, 2015; Miller and Karig, 2010; Karig, form of outwash heads in valleys immediately south of Enfield 2015). The gorges were buried by sediment deposited dur- (in the town of Newfield; Denny and Lyford, 1963; Bugliosi ing subsequent glacial advances and have been re-excavated and others, 2014) and across much of western New York to varying degrees during the past 12,000 years. In the study (Port Bruce Stade, starting about 15,500 years before present area, Enfield Creek has partially re-excavated a buried inter- [2019] until ice retreated from the area about 14,400 years glacial gorge and incised farther into bedrock at Enfield Glen ago; Karrow, 1984; Cadwell and Muller, 2004). As a result, (within Robert H. Treman State Park in the southeast corner of two tills (or more) are common in valleys north of the Valley the town of Enfield; figs. 4 and 7B, C). Heads moraine (for example, Miller, 2015). Earlier glacial or The upland areas in Enfield are mostly mantled by thin interglacial deposits have been noted within the region, most (0–40 ft) glacial till of low permeability. Thick till (as much commonly as gorge fillings (for example, Karig, 2015). Depositional History and Framework of Glacial and Postglacial Deposits 11

60W 638W 636W

al hs al al

al hs

228N t A' al A

t al

osg alf al t al osg Cayuga Inlet Valley al t tg al ice tongue alf alf(d) al alf tg al alf alfalf(d) al al r alf(d) tg al k k alf(d) B al k k al al alf(d) al k al B' al 226N alf alf(d) tg alf(d) k t al alf C' k alf al alf(d) k al al alf k D' k k alf k t t C al alf alt k k al alf(d) alf alf(d) alf k alf alf alt altalf(d) k alf alf tg tg alf alt t k al alf tg k alf al tg alt alt lsc hs alt al alt 22N t Enfield Glen hs r r r al alf alf alf alr k al tg k alf alf(d) k al al D al k al Enfield Creek Valley morainic loop t k lsc al

Base map image is the intellectual property of Esri and is used herein under license 0 1 2 MIES Copyright 201 Esri and its licensors All rights reserved 0 1 2 KIOMETERS EPLANATIN al Channel and flood-plain alluvium hs Freshwater swamp deposits t Till Moraines/ice margin alf Alluvial-fan deposits lsc Lake depsoits tg Till, gravelly A A' Hydrogeologic cross section alf(d) Alluvial-fan deposits k Ice-contact (kame) sand and gravel r Bedrock Well (early postglacial, poorly sorted) osg utwash sand and gravel alt Alluvial terrace deposits

Figure 6. Surficial geology of Enfield Creek Valley, town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York. See also Fisher and others (2020). 12 Geohydrology and Water Quality of the Unconsolidated Aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley

A ' NORTHEAST 2,000 FEET t 500 METERS

, Cross section TM2682 C . ’ TD 100 B 1,000 – B 250 U.S. Geological Survey. Well data are Well U.S. Geological Survey. in the U.S. Geological Survey National Information System Water 500 Well number—Number is assigned by Well marker Water-level Well Wells Total depth of well, in feet Total 250 r

0 0 TM2879 t TD 235 , Cross section B

' TM2711 A – TD 202

A TM1227 TD 36 al , Cross section r

. ic? TM2008 TD 100 t ? ? ? EPLANATIN t folded and dip south from 20 to 50 feet per mile deposited by glacial ice. At land surface, includes a layer of may overlie stratified material along valley edges colluvium. Till where oversteepened slopes have resulted in downslope movement of the till. In upland areas, mostly compact and dense lodgment till with subangular to angular clasts (fine pebbles boulders) of local shale and siltstone embedded in a sandy to clayey matrix. Referred to as hardpan or till by local drillers. Forms a confining unit, where present Bedrock—Mostly Devonian-age shale and siltstone. Beds are gently Till—Poorly sorted clayey to silty matrix with embedded stones Till—Poorly Consolidated deposits r ? t r osg t ic?

t? TM1079 al

TD 61 ? t ?

? TM1352 . ’ TD 130 D – D and silt deposited by meltwater beneath, within, atop, or adjacent to glacial ice. At land surface, in the form of kames and on map, labeled k. In sections, ic. Ranges from well-sorted units to poorly sorted dirty gravels reported in logs and some silty to clayey layers. Contorted or driller’s faulted bedding is common, caused by meltout of nearby ice. the ice-contact sediments are overlain by till or Locally, resedimented till as thick 15 feet t meltwater drainage away from the ice. In Enfield, flow and sediment source was weak from ice at high-elevation drainage divides r

gravel, sand, silt, and clay Ice-contact (kame) sand and gravel—Stratified gravel, sand, Outwash sand and gravel—Silty gravel deposited by TM1723

Channel and flood-plain alluvium—Stream-deposited Glacial deposits of late Wisconsin age Postglacial deposits of Holocene age TM1406 (PROJECTED) TM1406 ydrogeologic sections across the Enfield Creek Valley, town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York County, town of Enfield, Tompkins ydrogeologic sections across the Enfield Creek Valley, H TD 140 k ic al osg , Cross section D VERTICA EAGGERATION 5 VERTICA EAGGERATION . ’ A WEST 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 C 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 5 0 – , 0 , 0 , 1 , 1 , 2 , 2 , 3 , 3 , 4 Figure 7. C 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 A FEET Depositional History and Framework of Glacial and Postglacial Deposits 13

B WEST SOUTHEAST B B' FEET

1,500 BEND IN SECTION 1,450 t 1,400 t 1,350 TM1356 1,300 r 1,250 TM 757 (PROJECTED) 1,200 TM1946 (PROJECTED) TM 121 (PROJECTED) TD 140 TM 758 (PROJECTED) r TM 759 ND t Enil C 1,150 TM2474 (PROJECTED) alf(d)

TM1263 (PROJECTED) TM1077 (PROJECTED) t al 1,100 ND tg ND ND ? 1,050 ic ND ic ic ? r TD 75 1,000 t ? TD 67 ? TD 106 ? 950 TD 230 TD 67 TD 65 900 r TD 200 TD 198 850 VERTICA EAGGERATION 5 0 250 500 1,000 2,000 FEET

0 250 500 METERS

EPLANATIN

Postglacial deposits of Holocene age al Channel and flood-plain alluvium—Stream-deposited t Till—Poorly sorted clayey to silty matrix with embedded stones gravel, sand, silt, and clay deposited by glacial ice. At land surface, includes a layer of alf(d) Alluvial fan deposits—Gravel, sand, silt, and colluvium. Till may overlie stratified material along valley clay deposited as fans by upland tributaries where they edges where oversteepened slopes have resulted in downslope join larger valleys. Some driller’s logs describe these movement of the till. In upland areas, mostly compact and dense deposits as hardpan or dirty gravel. Fan development lodgment till with subangular to angular clasts (fine pebbles to began as soon as valley floors became ice free. boulders) of local shale and siltstone embedded in a sandy to Easily erodable glacial deposits on unstable, clayey matrix. Referred to as hardpan or till by local drillers. unvegetated slopes provided an abundant sediment Forms a confining unit, where present supply for late-glacial meltwater discharges and runoff from early deglacial precipitation. These conditions tg Till, gravelly—Commonly referred to in driller’s logs as favored debris-flow-dominated early fan development. hardpan with gravel layers or gravelly till. Soil survey Fans with small ice-free watershed areas that were fed commonly indicates till parent material. May include flow by glacial meltwater largely ceased development once till, till that has moved down valley hillsides as debris ice left the area and have uneven, somewhat lobate flows, slumps, or other mass movements soon after surfaces and are designated as alf(d) deglaciation, or poorly sorted ice-contact sediments. Late glacial to postglacial Glacial deposits of late Wisconsin age Consolidated deposits ic Ice-contact (kame) sand and gravel—Stratified gravel, sand, and silt deposited by meltwater beneath, within, atop, or r Bedrock—Mostly Devonian-age shale and siltstone. Beds are k adjacent to glacial ice. At land surface, in the form of kames gently folded and dip south from 20 to 50 feet per mile and on map, labeledk. In sections, labeled ic. Ranges from well-sorted units to poorly sorted dirty gravels reported in Wells driller’s logs and some silty to clayey layers. Contorted or Well number—Number is assigned faulted bedding is common, caused by meltout of nearby ice. by U.S. Geological Survey. Well

Locally, the ice-contact sediments are overlain by till or TM2879 data are in the U.S. Geological Survey

resedimented till as thick as 15 feet National Water Information System Δ Water-level marker

Well

TD 235 Total depth of well, in feet ND No data

Figure 7. Hydrogeologic sections across the Enfield Creek Valley, town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York. A, Cross section A–A'. B, Cross section B–B’. C, Cross section C–C’. D, Cross section D–D’.—Continued 14 Geohydrology and Water Quality of the Unconsolidated Aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley

C' NORTHEAST , cross section C . 2,000 FEET ’ B – B 500 METERS r t 1,000 , cross section 250 Well data are in the U.S. Geological Survey National Well Information System Water gently folded and dip south from 20 to 50 feet per mile B hardpan with gravel layers or gravelly till. Soil survey commonly indicates till parent material. May include flow till, till that has moved down valley hillsides as debris flows, slumps, or other mass movements soon after deglaciation, or poorly sorted ice-contact sediments. Late glacial to postglacial . ' Well number—Number is assigned by U.S. Geological Survey. Well Water-level marker Water-level Well Total depth of well, in feet Total No data Bedrock—Mostly Devonian-age shale and siltstone. Beds are 500 Till, gravelly—Commonly referred to in driller’s logs as gravelly—Commonly referred to in driller’s Till, A Consolidated deposits Wells –

250

A Δ TM2879 ND r 0 0 tg TD 235 t

, cross section TM1679 A

TD 59 ic Enil C Enil al ? ?

alf TM1075 TD 142 r EPLANATIN

intervals TM2885 ? Fine-grained TD 52 ic ? and silt deposited by meltwater beneath, within, atop, or adjacent to glacial ice. At land surface, in the form of kames and on map, labeledk. In sections, labeled ic. Ranges from well-sorted units to poorly sorted dirty gravels reported in logs and some silty to clayey layers. Contorted or driller’s faulted bedding is common, caused by meltout of nearby ice. the ice-contact sediments are overlain by till or Locally, resedimented till as thick 15 feet

stones deposited by glacial ice. At land surface, includes a may overlie stratified material along layer of colluvium. Till valley edges where oversteepened slopes have resulted in downslope movement of the till. In upland areas, mostly compact and dense lodgment till with subangular to angular clasts (fine pebbles to boulders) of local shale and siltstone embedded in a sandy to clayey matrix. Referred as hardpan or till by local drillers. Forms a confining unit, where present TM1546 (PROJECTED) TM1546 Ice-contact (kame) sand and gravel—Stratified gravel, sand,

Till—Poorly sorted clayey to silty matrix with embedded Till—Poorly TD 65 TD 135

TM2388 Glacial deposits of late Wisconsin age TM1854 (PROJECTED) TM1854 TD 160 ic k t ic

tg TM3336 (PROJECTED) TM3336 ND ? TD 160 t r .—Continued ’ D – D gravel, sand, silt, and clay as fans by upland tributaries where they join larger logs describe these deposits as valleys. Some driller’s hardpan or dirty gravel. Fan development began as soon as valley floors became ice free. Easily erodable glacial deposits on unstable, unvegetated slopes provided an abundant sediment supply for late-glacial meltwater discharges and runoff from early deglacial precipitation. These conditions favored debris-flow-dominated early fan development. Fans with large tributary drainage areas shifted to more fluvial-dominated fan development with broad, smooth fan-shaped surfaces with low slopes Hydrogeologic sections across the Enfield Creek Valley, town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York. County, town of Enfield, Tompkins Hydrogeologic sections across the Enfield Creek Valley, Channel and flood-plain alluvium—Stream-deposited Alluvial fan deposits—Gravel, sand, silt, and clay deposited Postglacial deposits of Holocene age , cross section D VERTICA EAGGERATION 5 VERTICA EAGGERATION . C ’ al 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 C alf 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 – 9 , 5 , 4 , 3 , 2 , 1 , 0 C SOUTHWEST FEET C Figure 7. 1 1 1 1 1 1 Depositional History and Framework of Glacial and Postglacial Deposits 15

SOUTHWEST NORTHEAST D D' FEET 1,500

1,400

t 1,300

t TM3160 t 1,200 r TM2338 (PROJECTED) TM3140 (PROJECTED) ? TM1349

1,100 tg TM2680 (PROJECTED) alt ? Enil C alfd ic r TD 40 tg t TD 52 tg ? TM2286 1,000 TD 220 t al ? ? ? ? TD 160 ? ic TD 90 ? r 900 r r?

800 TD 280 VERTICA EAGGERATION 5 0 250 500 1,000 2,000 FEET

0 250 500 METERS EPLANATIN

Postglacial deposits of Holocene age al Channel and flood-plain alluvium—Stream-deposited t Till—Poorly sorted clayey to silty matrix with embedded stones gravel, sand, silt, and clay deposited by glacial ice. At land surface, includes a layer of alf(d) Alluvial fan deposits—Gravel, sand, silt, and colluvium. Till may overlie stratified material along valley clay deposited as fans by upland tributaries where they edges where oversteepened slopes have resulted in downslope join larger valleys. Some driller’s logs describe these movement of the till. In upland areas, mostly compact and dense deposits as hardpan or dirty gravel. Fan development lodgment till with subangular to angular clasts (fine pebbles to began as soon as valley floors became ice free. boulders) of local shale and siltstone embedded in a sandy to Easily erodable glacial deposits on unstable, clayey matrix. Referred to as hardpan or till by local drillers. unvegetated slopes provided an abundant sediment Forms a confining unit, where present supply for late-glacial meltwater discharges and runoff tg Till, gravelly—Commonly referred to in driller’s logs as from early deglacial precipitation. These conditions hardpan with gravel layers or gravelly till. Soil survey favored debris-flow-dominated early fan development. commonly indicates till parent material. May include flow Fans with small ice-free watershed areas that were fed till, till that has moved down valley hillsides as debris by glacial meltwater largely ceased development once flows, slumps, or other mass movements soon after ice left the area and have uneven, somewhat lobate deglaciation, or poorly sorted ice-contact sediments. Late surfaces and are designated as alf(d) glacial to postglacial alt Alluvial terrace—Remnants of early postglacial Consolidated deposits alluvial deposits of gravel, sand, silt, and clay in the r Bedrock—Mostly Devonian-age shale and siltstone. Beds are form of terraces as the stream continued to gently folded and dip south from 20 to 50 feet per mile downcut it’s channel Wells Glacial deposits of late Wisconsin age Well number—Number is assigned by U.S. Geological Survey. ic Ice-contact (kame) sand and gravel—Stratified gravel, sand, and silt deposited by meltwater beneath, within, atop, Well data are in the U.S. Geological Survey National Water k or adjacent to glacial ice. At land surface, in the form of kames TM2879 Information System

and on map, labeledk. In sections, labeled ic. Ranges from well-sorted units to poorly sorted dirty gravels reported in Δ Water-level marker driller’s logs and some silty to clayey layers. Contorted or faulted bedding is common, caused by meltout of nearby ice. Well Locally, the ice-contact sediments are overlain by till or resedimented till as thick as 15 feet

TD 235 Total depth of well, in feet ND No data

Figure 7. Hydrogeologic sections across the Enfield Creek Valley, town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York. A, cross section A–A'. B, cross section B–B’. C, cross section C–C’. D, cross section D–D’.—Continued 16 Geohydrology and Water Quality of the Unconsolidated Aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley

The major unconsolidated depositional features in Enfield Debris-flow-dominated fans have intermittent confined perme- (fig. 6) are the result of early deglacial deposition of ice-con- able zones within less permeable deposits whose parent mate- tact deposits (kames) during final ice retreat from the Valley rial was mostly till. Soil surveys indicate till parent material. Heads position, of limited late glacial meltwater drainage from Fluvially dominated fans or parts of fans are generally silty ice-marginal positions within and at the northern edge of the gravels with some cleaner zones. Enfield Creek drainage, and of erosion of the recently deglaci- The debris-flow-dominated fans are indicative of early ated landscape through mass wasting and runoff along with deglacial conditions (Church and Ryder, 1972), and their deposition of flood-plain alluvium, alluvial fans, and organic presence indicates that fluvial action since then has not been deposits (see Randall, 2001, p. B12, ”The Universal Three enough to alter their morphology. In Enfield, alf(d) deposits Depositional Facies”). most commonly have upgradient drainages that are dispropor- The mode of deglaciation from the Valley Heads posi- tionately small relative to fan size or even fan development tion in much of Enfield seems to have been an active retreat of (fig. 6). This may indicate that some early fan development the ice; pauses or re-advances are marked by small moraines. depended on meltwater flow across cols (a gap in a hillside) Northward ice retreat is indicated by two moraines, and ice from a nearby ice margin. Because meltwater contribu- retreat to the east, towards the ice tongue in the Cayuga Inlet tions ceased, local runoff from the small drainage areas has Valley, is indicated by a morainic loop in the lower Enfield been insufficient to substantially modify the fans. Fans with Creek Valley (fig. 6). relatively large drainage areas have developed more regular Poorly sorted ice-contact deposits, till, and gravelly or fluvial-dominated fan morphology during postglacial time. resedimented till (flow till, debris flow, or slump deposits) are the primary glacial deposits within the Enfield Creek Valley Glacial Aquifers (figs. 6 and 7). These deposits are the result of small amounts of meltwater flow and sorting in this high-elevation valley, Glacial aquifers in the Enfield area are a modest ground- with drainage away from the ice margin. Little meltwater water resource, present within ice-contact and outwash was impounded in the valley. The most extensive ice-contact stratified drift and in alluvial fan deposits (fig. 6) primarily deposits are on the west side of the valley just before it turns within the Enfield Creek Valley (fig. 3). Ice-contact deposits to the southeast and on each side of the lowermost valley at can vary greatly in grain size and degree of sorting over short Enfield Glen (fig. 6). Lacustrine deposits are mostly limited distances. Alluvial fan (alf) deposits may likewise have silty to the lower Enfield Creek Valley, where drainage was toward confining zones, silty gravels, and less commonly cleaner the ice tongue in the Cayuga Inlet Valley. Elsewhere within the sand-and-gravel beds. Shallow intervals of these deposits form valley fill, deposits that could be interpreted as lacustrine are unconfined aquifers, and deeper deposits form semiconfined thin and discontinuous (fig. 7C). The only outwash deposits in or confined aquifers within the valley fill (fig. 3). Alluvium Enfield Creek Valley are present near the through-valley drain- is generally too thin to form an unconfined aquifer unless it age divide at the north end of the town, where little meltwater is underlain by other permeable deposits. Confined aquifer from the ice margin entered the valley (fig. 6; Williams and conditions are widespread but mostly consist of multiple, others, 1909). relatively thin, silty sand-and-gravel beds isolated to varying As the Enfield area became ice free more than degrees by intervening, poorly sorted beds. Ice-contact depos- 13,000 years ago (Miller and Karig, 2010; table 1), ero- its are most probably thinly saturated and thus of limited aqui- sion of unvegetated glacial deposits began, principally by fer potential where the Enfield Creek Valley joins the Cayuga water action and gravity-driven mass movement of unstable Inlet Valley because deep incision has lowered the base level slopes. Sediments deposited by running water formed alluvial at Enfield Glen. The most favorable area for groundwater fans and alluvial flood plains. Organic deposits (freshwater resources is within ice-contact and alluvial fan deposits just swamp deposits) accumulated in poorly drained areas (fig. 6). north of where the Enfield Creek Valley turns to the southeast Subsequent decreases in sediment load and lowering base in the unconfined and shallower confined zones (fig. 7C). level has incised the flood plain and created alluvial terraces Driller-reported well yields from wells completed in immediately upvalley from Enfield Glen. Erosion and deposi- glacial aquifers across the town range from 0 to 40 gallons tion continue to the present day but at slower rates because of per minute (gal/min; Fisher and others, 2019b). In general, vegetative cover. the highest yields are from wells completed within about 50 ft Alluvial fans are common within the study area and of land surface, which may tap either type of aquifer. Deeper are divided into two classes on the basis of morphology: productive confined or semiconfined aquifer intervals inter- “alf(d)” indicates irregular and somewhat lobate fans, gener- sected during the USGS drilling effort yielded as much as ally of high slope that were formed by water-poor, debris- 20 gal/min. Higher yields from both types of aquifer would be flow deposits as the area became ice free (Church and Ryder, expected if wells are constructed with screened intervals; most 1972), and “alf” indicates regular-shaped fans of generally domestic-water wells are typically completed with an open- low slope that reflect water-rich fluvial deposition (fig. 6). ended well casing. Groundwater Recharge, Discharge, and Withdrawals 17

Groundwater Recharge, Discharge, Creek below Tributary 4 near Robert H. Treman State Park (04233097) where Enfield Creek recharges 0.33 cubic foot per and Withdrawals second (ft3/s) to the aquifer (fig. 5; table 1). In March 2016, two of the eight drilled test wells Groundwater recharge, discharge, and withdrawals are (TM1075 and TM1077) were instrumented with water-tem- characterized in the following sections. Groundwater recharge perature loggers at multiple depths to determine the timing of from the overlying Enfield Creek was estimated by collect- aquifer recharge and how groundwater temperature fluctuates ing synoptic streamflow measurements commonly known in the unconsolidated aquifer at these locations. Well TM1075 as a seepage run. Several water temperature and water level is near the Village Department of Public Works garage in the loggers were installed in two test wells drilled for this study southern part of the aquifer. Well TM1077 is about 1.5 miles to help determine where major sources of surface water may north of well TM1075 and is near the middle, between the be recharging the aquifer. Groundwater withdrawal rates were north and south ends, of the aquifer and is adjacent to Enfield compiled from reported or estimated data to determine the Creek (fig. 8). Well TM1075 was equipped with seven amount of groundwater being withdrawn from domestic and temperature loggers at depths of 10, 20, 45, 65, 85, 100, and production wells in the town of Enfield. 134 ft. Well TM1077, which is shallower, was equipped with five temperature loggers at depths of 10, 25, 50, 75, and 90 ft. Groundwater Recharge The temperature graphs are provided in appendix 3. In comparing the two sets of temperature logs, it is Unconfined aquifers are primarily recharged by the interesting to note that in the middle part of the aquifer at well infiltration of precipitation, either by rain or snowmelt, on the TM1077, groundwater temperatures fluctuated seasonally land surface. The confined aquifers are recharged mostly by down to about 25 ft and did not change at greater depths; the areas where upland runoff meets deposits on the valley floor in shallower depths were more reactive to temperature change hydraulic connection with the confined aquifer, by groundwa- (app. 3) because of recharge. In well TM1075, the zone of ter flow from bordering till or bedrock, and by flow from the more constant seasonal water temperature was encountered bottom of the valley. Also, some recharge may be occurring below 70 ft (app. 3). These temperature profiles, especially where confining units are absent or from confining units with in well TM1075 in the southern part of the aquifer, seem to sediments of moderate permeability. Understanding ground- indicate an appreciable amount of groundwater recharge. water recharge is essential to determine the long-term avail- In viewing the topography of the two contributing areas ability of the groundwater in a specific aquifer system. to these wells (fig. 8), well TM1077 only receives water from Aquifer recharge mostly occurs at two periods dur- the valley walls and from farther upvalley. Well TM1075 ing the year: March through April and mid-October through receives water from these same sources but also seems to be mid-December. These are the primary recharge periods affected by a large tributary entering the Enfield Valley off the because vegetation is dormant during these times, which west valley wall near Harvey Hill Road and an even larger decreases evapotranspiration, allowing more aquifer recharge tributary (Enfield Creek Tributary at Bostwick Corners, N.Y.) and storage. During the growing season, which occurs from May through mid-October, the rate of evapotranspiration is that enters the valley from the southwest toward this well typically greater than the rate of precipitation, causing a net (fig. 3). decrease in water levels and storage. During the study period, The orientation of these tributary streams mimics substantial recharge occurred during July 2017 from large the structural framework of the underlying bedrock. The summer storms. Other sources of recharge included unchan- stream channels have either a northwest-southeast trend or nelized runoff from hills that border the aquifer and seepage a northeast-southwest trend, both of which are typical for losses that occurred when overlying streams drained into central New York. These tributaries contribute surface-water the aquifer. recharge to the unconfined aquifer along their channels and Streamflow measurements were collected on September could potentially provide recharge to the unconfined aquifer 17, 2015 (fig. 5; table 1), at 12 locations along Enfield Creek (Miller, 2015). The orientation of the tributary valleys is fur- to determine where surface water was potentially losing water ther enhanced by preferential glacial erosion and subsequent to or gaining water from the aquifer. Measurements at every deposition of glacial sediments in these valleys and into the location indicated streamflow gains along Enfield Creek, Enfield Creek Valley. The water quality in these tributar- except for the stretch between Enfield Creek below Tributary 3 ies has a direct bearing on the usefulness of the aquifer as a near Bostwick Corners, New York (04233092), and Enfield water resource. 18 Geohydrology and Water Quality of the Unconsolidated Aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley

A. All quadrangles 60 W 638 W 636 W 63 W

$ 228 N $ $ $$ TM1080 / TM1079

/ TM1082 TM1081 $ $ / TM1078 TM1077 $ 226 N

$ $ / $ TM1076 TM1075 $ $

22 N Enfield Glen $ $ $

Base modified from National Geographic 0 1 2 MIES Topo Maps, 1:100,000, 2003 0 1 2 KIOMETERS EPLANATIN Confined aquifer Well completed in bedrock Unconfined aquifer / U.S. Geological Survey test well with water-level recorder Town of Enfield boundary $ Production well Domestic well TM1079 U.S. Geological Survey county well numbers, shown in appendix 1

Figure 8. Locations of domestic, test, and production wells in the town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York. A, All quadrangles; B, Northwest, C, Northeast, D, Southwest, and E, Southeast quadrangles. See also Fisher and others (2020). Groundwater Recharge, Discharge, and Withdrawals 19

B. Northwest quadrangle

60 W 638 W

TM2982 TM3002 TM3106

TM2889 TM2725 TM 750

TM3082

TM 746

228 N TM1518 TM 747 TM 745 TM3011 TM1406 TM1723 TM1352 $$$ TM2776 TM1762 TM1756

TM2395 TM2549 TM2600 TM 753

TM2458 TM2854 TM2203 TM 751

TM1378 TM 127 TM 754 TM 128 TM 760 TM 756 TM 752 TM2111

TM3283 TM2464 TM1846 TM1530 TM 755

TM1600 TM2090 TM1917 $ TM1776 TM 121 TM1824 TM3432 TM 758 TM2555 TM1714 TM2614 TM 759 TM 757 TM 778 TM1994 TM2994 TM 762 TM 767 226 N TM1946 TM2752 TM 766 TM 108 TM 765 Base modified from National Geographic 0 0.5 1 MIE Topo Maps, 1:100,000, 2003 0 0.5 1 KIOMETER EPLANATIN Confined aquifer Well completed in bedrock Unconfined aquifer $ Production well Town of Enfield boundary TM1079 U.S. Geological Survey county well numbers, shown in appendix 1 Domestic well

Figure 8. Locations of domestic, test, and production wells in the town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York. A, All quadrangles; B, Northwest, C, Northeast, D, Southwest, and E, Southeast quadrangles. See also Fisher and others (2020).—Continued 20 Geohydrology and Water Quality of the Unconsolidated Aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley

C. Northeast quadrangle 635 W 636 W 63 W

TM2533 TM2448 TM 700 TM 748 TM 749 TM2021 TM 705 TM2337 TM 702 TM2930 TM 698 TM1328 TM 699 TM2699 TM1631 $ TM3106 TM3354 TM 750 TM 697 TM 704

TM2340 TM 703 TM2099 TM2065 $ TM1263 TM3036 TM2365 TM 706 TM2711 TM 701 228 N TM2200 TM 707 TM2487 TM2682 TM1772 $ TM2285 TM 713 TM2485 TM1274 TM2008 TM 712 TM1687 TM2486 TM1227 TM1480 / TM1079 TM2484 TM1080 TM2718 TM3301 TM2490 TM2549 TM3451 TM2491 TM 711 TM1559 TM2341 TM2584 TM3397 TM3398 TM 714 TM 710 TM2674 TM1747 TM3331 TM3300 TM 709 TM2611 TM 751 TM1973 TM2652 TM2278 $ TM2376 TM 726 TM 130 TM2279 TM2602 $ TM2167 TM 760 TM 720 TM3357 TM2151 TM1081 TM 719 TM2581 TM2057 TM2348 TM 129 / TM1971 TM 716 TM1082 TM 715 TM2054 TM2096 TM 727 TM 725 TM3270 TM2098 TM1360 TM2464 TM2969 TM3389 TM 728 TM 758 TM 717 TM3244 TM 731 TM 121 TM3447 TM 724 TM1910 $ TM 730 /TM1077 TM 718 TM 722 TM1078 TM3287 TM 734 TM2225 TM2745 TM 721 TM 723 TM2554 TM 729 TM 759 TM2474 TM 778 TM1574 TM1356 $ TM3435 TM 736 TM 732 TM1507 TM2793 TM2943 TM3279 226 N TM1946 TM2968 TM2475 TM3132 TM 733

Base modified from National Geographic 0 0.5 1 MIE Topo Maps, 1:100,000, 2003 0 0.5 1 KIOMETER EPLANATIN Confined aquifer / U.S. Geological Survey test well with water-level recorder Unconfined aquifer $ Production well Town of Enfield boundary TM1079 U.S. Geological Survey county well numbers, shown in appendix 1 Domestic well TM1079 U.S. Geological Survey test wells/groundwater sampling locations Well completed in bedrock

Figure 8. Locations of domestic, test, and production wells in the town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York. A, All quadrangles; B, Northwest, C, Northeast, D, Southwest, and E, Southeast quadrangles. See also Fisher and others (2020).—Continued Groundwater Recharge, Discharge, and Withdrawals 21

D. Southwest quadrangle 60 W 638 W TM2614 TM2555 TM 759 TM 757 TM 778 TM1994 TM2994 TM 762 TM 767 226 N TM2752 TM 766 TM1946 TM 108 TM 765 TM 761 TM2478 TM1715 TM 768

TM1382 TM1889 TM3221 TM 764 TM 763 $ TM2897 TM1546 TM1316 TM3249 TM1799 TM2283 TM2778 TM2388 TM3336 TM1430 TM 769 TM 770 $ TM1900 TM 773 TM 772 TM2995 TM1775 TM 771

TM3000 TM2347 $ TM1383 $ TM3110 TM2391 TM2350 TM 90 TM 776 TM1479 22 N TM2307 TM1536 TM3355 TM3300 TM2888 TM2615 TM 79 TM 777

Base modified from National Geographic 0 0.5 1 MIE Topo Maps, 1:100,000, 2003 0 0.5 1 KIOMETER EPLANATIN Confined aquifer Well completed in bedrock Unconfined aquifer / U.S. Geological Survey test well with water-level recorder Town of Enfield boundary $ Production well Domestic well TM1079 U.S. Geological Survey county well numbers, shown in appendix 1

Figure 8. Locations of domestic, test, and production wells in the town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York. A, All quadrangles; B, Northwest, C, Northeast, D, Southwest, and E, Southeast quadrangles. See also Fisher and others (2020). —Continued 22 Geohydrology and Water Quality of the Unconsolidated Aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley

E. Southeast quadrangle 635 W 636 W 63 W TM 121 TM 717 TM 724 TM3447 TM 734 TM3244 TM 730 TM1077 TM3287 / TM 718 TM 722 TM 721 TM1078 TM2225 TM2554 TM 729 TM 758 TM2474 TM 723 $ TM1574 TM3435 TM2943 TM1507 TM2793 TM2745 TM1356 TM 732 TM3279 TM 778 TM1354 226 N TM 736 TM2968 TM2475 TM3132 TM2866 TM2249 TM2018 TM2359 TM 733

TM2599 TM 735 TM 107 TM1801 TM3221 TM2817 TM2326 TM1817 TM2737 TM2520 TM3227 TM 763 $ TM3188

TM3131 TM2421 TM3191 TM3206 TM1075 TM2164 TM1076 / TM1686 TM2885 TM2580 TM3291 TM1546 TM2704 TM2388 TM1497 TM1854 TM 770 TM1679 TM 104 TM1349 TM2775 TM 773 TM1848 TM 774 TM2680 TM2931 TM 771 TM3347 TM 775 TM1752 TM3067 TM2616 TM 738 TM3140 TM 737 TM 927 TM2286 TM 740 TM2027 TM 94 TM2338 TM2998 TM2321 TM3373 TM3372 TM3160 TM1997 22 N TM 739 TM 743 TM2415 TM 744 TM3102 TM2481 TM3349 TM2181 $ TM2687 TM2738 TM2336 TM2972 TM1418 TM2686 $ TM 742 TM2688 TM3164 $

TM 741

Figure 8. Locations of domestic, test, and production wells in the town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York. A, All quadrangles; B, Northwest, C, Northeast, D, Southwest, and E, Southeast quadrangles. See also Fisher and others (2020).—Continued Groundwater Recharge, Discharge, and Withdrawals 23

Groundwater Discharge by 75 gallons per day (gal/d), which is the average use per person (Dieter and others, 2018), to determine the estimated Groundwater discharges to Enfield Creek, its tributaries, withdrawal (40,000 gal/d), The estimated withdrawal was and local wetlands; and groundwater discharge is removed then multiplied by 365 days to determine the estimated annual by evapotranspiration from the water table or is withdrawn withdrawal of 14.6 Mgal from residences overlying the aquifer by domestic, commercial, and agricultural wells. During the boundary. Water use for the only mobile home park overlying nongrowing season from mid-October through April, the rate the aquifer was calculated similarly as above. About 70 house- of recharge to the aquifer is greater than discharge, which is holds withdraw water from 1 well serving the mobile home reflected by an increase in aquifer storage and groundwater community. The estimated daily and annual withdrawals from levels. During the growing season from May through mid- the mobile home park are 12,800 and 4,670,000 gallons (gal), October, the rate of discharge from the aquifer is greater than respectively. This estimation (4,670,000 gal) plus the visual the rate of recharge, which is reflected by a decrease in aquifer count estimation above (14,600,000 gal) equal an annual with- storage and groundwater levels. drawal of 19,300,000 gal from domestic wells (table 2). Water use, in gallons per day, at a commercial store, a commercial business, and Enfield Elementary School were Groundwater Withdrawals estimated using median water demand estimates for commercial establishments and schools (Horn and others, 2008). The Groundwater withdrawals were estimated at locations daily withdrawals are 40, 132, and 234 gal/d, respectively, where withdrawal data were not available or provided. The and annual withdrawals are 14,600, 48,200, and 85,400 gal, total estimated annual withdrawal from the aquifer was respectively. Water use for a golf course overlying the aqui- 28.3 million gallons (Mgal). fer along the northeastern boundary was estimated in 2015 Domestic wells (n=218) that tap the unconsolidated using data from Dieter and others (2018) based on other golf aquifer by homes and farms overlying the aquifer boundar- course data. The estimated daily use is 23,700 gal/d, and ies were estimated using orthoimagery and tax parcels to do a annual use is 8,650,000 gal, respectively. Water use from a visual count. Because the U.S. Census Bureau did not have a well, which overlies the aquifer, at the Upper Park at Robert population count for the town of Enfield, the number of wells H. Treman State Park was provided by the park manager for was multiplied by the average household size for the neighbor- 2016 (Robert H. Treman State Park park manager, oral com- ing town of Newfield, which is 2.45 residents (U.S. Census mun., April 2018). The estimated annual withdrawal from Bureau, 2012a), to obtain the estimated number of people that well for 2016 was 242,000 gal. The sum of withdrawals withdrawing water from the aquifer. In Enfield, that estimated from production wells equals a total annual withdrawal of number was 534 persons; this number was then multiplied 9,040,000 gal (table 2).

Table 2. Estimated groundwater withdrawals by users that reside over the unconsolidated aquifer in the Enfield Creek Valley, town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York.

[—, no data]

Estimated number of Average Estimated number of Average use Estimated daily Estimated annual Users wells that tap the un- household people using water from per person, withdrawal, withdrawal, consolidated aquifer1 size2 unconsolidated aquifer in gallons3 in gallons in gallons

Domestic wells 288 2.45 706 75 52,900 19,300,000 Production wells3–5 — — — — — 9,040,000 Total — — — — — 28,300,000 1The estimated number of wells that tap the unconsolidated aquifer were determined by a visual count of homes and farms overlying the aquifer area using orthoimagery and tax parcels. 2Data from U.S. Census Bureau (2012b). 3Data from Dieter and others (2018). 4Data from Horn and others (2008). 5Estimate provided by Robert H. Treman State Park park manager (oral commun., April 2018). 24 Geohydrology and Water Quality of the Unconsolidated Aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley

Water Quality of the Unconsolidated values moving downstream. This trend may be attributed to a change in groundwater chemistry from the addition of water Aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley from other tributaries downstream. Additionally, air temperature over the course of sampling changed by 20 °C and may Surface-water quality samples were collected on Sep- also provide some context to the increasing physical properties tember 17, 2015, during base-flow conditions at five locations (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 2019). along Enfield Creek. Base-flow conditions occur when flow in a stream is sustained by groundwater discharge and no direct runoff. The surface-water quality samples were analyzed for Common Inorganic Ions physical properties, common inorganic ions, nutrients, and trace elements at the USGS NWQL in Denver, Colo. Results Common inorganic ion constituent results were relatively for chemical analyses of surface-water samples are presented similar at each site along Enfield Creek. In general, alkalin- in this section. ity, calcium, chloride, hardness, silica, sodium, and dissolved Comparisons of results are often made to State and solids all slightly trended downward in concentration as the Federal contaminant levels and goals. U.S. Environmental sampling moved downstream. A similar downward trending Protection Agency (EPA) maximum contaminant levels and pattern can also be seen for specific conductance. Conversely, secondary maximum contaminant levels (MCLs and SMCLs, fluoride, magnesium, potassium, and sulfate trended slightly respectively) are enforceable standards and represent the high- upward in concentration as sampling moved downstream. est level of a contaminant allowed in drinking water. Maxi- As mentioned above, these trends may also be attributed to mum contaminant level goals (MCLGs) are nonenforceable the effect of groundwater contribution higher up in the basin. public health goals for drinking-water quality. Treatment tech- Concentrations of all common inorganic ion constituents were niques are primary drinking-water regulations created in lieu below State and Federal drinking-water standards. of an MCL and used instead of an MCL if an MCL would be too difficult or too costly to comply with (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2012). The New York State Department Nutrients of Health (NYSDOH) MCLs similarly set state regulation on levels of contaminants in drinking water (New York State Most results for nutrient concentrations either were below Department of Health, 2019). the detection limit or had low concentrations that did not show any trend. Nitrate plus nitrite, however, did show a clear trend of high to low concentrations moving downstream in the Surface Water system, which may be attributed to the presence of agriculture closer to the upstream parts of Enfield Creek. Another pos- Surface-water quality samples were collected from sible source of high nitrate concentration upstream could be Enfield Creek and select tributaries in the town of Enfield during base-flow conditions to obtain a general baseline of the related to septic systems because there are a greater number water quality overlying the aquifer (fig. 5). The results of the of houses closer to Enfield Creek in the upstream part (fig. 5) chemical analyses are presented in table 3. of the study area. All constituent concentrations were below drinking-water standards (table 3). Physical Properties Trace Elements Temperature values ranged from 11.8 to 19.5 °C. pH values ranged from 7.35 to 8.45 standard units. Specific conduc- Overall, trace-element concentrations were low; several tance values ranged from 459 to 472 µS/cm at 25 °C. Dis- constituents (beryllium, cadmium, silver, and zinc) were below solved-oxygen concentrations ranged from 7.60 to 10.3 mg/L. the detection limit at all stream locations. All constituent con- Temperature, pH, and dissolved oxygen trend upward in centrations were below drinking-water standards (table 3). Water Quality of the Unconsolidated Aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley 25 a,b c,d , 3

–4 a e a,b a — — — — — — — — — — — — a,b 60 2.2 standard 250 250 6.5–8.5 500 Drinking-water - 1.42 9.56 8.45 0.0 0.045 0.07 1.72 5.81 19.5 52.3 38.4 10.6 22.6 15.5 459 165 264 174 cate sample) Treman State Treman Enfield Creek near Robert H. Park, New York Park, New York (04233097; repli below tribitary 4 1.42 9.56 8.45 0.0 0.049 0.07 1.71 5.83 19.5 51.5 38.7 10.6 22.4 15.7 459 166 258 172 ius; FNU, formazin nephelometric unit; CaCO (04233097) Treman State Treman Enfield Creek near Robert H. Park, New York Park, New York below tributary 4 1.30 8.39 0.0 0.053 0.07 1.63 6.09 10.3 18.3 55.0 38.9 10.2 22.1 14.5 479 178 272 179 Enfield Creek Corners, New at Hines Road near Bostwick York (04233085) York - 1.23 8.72 7.93 0.0 0.04 0.06 1.65 6.79 17.9 56.1 37.4 10.2 21.4 12.3 472 175 264 182 (04233080) above State Route 327 at Enfield Creek Bostwick Cor ners, New York ners, New York

Station name (and identification number; fig. 5)

indicate minimum value where three or more different values are present. p code, U.S. Geological Survey 0.648 9.59 7.93 0.0 0.032 0.05 8.76 1.59 6.67 11.5 14.8 51.2 44.8 25.7 italics 471 156 266 164 Enfield, Road 3 at New York New York (04233060) Enfield Center Physical properties Enfield Creek at

Common inorganic ions

0.031 7.60 7.35 0.0 0.043 0.05 9.5 1.45 6.5 9.45 11.8 61.0 61.2 36.9 573 185 322 192 Creek at New York New York (04233051) Enfield Creek above Fivemile Millers Corners, - surement /s Unit of mea 3 ft mg/L standard units µS/cm at 25 °C °C FNU mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L /s, cubic foot per second; mg/L, milligram liter; µS/cm, microsiemens centimeter; °C, degree Cels 3 P code 00061 00300 00400 90095 00010 63680 29801 71870 00915 00940 70300 00950 00900 00925 00935 00955 00930 00945 3 3 Constituent indicate maximum values where three or more different are present; in a ield Creek, town of Enfield, Tompkins Physical properties and concentrations of inorganic major ions, nutrients, trace elements in surface-water samples from Enf ield Creek, town Enfield, Tompkins bold

Discharge Dissolved oxygen (field) pH (field) Specific conductance (lab) (field) Temperature (field) Turbidity filtered, as CaCO Alkalinity, Bromide, filtered Calcium, filtered Chloride, filtered Dissolved solids, dried at 180 °C Fluoride, filtered Hardness, filtered, as CaCO Magnesium, filtered Potassium, filtered Silica, filtered Sodium, filtered Sulfate, filtered Table 3. Table New York. County, in [Values Information System parameter code; ft Water National phosphorus; µg/L, microgram per liter] calcium carbonate; N, nitrogen; <, less than; P, 26 Geohydrology and Water Quality of the Unconsolidated Aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley d,f a b f , a,c,f 3 a a,c,d a,c,d a,c,d a,c,d a,c,d a,c,d a,c,d a,b –1,300 –15 –300 — — — — — — b d b 2.0 1 6 4 5 –10 e 0 10 0 50–200 50 standard 100 300 2,000 1,000 Drinking-water - 0.12 0.002 0.1 0.087 0.45 0.133 1.3 0.105 1.26 1.26 0.469 12.3 40.4 17.0 <0.01 <0.02 <0.03 <0.3 <0.004 <4.0 cate sample) Treman State Treman Enfield Creek near Robert H. Park, New York Park, New York (04233097; repli below tribitary 4 0.12 0.002 0.105 0.068 0.45 0.058 0.91 0.084 1.65 1.03 0.466 40.4 17.0 <0.01 <0.02 <0.03 <0.3 <0.004 <3.0 <4.0 ius; FNU, formazin nephelometric unit; CaCO (04233097) Treman State Treman Enfield Creek near Robert H. Park, New York Park, New York below tributary 4 0.14 0.002 0.194 0.004 3.1 0.065 0.4 0.058 1.1 0.463 1.02 5.07 0.393 43.4 17.0 <0.01 <0.02 <0.03 <0.3 <4.0 Enfield Creek Corners, New at Hines Road near Bostwick York (04233085) York - 0.12 0.003 0.384 0.004 3.5 0.096 0.41 0.12 0.97 7.2 0.116 1.59 6.78 0.266 42.0 17.0 <0.01 <0.02 <0.03 <0.3 (04233080) above State Route 327 at Enfield Creek Bostwick Cor ners, New York ners, New York

Station name (and identification number; fig. 5)

indicate minimum value where three or more different values are present. p code, U.S. Geological Survey 0.11 0.004 1.26 0.005 0.058 0.21 0.83 0.073 0.8 9.9 0.109 0.67 0.232 Nutrients 30.3 20.0 10.4 <0.01 <0.02 <0.03 <3.0 italics Enfield, Road 3 at New York New York (04233060) Trace elements Trace Enfield Center Enfield Creek at

0.02 0.12 0.002 1.96 8.5 0.036 0.14 0.101 1.4 0.63 0.72 0.51 0.099 29.1 26.0 <0.02 <0.03 <0.3 <0.004 <4.0 Creek at New York New York (04233051) Enfield Creek above Fivemile Millers Corners, - surement Unit of mea mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L /s, cubic foot per second; mg/L, milligram liter; µS/cm, microsiemens centimeter; °C, degree Cels 3 P code 00608 00623 00613 00631 00671 01106 01095 01000 01005 01010 01020 01025 01030 01035 01040 01046 01049 01130 01056 01060 ), as N, filtered + 4 +NH 3 Constituent indicate maximum values where three or more different are present; in ield Creek, town of Enfield, Tompkins Physical properties and concentrations of inorganic major ions, nutrients, trace elements in surface-water samples from Enf ield Creek, town Enfield, Tompkins bold

N, filtered Ammonia (NH nitrogen, as Ammonia plus organic Nitrite, as N, filtered Nitrate plus nitrite, as N, filtered filtered Orthophosphate, as P, Aluminum, filtered filtered Antimony, Arsenic, filtered Barium, filtered Beryllium, filtered Boron, filtered Cadmium, filtered Chromium, filtered Cobalt, filtered filtered Copper, Iron, filtered Lead, filtered Lithium, filtered Manganese, filtered Molybdenum, filtered Table 3. Table New York.—Continued County, in [Values Information System parameter code; ft Water National phosphorus; µg/L, microgram per liter] calcium carbonate; N, nitrogen; <, less than; P, Water Quality of the Unconsolidated Aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley 27 , a,c,f 3 a,c,e a,b a,b — — –30 e 50 0 standard 100 5,000 Drinking-water - 0.39 0.389 <0.05 <2.0 <0.07 124 cate sample) Treman State Treman Enfield Creek near Robert H. Park, New York Park, New York (04233097; repli below tribitary 4 0.36 0.39 <0.05 <0.06 <2.0 123 ius; FNU, formazin nephelometric unit; CaCO (04233097) Treman State Treman Enfield Creek near Robert H. Park, New York Park, New York below tributary 4 0.4 0.362 <0.05 <0.05 <2.0 127 Enfield Creek Corners, New at Hines Road near Bostwick York (04233085) York - 0.39 0.05 0.31 <0.04 <2.0 104 (04233080) above State Route 327 at Enfield Creek Bostwick Cor ners, New York ners, New York

Station name (and identification number; fig. 5)

indicate minimum value where three or more different values are present. p code, U.S. Geological Survey 0.37 0.207 <0.05 <0.03 <2.0 italics 101 Enfield, Road 3 at New York New York (04233060) Enfield Center Enfield Creek at

Trace elements—Continued Trace

0.4 0.225 <0.05 <2.0 <0.02 114 Creek at New York New York (04233051) Enfield Creek above Fivemile Millers Corners, - surement Unit of mea µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L /s, cubic foot per second; mg/L, milligram liter; µS/cm, microsiemens centimeter; °C, degree Cels 3 P code 01065 01145 01075 01080 22703 01090 Constituent indicate maximum values where three or more different are present; in ield Creek, town of Enfield, Tompkins Physical properties and concentrations of inorganic major ions, nutrients, trace elements in surface-water samples from Enf ield Creek, town Enfield, Tompkins bold

Environmental Protection Agency secondary maximum contaminant level. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency maximum contaminant level goal. U.S. Environmental Protection New York State Department of Health maximum contaminant level. York New Agency maximum contaminant level. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency drinking-water advisory taste threshold. U.S. Environmental Protection Environmental Protection Agency treatment technique. U.S. Environmental Protection a b c d e f Nickel, filtered Selenium, filtered filtered Silver, Strontium, filtered Uranium, natural, filtered Zinc, filtered Table 3. Table New York.—Continued County, in [Values Information System parameter code; ft Water National phosphorus; µg/L, microgram per liter] calcium carbonate; N, nitrogen; <, less than; P, 28 Geohydrology and Water Quality of the Unconsolidated Aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley

Groundwater Nutrients

Groundwater-quality samples were collected to better Many of the results for nutrient concentrations were understand the water quality of the confined and unconfined at or near the method reporting limit for each constituent parts of the Enfield Creek Valley unconsolidated aquifer. (table 4). Although each constituent was detected at sev- Results from the sampling are tabulated in table 4. eral wells, no constituents came close to or exceeded any drinking-water standard. Physical Properties Groundwater Age and Gasses Temperature ranged from 7.2 to 10.9 °C. pH values ranged from 7.7 to 8.4 standard units. Specific conductance Dissolved gases were only collected at wells drilled to values ranged from 369 to 3,100 µS/cm at 25 °C. Dissolved- bedrock: TM1075, TM1077, TM1079, and TM1081. Each oxygen concentrations ranged from of 0.1 to 3.8 mg/L. well was analyzed for methane, dissolved nitrogen gas, argon, carbon dioxide, and dissolved-oxygen gas (table 4). All four samples had elevated concentrations of methane that decreased Common Inorganic Ions from south to north. Wells TM1075, TM1077, TM1079, and TM1081 had methane concentrations of 52.2, 29.4, 16.7, Most common inorganic ion concentrations were rela- and 7.79 mg/L, respectively. As groundwater enters a well tively similar at each well except for two wells: TM1075 and at atmospheric pressure, methane can be released from the TM1077 (fig. 8E). TM1075 is on the town highway depart- water, which can cause a column of gas to form above the ment grounds, and TM1077 is within the village. These wells water surface in the well or be released within a pressure were finished near bedrock and although they are likely tank, at faucets inside a home, or in structures enclosing the pulling water mostly from the overlying sand and gravel, they well, where it can become flammable or explosive as a result are confined and there may be more inorganic constituents (Eltschlager and others, 2001). Methane reaches saturation in resulting from the underlying bedrock because they have had water at 28 mg/L at 1 atmosphere of pressure and temperature time to accumulate in the slower moving groundwater. of 15 °C and becomes flammable in air at about 5 percent by Wells TM1075 and TM1077 exceeded the NYSDOH volume (Eltschlager and others, 2001). The Office of Sur- MCL for chloride (250 mg/L) with values of 830 and 789, face Mining Reclamation and Enforcement recommends that respectively. Concentrations of chloride above 250 mg/L have methane concentrations greater than 28 mg/L in well water aesthetic effects on the water quality such as odor and taste, should be addressed immediately by removing any potential giving the water a salty taste (U.S. Environmental Protec- ignition source and venting the gas away from confined spaces tion Agency, 2012). The NYSDOH MCL and EPA SMCL (Eltschlager and others, 2001). The Office of Surface Mining for dissolved solids (500 mg/L) was exceeded at these wells Reclamation and Enforcement also recommends that methane with values of 1,880 and 1,970 mg/L, respectively. The EPA concentrations ranging from 10 to 28 mg/L in water (or 3 to drinking-water advisory taste threshold for sodium (60 mg/L) 5 percent by volume in air) signify an action level where the was exceeded at these wells with values of 384 and 429 mg/L, situation should be closely monitored, and if the concentration respectively. High concentrations of total dissolved solids increases, the area should be vented to prevent methane gas can cause hardness, deposits, colored water, staining, and a buildup. Concentrations of methane less than 10 mg/L in water salty taste. Oral doses of sodium above 60 mg/L may cause (or 1 to 3 percent by volume in air) are not as great a concern, nausea, vomiting, inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract, but the gas should be monitored to observe if the concentra- thirst, muscular twitching, convulsions, and possibly death tions increase over time (Kappel and Nystrom, 2012). (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2003). The source of CFCs were analyzed in water collected from wells high chloride and sodium (which contributed to high specific TM1075, TM1077, TM1079, and TM1081. All four wells conductance values) can be inferred by looking at the chlo- were drilled to bedrock but finished in a confined sand-and- ride-bromide (Cl−/Br−) ratios (Williams and Kappel, 2015). gravel aquifer. CFC concentrations in the sample from well Road salt sources of chloride generally have high chloride- TM1075 indicated that the recharge age of the water (time bromide ratios, when chloride is elevated but bromide is not, that groundwater was isolated from the atmosphere) was from whereas chloride-bromide ratios of around 100 indicate a mix- the early 1960s or younger. More information on the methods ture of saline formation waters with shallow dilute groundwa- used to determine groundwater age can be found in Busenberg ter (Williams and Kappel, 2015). The chloride-bromide ratios and Plummer (2008). The sample from TM1077 showed a for wells TM1075 and TM1077 are 90 and 94, respectively, range in age from the mid- to late 1960s or younger. The sam- which indicates that these high chloride and sodium values ple from TM1079 ranged in age from early 1950 or younger. represent a mixture of saline formation waters with shallow The sample from TM1081 ranged in age from the mid-1950s dilute groundwater. or younger (table 4). Water Quality of the Unconsolidated Aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley 29

- a,b d,e a a,b f a,b –4 60 a — — — — — — — — — — — 250 500 250 water

2.2 standard 6.5–8.5 Drinking- 422653076374602 0.2 8.3 9.2 0.681 0.33 1.77 2.22 42 42.2 66.0 15.6 10.4 48.6 556 181 313 170 TM1082 S&G, conf

c 422653076374601 0.1 8.4 9.9 0.845 0.30 1.65 8.50 0.67 42.1 81.3 12.4 57.5 573 162 317 157

TM1081

77-79 S&G, conf 422744076373402 0.7 7.4 9 0.035 0.03 1.47 8.26 10.9 83.4 40.7 15.5 18.1 14.4 TM1080 584 241 338 273 , calcium carbonate; <, less than; e, estimated; N, nitro , calcium 3

S&G, unconf indicate maximum value where three or more values are present; 422744076373401 0.1 8.1 9.3 0.051 0.23 1.44 8.11 5.37 48 51.8 17.1 12.8 35.0

bold 471 226 292 183 TM1079

S&G, conf 422623076374502 0.2 8.2 9.7 0.893 0.24 1.40 0.61 56 46.6 89.1 14.9 12.1 43.3 570 145 331 179

TM1078

S&G, conf 422623076374501 0.1 8.1 8.44 0.42 2.85 7.30 10.5 93 28.0 <0.24 116 129 789 413 429 TM1077 3,000 1,970 S&G, conf

8), station identification number, and aquifer type Site name (fig. 8), station identification number, 422504076373002 3.8 7.7 7.2 0.05 8.75 0.97 5.42 Physical properties 53 49.7 23.8 14.4 15.1 <0.01 TM1076 369 137 214 160 Common inorganic ions

S&G, unconf 422504076373001 0.1 8.1 7.5 9.12 0.06 2.48 8.13 0.1 e 36.8 136 129 152 830 538 384 TM1075 3,100 1,880 S&G, conf -

25 °C surement Unit of mea mg/L units µS/cm at °C ft mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L P code 00300 00400 00095 00010 — 29801 71870 00915 00940 70300 00950 00900 00925 00935 00955 00930 00945 3 3 indicate drinking water standard exceedance (footnote “b,” maximum contaminant level goal excluded); values in Constituent underlined Geological Survey National Water Information System parameter code; S&G, sand and gravel; conf, confined aquifer; Water indicate minimum value where three or more values are present. p code, U.S. Geological Survey National Physical properties and concentrations of inorganic major ions, nutrients, trace elements, dissolved gasses, chlorofluor ocarbons in groundwater samples from italics

Dissolved oxygen (field) pH (field) Specific conductance (field) temperature (field) Water depth of open-ended casing Well filtered, as CaCO Alkalinity, Bromide, filtered Calcium, filtered Chloride, filtered Dissolved solids, dried at 180 °C Fluoride, filtered Hardness, filtered, as CaCO Magnesium, filtered Potassium, filtered Silica, filtered Sodium, filtered Sulfate, filtered Table 4. Table New York. County, stratified-drift aquifers in the town of Enfield, Tompkins that are [Values values in unconf, unconfined aquifer; mg/L, milligram per liter; —, no data or not available; µS/cm, microsiemens centimeter; °C, degree Celsius; ft, foot; CaCO Agency; USGS, U.S. Geological Survey] U.S. Environmental Protection phosphorus; µg/L, microgram per liter; pg/kg, picogram kilogram; CFC, chlorofluorocarbon; EPA, gen; P, 30 Geohydrology and Water Quality of the Unconsolidated Aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley a b - – e,g b a,d,e a,d,e a,d,e a,d,e a,d,e a,d,e a,d,e a,b a,d,g 2.0 1 6 4 5 10 — — — — 100 300 –10 water e

1,300 1,000 2,000

50–200 0 standard Drinking- 422653076374602 0.11 0.18 0.001 1.1 1.8 0.526 <0.040 <0.004 <0.02 <0.03 <0.3 <0.8 <3 112 245 TM1082

3,070

S&G, conf 422653076374601 0.12 0.53 0.001 0.698 0.54 0.203 96 <0.040 <0.004 <0.02 <0.03 <0.3 <0.8 <3 126

TM1081 2,720

S&G, conf 422744076373402 0.01 0.218 1.2 0.7 18.1 18 <0.040 <0.004 <0.02 <0.03 <0.3 <0.8 <0.07 <0.001 TM1080 103 180 , calcium carbonate; <, less than; e, estimated; N, nitro , calcium 3

S&G, unconf indicate maximum value where three or more values are present; 422744076373401 0.11 0.18 0.003 0.373 0.29 0.153 <0.040 <0.004 <0.02 <0.03 <0.3 <0.8 <3 bold 248 131 TM1079

S&G, conf 5,960 422623076374502 0.09 0.09 0.015 3.1 0.47 53 <0.040 <0.02 <0.03 <0.3 <0.05 <0.8 <0.001 <0.027 729

TM1078

1,210 S&G, conf 422623076374501 0.43 0.47 0.001 0.067 5.2 0.185 <0.040 <0.004 <6 <0.04 <0.06 <0.6 <1.6 187 TM1077 3,930 3,030 S&G, conf

Nutrients 8), station identification number, and aquifer type Site name (fig. 8), station identification number, 422504076373002 Trace elements Trace 0.01 0.010 0.75 0.038 9 0.125 10.6 25.9 <0.004 <0.02 <0.03 <0.3 <0.8 <0.07 <0.1 TM1076 396

S&G, unconf 422504076373001 0.16 0.21 0.002 0.078 0.2 0.356 31 <0.040 <0.004 <6 <0.04 <0.06 <0.6 <1.6 TM1075 3,470 5,210 S&G, conf - surement Unit of mea mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L P code 00608 00623 00613 00631 00671 01106 01095 01000 01005 01010 01020 01025 01030 01035 01040 01046 indicate drinking water standard exceedance (footnote “b,” maximum contaminant level goal excluded); values in ), as N, filtered + 4 +NH 3 Constituent underlined Geological Survey National Water Information System parameter code; S&G, sand and gravel; conf, confined aquifer; Water indicate minimum value where three or more values are present. p code, U.S. Geological Survey National Physical properties and concentrations of inorganic major ions, nutrients, trace elements, dissolved gasses, chlorofluor ocarbons in groundwater samples from italics

N, filtered Ammonia (NH nitrogen, as Ammonia plus organic Nitrite, as N, filtered Nitrate plus nitrite, as N, filtered filtered Orthophosphate, as P, Aluminum, filtered filtered Antimony, Arsenic, filtered Barium, filtered Beryllium, filtered Boron, filtered Cadmium, filtered Chromium, filtered Cobalt, filtered filtered Copper, Iron, filtered Table 4. Table New York.—Continued County, stratified-drift aquifers in the town of Enfield, Tompkins that are [Values values in unconf, unconfined aquifer; mg/L, milligram per liter; —, no data or not available; µS/cm, microsiemens centimeter; °C, degree Celsius; ft, foot; CaCO Agency; USGS, U.S. Geological Survey] U.S. Environmental Protection phosphorus; µg/L, microgram per liter; pg/kg, picogram kilogram; CFC, chlorofluorocarbon; EPA, gen; P, Water Quality of the Unconsolidated Aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley 31 a - h g a,d,e a,b a,b a,d,g 50 –300 — — — — — — — — –15 e b 100 –30 water e

0 10–28 5,000

0 50 standard Drinking- 422653076374602 6.96 6.0 — — — — — 20.6 <0.02 <6.0 <0.04 <0.05 <0.014 101 590 TM1082

S&G, conf 422653076374601 6.45 1.8 0.05 0.156 0.829 1.37 0.347 7.79 20.4 25.7 <0.02 <5.0 <0.04 224 593

TM1081

S&G, conf 422744076373402 — — — — — 0.04 5.35 0.599 0.49 0.497 <0.02 <4.0 <0.05 TM1080 122 160 , calcium carbonate; <, less than; e, estimated; N, nitro , calcium 3

S&G, unconf indicate maximum value where three or more values are present; 422744076373401 3.54 0.58 0.049 0.774 2.78 0.378 27.6 22.9 16.7 <0.02 <3.0 <0.04 <0.05

bold 176 436 TM1079

S&G, conf 422623076374502 2.28 0.07 — — — — — 20.0 42.2 <0.02 <0.04 <0.2 <0.014 <2.0 676

TM1078

S&G, conf 422623076374501 0.5 0.26 0.031 0.557 0.396 0.480 10.90 13.8 29.4 <0.08 <0.04 <4.0 110 277 TM1077 5,320 S&G, conf

8), station identification number, and aquifer type Site name (fig. 8), station identification number, 422504076373002 Trace elements Trace — — — — — 1.37 0.192 0.45 0.126 32.6 75.5 <0.02 <0.04 <0.05 <2.0 TM1076

S&G, unconf 422504076373001 Dissolved gases and chlorofluorocarbons 2.93 1.0 0.28 0.498 3.27 0.463 13.3 52.2 <0.08 <0.04 <0.028 <4.0 271 150 TM1075 5,070 S&G, conf - surement Unit of mea µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L µg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L mg/L P code 01049 01130 01056 01060 01065 01145 01075 01080 22703 01090 82043 00405 00597 62971 85574 indicate drinking water standard exceedance (footnote “b,” maximum contaminant level goal excluded); values in Constituent underlined Geological Survey National Water Information System parameter code; S&G, sand and gravel; conf, confined aquifer; Water indicate minimum value where three or more values are present. p code, U.S. Geological Survey National Physical properties and concentrations of inorganic major ions, nutrients, trace elements, dissolved gasses, chlorofluor ocarbons in groundwater samples from italics

Lead, filtered Lithium, filtered Manganese, filtered Molybdenum, filtered Nickel, filtered Selenium, filtered filtered Silver, Strontium, filtered Uranium, natural, filtered Zinc, filtered unfiltered Argon, Carbon dioxide, unfiltered Dissolved nitrogen gas, unfiltered Dissolved oxygen gas, unfiltered Methane, unfiltered Table 4. Table New York.—Continued County, stratified-drift aquifers in the town of Enfield, Tompkins that are [Values values in unconf, unconfined aquifer; mg/L, milligram per liter; —, no data or not available; µS/cm, microsiemens centimeter; °C, degree Celsius; ft, foot; CaCO Agency; USGS, U.S. Geological Survey] U.S. Environmental Protection phosphorus; µg/L, microgram per liter; pg/kg, picogram kilogram; CFC, chlorofluorocarbon; EPA, gen; P, 32 Geohydrology and Water Quality of the Unconsolidated Aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley - — — — — water

standard Drinking- 422653076374602 — — — — TM1082

S&G, conf 422653076374601 9.73 5.17 16.87 TM1081 S&G, conf younger

Mid 1950s or 422744076373402 — — — — TM1080 , calcium carbonate; <, less than; e, estimated; N, nitro , calcium 3

S&G, unconf indicate maximum value where three or more values are present; 422744076373401 6.10 2.56 10.22 bold TM1079 or younger S&G, conf

Early 1950 422623076374502 — — — —

TM1078

S&G, conf 422623076374501 79.21 45.26 10.80 TM1077 S&G, conf 1960s or younger Mid- to late

8), station identification number, and aquifer type Site name (fig. 8), station identification number, 422504076373002 — — — — TM1076

S&G, unconf 422504076373001 3.93 15.97 14.64 TM1075 or younger S&G, conf Dissolved gases and chlorofluorocarbons—Continued Early 1960s - surement Unit of mea pg/kg pg/kg pg/kg years P code 50281 50282 50283 50281 50282 50283 indicate drinking water standard exceedance (footnote “b,” maximum contaminant level goal excluded); values in Constituent underlined Geological Survey National Water Information System parameter code; S&G, sand and gravel; conf, confined aquifer; Water indicate minimum value where three or more values are present. p code, U.S. Geological Survey National Physical properties and concentrations of inorganic major ions, nutrients, trace elements, dissolved gasses, chlorofluor ocarbons in groundwater samples from i i i italics

i Environmental Protection Agency secondary maximum contaminant level. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency maximum contaminant level. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency treatment technique. U.S. Environmental Protection Action level recommended by the Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement. New York State Department of Health maximum contaminant level. York New enters at perforations in the casing a depth of 77 to 79 feet. Water Agency maximum contaminant level goal. U.S. Environmental Protection Environmental Protection Agency drinking-water advisory taste threshold. U.S. Environmental Protection Geological Survey Groundwater Dating Laboratory. CFCs are used to estimate groundwater age; concentration values represent the median derived from three reported by U.S. Geological Survey Groundwater a b c d e f g h i CFC–11 CFC–12 CFC–113 CFCs Table 4. Table New York.—Continued County, stratified-drift aquifers in the town of Enfield, Tompkins that are [Values values in unconf, unconfined aquifer; mg/L, milligram per liter; —, no data or not available; µS/cm, microsiemens centimeter; °C, degree Celsius; ft, foot; CaCO Agency; USGS, U.S. Geological Survey] U.S. Environmental Protection phosphorus; µg/L, microgram per liter; pg/kg, picogram kilogram; CFC, chlorofluorocarbon; EPA, gen; P, Water Quality of the Unconsolidated Aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley 33

Trace Elements major ion, and trace-element chemistry is mostly derived from mixing of freshwater with small amounts of saline Concentrations of arsenic, lead, and (or) uranium in all formation waters. wells were above the EPA MCLG, which all have a contami- Surface and unconfined groundwater samples have nant level goal of 0 microgram per liter (µg/L). Arsenic, lead, similar concentrations of major ions and trace elements but and uranium were below the NYSDOH MCL, EPA treatment differ in reduction-oxidation (redox)-sensitive species (fig. 9). technique, and EPA MCL of 10, 15, and 30 µg/L, respec- Surface-water samples are well oxygenated (high dissolved tively. No groundwater samples exceeded the EPA MCL or oxygen), with more nitrate and less iron and manganese (fil- NYSDOH MCL for arsenic. One sample at well TM1077 had tered) than either unconfined or confined groundwaters. an arsenic level 5 to 10 times higher than the other values Unconfined groundwater samples are less oxygenated (table 4). than surface-water samples because of reducing conditions in Two samples exceeded the EPA and the NYSDOH MCL the soil and aquifer resulting from a combination of land-use for barium (2,000 µg/L) at wells TM1075 and TM1077 with practices (for example, septic influences) and natural condi- values of 3,470 and 3,930 µg/L, respectively. The potential tions (such as microbial activity; fig. 9). Dissolved oxygen and health effect from long-term exposure above the MCL for nitrate concentrations are lower, and iron and manganese (fil- barium is an increase in blood pressure (U.S. Environmental tered) concentrations are higher than in surface-water samples. Protection Agency, 2012). Sulfate concentrations are about the same. Concentrations of iron in all but one well (TM1080) Confined aquifers can be characterized based on potabil- exceeded the NYSDOH MCL and the EPA SMCL threshold of ity, which is reflected in the depth and hydrogeology of the 300 µg/L. High values of iron above the SMCL have notice- wells sampled. Shallow and deep confined aquifer sample able effects in the water such as a rusty color, sediment, metal- concentrations of most major ions and all trace elements lic taste and reddish or orange staining (U.S. Environmental (fig. 9) are consistently higher than unconfined aquifer and Protection Agency, 2012). surface-water samples. Differences in chloride and sodium Six of the wells sampled (TM1075, TM1077, TM1079, concentrations were greatest among the major ions—shallow TM1080, TM1081, and TM1082) had values of manganese confined chloride and sodium were as high as 90 and 60 mg/L, above the EPA SMCL threshold of 50 µg/L with values of respectively, and deep confined samples were about 800 and 150, 110, 176, 122, 224, and 101 µg/L, respectively. No 300 mg/L, respectively. The greater effect of mixing with samples exceeded the NYSDOH MCL of 300 µg/L. High saline formation waters and shallow dilute groundwater in the values of manganese above the SMCL have noticeable effects deepest, and farthest downvalley confined aquifer water makes in the water such as a black to brown color, black staining, it unpotable. Among major ions, calcium is an exception in and a bitter metallic taste (U.S. Environmental Protection that shallow confined-aquifer concentrations are typically Agency, 2012). lower than surface-water or unconfined-aquifer concentrations. This exception is likely a result of cation exchange of calcium Comparison of Groundwater and Surface-Water for sodium on clay minerals over time in the confined aquifer Chemistry (for example, see Back and others, 1993). Confined-aquifer samples indicate a reducing (anoxic) Waters sampled in this study can be categorized as groundwater environment (fig. 9). Oxic species such as dis- surface water, unconfined aquifer groundwater, or confined solved oxygen and nitrate are virtually absent, and sulfate aquifer groundwater (fig. 9). The overall trend is an increase concentrations are all less than 6 mg/L. Species consistent in major ion and trace-metal concentrations with depth and with a reducing environment in these samples include ammo- a shift from oxic to reducing environments with depth. The nia, manganese, iron, and methane (7.8 to 52 mg/L). In south- chloride-bromide ratios indicate surface-water and uncon- central New York, methane and high specific conductance fined groundwater chloride concentrations are associated with (mineral content) in well water is most closely associated with halite sources, such as road-salt leachate and water-softener confined sand-and-gravel and fractured bedrock aquifers in discharges, whereas confined aquifer groundwater chloride, valley settings (Heisig and Scott, 2013). 34 Geohydrology and Water Quality of the Unconsolidated Aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley , calcium 3 04233051 04233060 04233080 04233085 04233097 TM1080 9 feet TM1075 136 feet TM1077 93 feet TM1078 56 feet TM1079 48 feet TM1081 77 to 79 feet TM1082 42 feet TM1076 53 feet EPLANATIN samples; number indicates depth of open-ended well casing (depth at which water enters well) number indicates depth of open-ended well casing or perforated interval (depth at which water enters well) Surface-water samples Unconfined aquifer groundwater Confined aquifer groundwater samples;

carbonate; N, nitrogen; µg/L, microgram per liter; , no unconfinedor surface aquifer water methane analysis µS/cm, microsiemen per centimeter; °C, degree Celsius; CaCO

Chloride/bromide ratio Chloride/bromide Lithium, µg/L Lithium,

. Boron, µg/L Boron,

Chloride/bromide ratio Barium, µg/L Barium,

Selected trace elements

Strontium, µg/L Strontium,

Bromide

Fluoride

Methane

Sulfate Iron, µg/L Iron,

Analyte

Redox-sensitive species Manganese, µg/L Manganese,

More-reducing conditions

nitrite, as N as nitrite,

Nitrate plus Nitrate

) )

+ NH + 3

as N as

Ammonia (NH Ammonia

Dissolved oxygen (field) oxygen Dissolved

Alkalinity, as CaCO as Alkalinity,

Potassium

Magnesium Calcium

Major ions (except sulfate) Sodium

ater chemistry for surface-water and groundwater samples for the town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York County, ater chemistry for surface-water and groundwater samples the town of Enfield, Tompkins Chloride

W 1 °C 25

0.1 100 at µS/cm 0.01

1,000

10,000 (laboratory),

Concentration, in milligrams per liter unless specified unless liter per milligrams in Concentration, conductance Specific Figure 9. References Cited 35

Summary common inorganic ions, nutrients, groundwater age and gasses, and trace elements at all eight test wells, including one This report presents new and existing data collected to blank sample for quality control. Water quality in surface and better understand the geohydrology and water quality of the groundwater generally met State and Federal drinking-water Enfield Creek Valley unconsolidated aquifer in the town of standards; however, some constituents (chloride, dissolved Enfield, Tompkins County, New York. The report describes the solids, barium, iron, manganese, and methane) did exceed methods used to collect all the data, the geological and glacial these standards. In general, the highest yields and best water history of the area, sources of groundwater discharge and quality are from wells completed within about 50 feet of land recharge, and water quality of Enfield Creek and the underly- surface, which may tap either type of sand-and-gravel aquifer. ing groundwater aquifers. Water-chemistry data from U.S. Geological Survey test Eight test wells were drilled to determine the underly- wells within the northern two-thirds of the Enfield Creek Val- ing surficial material, to monitor continuous water-level and ley (wells TM1075, TM1077, TM1079, and TM1081) indicate water-temperature changes using data loggers, and to collect a downvalley decrease in oxidized chemical species (dissolved water-quality data at different depths and locations within the oxygen, nitrate, and sulfate), an increase in mineral content boundary of the aquifer. Discharge measurements were made (evidenced by increases in specific conductance and dissolved along Enfield Creek and its major tributaries to determine solids), and an increase in methane that is consistent with a stream gains to and losses from the aquifer. Horizontal-to- confined-aquifer system with relatively slow groundwater vertical sounding seismic surveys were collected to assist in movement and mixing with more highly mineralized bedrock determining the aquifer geometry. Water-quality samples were groundwater containing methane and saline formation waters collected at five locations along Enfield Creek and at all eight test wells drilled for the study. mixed with shallow dilute groundwater. The groundwater The glacial history and surficial geology were sum- quality at wells TM1075 and TM1077 is unpotable without marized using past reports, orthoimagery, light detection and treatment and is a limitation of the resource. ranging, test wells, horizontal-to-vertical spectral ratio, and a large well inventory from the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation Water Well Drillers Registration References Cited Program. The confined and unconfined aquifers were identified, mostly in the valley. The confined aquifer consists of a discontinuous sand-and-gravel layer overlying bedrock. The American Public Health Association, American Water Works unconfined aquifer consists of ice-contact sand and gravel, and Association, and Water Environment Federation, 1998, Met- alluvial silt, sand, and gravel, all of which were deposited dur- als by plasma emission spectroscopy, in Standard methods ing and after the last glacial recession. There are also uncon- for the examination of water and wastewater (20th ed.): fined aquifers where several large tributary streams deposited Washington, D.C., American Public Health Association, alluvial fans in the valley. American Water Works Association, and Water Environ- The main source of groundwater recharge is from the ment Federation Method 3120, p. 3–37—3–43. [Also infiltration of rainfall or snowmelt onto the land surface available at https://www.standardmethods.org/doi/10.2105/ overlying the aquifer. Other sources of groundwater recharge SMWW.2882.047.] include unchannelized runoff from hills that border the aquifer and seepage losses that occur when overlying streams drain Back, W., Baedecker, M.J., and Wood, W.W., 1993, Scales in into the aquifer. Groundwater is discharged in four main ways: chemical hydrogeology—A historical perspective, in Alley, (1) stream gains when water from the aquifer loses to Enfield W.M., ed., Regional ground-water quality: New York, Van Creek, (2) losses to wetlands overlying the aquifer, (3) evapo- Nostrand Reinhold, p. 116–121. transpiration, and (4) groundwater withdrawals from domestic and production wells. Bugliosi, E.F., Miller, T.S., and Reynolds, R.J., 2014, Hydro- Groundwater withdrawals were calculated using several geology and water quality of the stratified-drift aquifer sources of information including information from a mobile in the Pony Hollow Creek Valley, Tompkins County, home park and business owners, the U.S. Geological Survey New York: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Inves- water-use circular, and from an estimated visual count using tigations Report 2014–5059, 23 p. [Also available at orthoimagery and tax parcels. Withdrawals from wells overly- https://doi.org/10.3133/sir20145059.] ing the aquifer accounted for an estimated 28.3 million gallons per year. Busenberg, E., and Plummer, L.N., 2008, Dating Six surface-water quality samples, including one repli- groundwater with trifluoromethyl sulfurpentafluoride cate sample, were collected for physical properties, common (SF5CF3), sulfur hexafluoride (SF6), CF3Cl (CFC–13), inorganic ions, nutrients, and trace elements at five locations and CF2Cl2 (CFC–12): Water Resources Research, along Enfield Creek overlying the aquifer boundary. Ground- v. 44, no. 2, article W02431, 18 p. [Also available at water-quality samples were collected for physical properties, https://doi.org/10.1029/2007WR006150.] 36 Geohydrology and Water Quality of the Unconsolidated Aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley

Cadwell, D.L., and Muller, E.H., 2004, New York glacial Fishman, M.J., ed., 1993, Methods of analysis by the U.S. geology, U.S.A., in Ehlers, J., and Gibbard, P.L., eds., Qua- Geological Survey National Water Quality Laboratory— ternary glaciations—Extent and chronology; pt. II, North Determination of inorganic and organic constituents in America: Amsterdam, Elsevier, Developments in Quater- water and fluvial sediments: U.S. Geological Survey nary Science, v. 2, pt. B, p. 201–205. [Also available at Open-File Report 1993–125, 217 p. [Also available at https://doi.org/10.1016/S1571-0866(04)80197-0.] https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr93125.]

Church, M., and Ryder, J.M., 1972, Paraglacial sedimenta- Fishman, M.J., and Friedman, L.C., 1989, Methods for tion—A consideration of fluvial processes conditioned determination of inorganic substances in water and fluvial by glaciation: Geological Society of America Bul- sediments: U.S. Geological Survey Techniques of Water- letin, v. 83, no. 10, p. 3059–3072. [Also available at Resources Investigations, book 5, chap. A1, 545 p. [Also https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1972)83 available at https://doi.org/10.3133/twri05A1.] [3059:PSACOF]2.0.CO;2.] Fullerton, D.S., 1980, Preliminary correlation of post-Erie Denny, C.S., and Lyford, W.H., 1963, Surficial geology and interstadial events (16,000–10,000 radiocarbon years soils of the Elmira-Williamsport region, New York and before present), central and eastern Great Lakes region, Pennsylvania: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper and Hudson, Champlain, and St. Lawrence Lowlands, 379, 60 p., 6 pls. [Also available at https://doi.org/10.3133/ United States and Canada: U.S. Geological Survey Pro- pp379.] fessional Paper 1089, 52 p., 1 pl. [Also available at https://doi.org/10.3133/pp1089.] Dieter, C.A., Maupin, M.A., Caldwell, R.R., Harris, M.A., Ivahnenko, T.I., Lovelace, J.K., Barber, N.L., and Linsey, Garbarino, J.R., 1999, Methods of analysis by the U.S. K.S., 2018, Estimated use of water in the United States in Geological Survey National Water Quality Labora- 2015: U.S. Geological Survey Circular 1441, 65 p. [Also tory—Determination of dissolved arsenic, boron, lithium, available at https://doi.org/10.3133/cir1441. Supersedes selenium, strontium, thallium, and vanadium using induc- USGS Open-File Report 2017–1131.] tively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry: U.S. Geological Survey Open-File Report 99–093, 31 p. [Also available at Eltschlager, K.K., Hawkins, J.W., Ehler, W.C., and Baldas- https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr9993.] sare, F., 2001, Technical measures for the investigation and mitigation of fugitive methane hazards in areas of coal Garbarino, J.R., Kanagy, L.K., and Cree, M.E., 2005, Determi- mining: U.S. Department of the Interior, Office of Surface nation of elements in natural-water, biota, sediment and soil Mining Reclamation and Enforcement, 124 p. [Also avail- samples using collision/reaction cell inductively coupled able at https://www.osmre.gov/resources/blasting/docs/ plasma-mass spectrometry: U.S. Geological Survey Tech- MineGasesDust/Methane.pdf.] niques and Methods, book 5, chap. B1, 88 p. [Also available at https://doi.org/10.3133/tm5B1.] Fairchild, H.L., 1932, New York moraines: Geological Society of America Bulletin, v. 43, no. 3, p. 627–662. [Also avail- Heisig, P.M., and Scott, T.-M., 2013, Occurrence of meth- able at https://doi.org/10.1130/GSAB-43-627.] ane in groundwater of south-central New York State, 2012—Systematic evaluation of a glaciated region by Fisher, B.N., Heisig, P.M., and Kappel, W.M., 2019a, Horizon- hydrogeologic setting: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific tal-to-vertical spectral ratio soundings and depth-to-bedrock Investigations Report 2013–5190, 32 p. [Also available at data for geohydrology and water quality investigation https://doi.org/10.3133/sir20135190.] of the unconsolidated aquifers in the Enfield Creek Val- ley, town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York, April Horn, M.A., Moore, R.B., Hayes, L., and Flanagan, S.M., 2013–August 2015: U.S. Geological Survey data release, 2008, Methods for and estimates of 2003 and projected https://doi.org/10.5066/P9ZFTDFY. water use in the Seacoast region, southeastern New Hampshire: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investiga- Fisher, B.N., Heisig, P.M., and Kappel, W.M., 2019b, Records tions Report 2007–5157, 87 p., 2 apps. [Also available at of selected wells for geohydrology and water quality https://doi.org/10.3133/sir20075157.] investigation of the unconsolidated aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley, town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New Kappel, W.M., and Nystrom, E.A., 2012, Dissolved meth- York, 2013–2018: U.S. Geological Survey data release, ane in New York groundwater: U.S. Geological Survey https://doi.org/10.5066/P90FOTQV. Open-File Report 2012–1162, 6 p. [Also available at https://doi.org/10.3133/ofr20121162.] Fisher, B.N., Heisig, P.M., and Kappel, W.M., 2020, Geospa- tial datasets for the hydrogeology and water quality of the Karig, D.E., 2015, Quaternary geology of the greater unconsolidated aquifers in the Enfield Creek valley, town Sixmile Creek watershed: Cornell University eCom- of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York: U.S. Geological mons digital repository, 64 p. [Also available at Survey data release, https://doi.org/10.5066/P9T3U63J. https://hdl.handle.net/1813/40572.] References Cited 37

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U.S. Census Bureau, 2012b, New York, 2010—Summary U.S. Geological Survey, 2018, Reston Groundwater Dating population and housing characteristics: U.S. Census Laboratory: U.S. Geological Survey website, accessed Bureau data, 613 p., apps., accessed January 24, 2018, at August 2018 at https://water.usgs.gov/lab/. https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/cph-1-34.pdf. U.S. Geological Survey, [variously dated], National field man- U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2003, Drinking ual for the collection of water-quality data: U.S. Geological water advisory—Consumer acceptability advice and Survey Techniques and Methods, book 9, chaps. A1–A10. health effects analysis on sodium: U.S. Environmental [Also available at https://pubs.water.usgs.gov/twri9A.] Protection Agency 822–R–03–006, 29 p. [Also available Williams, H.S., Tarr, R.S., and Kindle, E.M., 1909, Watkins at https://www.epa.gov/sites/production/files/2014-09/ Glen-Catatonk folio, New York: U.S. Geological Survey documents/support_cc1_sodium_dwreport.pdf.] Folios of the Geologic Atlas 169, 33 p., 6 sheets, scale 1:125,000. [Also available at https://doi.org/10.3133/gf169.] U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2012, Drinking water standards and health advisories [modified March 2018]: Williams, J.H., and Kappel, W.M., 2015, Hydrogeology of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 822–S–12–001, Owego-Apalachin Elementary School geothermal fields, 12 p. [Also available at https://www.epa.gov/sites/ Tioga County, New York: U.S. Geological Survey Scientific production/files/2018-03/documents/dwtable2018.pdf.] Investigations Report 2015–5155, 29 p. [Also available at https://doi.org/10.3133/sir20155155.] Appendixes 1–3 40 Geohydrology and Water Quality of the Unconsolidated Aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley

Appendix 1. Well Logs of Test Wells Drilled in the Enfield Creek Unconsolidated Aquifer, Town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York

This appendix contains the well logs showing specific Table 1.1. Site identification and well logs for test wells drilled material and well information for the eight test wells drilled for the study in the Enfield Creek Valley, town of Enfield, for the aquifer study. New York.

[Data in the “link to well log” column link to the relevant available data. USGS, U.S. Geological Survey; no., number]

USGS local well USGS station Link to well log site no. (fig. 8) identification no. TM1075 422504076373001 Log 30083 TM1076 422504076373002 Log 30084 TM1077 422623076374501 Log 30085 TM1078 422623076374502 Log 30086 TM1079 422744076373401 Log 30087 TM1080 422744076373402 Log 30088 TM1081 422653076374601 Log 30089 TM1082 422653076374602 Log 30090 Appendix 1 41

U.S. Geological Survey test wells TM1075 and TM1076 Town of Enfield Highway Department, Town of Enfield, New York Site name: TM1075 and TM1076 Date completed: 11/11 and 12/2015 Site identifier: 422504076373001, 422504076373002 Drilling contractor: Frey Well Drilling, Alden, N.Y. Latitude: 42°25′04.28″ 6-inch diameter steel casings Longitude: 076°37′29.89″ Casing above ground=3.1 feet Casing above ground=3.7 feet Latitude and longitude measurement made by Global Positioning System (NAD 83) TM1075 TM1076 Elev. TOC (6 inches)=1,084.1 feet Elev. TOC (6 inches)=1,084.7 feet Elevation relative Water level 11/13/2015 Water level 11/13/2015 to NAVD 88 1,072.7 feet 1,068.8 feet elevation at top of casing 0 1,081 Bentonite in annular Topsoil, brown silt and clay, some sand and gravel, dry space between 6-inch diameter permanent 10 1,071 casing and drilled hole Brown silty loam with sand and fine to medium gravel (flat Loggers measuring water stones, shale), Some clay-silt layers, moist, but wet at depth level and temperature 20 1,061 inside the well casing

Loggers measuring air and water temperature inside the well casing Brown silt and clay, with some sand and fine to medium gravel. Some fine sand and silt zones which tend to flow into casing, produces more water at depth

Water enters at bottom 59 1,022 of 6-inch casing WELL DEPTH: 53 feet Gray, fine sand and silt, some clay and small gravel, (6-inch diameter with some clean clay layers, little water open-ended casing)

70 1,011

Gray-brown clay and silt, some fine sand

80 1,001 Brown medium sand, some gravel, produces some water 82 999

Depth below land surface, in feet Brown clean, dense clay, some fine to medium sand and gravel, little water

92 989 Brown silty fine to medium sand, with fine gravel, some water 99 982

Gray-brown clay and silt, some sand and fine gravel, no water

115 966

Gray silty medium to coarse sand, some gravel, makes some water at depth

130 951 Gray silty sand and gravel, makes little/some water 136 945 Water enters at bottom of 6-inch casing Gray, less silty, gravel and sand, makes water, about 20 gallons per minute 140 941 Gray to black shale, massive WELL DEPTH: 136 feet 142 939 Bottom of hole=142 feet (6-inch diameter open-ended casing)

Figure 1.1. Well logs for U.S. Geological Survey test wells TM1075 and TM1076. 42 Geohydrology and Water Quality of the Unconsolidated Aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley

U.S. Geological Survey test wells TM1077 and TM1078 Stoneybrook, Town of Enfield, New York

Site name: TM1077 and TM1078 Date completed: 11/13/2015 Site ID: 422623076374501, 422623076374502 Drilling contractor: Frey Well Drilling, Alden, N.Y. Latitude: 42° 26′22.74″ 6-inch diameter steel casings Casings above ground=4.1 feet and 4.3 feet Longitude: 076°37′44.90″ Latitude and longitude measurement made by Global Positioning System (NAD 83) TM077 TM1078 Elevation relative Elev. TOC (6 inches)=1,096.1 feet Elev. TOC (6 inches)=1096.3 feet to NAVD 88 Water level 11/16/2015 Water level 11/16/2015 1,087.6 feet 1,087.6 feet elevation at top of casing 0 1,092 Bentonite in annular space Fill, brown silt and clay, some sand and gravel, dry between 6-inch diameter permanent casing and 10 1,082 drilled hole Brown silty loam with medium to coarse sand and fine to medium gravel, moist, but wet at depth 15 1,077 Brown to gray silt , some clay, with medium to coarse Loggers measuring water sand and fine to medium gravel, produces water, level and temperature about 20 gallons per minute inside the well casing 26 1,066 Gray-brown silt, soft, some minor gravel, moist 28 1,064 Gray-brown silt, with medium to coarse sand and fine to medium gravel, produces some water 36 1,056 Loggers measuring air and water temperature Gray-brown, silty medium sand, some layers of silt and clay, inside the well casing but mostly sand with fine to medium gravel, becoming cleaner with depth, and produces some water

53 1,039

As above, but a cleaner sand and gravel, which produces much more water WELL DEPTH: 56 feet (6-inch diameter open- 65 1,027 ended casing) Depth below land surface, in feet

Brown-gray, very clayey sand and gravel, possibly a soft till or dense lacustrine deposit, cuts evenly. Becomes more clayey with depth, less stones, does not produce water

90 1,002

Brown-gray clay with more sand and gravel, produces some water, but with much gray clay WELL DEPTH: 93 feet (6-inch diameter 104 988 open-ended casing) Gray to black shale 106 986 Bottom of hole=106 feet

Figure 1.2. Well logs for U.S. Geological Survey test wells TM1077 and TM1078. Appendix 1 43

U.S. Geological Survey test wells TM1079 and TM1080 Hayts Road, Town of Enfield, New York

Site name: TM1079 and TM1080 Date completed: 11/16/2015 Site ID: 422744076373401, 422744076373402 Drilling contractor: Frey Well Drilling, Alden, N.Y. Latitude: 42°27′43.72″ 6-inch diameter steel casing Casings above ground=3.1 feet and 3.2 feet Longitude: 076°37′33.94″ Latitude and longitude measurement made by Global Positioning System (NAD 83)

TM1079 TM1080 Elevation relative Elev. TOC (6 inches)=1,181.1 feet Elev. TOC (6 inches)=1,181.2 feet to NAVD 88 Water level 11/17/2015 Water level 11/17/2015 0 1,178 1,176.4 feet elevation at top of casing 1,176.1 feet Brown silty sand, moist Bentonite in annular space 5 1,173 between 6-inch diameter Gray silty fine to medium sand and fine gravel, moist, permanent casing and but wet at depth in a less dirty sand and gravel, makes drilled hole some water 15 1,163 Loggers measuring water WELL DEPTH: 9 feet level and temperature (6-inch diameter inside the well casing open-ended casing)

Brown, grading to gray, dense, very silty-clayey medium to coarse sand, some gravel, wet; becoming brown-gray more stoney at depth, a little water

41 1,137

Depth below land surface, in feet Gray, cleaner fine to medium sand and fine to medium gravel in a silt-clay matrix, produces water

53 1,125 Gray-brown, very silty fine to medium sand, little gravel, dense, (till) no water WELL DEPTH: 48 feet 57 1,121 (6-inch diameter Gray to black weathered shale with clay 60 1,118 open-ended casing) Gray to black, competent shale 61 1,117 Bottom of hole=61 feet

Figure 1.3. Well logs for U.S. Geological Survey test wells TM1079 and TM1080. 44 Geohydrology and Water Quality of the Unconsolidated Aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley

U.S. Geological Survey test wells TM1081 and TM1082 Enfield Main Road, Town of Enfield, New York Site names: TM1081 and TM1082 Date completed: 04/15–18/16 Site ID: 422653076374601, 422653076374602 Drilling contractor: Frey Well Drilling, Alden, N.Y. Latitude: 42°26′53.15″ 6-inch diameter steel casings Casings above ground=2.0 feet Longitude: 076°37′46.43″ Latitude and longitude measurement made by Global Positioning System (NAD 83) TM1081 TM1082 Elev. TOC (6 inch)=1,134.0 feet Elev. TOC (6 inch)=1,134.0 feet Elevation relative Water level 04/18/16 Water level 04/18/16 to NAVD 88 1,126.53 feet 1,123.94 feet elevation at top of casing 0 1,132

Topsoil, brown silt and sand, clean medium gravel, dry Bentonite in annular at top, moist at depth space between 6-inch diameter permanent casing and drilled hole 15 1,117

Brown dirty medium gravel and sand, wet to saturated at about 25 feet. Can produce water, driller estimates Loggers measuring water about 5 gallons per minute level and temperature inside the well casing 33 1,099 Gray sandy silt and clay, with minor medium gravel

40 1,092 Black shale, a slab of shale bedrock about 2 feet thick 42 1,090

Gray, fine sand and silt, with fine to medium gravel, with a few clay layers, some water WELL DEPTH: 42 feet (Void below 6-inch diameter casing 58 1,074 (51–41 feet) filled with pea- gravel up into casing.)

Gray, sandy silt and clay, dense (till), cuts smoothly near top, some boulders at depth, no water

Water enters at 77 1,055 perforations Gray-brown gravelly clay and silt, some fine sand, wet 80 1,052 (77–79 feet) in 6-inch casing Brown silty medium to coarse sand, some coarse gravel,

Depth below land surface, in feet produces some water

90 1,042 Brown, flowing, fine to medium sand and silt, wet 95 1,037 Brown, fine gravel and sand, less silt, may produce water

102 1,030

Brown-gray clay, dense (till) with scattered boulders becoming more sandy with depth, rock slabs (about 1 foot+) scattered within also.

WELL DEPTH: 138 feet (6-inch diameter casing 139 993 sealed with bentonite Gray to black shale, massive, dry hole 142 990 plugged into casing.) Bottom of hole=142 feet

Figure 1.4. Well logs for U.S. Geological Survey test wells TM1081 and TM1082. Appendix 2 45

Appendix 2. Test-Well Hydrographs in the Enfield Creek Unconsolidated Aquifer, Town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York

This appendix contains the hydrographs created for data collected from the eight test wells drilled for the unconsolidated groundwater aquifer study in the town of Enfield, New York. These hydrographs show water level and water temperature from November 7, 2015, to April 25, 2018.

TM1075 (140 feet) 1,083 16

14 1,080 12 t NAVD 88 t NAVD e e f

n 1,077 i

, 10 n o i t a

v 8 e 1,074 e l l e v 6 -l e r e

t 1,071 a 4 W Water temperature, in degrees Celsius Water Apr. Apr. Apr. Oct. Oct. Feb. Feb. Feb. Jan. Jan. Jan. Nov. Nov. Nov. Mar. Mar. Mar. May Aug. May Aug. May Dec. Dec. Dec. July July Sept. Sept. June June June 2015 2016 2017 2018 Date

EPLANATIN Water temperature Water-level elevation

Figure 2.1. Test-well hydrograph for U.S. Geological Survey test well TM1075. 46 Geohydrology and Water Quality of the Unconsolidated Aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley

TM1076 (60 feet) 1,076 16

14 1,073 12

1,070 10

8 1,067

6 1,064 4 NAVD 88 elevation, in feet NAVD Water-level Water temperature, in degrees Celsius Water

1,061 2 Apr. Apr. Apr. Oct. Oct. Feb. Feb. Feb. Jan. Jan. Jan. Nov. Nov. Nov. Mar. Mar. Mar. May May Aug. May Aug. Dec. Dec. Dec. July July Sept. Sept. June June June 2015 2016 2017 2018 Date

EPLANATIN Water temperature Water-level elevation

Figure 2.2. Test-well hydrograph for U.S. Geological Survey test well TM1076.

TM1077 (106 feet) 1,097 16

14 1,094 12

1,091 10

8 1,088

6 1,085 4 NAVD 88 elevation, in feet NAVD Water-level Water temperature, in degrees Celsius Water

1,082 2 Apr. Apr. Apr. Oct. Oct. Feb. Feb. Feb. Jan. Jan. Jan. Nov. Nov. Nov. Mar. Mar. Mar. May May Aug. May Aug. Dec. Dec. Dec. July July Sept. Sept. June June June 2015 2016 2017 2018 Date EPLANATIN Water temperature Water-level elevation

Figure 2.3. Test-well hydrograph for U.S. Geological Survey test well TM1077. Appendix 2 47

TM1078 (60 feet) 1,097 16

14 1,094 12

1,091 10

8 1,088

6 1,085

Water-level elevation, in feet NAVD 88 elevation, in feet NAVD Water-level 4 Water temperature, in degrees Celsius Water

1,082 2 Apr. Apr. Apr. Oct. Oct. Feb. Feb. Feb. Jan. Jan. Jan. Nov. Nov. Nov. Mar. Mar. Mar. May Aug. May Aug. May Dec. Dec. Dec. July July Sept. Sept. June June June 2015 2016 2017 2018 Date EPLANATIN Water temperature Water-level elevation

Figure 2.4. Test-well hydrograph for U.S. Geological Survey test well TM1078.

TM1079 (61 feet) 1,185 16

14 1,182 12

1,179 10

8 1,176

6 1,173 Water-level elevation, in feet NAVD 88 elevation, in feet NAVD Water-level 4 temperature, in degrees Celsius Water

1,170 2 Apr. Apr. Apr. Oct. Oct. Feb. Feb. Feb. Jan. Jan. Jan. Nov. Nov. Nov. Mar. Mar. Mar. May May Aug. May Aug. Dec. Dec. Dec. July July Sept. Sept. June June June 2015 2016 2017 2018 Date EPLANATIN Water temperature Water-level elevation

Figure 2.5. Test-well hydrograph for U.S. Geological Survey test well TM1079. 48 Geohydrology and Water Quality of the Unconsolidated Aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley

TM1080 (12 feet) 1,178 16

14 1,177

12 1,176

10 1,175 8

1,174 6

1,173 Water-level elevation, in feet NAVD 88 elevation, in feet NAVD Water-level 4 temperature, in degrees Celsius Water

1,172 2 Apr. Apr. Apr. Oct. Oct. Feb. Feb. Feb. Jan. Jan. Jan. Nov. Nov. Nov. Mar. Mar. Mar. May May Aug. May Aug. Dec. Dec. Dec. July July Sept. Sept. June June June 2015 2016 2017 2018 Date EPLANATIN Water temperature Water-level elevation

Figure 2.6. Test-well hydrograph for U.S. Geological Survey test well TM1080.

TM1081 (143 feet) 1,134 16

14 1,131 12

1,128 10

8 1,125

6 1,122 Water-level elevation, in feet NAVD 88 elevation, in feet NAVD Water-level 4 temperature, in degrees Celsius Water

1,119 2 Apr. Apr. Apr. Oct. Oct. Feb. Feb. Feb. Jan. Jan. Jan. Nov. Nov. Nov. Mar. Mar. Mar. May May Aug. May Aug. Dec. Dec. Dec. July July Sept. Sept. June June June 2015 2016 2017 2018 Date

EPLANATIN Water temperature Water-level elevation

Figure 2.7. Test-well hydrograph for U.S. Geological Survey test well TM1081. Appendix 2 49

TM1082 (51 feet) 1,133 16

14 1,130 12

1,127 10

8 1,124

6 1,121 4 Water-level elevation, in feet NAVD 88 elevation, in feet NAVD Water-level Water temperature, in degrees Celsius Water

1,118 2 Apr. Apr. Apr. Oct. Oct. Feb. Feb. Feb. Jan. Jan. Jan. Nov. Nov. Nov. Mar. Mar. Mar. May May Aug. May Aug. Dec. Dec. Dec. July July Sept. Sept. June June June 2015 2016 2017 2018 Date

EPLANATIN Water temperature Water-level elevation

Figure 2.8. Test-well hydrograph for U.S. Geological Survey test well TM1082. 50 Geohydrology and Water Quality of the Unconsolidated Aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley

Appendix 3. Air and Water Temperatures by Depth at Test Wells TM1075 and TM1077 in the Enfield Creek Unconsolidated Aquifer, Town of Enfield, Tompkins County, New York

This appendix contains two graphs showing ambient air and groundwater temperature at multiple depths in the water column at test wells TM1075 and TM1077. Appendix 3 51 (air) (silty sand, gravel) (clayey sand, gravel) sand) (fine clay) (dense (sand and gravel) (m. sand, some gravel) EPLANATIN of temperature logger, in feet above of temperature logger, datum aquifer material)

10 ft (elevation 1,071 ft) 20 ft (elevation 1,061 ft) 45 ft (elevation 1,036 ft) 65 ft (elevation 1,016 ft) 85 ft (elevation 996 ft) 100 ft (elevation 981 ft) 134 ft (elevation 947 ft) Logger depth, in feet (ft; elevation Water level in well Water July June May Apr. 2017 Apr. Mar. Mar. 2017 Feb. Feb. Jan. Jan. Dec. Dec. Nov. Nov. Date Oct. Oct. Date Sept. Sept. Aug. Aug. 2016 2016 July July Elevation of 10-foot temperature logger. level below this line (blue-shaded box) Water indicates logger was out of the water column. June June May May Apr. Apr. Graph showing ambient air and groundwater temperature at multiple depths in the water column U.S. Geological Survey test well TM1075.

Mar. Mar. Water temperature monitored in seven zones well TM1075 Water

10 4.4 1.7 7.2

1,081 1,077 1,073 1,069 1,065

18.3 15.6 12.8 – 1.1

Water-level elevation, in feet NAVD 88 NAVD feet in elevation, Water-level B. Celsius degrees in temperature, Water A. level in well TM1075 Water Figure 3.1. 52 Geohydrology and Water Quality of the Unconsolidated Aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley (silty sand) (silty sand) (clayey sand and gravel) (sandy clay) EPLANATIN of temperature logger, in feet of temperature logger, above datum aquifer material) 10 ft (elevation 1,082 ft) 25 ft (elevation 1,067 ft) 50 ft (elevation 1,042 ft) 75 ft (elevation 1,017 ft) 90 ft (elevation 1,002 ft) Water level in well Water Logger depth, in feet (ft; elevation July June May Apr. 2017 Apr. Mar. Mar. 2017 Feb. Feb. Jan. Jan. Dec. Dec. Elevation of 10-foot temperature logger. Elevation of 10-foot temperature logger. In this well, the upper logger was always below the water surface. Nov. Date Nov. Oct. Oct. Date Sept. Sept. Aug. Aug. 2016 2016 July July June June May May Apr. Apr. Graph showing ambient groundwater temperature at multiple depths in the water column U.S. Geological Survey test well TM1077.

Mar. Mar. 8.3 5.6

16.7 13.9 11.1

1,086 1,085 1,084 1,083 1,082

Water-level elevation, in feet NAVD 88 NAVD feet in elevation, Water-level Celsius degrees in temperature, Water B. temperature monitored in five zones well TM1077 Water A. level in well TM1077 Water Figure 3.2. For more information about this report, contact: Director, New York Water Science Center U.S. Geological Survey 425 Jordan Road Troy, NY 12180–8349 [email protected] (518) 285–5602 or visit our website at https://www.usgs.gov/centers/ny-water Publishing support provided by the Pembroke and Rolla Publishing Service Centers Fisher and others—Geohydrology and Water Quality of the Unconsolidated Aquifers in the Enfield Creek Valley—Scientific Investigations Report 2019–5136, ver. 1.1 ISSN 2328-0328 (online) https://doi.org/10.3133/sir20195136