ROMAN CIVILIZATION

SELECTED READINGS

Edited by Naphtali Lewis and Meyer Reinhold

VOLUME II THE EMPIRE

THIRD EDITION

COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS • NEW 412 The Crisis of the Third Century 119. Emergenceof Absolute Monarchy 413

11 5] as being cultivators of the section called Little Phrou that they are unequivocally bound by their tenancy, in order that what is owed the The Reforms of most sacred fisc may be discharged[?] without hindrance ... in accord­ ance with the requests in the petitions which they submitted to me. . . . I 19. THE EMERGENCE OF ABSOLUTE MONARCHY Year 5 of the Emperors Marcus Julius PHILIPPii Felices Augusti, () Hath yr 29. [There follows a list of persons, with the size of the holding of each.] In the century from the death of Marcus Aurelius to the accession of Diocletian the regime established by Augustus completed its evolution from Principate to undisguised absolutism, complete with Oriental royal I 18. ROME'S THOUSANDTH BIRTHDAY trappings and court ceremonial. It is true that premature and abortive attempts had been made in the first two centuries of the Empire by such In A.D. 248, in the midst of civil war, anarchy, and unprecedented eco­ rulers as Caligula, Domitian, and Commodus to introduce the concept of nomic crisis, the Secular Games and other spectacles were held in celebra­ the emperor as a god on earth (c( § 162). But with the Punic-Syrian tion of the thousandth anniversary of the founding of Rome. The follow­ Severan dynasty the forms of Oriental autocracy came more commonly ing passage gives a glimpse of the prodigal expenditure that must have into use. Obeisance in the presence of the emperor came into vogue, and gone into the making of that Roman holiday. the appellation dominus noster (our lord and master) replaced the concept of primus interpares attached to the earlier emperors. In conformity with these absolutist tendencies die great jurist Ulpian in the early third century "Historia Augustus," Lives of the Three Gordians xxxiii. 1-2 formulated the principle that "the emperor is above the laws" Qustinian, There were at Rome in the time of Gordian thirty-two elephants (of Digest I. iii. 31). With the reign of Diocletian [A.D. 285-305) all these which Gordian himself had sent twelve and [Severus] Alexander ten), developments, including the rite of adoration of the emperor, were stan­ ten elk, ten tigers, sixty tame lions, thirty tame leopards, ten belbi, or dardized and made official. hyenas, 1,000 pairs of gladiators belonging to the imperial fisc, six hippopotamuses, one rhinoceros, ten wild lions, ten giraffes, twenty "Historia Augusta," Lives of the Two Gallieni xvi . 3- 6 wild asses, forty wild horses, and various other animals of this nature Gallienus always spread his tables with golden table cloths. He had without number. All of these [the Emperor] Philip presented or slaugh­ jeweled vessels made, and likewise golden ones. He sprinkled gold dust tered at the Secular Games. All these animals, wild, tame, and savage, on his hair. He often came into public with the radiate crown. 57 At Gordian intended for a Persian triumph; but his public vow 56 proved of Rome, where the emperors always used to appear in the toga, he ap­ no avail, for Philip exhibited them all at the Secular Games and at the peared in a purple cloak with jeweled and golden clasps. He wore a gladiatorial and circus spectacles when he celebrated Rome's thousandth man's sleeved tunic of purple and gold. He used a jeweled sword belt. anniversary in his own and his son's consulship. . . . He invited matrons into his council, and to those of them who kissed his hand he gave four gold pieces bearing his name.

Aurelius Victor, 58 Lives of the Emperors xxxix. 1-8 (abridged) By decision of the generals and [military] tribunes, Valerius Diocletian, commander of the palace guards, was chosen emperor because of his wisdom. A mighty man he was, and the following were characteristics

57. The radiate crown had been the emblem of only a deified emperor, until the emperors of the third century began to adopt it as part of their insignia. 56. That is, to present the spectacle if victorious; cf. vol. 1, p. 155. 58. Sec chapter 4, note 45. 414 The Crisis of the Third Century 120. Diocletian and the

of his: he was the first to wear a cloak embroidered in gold and to covet ability and their skill in military science, which they had acquired from shoes of silk and purple decorated with a great number of gems. Though Aurelian and Probus, almost sufficed to compensate for lack of high this went beyond what befitted a citizen and was characteristic of an character . Finally, they looked up to Valerius [Diocletian] as to a father arrogant and lavish spirit, it was nevertheless of small consequence in or as one would to a mighty god. . . . comparison with the rest. Indeed, he was the first after Caligula and As the burden of the wars mentioned above became heavier, a sort of Domitian to allow himself to be publicly called "lord," and to be named division of the Empire was made: all the countries beyond the Gallic "god," and to be rendered homage as such .... But Diocletian's faults Alps were entrusted to Constantius; Herculius had and Italy [and were counterbalanced by good qualities; for even if he took the title of Spain); Galerius, Illyria as far as the Black Sea; and Diocletian retained "lord," he did act [toward the Romans) as a father. all the rest. After this, part of Italy was subjected to the heavy burden of paying tribute .... A new law for regular tax payments was introduced. At that time it was still endurable, because not excessive, but it has grown in our age 60 into a scourge .... I 20. DIOCLETIAN AND THE TETRARCHY With no less zeal [than in their military exploits) did the emperors take up the administration of civil affairs, in which connection their laws To divide the administrative responsibilities of the vast Empire, prevent a recurrence of the military anarchy of the preceding half century, and were eminently just. They suppressed thefrumentarii, a group that was a veritable scourge and whom now the agentesin rebus closely resemble. 61 guarantee orderly succession to the throne, Diocletian in A.D. 293 estab­ lished a four-man rule, the tetrarchy. In 305 Diocletian and Maximian, the These men, who appear to have been established to investigate and two senior members, abdicated, but their provisions for the continuation report possible seditious movements that might exist in the provinces, of the system by a new tetrarchy proved short-lived (cf. introduction to § trumped up false accusations, and under the universal terror they in­ 125). spired, especially in persons in very remote areas, they practiced shame­ ful rapine everywhere. The emperors showed no less concern and solic­ Aurelius Victor, Lives of the Emperorsxxxix. 17-48 (abridged) itude for the provisioning of the city and the welfare of those who paid tribute .... The ancient cults were maintained in all their purity. Rome 59 Forthwith he proclaimed as coemperor Maximian a faithful friend , a and other cities, especially Carthage, Milan, and Nicomedia, were ex­ semi-rustic with, however, great military talent and native ability. traordinarily embellished with new structures of great splendor .... 62 Afterward he acquired the surname Herculius, from the cult of Hercules, Diocletian kept his eyes on threatening dangers, and when he saw his favorite divinity, while Valerius [Diocletian] took the surname of that the Roman state, in the course of destiny, was going to become a Jovius; and these surnames were assigned to those military units which prey to civil wars and was approaching its breakup, so to speak, he excelled the rest of the army. . . . [The rise of usurpers and foreign celebrated the twentieth anniversary of his reign and abdicated the gov­ attacks decided the two emperors] to select as Caesar Julius Constantius ernment of the state, although he was in good health. Herculius, who and Galerius Maximianus, surnamed Armentarius, and to associate them had held power one year less, he induced to follow his example, though with themselves in marriage. The former received Herculius' stepdaugh­ he did so with great reluctance. Although there exists a variety of ter, the latter Diocletian's daughter, the previous marriage of each being explanations [for Diocletian's abdication), and the truth has been per- dissolved, just as Augustus had once done in the case of Tiberius Nero and his daughter Julia. All these men were, indeed, natives of Illyria; but 6o. Middle of the founh century . On Italy's being made tributary, cf. introduction of§ 122. although little cultured, they were of great service to the state, because 61. Frumtntarii were imperial secret service agents who replaced the .rptrnlatorts in that activity toward the end of the first century and quickly became notorious for abusing their positions for they were inured to the hardships of rural life and of war ... . The personal gain (cf. pp. 318, 380-81). By A. D. 319, and perhaps as early as Diocletian's reign, they were harmony which prevailed among them proved above all that their native replaced with a more comprehensive organization of agtntt.1in rtbu.r,who ultimately achieved the same evil reputation . 62. The most famous of these are the Baths of Diocletian at Rome and his palace at Salonae 59. Diocletian became emperor in A.D. 285 and made Maximian coregent the following year. Constantius and Galerius were named Caesars (emperors designate: cf. chapter 1, note 10) in 293. (modem Split in Yugoslavia, the older part of which is contained within the palace walls). 416 The Crisis of the Third Century 121 . Diocletian's Administrative Reorganization

verted, it is my view that it was out of the excellence of his character tions of innumerable things, and in the process of exaction intolerable that, scorning ambition for power, he descended to the life of an ordi­ wrongs. nary citizen. Whatever was imposed with a view to the maintenance of the soldiery might have been endured; but Diocletian, with insatiable avarice, would never permit the treasury to be diminished. He was constantly accumu­ 121. DIOCLETIAN'S ADMINISTRATIVE lating extraordinary resources and funds so as to preserve what he had REORGANIZATION stored away untouched and inviolate. Likewise, when by various in­ iquities he brought about enormously high prices, he attempted to 66 Diocletian, the reorganizer of the Empire after the military anarchy , com­ legislate the prices of commodities. Then much blood was spilled . . . pleted and systematized the political, social, and economic changes brought nothing appeared on the market because of fear, and prices soared much about by the revolution of the third century. The pattern of society he higher. In the end, after many people had lost their lives, it became established, brought to completion by Constantine, remained the basis of absolutely necessary to repeal the law. the regimented life of the people in the for centuries to In addition, he had a certain endless passion for building, and made come . The follow ing evaluation by a Christian writer of Diocletian's no small exactions from the provinces for maintaining laborers and reorganization is colored by the severe persecution of the Christians dur­ artisans and for supplying wagons and whatever else was necess~ry for ing his reign. the construction of public works. Here basilicas, there a circus, here a mint, there a shop for making weapons, here a house for his wife, there Lactantius, On the Deaths of the Persecutors vii one for his daughter. Suddenly a great part of the city [of Nicomedia] While Diocletian, who was the inventor of wicked deeds and the con­ was demolished. All went elsewhere with their wives and children, as triver of evils, was ruining everything, he could not keep his hands even from a city taken by enemies. And when those structures were com­ from God. This man, through both avarice and cowardice, overturned pleted, to the ruin of the provinces, he said, "They are not properly the whole world. For he made three men sharers of his rule; the world made; let them be done on another plan." Then they had to be pulled was divided into four parts, and armies were multiplied, each of the down, and remodeled, to undergo perhaps another demolition . By such rulers striving to have a far larger number of soldiers than former constant folly did he endeavor to make Nicomedia the equal of Rome. emperors had had when the state was ruled by single emperors. 63 The I omit mentioning, indeed, how many perished on account of their number of those receiving [pay from the state] was so much larger than possessions or wealth; for this was a common thing and became almost the number of those paying [taxes] that, because of the enormous size of lawful as people grew accustomed to these evils. But this was peculiar the assessments, the resources of the tenant farmers were exhausted to him, that wherever he saw a rather well-cultivated field, or an un­ fields were abandoned, and cultivated areas were transformed into wil~ commonly elegant house, a false accusation and capital punishment were demess. And to fill everything with fear, the provinces also were cut ready against the owner, so that it seemed as if he could not seize into bits; 64 many governors and more minor offices lay like incubi over someone else's property without bloodshed . each region and almost on every municipality, likewise many procura­ tors of revenues, administrators, and deputy prefects. 65 Very few civil PROLIFERATION OF BUREAUCRACY cases came before all of these, but only condemnations and frequent confiscations, and there were not merely frequent but perpetual exac- Occasional attempts were made under Diocletian to curtail the growth of 63. Lactantius exaggerated the size of Diocletian's military establishment . It was increased from the bureaucracy. But these attempts were foredoomed to failure since it was long-cst.1blishcd army of 300,000 to 400 ,000 . the governmental system itself which engendered the bureaucracy and 64. For Diocletian's provincial reorganization sec§ 124. rendered it powerful. 65. The vicarii, deputies to the Praetorian prcfcclS, were purely civil officials; there was one for each of the twelve new dioceses of the Empire ; cf. § 124 . 66. For Diocletian 's edict on maximum prices, sec § 123 . 418 The Crisis of the Third Century 122. The New Taxation System

beginning with A.D. 312 every fifteen years . Areas equivalent to a iugum Oxyrhynchus Papyrus No. 58 (=Select Papyri, no. 226); A.D. 288; Adapted from LCL were established by fiat for several different classes of land according to Serbaeus Africanus to the strategi of the epistrategiaof Heptanomia and location and productivity; the host of other local variations were simply the Arsinoite nome, greeting. 67 It is apparent from the accounts alone ignored. Thus, there was substituted for the previous system of quotas that many persons wishing to batten on the estates of the treasury have and revenues varying from year to year a system of fixed returns. But the devised titles for themselves, such as administrators, secretaries, or su­ fixed return could be guaranteed only if the manpower to produce it were perintendents, whereby they procure no advantage for the treasury but guaranteed. It was thus but a logical corollary of the new system that occupations should be made hereditary and people tied to them with eat up the revenues. It has therefore become necessary to send you increasing rigidity. The final result was the well-known economic "scle­ instructions to have one competent superintendent chosen for each estate rosis" of the Byzantine state. on the responsibility of the municipal council concerned, (cf. §§ 66, 115], and to put an end to the other offices, although the superintendent chosen shall have the power to choose two or at most three others to PROMULGATION OF THE NEW TAX SYSTEM assist him in the superintendence. In this way the wasteful expenses will IN EGYPT stop, and the estates of the treasury will receive proper attention. You Cairo lsidorus Papyrus No. 1; A.D. 297 will, of course make sure that only such persons are chosen to assist the superintendents as will be able to pass the test. Farewell. Year 5, also Aristius Optatus, vir perfectissimus,prefect of Egypt, declares: Our most year 4, Thoth 16. provident Emperors, the eternal(?] Diocletian and Maximian, Augusti, and Constantius and Maximian, most noble Caesars, having learned that it has come about that the levies of the public taxes are being made haphazardly, so that some persons are let off lightly and others overbur­ 122. THE NEW TAXATION SYSTEM dened, have decided to root out this most evil and baneful practice for the benefit of their provincials and to issue a deliverance-bringing rule After the establishment and consolidation of the Tetrarchy Diocletian to which the taxes shall conform. Accordingly, the levy on each aroura 68 turned his attention to economic reorganization, in order to stabilize and assure the vast revenues that the imperial government required. Just as he according to the classification of the land, and the levy on each head of had ended the political anarchy, so he sought to end the profound eco­ the peasantry, and from which age to which, may be accurately[?] nomic crisis that had ravaged the Empire for a century through measures known to all from the [recently] issued divine (i.e., imperial] edict and of regimentation characteristic of his military background. In A. o. 296 he the schedule annexed thereto, copies of which I have prefaced for pro­ wiped out the by then anarchic accretion of local practices that had char­ mulgation with this edict of mine. Accordingly, seeing that in this, too, acterized the Roman taxation system and, regularizing the special requisi­ they have received the greatest benefaction, the provincials should make tions to which the government had had to resort increasingly in recent it their business in conformity with the divinely issued regulations to years, he decreed a new, unified system of land tax and poll tax for the pay their taxes with all speed and by no means wait for the compulsion whole Empire, including Italy, which thus lost, at least in part, its tax-free of the collector; for it is proper to fulfill most zealously and scrupulously status. Land and manpower together constituted the foundation of the all the loyal obligations, and if anyone should be revealed to have done new tax structure. The unit on which the basic tax in kind (annona) was otherwise after such bounty, he will risk punishment. The magistrates calculated was an area of cultivable land (iugum) that could in theory be worked by one man (caput) and provide him with the means of subsis­ and council presidents of every city have been ordered to send out to tence. Many details of this new system are still not clear, but the taxpayer every village and even locality a copy of the divine edict together with was evidently required to pay according to the number of iuga and capita the schedule, and also of this [edict] as well, in the interest of having the he was assessed. Reassessment took place at first every five years, but munificence of our Emperors and Caesars come speedily to the knowl­ edge of all. And also the collectors of each revenue are reminded to 67. The writer of this letter was probably the q,istrattgus of the district formed by the Heptanomia (cf. chapter 1, note 18) and the Arsinoite nome. 68. Aroura is here probably a Greek rendering of iugum . 420 The Crisis of the Third Century 123. Diocletian's Edict on Maximum Prices 421 uphold [the regulations] with all their might; for if any should be re­ governmental expenditures for war, for the maintenance of the increased vealed to have transgressed, he will risk the death penalty. army, court, and bureaucracy, and for building operations in large part Year I 3 and I 2 and 5 of our lords Diocletian and Maximian, Augusti, nonproductive-further aggravated possibly by widespread distrust of the new coinage, understandable after a century of repeated currency deval­ and Constantius and Maximian, most noble Caesars, Phamenoth 20. 69 uations-brought on a new wave of inflation. At last, in an attempt to curb runaway prices and stabilize the economy, especially in the interest INTRODUCTION OF THE IUGUM UNIT of assuring the needs of the army and bureaucracy, Diocletian took the drastic step-unprecedented in Roman history-of decreeing fixed ceil­ "Syro-Roman Law Book" 70 cxxi ings on prices and wages throughout the Empire. Death or exile were prescribed as punishment for charging or paying above-ceiling prices or The iugum measure was decreed in the days of the Emperor Diocletian for attempting to circumvent the regulation by hoarding. The edict on and made law. Five iugera, which equal IO plethra, of vineyard were maximum prices was published early in A.D. 301, but because of business established as I iugum; 20 iugera of grain land, which equal 40 plethra, opposition and the difficulty of enforcement it was finally revoked. (For pay the tax in kind of I iugum; 220 perticaeof mature olive grove pay the Lactantius' biased account see § 121.) Numerous fragments of the official tax in kind of I iugum; 450 perticae in the mountains pay I iugum. So, text and of Greek copies of the edict are extant, all (except for one too, land which is of poorer quality and is reckoned just like mountain­ found in Italy) coming from the eastern provinces. Together they form ous land: 40 iugera, which equal Bo plethra, pay I iugum; if, however, it the longest extant document in the economic history of the ancient world. is reckoned or assessed as third quality, 60 iugera, equaling 120 plethra, Most of the preamble and a few selections from the extensive price lists pay I iugum. are given below. Mountainous land is assessed as follows. At the time of the assess­ ment there were certain men who were given the authority by the INFLATION government; they summoned other mountain dwellers from other re­ gions and bade them assess how much land, by their estimate, produces This text is eloquent testimony both of the monetary troubles of the a modius of wheat or barley in the mountains. In this way they also Empire and of the prevalence and impunity of official skulduggery shortly assessed unsown land, the pasture land for cattle, as to how much tax it before the issuance of the edict on maximum prices. The writer, a govern­ should yield to the fisc. And for the pasture land the prescription was ment official, is here seen taking advantage of his inside knowledge of a that it pay annually to the fisc one denarius;but there is also such land forthcoming currency devaluation to have his agent convert all his avail­ which pays two and three denarii. able cash into goods.

Rylands Papyrus No. 6o7; A.D. ,. 300 123. DIOCLETIAN'S EDICT ON MAXIMUM PRICES Dionysius to Apio, greeting. The divine fortune of our masters has given orders that the Italian coinage be reduced to half a nummus [a In A.D. 296, in conjunction with his revision of the taxation system, Diocletian introduced a new coinage to replace the wildly inflated and synonym for sesterce]. Make haste therefore to spend all the Italian depreciated currency of the preceding decades (see § 112). But the huge money you have and purchase for me all kinds of goods at whatever price you find them. . . . But I tell you in advance that if you try any 69. The years arc those of the reigns of Diocletian, of Maximian, and of the two Caesars, shenanigans 71 I won't let you get away with it. I pray you may continue respectively: c£ note 59. The date Phamcnoth 20, corresponding to March 16, shows that the new tax 72 system was inaugurated in Egypt early in the year following its promulgation. long in health, my brother. 70. A schoolbook of Roman civil law written orginally in Greek in the late fifth ccnrury but now extant only in Syriac and various other Oriental-language versions made some ccnruries later. Our 71. Such as pretending he paid more for things than he did and pocketing the difference. translation is based on a modem version, in Latin, in FIRA, vol. II, no. 791. 72. This is still a form of polite salutation in the Near East. 422 The Crisis of the Third Century 123. D iocletian's Edict on Maximum Prices

measures are directed against the unscrupulous, who have perceived in THE EDICT ON MAXIMUM PRICES our silence of so many years a lesson in restraint but have been unwilling to imitate it. For who is so insensitive and so devoid of human feeling GIL, vol. III, pp. 801-841, rn55-1058, 1909-1953, 2208-2211, 2328 (=ESAR, 5:307- that he can be unaware or has not perceived that uncontrolled prices are 421) and Transactionsof the American PhilologicalAssociation (1940) 71:157-74; Adapted in widespread in the sales taking place in the markets and in the daily life part from the translation of E. Graser 73 of the cities? Nor is the uncurbed passion for profiteering lessened either [Diocletian, Maximian, Constantius, and Galerius] declare : by abundant supplies or by fruitful years . . .. As we recall the wars which we have successfully. fought, we must be It is our pleasur ~, therefore, that the prices listed in the subjoined grateful to the fortune of our state, second only to the immortal gods, schedule be held in observance in the whole of our Empire .. .. for a tranquil world that reclines in the embrace of the most profound It is our pleasure that anyone who resists the measures of this statute calm, and for the blessings of a peace that was won with great effort. shall be subject to a capital penalty for daring to do so. And let no one That this fortune of our state be stabilized and suitably adorned is consider the statute harsh, since there is at hand a ready protection from demanded by the law-abiding public and by the dignity and majesty of danger in the observance of moderation . . . . We therefore exhort the Rome. Therefore we, who by the gracious favor of the gods previously loyalty of all, so that a regulation instituted for the public good may be L stemmed the tide of the ravages of barbarian nations by destroying observed with willing obedience and due scruple, especially as it is seen them, must surround the peace which we established for eternity with that by a statute of this kind provisiqn has been made, not for single the necessary defenses of justice. municipalities and peoples and provinces but for the whole world. . . . If the excesses perpetrated by persons of unlimited and frenzied ava­ The prices for the sale of individual items which no one may exceed rice could be checked by some self-restraint-this avarice which rushes are listed below . for gain and profit with no thought for mankind . . . ; or if the general Denarii welfare could endure without harm this riotous license by which , in its 1 army modius• 100 unfortunate state, it is being very seriously injured every day, the situa­ I. Wheat 1 army modius 6o tion could perhaps be faced with dissembling and silence, with the hope Barley 1 army modius 6o that human forbearance might alleviate the cruel and pitiable situation. Rye 1 army modius 100 But the only desire of these uncontrolled madmen is to have no thought Millet, ground 1 army modius 50 for the common need. Among the unscrupulous, the immoderate, and Millet, whole 1 army modius 50 the avaricious it is considered almost a creed .. . to desist from plunder­ Panic grass 1 army modius 100 ing the wealth of all only when necessity compels them. Through their Spelt, hulled extreme need, moreover, some persons have become acutely aware of Beans, crushed 1 army modius 100 their most unfortunate situation, and can no longer close their eyes to it. Beans, not ground 1 army modius 6o Therefore we, who are the protectors of the human race, are agreed , as Lentils 1 army modius 100 we view the situation, that decisive legislation is necessary, so that the Pulse 1 army modius So long-hoped-for solutions which mankind itself could not provide may, Peas, split I army modius 100 by the remedies provided by our foresight, be vouchsafed for the general Peas, not split 1 army modius 6o betterment of all . .. . We hasten, therefore, to apply the remedies long demanded by the Rice, cleaned 1 army modius 200 situation, satisfied that no one can complain that our intervention with Barley grits , cleaned 1 modius 100 regulations is untimely or unnecessary, trivial or unimportant. These Spelt grits, cleaned 1 modius 200 Sesame 1 army modius 200 73. In ESAR and Trartsoctionsoftltt AmtricortPhilological Associotiort, as cited above . ! 424 The Crisis of the Third Century 123. Diocletian's Edict on Maximum Prices 425

Denarii Denarii II. Likewise, for wines: Fish, second quality 1 Italian pound 16 Picene 1 Italian sextarius 30 River fish, best quality 1 Italian pound 12 Tiburtine 1 Italian sextarius 30 River fish, second quality 1 Italian pound 8 Sabine 1 Italian sextarius 30 Salt fish 1 Italian pound 6 Oysters 100 100 Falernian 1 Italian sextarius 30 Likewise, aged wine, first VII. For wages: quality 1 Italian sextarius 24 Farm laborer, with main- Aged wine, second quality 1 Italian sextarius 16 tenance daily 25 Ordinary 1 Italian sextarius 8 Beer, Gallic or Pannonian I Italian sextarius 4 Carpenter, as above daily 50 Beer, Egyptian T Italian sextarius 2 Wall painter, as above daily 75 III. Likewise, for oil: Picture painter, as above daily 150 From upripe olives 1 Italian sextarius 40 Second quality 1 Italian sextarius 24 Baker, as above daily 50 Shipwright working on a Salt 1 army modius 100 seagoing ship, as above daily 6o Spiced salt 1 Italian sextarius 8 Shipwright working on a Honey, best quality 1 Italian sextarius 40 river boat, as above daily 50 Honey, second quality 1 Italian sextarius 24 Muleteer, with maintenance daily 25 IV. Likewise, for meat: Veterinary, for clipping Pork 1 Italian pound 12 and preparing hoofs per animal 6 Beef 1 Italian pound 8 Veterinary, for bleeding Leg of pork, Menapic or and cleaning the head per animal 20 Cerritane, best 1 Italian pound 20 Barber per man 2

Pork mincemeat 1 ounce 2 Sewer cleaner, working Beef mincemeat 1 Italian pound IO a full day, with mainten- Pheasant, fattened 250 ance daily 25 Pheasant, wild 125 Scribe, for the best writing 100 lines 25 Chickens 1 brace 60 Scribe, for second-quality writing 100 lines 20 Venison 1 Italian pound 12 Notary, for writing a petition or legal document 100 lines IO Butter 1 Italian pound 16 Elementary teacher, b per boy monthly 50 Teacher of arithmetic, per boy monthly 75 V. Likewise, for fish: Teacher of shorthand, per boy monthly 75 Sea fish with rough scales 1 Italian pound 24 The Crisis of the Third Century 124. The Provincial Reorganization

Denarii Teacher of Greek or Latin language 124. THE PROVINCIAL REORGANIZATION and literature, and teacher of In the latter years of his reign (A.D. 297-305), Diocletian effected a com­ geometry, per pupil monthly 200 Teacher of rhetoric or public speak­ plete provincial reorganization, the first such since that of Augustus . The ing, per pupil monthly separation into imperial and senatorial provinces was ended, as was also Advocate or jurist, fee for a com- the privileged treatment of Italy. The whole Empire was divided into plaint twelve dioceses, six in the East and six in the West, and it is striking to 250 observe how those of the West, at least, foreshadow national entities of Advocate or jurist, fee for pleading 1,000 modern Europe . To reduce the power concentrated in the hands of any Teacher of architecture, per boy monthly 100 governor, the dioceses were subdivided into a total of about a hundred Check room attendant, per bather 2 provinces, and the civil and military administrations were divided and 'Castrtnsis modius, literally "the modius of the army camps." placed under separate chief officers. One result was, of course, a multipli­ bOn the teachers here listed in ascending order in the educational sequence, sec§ ss. cation of the already swollen bureaucracy. Although some provinces were further subdivided by later emperors, and although some other organiza­ tional changes were made (e.g., the city of Rome was made a separate A DECLARATION OF PRICE CONFORMITY diocese), Diocletian's scheme remained the fundamental administrative structure of the Empire for centuries to come . The roster of dioceses and When the edict on maximum prices was promulgated in Egypt, the artisan provinces, with a few later interpolations but substantially as set up by guilds were apparently ordered to file sworn schedules of the prices at Diocletian, is preserved in a seventh-century manuscript of an unknown which they sold their products , as proof that they did not exceed the fourth-century source. The "Verona List," as the manuscript is called, ceilings fixed by the edict . It is possible that this procedure was followed after the place where it was discovered, lists the provinces in a generally in all provinces by imperial order . geographical sequence for the Eastern dioceses, and according to the rank of the governors for the Western. Antinoopolis Papyru s No. 38; April 13, A.D. 301 Theodor Mommsen , Gesammtlte Schriftm (Berlin, 1908) 5:563-564 ( = 0 . Seeck, Notitia To the superintendent[?] of ... of Antinoopolis the most illustrious . Dignitatum [Berlin, 1876], pp. 247-251) from the silversmiths' guild of the said city .. .. We swear by the fortune of our lords Diocletian and Maximian, Augusti, and Constantius The Names of All the Provinces [and Maximian, the most noble] Caesars, that we report for your infor­ The Diocese of the has provinces to the number of eighteen: mation, in accordance with the governor's order, the price of a pound Libya Superior, Lybia Inferior, Thebais, Aegyptus Jovia, Aegyptus Her­ of worked silver to be 62 denariiand of a pound of cast silver, 31 denarii; culia, 74 Arabia, Arabia Augusta Libanensis, Palaestina, Phoenice, and that we have made no false statement, or else may we be liable Code, Augusta , , , Cyprus, , under the imperial oath. In response to the formal question we gave our Osroena. 75 assent [cf. chapter 2, note 90]. The Diocese of has provinces to the number of seven: Bithy­ Year 16 and year 15 of our lords Diocletian and Maximian, Augusti , nia, , , . . . , Diospontus, Pontus Pole­ and year 8 of our lords Constantius and Maximian, the most noble miacus, Armenia Minor .. . . Caesars, Pharmuthi 17. l, Aurelius Sarapammo, councilman of Anti­ The Diocese of has provinces to the number of mine: , noopolis, swore the oath as aforesaid. I, Aurelius Ammonis son of Besario, swore the oath as aforesaid. I, Aurelius Isidorus, swore the oath 74. On the epithets Jovia and Hcrculia cf. p. 414 . as aforesaid. 75. The discrepancy between the stated total and the number of prov inces actually listed in this and other dioceses presumably reflects to some extent the changes introduced between the provincial reorganization of Diocletian and the time when this roster was compiled, some decades later. The Crisis of the Third Century 125. Constantine's Administrative Reorganization 429

Phrygia Prima, Secunda, Asia, , , The , Pisi­ dia, Hellespontus. The Age of Constantine The Diocese of has provinces to the number of six: , , , Haemimontus, Scythia, Inferior. 125. CONSTANTINE'S ADMINISTRATIVE AND The Diocese of the has provinces to the number of eleven : MILITARY REORGANIZATION Dacia, Moesia Superior Margensis, Dardania, Macedonia, Thessalia, , Praevalentia, Nova, Epirus Vetus, Creta. The system of the tetrarchy established by Diocletian did not long survive The Diocese of the Pannonias has provinces to the number of seven: his abdication in A.D. 305. Out of the rivalries among his successors there Pannonia Inferior, Savensis, Dalmatia, Valeria, Pannonia Superior, Nor­ emerged in 313 two joint emperors, Licinius and Constantine, and in 324 icus Ripariensis, Noricus Mediterranea. the latter, after defeating his colleague, became sole ruler. Constantine The Diocese of the Britains has provinces to the number of six: brought to completion the imperial reorganization initiated by Diocletian. Britannia Prima, Britannia Secunda, Britannia Maxima Caesariensis, The essence of his administrative reforms was the fractioning of the power of his chief functionaries and the almost universal separation of civil and Britannia . military functions. These remained the fundamental principles of the im­ The Diocese of the Gauls has provinces to the number of eight: perial administation for the next three centuries, during which the size and Belgica Prima, Belgica Secunda, Germania Prima, Germania Secunda, power of the Byzantine bureaucracy increased steadily. Constantine also Sequania, Lugdunensis Prima, Lugdunensis Secunda, Alpes Graiae et transformed the Roman military system. Reducing the importance and Poeninae. strength of the frontier garrisons, which became local border militias The Diocese of Vienne has provinces to the number of seven: Vien­ (limitanei, riparienses) commanded by duces (dukes) and comites (counts), he nensis, Narbonensis Prima, Narbonensis Secunda, Nine Peoples, Aqui­ based the imperial defenses primarily on mobile field armies (comitatenses), tanica Prima, Aquitanica Secunda, Alpes Maritimae. under the direct command of himself and his deputies. In a further break The Diocese of Italy has provinces to the number of sixteen: Venetia with tradition, Constantine made the cavalry, instead of the infantry, his Histria, Flaminia, Picenum, Tuscia Umbrena, Apulia, Calabria, Lu­ basic military arm, thus introducing the type of military organization cania, Corsica, Alpes Cottiae, . . . . 76 which prevailed throughout the Middle Ages. The Diocese of the Spains has provinces to the number of seven: Zosimus, New History 11. xxxii-xxxv (abridged) Baetica, , Carthaginiensis, , Tarraconensis, Maure­ tania Tingitania. Constantine drastically reorganized the long-established offices. There The Diocese of Africa has provinces to the number of seven : Procon­ had been two Praetorian prefects, who administered the office jointly sularis Zeugitana, , Cirtensis, Numidia Militiana, and controlled by their supervision and power not only the Praetorian Caesariensis, Mauretania Zabia Insidiana. 77 cohorts but also those which were entrusted with the guarding of the city and those which were stationed in the outskirts. 78 The office of Praetorian prefect had been considered second to that of the emperor; he made the distributions of grain and redressed all offenses against military discipline by appropriate punishments. Constantine, altering this good institution, divided the single office into four. To one prefect he assigned all Egypt, together with the Pentapolis in Libya, and the East as far as Mesopotamia , and , in addition , Cilicia , Cappadocia, Armenia, the entire coast from Pamphylia to Trapezus, and the forts along the Phasis river; 76. There is a lacuna here. The other provinces of Italy at this time were perhaps Aemilia, Ligura , to the same person were entrusted Thrace, and Moesia as far as the , , , , Valeria. 77. The text is corrupt here. At the time of Diocletian's reorganization this province may have 78. , who abolished the privileged position of Italy in this respect, had stationed been called Maurctania ; by A.D. 315 it was named Mauretania Sitifcnsis. a legionary garrison at Albanum near Rome .