ROMAN CIVILIZATION SELECTED READINGS Edited by Naphtali Lewis and Meyer Reinhold VOLUME II THE EMPIRE THIRD EDITION COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY PRESS • NEW YORK 412 The Crisis of the Third Century 119. Emergenceof Absolute Monarchy 413 11 5] as being cultivators of the section called Little Phrou that they are unequivocally bound by their tenancy, in order that what is owed the The Reforms of Diocletian most sacred fisc may be discharged[?] without hindrance ... in accord­ ance with the requests in the petitions which they submitted to me. I 19. THE EMERGENCE OF ABSOLUTE MONARCHY Year 5 of the Emperors Caesar Marcus Julius PHILIPPii Felices Augusti, (DOMINATE) Hath yr 29. [There follows a list of persons, with the size of the holding of each.] In the century from the death of Marcus Aurelius to the accession of Diocletian the regime established by Augustus completed its evolution from Principate to undisguised absolutism, complete with Oriental royal I 18. ROME'S THOUSANDTH BIRTHDAY trappings and court ceremonial. It is true that premature and abortive attempts had been made in the first two centuries of the Empire by such In A.D. 248, in the midst of civil war, anarchy, and unprecedented eco­ rulers as Caligula, Domitian, and Commodus to introduce the concept of nomic crisis, the Secular Games and other spectacles were held in celebra­ the emperor as a god on earth (c( § 162). But with the Punic-Syrian tion of the thousandth anniversary of the founding of Rome. The follow­ Severan dynasty the forms of Oriental autocracy came more commonly ing passage gives a glimpse of the prodigal expenditure that must have into use. Obeisance in the presence of the emperor came into vogue, and gone into the making of that Roman holiday. the appellation dominus noster (our lord and master) replaced the concept of primus interpares attached to the earlier emperors. In conformity with these absolutist tendencies die great jurist Ulpian in the early third century "Historia Augustus," Lives of the Three Gordians xxxiii. 1-2 formulated the principle that "the emperor is above the laws" Qustinian, There were at Rome in the time of Gordian thirty-two elephants (of Digest I. iii. 31). With the reign of Diocletian [A.D. 285-305) all these which Gordian himself had sent twelve and [Severus] Alexander ten), developments, including the rite of adoration of the emperor, were stan­ ten elk, ten tigers, sixty tame lions, thirty tame leopards, ten belbi, or dardized and made official. hyenas, 1,000 pairs of gladiators belonging to the imperial fisc, six hippopotamuses, one rhinoceros, ten wild lions, ten giraffes, twenty "Historia Augusta," Lives of the Two Gallieni xvi . 3- 6 wild asses, forty wild horses, and various other animals of this nature Gallienus always spread his tables with golden table cloths. He had without number. All of these [the Emperor] Philip presented or slaugh­ jeweled vessels made, and likewise golden ones. He sprinkled gold dust tered at the Secular Games. All these animals, wild, tame, and savage, on his hair. He often came into public with the radiate crown. 57 At Gordian intended for a Persian triumph; but his public vow 56 proved of Rome, where the emperors always used to appear in the toga, he ap­ no avail, for Philip exhibited them all at the Secular Games and at the peared in a purple cloak with jeweled and golden clasps. He wore a gladiatorial and circus spectacles when he celebrated Rome's thousandth man's sleeved tunic of purple and gold. He used a jeweled sword belt. anniversary in his own and his son's consulship. He invited matrons into his council, and to those of them who kissed his hand he gave four gold pieces bearing his name. Aurelius Victor, 58 Lives of the Emperors xxxix. 1-8 (abridged) By decision of the generals and [military] tribunes, Valerius Diocletian, commander of the palace guards, was chosen emperor because of his wisdom. A mighty man he was, and the following were characteristics 57. The radiate crown had been the emblem of only a deified emperor, until the emperors of the third century began to adopt it as part of their insignia. 56. That is, to present the spectacle if victorious; cf. vol. 1, p. 155. 58. Sec chapter 4, note 45. 414 The Crisis of the Third Century 120. Diocletian and the Tetrarchy of his: he was the first to wear a cloak embroidered in gold and to covet ability and their skill in military science, which they had acquired from shoes of silk and purple decorated with a great number of gems. Though Aurelian and Probus, almost sufficed to compensate for lack of high this went beyond what befitted a citizen and was characteristic of an character . Finally, they looked up to Valerius [Diocletian] as to a father arrogant and lavish spirit, it was nevertheless of small consequence in or as one would to a mighty god. comparison with the rest. Indeed, he was the first after Caligula and As the burden of the wars mentioned above became heavier, a sort of Domitian to allow himself to be publicly called "lord," and to be named division of the Empire was made: all the countries beyond the Gallic "god," and to be rendered homage as such .... But Diocletian's faults Alps were entrusted to Constantius; Herculius had Africa and Italy [and were counterbalanced by good qualities; for even if he took the title of Spain); Galerius, Illyria as far as the Black Sea; and Diocletian retained "lord," he did act [toward the Romans) as a father. all the rest. After this, part of Italy was subjected to the heavy burden of paying tribute .... A new law for regular tax payments was introduced. At that time it was still endurable, because not excessive, but it has grown in our age 60 into a scourge .... I 20. DIOCLETIAN AND THE TETRARCHY With no less zeal [than in their military exploits) did the emperors take up the administration of civil affairs, in which connection their laws To divide the administrative responsibilities of the vast Empire, prevent a recurrence of the military anarchy of the preceding half century, and were eminently just. They suppressed thefrumentarii, a group that was a veritable scourge and whom now the agentesin rebus closely resemble. 61 guarantee orderly succession to the throne, Diocletian in A.D. 293 estab­ lished a four-man rule, the tetrarchy. In 305 Diocletian and Maximian, the These men, who appear to have been established to investigate and two senior members, abdicated, but their provisions for the continuation report possible seditious movements that might exist in the provinces, of the system by a new tetrarchy proved short-lived (cf. introduction to § trumped up false accusations, and under the universal terror they in­ 125). spired, especially in persons in very remote areas, they practiced shame­ ful rapine everywhere. The emperors showed no less concern and solic­ Aurelius Victor, Lives of the Emperorsxxxix. 17-48 (abridged) itude for the provisioning of the city and the welfare of those who paid tribute .... The ancient cults were maintained in all their purity. Rome 59 Forthwith he proclaimed as coemperor Maximian a faithful friend , a and other cities, especially Carthage, Milan, and Nicomedia, were ex­ semi-rustic with, however, great military talent and native ability. traordinarily embellished with new structures of great splendor .... 62 Afterward he acquired the surname Herculius, from the cult of Hercules, Diocletian kept his eyes on threatening dangers, and when he saw his favorite divinity, while Valerius [Diocletian] took the surname of that the Roman state, in the course of destiny, was going to become a Jovius; and these surnames were assigned to those military units which prey to civil wars and was approaching its breakup, so to speak, he excelled the rest of the army. [The rise of usurpers and foreign celebrated the twentieth anniversary of his reign and abdicated the gov­ attacks decided the two emperors] to select as Caesar Julius Constantius ernment of the state, although he was in good health. Herculius, who and Galerius Maximianus, surnamed Armentarius, and to associate them had held power one year less, he induced to follow his example, though with themselves in marriage. The former received Herculius' stepdaugh­ he did so with great reluctance. Although there exists a variety of ter, the latter Diocletian's daughter, the previous marriage of each being explanations [for Diocletian's abdication), and the truth has been per- dissolved, just as Augustus had once done in the case of Tiberius Nero and his daughter Julia. All these men were, indeed, natives of Illyria; but 6o. Middle of the founh century . On Italy's being made tributary, cf. introduction of§ 122. although little cultured, they were of great service to the state, because 61. Frumtntarii were imperial secret service agents who replaced the .rptrnlatorts in that activity toward the end of the first century and quickly became notorious for abusing their positions for they were inured to the hardships of rural life and of war ... The personal gain (cf. pp. 318, 380-81). By A. D. 319, and perhaps as early as Diocletian's reign, they were harmony which prevailed among them proved above all that their native replaced with a more comprehensive organization of agtntt.1in rtbu.r,who ultimately achieved the same evil reputation . 62. The most famous of these are the Baths of Diocletian at Rome and his palace at Salonae 59. Diocletian became emperor in A.D. 285 and made Maximian coregent the following year. Constantius and Galerius were named Caesars (emperors designate: cf. chapter 1, note 10) in 293.