436 SPERRY, ROGER WOLCOTT in functional , George J. Romanes in animal Psychological Association’s centennial conference, were and comparative psychology, John Hughlings Jackson (I) In what proportion does behavior come from nature in sensory-motor psychophysiology, and Ivan P. Pav- or nurture? and (2) What is the purpose of conscious- lov’s classical conditioning experiments. ness? These questions reflect the influence of Stetson’s [Many of the people mentioned in this article are the own mentor, . Interestingly, Sperry had subjects of independent biographical entries.] actually read James’s Psychology as an adolescent after his father had brought the book home from the public library. Bibliography To answer these questions, Sperry set out to obtain the necessary skills for research. After obtaining a Works by Spencer bachelor’s degree in English (1935) and essentially a Spencer, H. (1855) Principles of psychology. London: Long- minor in psychology, he stayed at Oberlin to obtain man, Brown, Green. (2nd ed., 2 vols). London: (1872). a master’s degree (1937)in psychology with Stetson- Williams and Norgate. the professor who exerted the greatest influence on his Spencer, H. (1862). First principles London: Williams & thinking. After developing strong ideas about the con- Norgate. nections between movement, activity, and con- Autobiography. Wil- Spencer, H. (1904). (2 vols.). London: liams and Norgate. sciousness, based on the interactions with Stetson, Sperry proceeded to work with Paul Weiss, a prominent Works about Spencer neuroembryologist at the . Weiss believed that peripheral nerve functions were malleable. Duncan, D. (1909).Life and letters of Herbert Spencer. New York: D. Appleton. After completing a series of carefully crafted and ele- gant studies with a variety of species and nerves, Magoun, H. W. (1960).Evolutionary concepts of brain function following Darwin and Spencer. In S. Tax (Ed.), Sperry came to the conclusion that Weiss’s belief was Evolution after Darwin: Vol. 2. The evolution of man. in need of revision. (pp. 187-209). Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. After receiving his doctoral degree in zoology in Peel. J. D. Y. Herbert Spencer: The evolution of a so- (1971). 1941,Sperry went to the Yerkes Laboratories of Pri- ciologist. New York: Basic Books. This work places Spen- mate Biology in Orange Park, Florida, as a postdoctoral cer in the context of provincial dissent in England dur- fellow to work with . Lashley had developed ing the close of the heroic period of industrialization. critically acclaimed theories of brain functioning-pri- Despite being centered on sociology, it discusses all the main works and is a handy one-volume treatment of marily the theory of equipotentiality. This theory sug- Spencer. gested that all portions of the cerebral cortex are equally responsible for the acquisition of information Richards, R. J. (1987).Darwin and the emergence of evolu- tionary theories of mind and behavior. Chicago, IL Uni- and the production of behavior. With similar tenacity, versity of Chicago Press. The author focuses on Spen- Sperry worked on a series of studies that addressed cer’s evolutionary theory of morality and shows how both equipotentiality and mass action. During these each of his works developed concepts that helped fur- formative years at Yerkes, Sperry interacted with im- ther Spencer’s attempt to found morality on science. portant figures including Frank Beach, Henry Nissen, Stocking, G. W. (1968).Race, culture, and evolution. New Austin Riessen, and Donald Hebb. York Free Press. In Sperry left the idyllic surroundings of Yer- Young, R. M. Mind, brain, and adaptation in the nine- 1946, (1971). kes to return to the University of Chicago. There he teenth century. Oxford Oxford University Press. The au- thor shows how Spencer’s education and especially his expanded some of his peripheral nerve regeneration early attraction for phrenology influenced his mature studies and began asking similar questions of the cen- psychological theories. tral nervous system. Despite his prodigious scholarly output and the beginnings of split-brain research, the Daniela S. Barberis department of anatomy failed to grant him tenure. He spent one more year, without tenure but with funding and an appointment from the National Institutes of Health, in the department of psychology before finally SPERRY, ROGER WOLCOTT (1913-1994),American leaving Chicago. Thereafter, Sperry spent a year fight- psychologist. A “research program” is broadly defined ing tuberculosis in the Adironack Mountains with his as a long-term, carefully crafted series of studies that new bride, Norma Deupree. This difficult time allowed attempt to answer important questions. Roger Sperry Sperry to further develop his thinking about the brain formulated the questions that fueled his so-year pro- and , which received mention in his I952 gram of research during the first day of R. H. Stetson’s paper published in Neurology. Introduction to Psychology class at . The On the recommendation of the biologist Norman questions, which were the themes for the American Horowitz, Sperry was invited to deliver the prestigious SPINOZA, BARUCH (BENEDICTUS DE) 437

Hixon Lecture in Psychobiology at the California Insti- in many honors and awards for Sperry. He was partic- tute of Technology. The Division of Biology was so im- ularly proud of his recognition by fellow psychologists pressed with his nerve regeneration research that it of- (the American Psychological Association’s Lifetime fered him the newly created Hixon Chair of Achievement Award in 1993) and by scientists (the Psychobiology-a position he held until his retirement. 1981 in , which he shared with During the next 4 decades at Caltech, Sperry worked David Hubel and Torsten Weisel). Sperry, the only in- closely with almost 1013 graduate students, postdoctoral dividual to have obtained a graduate degree in psy- fellows. and visiting scientists representing every con- chology who won a Nobel Prize, died of amyotrophic tinent and a variety OF disciplines ranging from molec- lateral sclerosis in Pasadena, California. ular neurobiology to Jungian philosophy. Throughout the Igjos, 1960s and I970S, Sperry added to his nerve regeneration studies and the bur- Bibliography geoning split-brain research. He initially worked with cats, then monkeys, and finally humans. Together with Puente, A. E. (1995). . American Psy- Joseph Bogen, probably his closest colleague, he em- chologist, 50. 940-941. Sperry, R. W. (1951). Mechanisms of neuronal maturation. barked on what is n3w considered historic research. In S. S. Stevens (Ed.), Handbook of experimental psychol- Cutting the largest nerve tract of the brain, the corpus ogy. New York Wiley. callosum, resulted in two cognitively isolated halves of Sperry, R. W. (1952). Neurology and the mind-brain prob- the cerebrum. Together with students and colleagues lem. American Scientist, 40. 291-312. such as Giovanni Berlucchi, Alice Cronin-Golumb, Rob- Sperry, R. W. (1962). Problems in molecular coding. In ert Doty, , Harold Gordon, Charles E. 0 Schmitt (Ed.),Macro-molecular specificity and biolog- Hamilton, , Ronald Meyer, Richard ical . Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Nebes, Colwyn Trevarthen, Theodore Voneida, Eran Sperry, R. W. (1964). The great cerebral commissure. Sci- and Dahlia Zaidel, and others, he performed a series of entific American, 210, 42-52. ingenious studies that revealed that commissurotom- Sperry, R. W. (1965). Brain bisection and mechanism of ized patients appeared to have two independent minds. consciousness. Pontifical Academy Seminar on Study of Brain and Consciousness. In J. C. Eccles (Ed.), Brain and This work resulted ir. widespread recognition of hem- conscious experience. Heidelberg, Germany: Springer- isphericity and laterality. Verlag. Sperry had concluded that the two independent Sperry, R. W. (1967). Mind, brain and humanist values. In sides of the brain worked in unison, giving rise to one J. R. Platt (Ed.), New view of the nature of man. Chicago: consciousness. In other words, consciousness emerged University of Chicago Press. from the unified working brain. As early as 1964, Sperry, R. W. (1968). Hemispheric disconnection and unity Sperry had hypothesized (in a lecture to colleagues at in conscious awareness. American Psychologist, 23, 723- Caltech) that this emergent consciousness, in turn, had 733. a downward effect cn specific brain function: specifi- Sperry, R. W. (1969). A modified concept of consciousness. cally, downward causation affected neuronal function. Psychological Review, 76, 532-536. Thus, consciousness was, in fact, an emergent quality Sperry, R. W. (1974). Science and the problem of values. and a causal force simultaneously. This bimodal model Zygon, 9. 7-21. Sperry, R. W. (1983). Science and moral priority. New York: of consciousness was developed further by Sperry dur- Columbia University Press. ing the last two decades of his life. Acceptance of the Sperry, R. W. (1993). The impact and promise of the cog- subjective in brain research had two important out- nitive revolution. American Psychologist, 48(3), 878- comes. First, it helped to shift the focus from behavior- 885. ism to cognition. For Sperry this was indeed the begin- ning of the consciousness revolution. Second, ac- Antonio E. Puente ceptance of the subjective in psychology allowed the inclusion of values as the determining agent in the de- velopment of consciousness. These values, however, were biologically, not environmentally, based, having SPINAL CORD INJURY. See Rehabilitation Psychology. evolved for the survival of the organism. Appropriate values could, in turn, address overpopulation, pollu- tion, and other modern crises. Thus, this value-laden consciousness revolution would represent a new Zeit- SPINOZA, BARUCH (BENEDICTUS DE) (1632- geist. originated by psychology and affecting other sci- 1677). Dutch philosopher. Spinoza was born in Am- ences as well as the world around us. sterdam on 24 November 1632 into a family of Jewish Half a century of research, 300 publications, and Marrano immigrants from Portugal. Although his TOO students and colleagues resulted, not surprisingly, given name was Baruch, he published his most impor-