Transportation Research Record 798 29 would be provided by applying signal preemption to REFERENCES isolated intersections. There appears to be a "com pounding" of benefits along arterials that are so 1. Development of a Bus Signal Pre-Emption Policy controlled. and a System Analysis of Bus Operations. KLD As sociates, Inc., Huntington Station, NY, KLD In summary, analytic and simulation modeling of TR-11, April 1973. transit operations controlled by a bus-signal-pre 2. J.A. Wattleworth and others. Evaluation of Bus emption policy indicates that under well-defined Priority Strategies on Northwest Seventh Avenue conditions significant benefits may accrue in terms in Miami. TRB, Transportation Research Record of reduced travel time without disrupting general 626, 1977, pp. 32-35. traffic. The particular conditions and factors that 3. L. E. Rechbell and B. A. Van Aver belle. Bus Pri- promote these incremental benefits have been identi ority at Traffic Control Signals. Traffic En fied. gineering and Control, Vol. 14, No. 2, June 1972. 4. M. Yedlin and others. Bus Signal Priority Strat ACKNOWLEDGMENT egies: An Assessment of Future Research Needs. Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department We wish to acknowledge John MacGowan of the Traffic of Transportation, Rept FHWA-RD-80-043, June 1980. Systems Division of FHWA for his many constructive 5. F.V. Webster. Traffic Signal Settings. Her Maj suggestions. We would also like to acknowledge esty's Stationery Office, London, Road Research Howard Stein and Suleiman Hessami of KLD Associates, Tech. Paper 39, 1958. Inc., for their creative assistance in organizing numerous model outputs in intelligent form. This research was per formed under a U.S. Department of Transportation contract. Publication of this paper sponsored by Committee on Bus Transit Systems.
Transportation for the 1980 Winter Oly1npics: A Retrospective Look
RICHARD D. ALBERTIN, GERALDS. COHEN, AND ROBERT G. KNIGHTON
A review of transportation planning for the 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake in peripheral parking lots for spectators arriving Placid, New York, and the implementation of the plan is presented. The many by automobile, (c) provision of transportation in events that led up to the Olympics, such as the purchase of land for parking the Olympic area by means of a shuttle-bus system, lots, the planning of the bus system, and the reconstruction of highway facili· (d) enforcement of speed traffic controls, and (e) ties, are described briefly. The operation of the bus system during the Olym sale of 50 percent of all event tickets available to pics is examined closely. Both newspaper accounts and first-hand knowledge the public only as part of a charter bus, train, or are used to ensure an accurate representation of events. The roles of and rela tions between the New York State Department of Transportation and the air package. Lake _Placid Olympic Organizing Committee are examined. NYSDOT and transportation consultants hired by LPOOC thoroughly tested and reviewed the plan by means of a series of computer programs. Assuming that all of the above basic elements would be con When Lake Placid, New York, was selected as the site scientiously implemented, these professionals were of the 1980 Winter Olympics, the world wondered if a confident that, except for possibly a few peak hours small town could run them successfully. Several at the largest events, delays would be minimal and critical problems were immediately realized. One of travel in the area possible. the greatest areas of concern was the problem of moving an estimated 50 000 people within an area PLANNING THROUGH 1976 that usually had 3000 residents. Limited housing made this issue even tougher, since 20 000-30 000 The LPOOC planning efforts were endorsed by a local people would have to arrive and leave every day. referendum in 1973, by a joint resolution of the New The Lake Placid Olympic Organizing Cornrni ttee York State Legislature in 1974, by a concurrent res (LPOOC), a private corporation made up mostly of lo olution of the U.S. Congress in 1975, and by actions cal Lake Placid citizens, turned to the New York of Presidents Nixon, Ford, and Carter and New York State Department of Transportation (NYSDOT) for an State Governors Wilson and Carey. LPOOC requested swers to the transportation questions. NYSDOT was NYSDOT to examine existing facilities and determine asked to design a feasible plan to transport visi what actions were required. One of the state's tors. The plan, after review by LPOOC, was to be first steps was to inventory the transportation fa implemented by the organizing committee. The cilities as well as other areas that would affect Olympic Transportation Plan (1) met the various en transportation (2). A series of program information vironmental constraints, minindzed the impact to lo reports (PIRs) ;as issued. These reports included cal residents and spectators, and yet allowed tens inventories of highways, lodgings, and restaurants. of thousands of people to witness the 1980 Winter Highway access to the Lake Placid area consisted Olympics. of three 2-lane rural facilities, a winding and The plan's five basic elements were (a) restric mountainous route with roads that approach from the tion of automobile access into the area, (b) parking south, west, and north. Two rail facilities serve 30 Transportation Research Record 798 the general area but would prove to have minimal im data were used as input to computer simulation pro pact. The closest airport capable of serving large grams. planes and providing reasonably frequent service was The event schedule was analyzed to select several 65 miles from Lake Placid in Clinton County. Closer peak hours of travel. Each peak hour was then bro airports could serve only general aviation or had ken down into its various components (officials, limited ground storage for planes. spectators, residents, etc.). By using available Existing bus service included daily intercity data on each group's travel patterns, the travel be service along each of the highways (usually three to tween internal locations was estimated, including four buses per day). There is no local public bus the forecasting of origin-destination (0-D) pair transportation in this area. volumes. The volumes were then assigned over the The system had to be able to work even if the availabie routes. A computer program assisted in weather was poor. In 1979, for example, in the sec this effort by providing a description of the impact ond week in February temperatures were as low as on each intersection from the accumulated needs. -30°F at night and the daytime temperature never got These results were then analyzed on a system ba above zero. Furthermore , 24-in snowfalls are not sis. Problem areas were identified and solutions uncommon in the area. were proposed. This process was repeated for sev Preliminary analysis confirmed suspicions that eral strategies until a workable solution for these unrestricted travel into the area would result in peak hours was found. These peak hours were largely massive traffic tie-ups. There was simply not dependent on the event schedule, and a solution for enough capacit y t o accommodate an unrestrict ed in one peak hour did not ensure that the same system flux of spectators. The transportation system into would solve the problems found at another site for a the area, and within it, would impose limitations different peak hour. To solve the problems, several that must affect every aspect of the Olympic plan peak hours were tested. Initial results of these ning process. Related functions such as ticket efforts were summarized in the December 20, 1977, sales, housing, and scheduling had to be flexible draft transportation plan (]). This report was then enough to meet the constraints imposed by the trans used as the basis for several informational meet portation system. ings. Comments received from these meetings were Beyond meeting the LPOOC's 1975 request for tech incorporated into the plan. nical assistance, there was a strong commitment by This plan was submitted to LPOOC for review. the state that any planning effort must maximize LPOOC hired a transportation consultant to review public safety. This concern culminated in the pass NYSDOT efforts and coordinate implementation. Be ing of a law mandating that any transportation and cause there was concern that the cost of this trans security plan allow for public and government review. portation system (which called for 450 buses) would An Environmental Impact Statement (EIS) provided be prohibitive, the consultant was also directed to an environmental framework that included the follow- look for ways to reduce the costs (but maintain rev ing constraints: enue). The result of these efforts was the Olympic 1. Be sensitive to the environment--The area is Transportation Plan of July 1979
PLANNING AND IMPLEMENTATION: 1977-1979 Within this transportation plan, the state took re sponsibility for two general areas: highway-related With the aid of a transportation consultant, NYSDOT and airport operations. During the Olympics, the developed a testing strategy that was as accurate as state ran the Lake Placid heliport and Saranac's the existing data would allow but also flexible Lake Clear Airport (with the help of Pan-American enough to adjust easily and accommodate changes in Airlines). data or assumptions. The first step in this process In addition to snow .and ice control, the highway was to use existing inventories, supplemented by responsibilities included field surveys, to identify all highway characteris tics within the area and along entry routes. These 1. Signing--There was a need for thousands of Transportation Research Record 798 31 square feet of temporary signing leading to and into included contracting for 300 buses and managing the Olympic area; their operation, including maintenance, dispatching, 2. Highway reconstruction--Using an accelerated and control (LPOOC anticipated contracting out all construction schedule, NYSDOT did general improve but the management, which was to remain with LPOOC); ment work on several key inroads and internal high and ways; 3. Operate an official fleet of vehicles for 3. Towing--The critical importance of keeping LPOOC use. the highways open was also addressed through a tow ing contract that provided 24-h service along all The relative roles and duties of LPOOC and NYSDOT critical highways; were defined in a series of correspondence. There 4. Vehicle permit plan--The strategy to restrict were, however, some questions about the conditions access into the Olympic area was designed and imple under which NYSDOT could intercede. In New York mented by NYSDOT and State Police forces; and State Senate hearings after the Olympics, this issue 5. Coordination of existing intercity transpor was discussed at length. It was concluded that the tation services. relationship had never been spelled out, although neither LPOOC nor state officials disagreed on indi The state also provided expertise in transportation vidual responsibilities. (In fact, the issue was by offering LPOOC assistance in key activities that the timing of intervention, not who was in charge of were falling behind schedule, monitoring LPOOC's any function.) progress in its areas of responsibility, and, when requested, assisting the consultants or LPOOC staff PLAN REFINEMENT in related transportation issues. The activities that fell behind schedule included As the Olympics approached, LPOOC made various re the acquisition of the peripheral parking lots and finements in its portion of the plan. Most of these the meeting of environmental regulations. NYSDOT refinements were directed at reducing costs. When testified in environmental hearings on Olympic and the state expressed the critical nature of the ear post-Olympic use of the peripheral lots. In addi lier assumption, LPOOC concurred and developed even tion, NYSDOT developed preliminary plans for each more stringent assumptions. The main two changes to site and, when a negotiated agreement failed, New the original transportation plan concerned ticket York State acquired the sites and leased them to and charter bus policy. LPOOC. NYSDOT also filed air quality permits and Not only would 50 percent of the tickets avail kept state and federal agencies informed of progress able to the public be packaged with public transpor and decisions. tation (thereby reducing demand on peripheral park NYSDOT's mandate to monitor gave it the right to ing lots), but also every effort would be made to advise but not to control; its legislative mandate package charter sales into bus loads of spectators could not force LPOOC to react in a timely fashion, with the same tickets. These charter buses would nor could there be a takeover of the contracts or then become the sole transportation for these spec operations of LPOOC (a private company) unless pub tators, which would also reduce shuttle demand. Es lic safety was jeopardized. This could only occur timates for these sales were as high as half of the during the actual operation. NYSDOT did have the total charter sales. right to report on problems to the Governor if the Because these policy decisions were outside schedule of tasks was not progressing satisfactorily NYSDOT responsibility, it could only react with re but, at least early in the process, reliance was view critiques. NYSDOT questioned the feasibility placed on the assurances of experienced LPOOC offi of selling such ticket packages but, after receiving cials that early difficulties were characteristic of repeated assurances, hoped for the best. Fortu large operations and that all problems would be re nately, the original design capacities of the per solved. ipheral lots were not altered to consider this op As an outside agency, NYSDOT was frequently not tion because package sales were much less than LPOOC privy (nor should it have been) to contract negotia estimates. State efforts to monitor the ticket tions. During the Olympics, the monitoring was ex sales were exceedingly difficult. The ticket sales panded to include an entire NYSDOT task force whose company experienced confusion and computer prob members were located on-site wherever appropriate. lems. However, NYSDOT received assurances through The group was originally designed only to perform January that, although all sales were lagging, the the NYSDOT highway and aviation responsibilities and ticket policy would be strictly adhered to and all to monitor LPOOC's transit responsibilities; it was would be well. this group of monitors, however, who early identi fied the problems, alerted the NYSDOT Commissioner, THE BUS CONTRACT and, because it was necessary, actually began oper ating facilities. Because of their expertise, the Even with the changes in charter ticket policy, NYSDOT monitors were able to assume a leadership there was still a margin of safety in most key areas function in several important areas. that would provide safety valves if something should fail. However, the one element critical to all LPOOC-Consultant Role phases of the transportation plan was the bus con tract. LPOOC took responsibility for the transportation re Early in 1979, LPOOC began to actively look for a quirements of the Olympics. Specifically, LPOOC bus company to operate the shuttle system. School tasks were to bus operators were to be considered only for the village shuttle, since it was felt that mountainous 1. Acquire, construct, operate, and restore the access roads would reduce school-bus speeds to the various parking facilities, including the peripheral point of reducing highway capacity. The search be parking lots, event sites, and centrally located bus gan during the end of the 1979 energy crisis. Con facilities (for this task, LPOOC used a transporta tracts with major companies were not successful. tion consultant to finalize preliminary plans and a Most companies were expecting a post-energy-crisis parking contractor to operate the facility, and con boom in demand and did not want to commit their struction was done by LPOOC's major contractor); fleets for such a short period. As the Olympics ap 2. Operate the bus transportation system, which proached and ticket sales had not reached expecta- 32 Transportation Research Record 798
tions, some transit companies did express interest 1. The bus contractor promised weekly to supply in the contract in private discussions. However, by a list of his fleet for state inspectors, but this then, the LPOOC economic situation was becoming in did not occur until January. By then, NYSDOT in creasingly serious. spectors had to exert almost superhuman effort to NYSDOT supplied LPOOC with a list of potential complete their work. Their reports were disconcert operators, suggested a consortium approach, and even ing. The buses were old (the contract called for drafted a request for proposal. LPOOC did its own 1976 or newer vehicles wherever possible), and some searching and, when the operator was selected, LPOOC were rejected. signed a contract it had developed. The new bus 2. The trailers at the parking sites and the re contractor was a Canadian firm, Autocar Rive Sud. lated operational facilities were not finalized. Although LPOOC was looking for a company that could Some trailers needed heat, telephones, or power. supply buses at $500-$550/bus/day, it negotiated Although pedestrian controls had been agreed to, with Rive Sud on the basis of $325/bus/day. Between none were in place. In particular, there were no the fiscal problems and the apparent difficulty of devices designed to facilitate the loading of the obtaining American buses, LPOOC felt there was no buses. alternative but to contract with the Canadian firm. 3. No bus signing was in place, and there seemed Because NYSDOT had no involvement in the contract to be no plans for driver training other than on the negotiations, it did not find out about these de first day. velopments until November. NYSDOT immediately met 4. Although there was a parking-lot operator to with Rive Sud representatives in Montreal. Under collect money and park cars, there were no assigned law, NYSOOT had to begin inspecting buses and was personnel for bus operations or ground control. anxious to begin working with the operator. 5. The management team promised by LPOOC was The contracts were not encouraging. Whereas the woefully understaffed and overworked. The dispatch contract called for 300-350 full-sized intercity ers were responsible to their own company only and coaches (or as many as possible), Rive Sud actually were generally unavailable before the Olympics. owned 6. The Rive Sud repair facilities in Montreal 6. There were serious problems with ticket were rented. It appears that they hoped to use sales. NYSDOT received rumors that charter tickets their extensive fleet of school buses to serve the were being sold individually and charter sales in contract needs. NYSOOT bus inspectors were given a general were low. chance to review some of their fleet. Unfortun 7. NYSDOT began hearing about labor problems ately, the school buses did not meet American safety with the bus contract. American unions, which were standards in several key areas. experiencing high local unemployment, were demanding When informed of this problem, the president of a portion of the bus driver jobs. (We did not know the company declared, "There's still no problem. I this at the time, but this problem was the main rea will raise the fleet through subcontracts." In son Rive Sud used for supplying old buses; they did fact, for a significant part of the fleet, he did not want "school bus drivers" in their expensive in just that! He was able to subcontract over half of tercity coaches.) NYSDOT was assured by LPOOC that his fleet with a single American company, Bluebird the problem would be resolved. Coach Line, Inc., which had buses that were state 8. Immigration papers had not been filed by inspected. LPOOC. After several warnings, the Canadian bus OTHER CONCERNS company management was asked to return to Canada un til the matter was resolved. During the last half of 1979, other problems were As the deadline approached, many i terns remained surfacing. LPOOC suggested "busmeisters" (volun undone. Individually none were insurmountable, but teers) to board each charter bus and act as tour collectively they implied major problems. Despite guides. For lack of housing and funding, this never repeated assurances, NYSDOT began receiving "off happened. the-record" reports from LPOOC staff that all was Additional demands were being placed on the dedi not well. In hindsight, even if NYSDOT had taken cated spectator bus fleet. Buses from the 300 orig over at this point, it might have fared little bet inally contracted for spectators only were being ter since many problems (e.g., ticket sales) had no planned for the use of athletes and officials. The answer at the time. There were still, however, 75 originally planned for this purpose grew to more valid reasons for hope. People experienced in than 100, their use to be determined on a priority large-scale events repeatedly assured NYSDOT that basis. Ticket sales were lagging, and no one seemed able to provide periodic sales reports. Construc the problems and confusion encountered were typical. tion of peripheral parking lots lagged. In fact, it The buses were finally inspected in late Janu was fortunate that the winter was mild because con ary. A new bus expert was named in January to head struction did not begin until late October and in the management team. The buses scheduled for pre fact was never completed before operations began. Olympic duties were on time.
MOVEMENT TOWARD IMPLEMENTATION: NOVEMBER-FEBRUARY IMPLEMENTATION
By January 1980, many of the concerns about the As NYSOOT and LPOOC actually began to implement the transportation plan were being effectively ad transportation plan, the early indications were en dressed. The bus contract was signed on December couraging. The airport, although operating below 10. The base bus schedules, maps, and demands were estimated capacity, was functioning well. After identified. Bus routes were determined. The fuel some early confusion, the one-way system began work facilities had been planned. A tour package was ing. The towing contract kept the roads clear. The highlighted and issued to the press. A dry run was public followed the stringent parking restrictions held for a small event and, though there were some with few complaints. The event sites were operating problems, it was a learning experience. The periph training sessions with only minor problems. eral lots were 90 percent complete. A parking-lot Monday, February 11, was the first day of the contractor was selected. shuttle-bus operation. No events were scheduled, Despite these steps, however, several critical but a religious ceremony was scheduled for that areas were still unresclved in late January. These night and a few thousand people were expected to at included the following: tend. The previous three days had been incredibly Transportation Research Record 798 33
hectic. The NYSDOT staff assigned to monitor tran were few and NYSDOT requests for additional service sit and traffic operations had dropped training in were noted by the dispatch center. An LPOOC spokes order to assist the LPOOC staff with many last man was quoted in the press as saying that traffic minute chores. Together, the two staffs made a lot flow was "working very, very good." of progress: Warming tents were installed at some The first charter buses began to arrive on Tues locations, the work-site trailers got heat, and most day, and drivers were totally confused. NYSDOT mon of the signs were in place at the parking areas. itors at the charter parking areas (and in other lo Still, there was apprehension. Charter sales were cations) reported that there were no LPOOC staff to unknown, staffing for bus operations was unclear, direct the charters and shuttle service to these pedestrian planning was overrated, and many smaller charter parking areas was infrequent. The charter issues had been neglected. There was no LPOOC staff bus companies had received instructions with their at the lots to control the loading of buses and no tickets, but LPOOC's planned "busmeisters" or even channelization for crowd control. on-site staff at the parking areas were lacking. In The early morning hours on Monday, February 11, addition, the roadway signing was apparently not were generally quiet, and efforts to complete vari sufficient. ous tasks continued. Monday was the first day of Another related problem was the lack of LPOOC travel restrictions, and most people in the Olympic staff for bus loading operations. The NYSDOT tran area were not authorized to travel by motor vehicle sit monitors had expected LPOOC temporary staff except on the bus system. Lengthy delays were re (mostly college students), but few arrived and none ported by the press. The New York Times reported were trained. From the first day, the NYSDOT moni that early in the day passengers were waiting as tors, in addition to their normal duties, began long as an hour and a half for shuttle buses that loading buses, queuing spectators, and generally were supposed to arrive every 15 min. The press di operating the spectator bus system. rector for LPOOC was quoted as saying that a special The only on-site bus dispatchers were seven at bus program for athletes was operating smoothly and two locations, and even those dispatchers worked for that there were only a few short delays on the buses a specific company and took orders from the LPOOC carrying the first spectators away from the periph center only when it did not conflict with their com eral parking lots. With relatively few spectators pany's needs. NYSDOT monitors assumed an unplanned in the area on Monday, a major victim of whatever role and became bus dispatchers. The bus drivers flaws there were in the system appeared to be the welcomed their assistance as they, too, looked for press. LPOOC's solution to this problem was to take direction. 40 buses from the public system and dedicate them Throughout these early days, a pattern was emerg strictly to the press. ing on overall operations. The bus contract had Reports from NYSDOT transit monitors gave a pic been subcontracted by Rive Sud primarily to four bus ture of limited confusion but certainly no crisisi companies. Each of these companies was assigned a this was probably due to the light demand since no portion of the bus system. Generally, these were events were scheduled. A driver for one of the co corridors. There was little coordination between operating bus companies, who arrived at the Olympic these companies. In fact, the dispatcher for each Press Center, loaded three passengers, and was dis company was located in a different location and in patched to Wilmington, said, "What they forgot to one case could not even be reached by telephone! tell me was how to get there." Our visits to the bus dispatcher center indicated When people began to arrive for the Monday even confusion and command-control problems. The LPOOC ing religious service, additional delays were re management staff was simply overwhelmed, and each ported. However, with the assistance of LPOOC's company went its own way. radio-taxi fleet, most of the visitors arrived at For some corridors or some periods of time, this the Olympic arena on time. The end of the event arrangement worked. Bus service could be excellent went less smoothly. As several thousand people in one area while at the same time, in another poured out of the arena and into the municipal lot, corridor, people were kept waiting. At the event there were few buses there to meet them. Incredi sites, this problem was highlighted. Some companies bly, there were no bus company dispatchers. NYSDOT would not serve the event site because it was out monitors telephoned reports from the lot to the side their corridor. Instead, transfers at the cen LPOOC bus dispatch center, but the telephone was tral loading area were required for spectators who frequently busy and respondents were obviously har were unfortunate enough to unknowingly cross a cor ried. They explained that drivers had worked all ridor service boundary! This had never been in day and that many had just arrived. Fortunately, tended in planning and was obviously unworkable. the crowd was patient (and the arena was used to The event schedule demanded efficient handling of keep them warm), and the problem was gradually elim the 300 buses. inated. There were delays in service for the hockey Part of the problem on Monday arose from labor arena, and people were being inconvenienced beyond disputes. Labor unions insisted that American, not what anyone had expected. Along the three corri Canadian, drivers be used on the buses (there had dors, some buses would stop and others would not. been a similar, al though reversed, situation at the The demand at the peripheral lots often so exceeded 1976 Montreal Olympics). LPOOC suggested that be bus service that buses always left fully loaded and cause of these problems it had a driver shortage and could not stop for waiting passengers. did not have the supervisory staff it expected from In spite of these problems, overall the system Canada. had worked to some extent, mainly because of special The next morning, Tuesday, February 12, the efforts by two of the bus subcontractors. events of the previous day were discussed. Approxi Wednesday, February 13, was to be the first real mately 200 additional buses had arrived late Monday, test of the LPOOC bus system. There would be a huge and about 40 Canadians were given work permits to crowd for the opening ceremonies and later a luge drive the buses. The only events scheduled for event at Mt. Van Hoevenburg. Crowds for the opening Tuesday were hockey games in Lake Placid Village, ceremony were originally estimated at 18 000-20 000 the first of which was at 1: 00 p.m. Morning tele based on ticket sales. However, LPOOC had issued phone reports were similar to those of early Mon staff IDs to 22 000 people! Many of these IDs al day. Bus service was irregular and confusion re lowed nonticketed access to outdoor events. mained along some routes, but generally complaints Early Wednesday there were some problems, but un- 34 Transportation Research Record 798 til 11:00 a.m. most demand was met. The unpublished (there is a legal limit). Despite calls for more training events were causing some problems, and the buses, there were simply none available when the need for crowd control became more and more apparent. event ended. Because of the cold, the crowd grew By 11:30 a.m., telephone reports from monitors understandably ugly. were becoming frantic. Charter buses arrived to Three and one-half hours later, the spectators drop off passengers faster than the shuttle service had been moved. But not before ambulances were dis could pick them up. Crowds at the lots were growing patched for frostbite and exposure cases and the quickly, and hundreds of people were waiting at each State Police had to break into a building to get parking site. The press reported that in Lake spectators out of the cold. Placid visitors were lined up 10 deep for two city After midnight, key state and LPOOC officials blocks. "Private enterprise" moved in, and rides in held an emergency meeting. In the all- night ses cars and trucks were being offered to people at the sion, the decision was made for the state to effec lots for fees of $3 or more. tively take over bus operations. A task force was The situation in the northern corridor was seri appointed and went to work to address the immediate ous. The State Police began commandeering buses in needs. Around 2: 00 a .m., Greyhound was contacted order to get people out of the cold. A New York through NYSDOT Commissioner Hennessy. Greyhound state trooper reported that he had tried to flag agreed to supply additional buses and a bus manage down a nearly empty bus to transport spectators to ment team. the opening ceremonies but "the driver said that At 6: 00 a.m., NYSDOT began calling resident en wasn't on his route and he drove away." Crowds were gineers throughout the state to tell them to pack everywhere. They continued to build in size, and their bags and head to Lake Placid to help out. By the bus service could not handle it. 9:00 a.m., additional NYSDOT staff began to arrive Monitors noted an absence of dispatchers or at to act as lot managers, help with crowd control, and tendants at the event sites. By 1:30 p.m., the assist with dispatching and management. Environ transfer problem had grown out of control at the mental Conservation officers added their resources central location. The bus companies were also be by assisting in bus loading operations, providing coming concerned. Even the reluctant companies be radio communications to the dispatch center, and gan aiding their fellow subcontractors. By the providing supplies to complete lot needs. start of the opening ceremonies, most spectators had The Greyhound management team and a convoy of reached the event except for those in the northern some 30 buses arrived in midafternoon; the buses corridor. Here, hundreds missed the event. LPOOC were immediately pressed into service, and the man dispatched personnel to get names for refunds. The agement team went to work. Most of the 7500 hockey New York Times reported that state transportation spectators who poured out of the arena after seeing officials monitoring the traffic flow attributed the the United States beat Czechoslovakia found buses system's problems to a shortage of bus dispatchers waiting for them. In the words of a spectator on and a resulting lack of coordination. However, Nor Thursday, "Today has worked very well. Yesterday man Hess, LPOOC's transportation director, denied was horrible." that the system was short of bus drivers or dis Needs were addressed in all of the following patchers: "This is a massive plan and it worked areas: substantially today. It moved about 23 000 people and left only a few hundred stranded." 1. More buses--Greyhound and school buses were The ending of the opening ceremonies was near contracted to supplement the existing fleet; disaster. Despite NYSDOT' s frequent calls to begin 2. Operational staff--Fifty college students stacking buses, none were there. (Later, NYSDOT were hired by LPOOC to work for NYSDOT monitors; found out that about 25 buses were waiting and had 3. Communications--New telephone lines and both been sent away because of their fumes. By the time an emergency Environmental Conservation mobile radio they returned, the crowds had swarmed the roadways system and a similar NYSDOT system were put into op and loading areas.) The buses that arrived were eration within 12 h; blocked by the crowds. NYSDOT, LPOOC, and the State 4. Supplies--Manpower and equipment (including Police did what they could. Every available bus was barriers, cones, loudspeakers, and other things called in and the radio-taxi fleet as well. Many needed to effectively operate the bus loading areas) spectators simply walked the mile into town rather were made available; and than wait for the buses. 5. Effective cooperation--The bus subcontractors By evening, the requested additional improvements were requested to work under the new management team to staffing and operations at the sites had not been and supply a dispatcher full time to the center provided. The NYSDOT monitors had been working 18-h (they welcomed the arrangement, since by that time shifts since Monday, and still no relief was in they too were looking for coordinated direction and sight. The only assistance came from State Police all were anxious to do a good job). and Environmental Conservation officers. The basic problems plaguing the bus operations The next few days were very hectic and difficult, from the start continued and grew with the crowds. but things began to smooth out as the new resources Charter buses were confused. There were even re were integrated into the system. Many jury-rigged ports of stranded charter passengers (which were re solutions were quickly found. The gravity fueling solved). Bus dispatching was left to each company. system, which took 40 min to fuel a bus, was supple There were no LPOOC staff at the peripheral lots and mented with an electric pump that reduced fueling event sites. There was a need for operational time to 4 min. An Environmental Conservation fire staff, effective management (with central author truck was pressed into service to wash bus windows; ity), and more buses or drivers (the drivers were NYSDOT arranged to have box lunches delivered to being shuttled in daily, 60 miles each way, and by drivers so they did not have to stop driving. Most the end of the day they were exhausted). important, the Greyhound-NYSDOT management team be On Wednesday evening, a luge event was scheduled gan to achieve control over the bus operation, and for Mt. Van Hoevenberg. After some delays, everyone it began to operate as one coordinated system. The arrived. NYSDOT staff reported that the LPOOC bus corridor division was eliminated, and buses were re management staff was off duty. The bus operation dispatched where needed and were lined up ahead of was left to the company dispatchers. Most of the time to anticipate heavy demand. bus drivers were exhausted and out of driving hours Transportation Research Record 798 35
All hoped and expected that management changes, the state for help. The cornrni ttee found that "state extra Greyhound buses, and some additional school officials were repeatedly misled about the state of buses would be sufficient to turn things around. readiness of the transportation system for Olympics There was marked improvement on Thursday and Friday, spectators" and that the "state government, when it but problems persisted, especially late in the day belatedly acknowledged its awareness of such mis as drivers ran out of hours or became too tired. management and misrepresentation, performed dili The 300 or so buses called for in the plan had ar gently in improving the transportation system." rived but were not available for the 16-h--or longer--day necessary because there was, in most CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS cases, only one driver for each bus. Extra drivers appeared to be the answer, but no local housing was In the aftermath of an incredibly hectic time, the available. There were some problems on Saturday be survivors of the transportation management team met cause the weather was very cold and because a very together to discuss what had been learned and what large number of visitors had arrived for the three recommendations could be made. These were as fol- day weekend (Monday was a holiday). The line for lows: buses at Keene was reported in the press to be five abreast and about a half-mile long. 1. Efficient bus loading operations are abso New York State law restricted drivers to a cer lutely essential for an effective system. They must tain number of hours and required that buses owned be managed by an experienced individual, who should by school districts could only be used to transport have adequate staff and resources. schoolchildren or the elderly. The legislature had 2. Bus management and dispatchers should be well given special authority to LPOOC to contract with trained in advance and agree to follow the direction the districts but, given the precarious financial of a central management. Every day these dispatch condition of LPOOC, districts were reluctant to sign ers should meet to plan for the next day. contracts. On Saturday, February 16, Governor Carey 3. Bus contractors should include spare drivers declared a limited state of emergency for transpor (generally 1. 5 drivers/bus) to ensure uninterrupted tation that allowed the state to waive driver-hour operation. restrictions and contract directly with school dis 4. Communications must be available to all key tricts. locations and, if possible, be supported by a mobile In the next few days, the total number of buses unit. increased to around 500. This total allowed peak 5. Advance training must be provided for all demands (all day) to be met in spite of the driver personnel. shortage. By Sunday, major problems began to disap 6. Access to events for support staff should be pear. About 15 000 persons watched the women's limited to locations where their numbers would not downhill race Sunday morning, and after the event unduly influence operations. some had to wait f rorn 9 0 min to 2 h for buses. By 7. Event schedules should be closely examined. early afternoon, more than 14 000 of the 18 000 Training events and estimates should be included, spectators at the ski jump were cleared within 1 h. and possible early ending of events should be iden The longest wait at parking lots was approximately 1 tified. h. Sunday, however, was very cold, and State Police reported approximately 150 cases of hypothermia. For future special events, the following recom The problem was that many spectators did not know mendations are made: how to dress properly for the cold. State Police even reported some wearing tennis shoes and san 1. All operators of events should be licensed to dals. State Police and NYSDOT staff reported that demonstrate their ability (financially and physi people were complaining that they had arrived at cally) to operate the event. parking lots 2 h early because of the bus shortage 2. An approved transportation plan should be and did not have anything to do when they arrived at submitted as part of this demonstration. the event site long before starting time. Some minor problems continued; getting drivers' ACKNOWLEDGMENT box lunches to the right place at the right time was a major challenge. Bus destination signs became a The 1980 Winter Olympics transportation effort re popular souvenir, selling for $7 apiece. Parking quired the expertise of many professionals from many lots thawed. Potholes developed. Finally, after an fields. We want to thank all those involved in this unusually dry winter, there was a snowstorm. De effort. Although the first few days were plagued spite this, we were able to get through the last with troubles, the problems were resolved expediti two-thirds of the Winter Olympics with little incon ously and, for the remainder of the games, the plan venience to the public. There were some delays but was successfully implemented. nothing very serious. One alpine event at Whiteface was cleared within 30 min. However, some major REFERENCES events drew as many as 26 000 spectators, which created huge logistics problems. "I would have to 1. 13th Olympic Winter Garnes, Lake Placid 1980 have had 600 buses parked at the gate waiting for Transportation Control Plan. New York State De them," said a dispatcher for Greyhound. "That would partment of Transportation, Albany, July 1979. have taken a parking lot two miles long and two 2. C. Carlson and others. The Transportation In miles wide." ventory. New York State Department of Transpor By Tuesday of the second week, press stories tation, Albany, Aug. 1975. about the Olympics transportation system were gen 3. M. Vecchio and G. Cohen. Travel to the 1980 erally favorable. The bus system was no longer Winter Olympics: A Preliminary Analysis. New news. The U.S. hockey team and Eric Heiden domi York State Department of Transportation, Albany, nated the headlines. Preliminary Res. Rept. 96, Nov. 1975. As mentioned earlier, after the Lake Placid 4. R. Knighton, G. Cohen, and R. Albertin. Travel Olympics, a committee of the New York State Legisla Demand at the 1980 Winter Olympics: Estimation ture investigated the games (~). The general man and Analysis. New York State Department of ager of LPOOC, Peter Spurney, was criticized for Transportation, Albany, Preliminary Res. Rept. waiting "until everything fell apart" before asking 100, June 1976. 36 Transportation Research Record 798
5 . G. Cohen, R. Knighton, and R. Albertin. Trans 8 . A Report on the 1980 Winter Olympic Games at portation Planning for the 1980 Winter Olym Lake Placid. New York State Senate Committee on pics. New York State Department of Transporta Investigations, Taxation, and Government Opera tion, Albany, Preliminary Res. Rept. 109, Aug. tions, Albany, April 1980 , p. 24. 1976. 6 . G. Cohen, R. Albertin, and R. Knighton. Trans portation Planning for the 1980 Winter Olym pics. TRB, Transportation Research Record 626, 1977, pp. 10-12. 7. 13th Olympic Games, Lake Placid 1980 Transporta tion Plan. New York State Department of Trans portation, Albany, Dec. 1977. Publication of this paper sponsored by Committee on Bus Transit Systems.
Abridgment Service-Sensitive Indicators for Short-Term Bus-Route Planning
ALAN J. HOROWITZ
Transit performance indicators are useful means of monitoring existing systems not revealed by using these overall aggregate mea and planning for future systems. The development of one type of transit per sures. formance indicator, a service-sensitive indicator, is discussed. The purpose of If indicators are to be truly useful for planning the service-sensitive indicator is to succinctly summarize the effectiveness and system improvements, they must be "service sensi fairness of short-term route changes. Included in the indicator are considera tive". That is, a route or schedule change that tions of the important performance variables perceived by riders: in-vehicle time, transfer time, walking time, waiting time, requirements to wait, and re qualitatively improves service should be reflected quirements to transfer. The service-sensitive indicator is applied to a case as a significant quantitative change in the appro study-the improvement of transit service to the Milwaukee County Institu priate indicators. Service-sensitive indicators tions Grounds, where major public medical care facilities are located. Be should determine whether proposed system modifica cause questions of equity are of greatest importance, the indicator is sepa tions are suitable, are efficient from current rately calculated for each of the potential rider groups. It is shown that the riders' perspectives, and are adequately serving indicator measures the impacts of route alignment and route extensions on groups of potential riders. Furthermore, service relevant population groups and does so without the need for extensive travel sensitive indicators should be simple to calculate survey data. by using data normally available to transit opera tors, and they should not require extensive statis tical analysis or model calibration. Recently, there has be.en an increasing emphasis on The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate that the need to provide high-quality yet efficient pub service-sensitive indicators can be useful for lic transportation services to all segments of the short-term transit route planning and scheduling. A population and throughout urban areas. This empha quality-of-service indicator is developed and ap sis has led to provision of services to population plied to a route-planning problem in which equity segments such as the elderly, the disabled, women, issues are of paramount importance. Specifically, minorities, and low-income individuals. In addi the problem concerns providing better transit ser tion, efforts have been made to offer convenient vice to the Milwaukee County Institutions Grounds service to locations that provide different types of (MCIG) , where all the important county medical fa facilities and services, such as jobs, health care, cilities are located. The example is particularly education, recreation, and shopping. Consequently, interesting because transit access to the location transit operators have been faced with both the task from low-income areas of Milwaukee is poor. of monitoring how well their systems serve diverse segments and geographic areas and the responsibility SERVICE-SENSITIVE INDICATOR for developing new routes and schedules to remedy perceived deficiencies. If a service-sensitive indicator is desired, then it Systemwide indicators of transit performance have should be based on a concise definition of service been developed to provide operators with information quality as perceived by riders. Surveys of current on how effectively and efficiently they are serving and potential bus riders have led to a better under their communities. Examples of systemwide indica standing of the notion of service quality (_~,]}. tors are revenue passengers per service area popula Riders want to reach desired destinationsi they want tion, revenue passengers per vehicle hour, and per to do so quickly and reliably. They want to avoid centage of population served (1_). Indicators such walking, waiting, transferring, or standing while as these permit the operator to determine whether riding. They want protection from weather, but they the transit system is improving over time and attach little importance to physical luxury while whether its quality of service is comparable to that traveling. of transit systems in similar communities. However, For questions of equity, systemwide indicators systemwide indicators are not prescriptive. Many may be made more service sensitive by simply break potential short-term route or schedule changes are ing them down by population segments or by geo-