THE STATE OF SECONDARY EDUCATION IN

Understanding Differential Opportunities and Vulnerabilities from a Gender Perspective Contents

Executive Summary 00 Chapter 1 Introduction to the Study 00 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS LISTS OF TABLES

Chapter 2 ASER Annual Status of Education Report 1.1 Percentage of Children aged 6-14 Not Enrolled in Objectives, Policy Framework and Methodology 00 EBB Educationally Backward Blocks School, 2006-2014 MHRD Ministry of Human Resource Development 1.2 Percentage of Children aged 6-14 Enrolled in Private Chapter 3 MIS Management Information System Schools, 2006-2014 Understanding the Situation in Maharajganj 00 MWCD Ministry of Women and Child Development 1.3 Percentage of Children in Different Types of Schools in NEG-FIRE New Education Group- Foundation for , 2014 Chapter 4 Innovation and Research in Education 1.4 Percentage of Children aged 6-14 Enrolled in Private Key Findings and Recommendations 00 NUEPA National University of Educational Planning Schools, 2006-2014 and Administration 2.1 Schools Selected For Study Bibliography 00 PTR Pupil Teacher Ratio 3.1 Educationally Backward Blocks (EBB) in Maharajganj RMSA Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan 3.2 Illiteracy by Age Group in Maharajganj, 2011 RTE Right of Children to Free and Compulsory 3.3 Main Workers between 10-19years in Education Maharajganj, 2011 SEWA Self Employed Women’s Association 3.4 Disaggregated Data on Main Workers between 10-19 UNGEI United Nations Girls’ Education Initiative years in Maharajganj, 2011 UP Uttar Pradesh 3.5 Marginal Workers between 10-19years in Maharajganj, 2011 3.6 Disaggregated Data on Marginal Workers between 10-19years in Maharajganj, 2011 3.7 Early Marriage in Maharajganj, 2011 3.8 Repeaters and Students with Disability from Classes VIII to XI in Uttar Pradesh, 2013-14 3.9 Stream-wise distribution of Boys and Girls in Classes XI and XII in Uttar Pradesh, 2013-14

LISTS OF figures

Credits 3.1 Influence Mapping of Children Transiting from Class V to Class VI RESEARCH DESIGN & 3.2 Influence Mapping of Boys in Class VII-VIII-IX SUPPORTIVE SUPERVISION 3.3 Influence Mapping of Girls in Class VII-VIII-IX Dr. Rakesh K Singh

RESEARCH AND WRITING Vijayalakshmi Balakrishnan

EDITORIAL INPUTS Dr. Rakesh K Singh Kavya Bopanna Sharon Ferdinands

New Education Group – Foundation for Innovation and Research in Education New – 110017

Published in March 2016 FOR PRIVATE CIRCULATION ONLY Photo credits - Deepak Balan, NEG-FIRE

Neg fire report Neg fire report ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 04 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 05

Greetings readers! In Maharjganj, While we have achieved progress towards gender equality and women’s empowerment under the Millennium and nation- Development Goals (including equal access to primary education between girls and boys), women and girls, wide too, boys especially in the developing countries, continue to face discrimination, violence and lack of opportunities to constitute a grow. Gender equality is not just a fundamental human right, but also a necessary foundation for a peaceful and sustainable world. large share

The report ‘The State of Secondary Education in of students Maharajganj District – Understanding Differential Opportunities and Vulnerabilities from a Gender enrolled in Perspective’ highlights essential elements related to secondary education in 3 blocks in Maharajganj through schools. Girls, a gender outlook. We have realized that there has been a massive descend in the transition of girls from primary to secondary education due to numerous societal reasons. on the other Considering that secondary educations holds immense potential to contribute to a community and the country’s hand have higher economic growth, it becomes imperative for both girls and boys to have access to secondary education and thus be instrumental to drop-out rates. the sustainable development of their community and the country at large. The report also provides a summary of key findings from the field, along with a set Findings indicate that Maharajganj of recommendations to support efforts to increase girls’ access to secondary presents the same trends in gender- education in Maharajganj. differential access to primary and secondary education as seen nation- NEG-FIRE unconditionally stands by UN’s Sustainable Development Goal 5 – wide, with boys constituting the ‘Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls’. We also believe that larger share of students enrolled ‘providing women and girls with equal access to education, health care, decent and drop-out rates of girls being work, and representation in political and economic decision-making processes higher. However, girls’ enrolment will fuel sustainable economies and benefit societies and humanity at large’. up to age 14 in government schools in Uttar Pradesh is higher than that I would like to express my gratitude to all who have helped in the successful of boys. Available data and insights completion of this study – the Education and Knowledge Management team his study explores the datasets to provide an overall view from the field have shown that the at NEG-FIRE and our Programme, Finance, HR and Admin teams; Dr. Cherian differential access to secondary of the performance of the state of major factors constraining girls from Joseph, Chairperson and Dr. Rudolf Heredia, Governing Board member of NEG- Tschooling for girls and boys in Uttar Pradesh and the district of making the transition into secondary FIRE for their valuable suggestions; Ms. Vijayalakshmi for leading this study and three blocks of Maharajganj district, Maharajganj on key indicators related education are: poverty and lack of for her insightful analysis, Dr. Rakesh for his contribution and most importantly which fall in Uttar Pradesh- a priority to education, livelihoods and marriage disposable income, lack of free-of- our various stakeholders - children, parents, teachers etc., from the area that State for the New Education Group- for particular age groups. It also cost government secondary schools the study was carried out in. Thank you all for making this study what it is – An Foundation for Innovation and examines the access to education in habitations, traditional gender element of awareness, sensitization and change. Research in Education (NEG-FIRE). and transitions occurring over the norms that prioritise investment in The study is being undertaken to years in the three selected blocks of the education of sons, the burden assess the current state of education Maharajganj and maps the external of household work, and to some in the selected blocks, with a view to influences that come to bear on extent, early marriage. The study laying the foundation for the design of access to education for girls and recommends addressing both future interventions in these areas by boys at different stages of schooling, demand-side and supply-side NEG-FIRE. thereby identifying key stakeholders factors that affect access to quality Vengatesh Krishna This study is divided into four that policy and programmes should schooling, such as addressing negative Executive Director, NEG-FIRE parts. Section I introduces the consider working with. Section IV attitudes of community members, background, while Section II describes provides a summary of key findings contextualising development objectives, methodological details from the field, along with a set of interventions and encouraging of the study and the wider policy recommendations to support efforts community ownership, and promoting framework within which it is situated. to increase girls’ access to secondary gender equitable norms through Section III analyses secondary education in Maharajganj. textbooks and teaching methods.

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girls, children from minority social Abhiyan (RMSA), 2009, was launched 1.2 SECONDARY EDUCATION IN boys and girls is higher in the age groups and rural areas as compared with the aim of raising secondary UTTAR PRADESH group of 11 to 14years, as compared to wealthier children, boys, children school enrolment by providing a to the 7 to 10year age group (ASER Introduction to from the general population and secondary school with a reasonable ENROLMENT IN UTTAR PRADESH Report, 2014). This indicates the urban areas. Differences in secondary distance of all habitations. It also VIS-À-VIS need for furthering enquiry into the education enrolment rates are also aims to provide universal access to A study of the figures available for barriers to continuing education found to exist between States. secondary education by 2017, and to the period from 2006 to 2014 reveals between these two age groups. It is the Study The United Nations Girls’ achieve universal retention in 2020. that the proportion of children not heartening to note that since 2012, Education Initiative (UNGEI) (2014) The scheme undertakes provision of enrolled in school has been declining there have been improvements in the states that girls are likely to enjoy the physical facilities to schools, along steadily at the all-India level for boys proportion of out of school boys and economic benefits of education only with quality interventions and equity and girls, with only minor setbacks girls across ages, except in the case of with the completion of secondary interventions. observed between years in the case of girls in the 7 to 10year category, which schooling, unlike boys, who might be The Department of School girls. According to figures available for has risen marginally between 2013 absorbed in the labour market even Education identified Educationally 2014, the proportion of girls between and 2014. earlier. Moreover, secondary education Backward Blocks (EBBs) across the the ages of 6 and 14years that are not Interestingly, the enrolment of for girls is known to produce social country based on gender-sensitive enrolled in school is slightly higher both boys and girls in private schools benefits such as reduction in early criteria. An administrative block (0.8 percentage points) than that of is greater in Uttar Pradesh than at marriages, reduced female fertility was designated as educationally boys from the same age group. While the all-India level. Additionally, the and infant mortality, improved backward if its female literacy rate, state-level figures for Uttar Pradesh rate of increase of boys and girls nutrition for pregnant and nursing as per Census 2011, was found to also reveal an overall decline in the enrolment in private schools is also mothers as well as their children be below the national average of proportion of out-of-school children higher in Uttar Pradesh than for India etc. Women completing secondary 46.13 per cent and its gender gap between 2006 and 2014, this decline as a whole. In Uttar Pradesh, just education are also more participative in literacy was above the national has not been steady. Moreover, as about one in three boys were enrolled in local, regional and national political average of 21.59 per cent. Once a of 2014, the differential between the in private schools in 2006. This figure processes. block is identified as EBB, additional proportion of girls and boys in Uttar has risen to over one in two boys by Given that secondary education resources of the State are deployed Pradesh who are not enrolled in school 2014. In contrast, the nation-wide holds immense potential to drive the in the area and schemes specifically is greater (1.6 percentage points), in pace is much slower- about one in country’s economic growth, serves to designed for improving access of fact, double of the differential at the five boys opted for private schooling strengthen democratic participation, girls to educational opportunities are all India level. in 2006, and this number rose to one and carries significant social benefits earmarked for it. Some of the many The proportion of out of school in three boys by 2014. In the case of especially for girls, promoting gender schemes for these areas include the equity and engagement through setting up of a model school on the education, particularly school-based lines of a Kendriya Vidyalaya, at least education has been a key intervention one Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya Table 1.1 Percentage of Children aged 6-14 Not Enrolled in strategy of India. This has in theory (a residential school for girls), and School, 2006-2014 meant working with both women and preferential sanction for conversion men to ensure all girls are in school, of primary schools into elementary Boys Girls All% but in practice it has meant a greater and then secondary and in time higher YEAR focus on demand side interventions secondary schools. All India UP All India UP All India UP exclusively focused on primary In spite of the global recognition education of girls. Since achieving of the positive attributes of secondary 2006 5.8 5.2 7.5 7.1 6.6 6.0 independence, several commissions, education for girls, the enrolment of 2007 3.8 3.4 4.6 4.6 4.2 3.9 policies and programmes have been girls in secondary education in India 1.1 BACKGROUND AND of students completing primary set up to improve the access and has traditionally been low. Despite 2008 3.8 4.9 4.8 6.5 4.3 5.6 RATIONALE education, and therefore a growing quality of secondary education. improvements over the years, girls’ Education in India is divided into demand for secondary education. More recently, the National Scheme enrolment in secondary education at 2009 3.6 4.4 4.5 5.7 4.0 4.9 three segments- primary, secondary Sustained economic growth and of Incentives to Girls for Secondary the national level is as low as 49.06% and tertiary/higher education. With expansion of skilled service sectors Education, 2008, has sought to (NUEPA, 2015)2 . The ratio of girls to 2010 3.2 4.7 3.8 5.9 3.4 5.2 the Constitution of India guaranteeing has also contributed to increased create an enabling environment for boys’ enrolment in India stands at 2011 3.1 5.5 3.6 6.8 3.3 6.1 the right to elementary education labour market demand for secondary the secondary education of girls, 0.90%. The national trend with regard to all children between the ages and higher education. However, access especially those from the Scheduled to secondary schools is also reflected 2012 3.1 5.6 3.9 7.2 3.5 6.4 of 6-14years, significant policy to secondary education is still marred Castes and Scheduled Tribes, through 2 National University of at the State level in Uttar Pradesh, and programmatic interventions by inequalities based on gender, the provision of financial incentives 1 The World Bank Educational Planning with girls enrolment calculated to 2013 3.1 4.7 3.5 5.6 3.3 5.1 (2009). Secondary and Administration have been launched to boost income, social group, location etc. The which can be availed by the girls upon Education in India: (NUEPA) (2015). be as low as 46.51% and the ratio of 2014 2.9 4.1 3.7 5.7 3.3 4.9 primary education. The resultant World Bank (2009)1 presents evidence passing their tenth class examination. Universalising Secondary Education girls to boys enrolment in the State Opportunity. Human in India: Where do we Source: ASER Report, 2014 improvements in enrolment and to demonstrate that secondary Another important scheme, the Development Unit, stand? NUEPA: New standing at 0.89%. retention have led to a larger number education is lower for poor children, Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha South Asia Region. Delhi.

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girls, just over one in four girls in Table 1.3 Percentage of Children in Different Types of Schools in Uttar Pradesh, 2014 Uttar Pradesh were enrolled in private schools in 2006. By 2014, this number Types of Schools (Enrolment in %) increased to almost one in two girls. Age Group In contrast, the pace of growth of Government Private Other Not in School Total private schooling as an option for girls nation-wide is much slower, 6-14 All 41.1 51.7 2.4 4.9 100.0 increasing from less than one in five 7-16 All 38.1 52.1 2.1 7.7 100.0 girls to just over one in four girls. Assessing enrolment of boys and 7-10 All 42.6 51.9 2.8 2.8 100.0 girls by type of schools reveals some 7-10 Boys 38.1 56.8 2.6 2.5 100.0 similar and some diverging trends. In the case of government schools, 7-10 Girls 47.8 46.2 2.9 3.1 100.0 the proportion of girls enrolled is greater as compared to boys within 11-14 All 37.2 53.3 1.8 7.7 100.0 the 7-10years and 11-14years age 11-14 Boys 34.0 58.1 1.6 6.4 100.0 categories, but boys constitute a larger proportion of enrolled students in 11-14 Girls 40.7 48.1 2.0 9.2 100.0 the 15-16year age group. In private schools, boys outnumber girls in 15-16 All 28.4 49.5 1.0 21.0 100.0 all three age groups- 7-10years, 15-16 Boys 29.1 50.6 0.8 19.4 100.0 11-14years and 15-16years. In ‘other’ schools, however, the proportion 15-16 Girls 27.7 48.3 1.3 22.7 100.0 of girls is higher, albeit marginally, than boys in all three age groups. Source: ASER Report, 2014 Not surprisingly, the proportion of Table 1.2 Percentage of Children aged 6-14 Enrolled in not-in-school girls in all three age Private Schools, 2006-2014 categories is higher than that of boys. Maharajganj district of Uttar Pradesh, In terms of changes in enrolment it explores secondary schooling Boys Girls All% by age, it is observed that in both opportunities and possibilities for YEAR government and ‘other’ schools, there girls and boys through a gender All India UP All India UP All India UP is a fall in boys’ and girls’ enrolment relations framework. Given the with increase in age. Interestingly, improved outcomes generated by the 2006 20.2 32.9 17.0 27.0 18.7 30.3 private schools show a minor increase significant government attention in girls’ enrolment with increase in being directed towards elementary 2007 20.8 31.7 17.6 25.6 19.3 29.1 age, but in the case of boys’ enrolment education, it is now becoming 2008 24.6 39.6 20.3 31.2 22.6 35.9 the increase is seen between increasingly relevant to ensure that the age groups of 7-10years and children attending elementary schools 2009 23.3 39.0 19.9 32.0 21.8 35.8 11-14years, and a fall in enrolment are able to continue their education at occurs between the age groups of the secondary level. 2010 25.5 42.5 21.7 35.4 23.7 39.3 11-14years and 15-16years. Overall, NEG-FIRE is a development 2011 28.0 50.0 23.0 40.0 25.6 45.4 the proportion of girls and boys who organization committed to improving are not-in-school is seen to increase the lives of marginalised communities 2012 31.5 53.1 25.2 43.2 28.3 48.5 dramatically with age. through enhancing access to quality While it is not revealed by this education, especially in socio- 2013 32.3 53.4 25.5 44.0 29.0 49.0 data evidence from the ground and economically backward regions of 2014 34.5 56.4 26.9 46.4 30.8 51.7 insights shared from the field, suggest India. The focus of the organisation’s that those not in school, are primarily interventions is concentrated on those who attended government districts and blocks where children’s Note: schools, or other schools, such as education is most neglected. Uttar 1. ‘Other’ includes children going to Madrassas and Education Guarantee Scheme (EGS) Schools. madrassas. Pradesh is a priority focus state 2. ‘Not in school’ = Dropped out + Never enrolled. for NEG-FIRE’s programmes, and Source: ASER Report, 2014 1.3 PRESENT STUDY Maharajganj is among the districts in It is in the above context that the the State being considered for more present study is located. To support in-depth intervention. the planning and implementation of development interventions in

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so that women’s voices could be mainstreamed in governance and decision-making, thereby OBJECTIVES, sowing the seed for the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments which mandated reservation of seats in elections to local bodies POLICY FRAMEWORK of governance nearly two decades later. In the economic domain, the report highlighted women’s roles in the unorganised and organised AND METHODOLOGY sector, their specific vulnerabilities to exploitation, gender-based wage This study has been approached its report titled ‘Towards Equality’ way. It demonstrated how women’s discrimination, and the relationship not as a theoretical exercise to that a strategic shift in seriousness limited access to opportunities, between women’s low levels of prove or disprove a hypothesis, but of purpose occurred and the State restriction on their mobility, as well education and the nature of their to yield a better understanding of actively began to address the as constrained exercise of their rights employment. the differential opportunities and exclusion of women from social, had created gender gaps on most Around the same time national challenges to education, especially economic and political development development parameters and led level policy on women’s economic secondary education, faced by boys processes. The report marked a to the feminisation of poverty. The participation was being influenced and girls in Maharajganj district. This watershed moment in national report gave much needed thrust to the experience of the Self Employed is being done to lay the foundation for discourse on gender-inequality, as the dialogue on increasing women’s Women’s Association (SEWA) designing educational interventions it shed light on the fact that women participation in national development, played a catalytic role in promoting aiming to bridge the gender gap had not benefitted as much as men particularly in the political, economic economically productive work for in education, to inform national from the country’s development in and education domains. women in Gujarat by supporting self- discourse on children’s education, the post-Independence era, nor had In the political domain, the employment through access to credit, and to add value to advocacy for more they been able to impact the country’s report recommended reservation of training etc. A National Commission strategic and comprehensive policies. development in any significant seats for women in elected bodies on Self-employed Women and Women right of children to free and fair in the Informal Sector was set up, One-third of all compulsory education up to the OBJECTIVES and it submitted a report in 1988 age of 14years was enshrined in the The main objectives of the study are: which brought to the surface poor households are Constitution under Article 21A. The ›› To know the present status of women’s significant contribution modalities to ensure that citizens were adolescent girls in the study region to their families and the national provided this right were elaborated ›› To study the (supply and demand) economy in the form of paid work. It solely supported in the Right of Children to Free and barriers that prevent adolescent girls revealed that while one-third of all Compulsory Education (RTE) Act, from going to secondary school households are solely supported by by women and 2009. The Right is interpreted by ›› To understand the issues affecting women, in another one-third, women Central and State administrations adolescent girls’ attendance, retention contribute to half of household another one- to cover only elementary education and dropping out of schools income. However, labouring women (Class I-VIII), leaving secondary ›› To suggest possible interventions were observed to lack decision- third contribute education (Class IX and upwards) for keeping girls in school making power and organisational outside its ambit. In recognition of capacities, making them more the remarkable benefits of secondary POLICY FRAMEWORK vulnerable to exploitation than men. to half of the education for personal, community Efforts towards improving women’s Importantly, the report stated that and national development, there is status in Indian society and economy gender-neutral development policies household significant demand from development are observed to have been in effect and programmes, although not experts and civil society for extending since pre-Independence times. intentionally discriminatory, tended income. the RTE Act to cover secondary Social reformers recognised some to have an unequal impact on men and education as well. forms of gender inequality as women due to the many additional An observation of the Government injustices of patriarchal structures, socio-economic disadvantages that Both these path-breaking reports of India’s policy and programmatic and engaged in movements against women experience. It thus argued for along with other independent responses to the need for gender regressive practices such as widow a systematic formulation of gender- studies placed particular emphasis equality in across social, political, self-immolation, child marriage just policies and programmes which on promoting girls’ education as a economic and education domains etc. as well as advocacy for girls’ took cognizance of men and women’s key requirement to enable women. in India shows a gradual shift in education. However, it was only in varied contexts and made concerted The demand for education gained approach. A ‘Women in Development’ 1974, after the Committee on The efforts to bring women at par with significant momentum in the approach was followed in the 1970s, Status of submitted men. following decades, and in 2002, the where the focus of interventions was

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on drawing women more fully into examined: the development process. However, ›› Class V to Class VI Girls and this approach treated women as ›› Class VIII to Class IX and Table 2.1 Schools Selected For Study a homogenous category, did not ›› Class X to Class XI (inter-college) women face adequately account for variations in their experiences, opportunities METHODOLOGY both forms of S.NO. SCHOOL VILLAGE SCHOOL SCHOOL RURAL SCHOOL STUDENTS TEACHERS and vulnerabilities, and did not Both quantitative and qualitative recognise their invisible contributions methods have been utilized to rights violations NAME NAME CATEGORY MANAGEMENT URBAN TYPE ENROLLED to development processes. After the generate relevant evidence from 1980s, this has gradually transformed respondents across a range of themes. Boys Girls Male Female into a ‘Gender and Development’ Quantitative data was obtained for which approach, which additionally through secondary sources and I BLOCK contextualises government responses qualitative data was obtained through the State is to suit women’s social and economic In-Depth Interviews. Data from the 1 R.Kumari Inter Thuthibari Pri with U Private Aided Rural Co-Ed 203 200 14 1 realities, and addresses unequal field was analysed in conjunction with accountable. College Attach Pri Sec/H patterns of gender relationships published statistical data from reliable SEC and decision-making powers. Such government sources. a policy approach helps challenge The collection of evidence for Based on these discussions in discriminatory gender norms and this study was based on three key and Delhi, it was decided 2 S.V.Sishu Mandir Thuthibari Primary with Private Rural Co-Ed 503 294 8 0 roles that are the root cause of gender principles: that the schools selection would be inequality. ›› Use of multiple sources of evidence based on data obtained from NUEPA’s P.Mad.Vidyala U Primary Un-Aided ›› Creation of an information School Report Card project, which is RESEARCH DESIGN database a Government of India initiative that Based on the largely healthy national ›› Maintenance of a chain of evidence provides comprehensive and accurate 3 UPS Sadakhawa Thuthibari Pri with U Private Aided Rural Co-Ed 203 200 14 1 level picture on primary education, information on vital parameters Pri Sec/H the present study has attempted to SAMPLE SELECTION regarding students, teachers and other identify and classify educational rights The locus of the study was the school. related variables in a standard format SEC violations into two categories: In discussion with the project partner, that allows for comparisons. With ›› Deprivation of rights and it was decided to concentrate the field respect to the objectives of the study, entitlements of basic needs and study on schools in the two NEG- purposive sampling was undertaken 4 P M V Jamuikala Jamui Kala Upper Dept. Of Rural Co-Ed 54 94 2 3 services required for continuing FIRE project blocks of Mithaura and to focus on the most marginalized Primary Education education for girls, and opportunities Nichlaul, with the addition of a third populations and those schools for skill development and block. The third block selected was which have a largely female student employment; and , based on the desire to population. 5 Janta Ucchatar Narkatha U Pri with Central Govt Rural Co-Ed 174 206 4 0 ›› Denial of equal opportunities extend interventions to this block. A total of 21 schools from the three to girl children from socially and To support the process of school blocks were selected for this study- Madhayamik Bazar Sec economically deprived families in selection, detailed discussions with eight schools from Nichlaul block, Vidyalaya comparison with their peers, which the Uttar Pradesh State team were eight schools from Nautanwa block, prevents them from flourishing and organized in December 2014, to and five schools from Mithaura block, realising their potential. understand the local situation. The with most of the selected schools 6 Girls Pri School Pakdi Primary Local Body Rural Girls 0 171 1 1 The engagement with gender key learning from these discussions having a majority of girl students. deprivation and discrimination is was the need to address issues of However, the number of female Pakdi Bhartkh Bharatkhand based on the assessment that girls secondary education, a serious teachers in most of these schools was and women face both forms of rights gap area, while simultaneously found to be lower than the number of violations for which the State is maintaining the ongoing interventions male teachers. 7 Primary School Pakdi Primary Dept. Of Rural Boys 107 0 2 1 accountable. with children in Aanganwadi Centres Attention was paid to ensuring Pakdi Bhart Khand Bharatkhand Education The study maps pathways and and primary schools. Given that that the selected sample contained transitions in the journey through the focus of interventions has been representation from all five different school of a girl child, comparing entirely on government schools in types of schools found in Maharajganj 8 Maktab Kathari Katahari Primary with Private Aided Rural Co-Ed 77 206 6 0 the journey to that of boys from rural areas with the most socially and district, based on the understanding the same family, as well as to those economically backward households, that they present variable U Primary of girls from previous generations the team emphasized that this focus opportunities to boys and girls: and from diverse income and should be maintained within the ›› Schools run by the Department of social backgrounds living in rural parameters of the research study. Education, Uttar Pradesh: These are Maharajganj. They also discussed the need for the uniformly co-educational schools In particular, transitions between study to add substance to the policy where education is provided free of the following school years have been advocacy efforts of the organisation. charge.

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Table 2.1 CONTD. Schools Selected For Study Table 2.1 CONTD. Schools Selected For Study

S.NO. SCHOOL VILLAGE SCHOOL SCHOOL RURAL SCHOOL STUDENTS TEACHERS S.NO. SCHOOL VILLAGE SCHOOL SCHOOL RURAL SCHOOL STUDENTS TEACHERS NAME NAME CATEGORY MANAGEMENT URBAN TYPE ENROLLED NAME NAME CATEGORY MANAGEMENT URBAN TYPE ENROLLED Boys Girls Male Female Boys Girls Male Female II NUATANWA BLOCK III MITHAURA BLOCK 9 Jr. High School Rajabari Upper Dept. Of Rural Co-Ed 7 11 1 0 17 Digvijay Nath Inter Chowk Pri with U Private Rural Co-Ed 888 554 12 0 Rajabari Primary Education College Pri Sec/ Aided H SEC 10 UPS Belahiya Belhiya Upper Dept. Of Rural Co-Ed 13 5 1 0 Primary Education 18 Digvijay Nath Girl L Chowk Upper Private Rural Girls 0 439 0 5 P M V Chowk Primary Un-Aided 11 Saraswati Shishu Bargadawa Primary Private Rural Co-Ed 83 97 2 0 Mandir Bargadwa Un-Aided 19 Maktab Parsouni Parsouni Primary with Private Rural Co-Ed 275 280 4 1 Bazar U Primary Aided

12 I.P.CH. Janjatiya Bargadawa Primary Tribal/Social Rural Co-Ed 281 276 10 0 20 Madrasa G.A.S. Panewa Primary with Madarsa Rural Co-Ed 159 219 8 0 Adarsh School Welfare Maktab Panei U Primary recognized

13 Primary School Bargadawa Primary Dept. Of Rural Co-Ed 79 95 2 2 21 Jr. High School Khajuria Upper Dept. Of Rural Co-Ed 24 65 5 1 Bargadawa Education Khajuria Primary Education

14 Mundar Prasad Bargadawa U Primary Private Rural Co-Ed 78 137 18 2 Inter College with Sec/ Aided H Sec ›› Schools run by the Department of cater almost exclusively to children of Department of Social Welfare are 15 Janjati Siksha Taraini Primary Tribal/Social Rural Co-Ed 87 76 7 0 Social Welfare, Uttar Pradesh: These Hindu families. affiliated to the State Board of Niketan Welfare schools are largely either exclusively ›› Schools run by non-profit trusts: Secondary Education, most of the for boys or girls and cater to a mix of These schools are registered under private schools are affiliated to the residential and day scholars. the Societies Registration Act and are Central Board of Secondary Education. ›› Madrassas: These educational the principal providers of secondary Most of the faith-based schools are 16 PMV Argha Argha Upper Dept. Of Rural Co-Ed 24 26 5 1 institutions offer regular state- education in the district. They schools affiliated to the Indian Certificate (Sukarouli) Primary Education designed curricula in upto Class are further divided into two types- of Secondary Education. In private VIII, along with religious education. schools which are provided financial schools and colleges (both aided and Although technically open to all, these support by the government (aided unaided), fees range from INR 100 schools cater almost exclusively to schools) and those which are entirely to 300 per child per month. Even the children of Muslim families. independent. Both types charge most remote villages have private ›› Saraswati Shishu Mandirs: These fees, but the amount is lower in the schools providing education. educational institutions provide a mix government-aided schools. of regular school curriculum along While the schools run by the with religious education. Although Government of Uttar Pradesh’s technically open to all, these schools Department of Education and

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Table 3.1 Educationally Backward Blocks (EBB) UNDERSTANDING in Maharajganj S. No. State District Block/Taluk Name EBB/ THE SITUATION IN Name Name Non-EBB 01 UTTAR MAHARAJGANJ BRIJMAN GANJ EBB PRADESH MAHARAJGANJ 02 DHANI EBB 03 GHUGHLI EBB The study is confined to Maharajganj have been examined. The datasets district of Uttar Pradesh. Maharajganj used to present the analysis in this 04 LAKSHMIPUR EBB has been in the news for its poor section are from: i) the Ministry of 05 MAHRAJGANJ EBB educational status and performance. Human Resource Development’s It is one of the most underdeveloped (MHRD) education Management 06 MITHOURA EBB districts in the country infamous for Information System (MIS) data which its socio-cultural traditions which covers all government-run schools, 07 NICHLOUL EBB hardly give any space to women government-aided schools, and 08 NOUTANWA EBB and girls in public sphere. Despite selected private schools, and iii) the impressive gains of late in terms of Census of India, 2011. 09 PANIYARA EBB enrolment of children and female literacy rate (which has gone up 3.1 ILLITERACY, CHILD WORK 10 PARTAWAL EBB from 28% in 2001 to 49% in 2011), AND EARLY MARRIAGE 11 EBB education is still a distant dream Given the evidence on the fall in in the lives of many girl children in enrolment with increase in age in 12 SISWA EBB Maharajganj. Uttar Pradesh, it is pertinent to study 13 TA NICHLOUL EBB The Department of School the levels of illiteracy in Maharajganj Education identified educationally district. A downward trend is visible in 14 ANAND NAGAR NON-EBB backward blocks (EBB) across the available data, as illiteracy is lesser in country based on gender-sensitive the 10-14year age group as compared Source: www.ssamis.nic.in (Accessed in 2015) criteria. Based on these criteria, all to the 15-19year age group. The but one of the blocks in Maharajganj need for more strategic and targeted district is designated as EBB (Table approaches to achieving equity in data available across the four marginal workers in Maharajganj 3.1). education is made apparent by the main work categories- cultivators, in both age groups across the three Since most of the blocks are fact that girls continue to constitute agricultural labourers, household population categories also reveals that Educationally Backward, the State the majority of illiterates in both age industry and other workers- it is boys comprise a larger share. Government is deploying additional groups across all three population found that boys constitute the bigger Amongst both boys and girls, resources to Maharajganj, especially categories (total, Scheduled Caste share of main workers in both age there is an increase in the number for schemes specifically designed and Scheduled Tribe) in Maharajganj. population. generations. groups in Maharajganj. However, of marginal workers after the age for improving access of girls to However, the reduction in illiteracy Child work and early marriage, As the table below shows, only the difference in male and female of 14years. However, the share of educational opportunities. Setting up between the two age groups is also which are the two main known a small number of children in main workers in the 10-14years and women marginal workers within each model schools on the lines of Kendriya much greater in the case of girls than causes for illiteracy and drop out of Maharajganj are main workers, i.e. 15-19years age groups is lesser in the population category is seen to fall in Vidyalayas and establishment of at in the case of boys, indicating that children from the education system, who have worked for six months or categories of household industry and the age group of 15-19years. least one Kasturba Gandhi Balika the situation of girls is improving at a arise primarily from poverty. Poverty more in the year. More boys than other workers. A distribution of male Disaggregated data for the Vidyalaya, a residential school for faster rate than that of boys. and low incomes often force families girls in both age groups are found to and female main workers belonging marginal workers in Maharajganj girls, are testimony to this fact. The proportion of male and female into making their children enter the be main workers, and this holds true to the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled also shows that boys constitute a However, despite these special illiterates in both age groups amongst labour force at a young age as a way across all three population categories- Tribes from both age groups larger share of all occupational groups schemes, Maharajganj continues to the Scheduled Castes is roughly equal of augmenting household income. Not total, Scheduled Caste and Scheduled also reveals a similar trend. The in both age categories, with the remain backward. to that of the total population, but only does this present a significant Tribe. With increasing age, the majority of main workers from these exception of the household industry For the purposes of the situational this is found to be lesser amongst impediment to continuing education, proportion of girls earning as main categories are found to be working as where females in the 10-14 year age analysis, national, state and district the Scheduled Tribes. Evidently, the it also perpetuates a cycle of poverty workers shrinks further. This shows agricultural labour. group are slightly more in number level disaggregated data for boys Scheduled Tribe population in these by transmitting the disadvantages that there is greater pressure on boys More boys and girls in Maharajganj than their male contemporaries. and girls, primarily from the age two age groups has higher literacy of limited education, unskilled to earn from work outside the house. work as marginal workers than main Interestingly, the number of girls groups of 10-14years and 15-19years achievements than the rest of the labour and low incomes to future From a review of disaggregated workers. However, a study of the from Scheduled Castes working in

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Table 3.2 Illiteracy by Age Group in Maharajganj, 2011 Table 3.3 Main Workers between 10-19 years in Maharajganj, 2011 Population Population Age Total Population Scheduled Caste Scheduled Tribe Age Total Population Scheduled Caste Scheduled Tribe Group Persons Males Females Persons Males Females Persons Males Females Group Persons Males Females Persons Males Females Persons Males Females 10-14 342689 176195 166494 63325 32647 30678 2015 1026 989 10-14 342689 176195 166494 63325 32647 30678 2015 1026 989 15-19 271778 143567 128211 49549 26231 23318 1616 809 807 15-19 271778 143567 128211 49549 26231 23318 1616 809 807

Illiterates Main Workers Age Total Population Scheduled Caste Scheduled Tribe Age Total Scheduled Caste Scheduled Tribe Group Persons Males Females Persons Males Females Persons Males Females Group Persons Males Females Persons Males Females Persons Males Females 10-14 39283 16527 22756 7220 3175 4045 154 58 96 10-14 6827 4170 2657 1156 730 426 25 15 10 15-19 39777 13559 26218 7133 2626 4507 179 58 121 15-19 19861 14820 5041 3661 2814 847 86 71 15

Source: Census of India, 2011 (Provisional figures) Source: Census of India, 2011 (Provisional figures) cultivation as marginal workers as well as their school attendance A study of the figures of early from the 10-14year age group is negatively, thereby making transition marriages occurring in Maharajganj greater than the boys in the same to the next class challenging and by age group shows that as of 2011, no age group. Also, more girls from the resulting in higher drop outs amongst boys or girls below the age of 10years Table 3.4 Disaggregated Data on Main Workers between 10-19 years in Maharajganj, 2011 Scheduled Tribes are found to work girls than boys. Another difference are married. Three percent of girls as marginal workers in cultivation in the treatment of girls and boys is and less than two percent of boys and ‘other’ work as compared to that girls reported facing increased in the age group of 10-14years are Total Population Main Workers boys across both age groups. This restrictions to their mobility as they married. There is an alarming spike Age Cultivators Agricultural labourers Household Industry Other Workers indicates a preference to send boys grew up, thereby constraining their in the percentage of married girls in Group out to work as wage earners, and to opportunities for growth. Boys did the 15-19 years age group, with 23% Person Male Female Person Male Female Person Male Female Person Male Female make girls work within the confines not face any such restrictions and being married. The proportion of 10-14 1815 1132 683 2827 1757 1070 368 215 153 1817 1066 751 of family spaces. Such an analysis is therefore enjoyed the privilege of married boys in the same age group corroborated by conversations in the access to greater opportunities for is just under eight per cent. The legal 15-19 4315 3237 1078 9520 7089 2431 936 672 264 5090 3822 1268 field which revealed that decision- education and to earn a livelihood. age of marriage for girls in India is making regarding girls’ education and Poverty is intimately connected 18years, and for boys is 21years. As of work is heavily influenced by security to child marriage. Girls are often 2011, about three percent of all girls in Scheduled Caste Main Workers concerns. seen as a liability by poor families Uttar Pradesh who were below the age Age Cultivators Agricultural labourers Household Industry Other Workers On the whole, data on main because women are largely confined of 18years were married, and slightly and marginal workers from the to the household and are generally more than three percent of the boys Group Person Male Female Person Male Female Person Male Female Person Male Female age groups considered shows that not seen as major contributors to under 21years of age were married. families in Maharajganj are more household income. In addition to this, Early marriage is a grave problem as 10-14 241 165 76 590 373 217 50 29 21 275 163 112 comfortable sending boys to engage the problem of dowry exacerbates it often leads to discontinuation of 15-19 563 444 119 2113 1620 493 144 102 42 841 648 193 in economically productive labour the pressure on families to marry girls’ education, low paid jobs, lack outside the home as compared to girls. their girls off early, as despite of decision-making power in the Conversations in the field provided legal prohibition of the practice, it household, early child bearing and Scheduled Tribe Main Workers greater insight into the gendered continues to be common for parents associated medical complications for patterns in work and education of the bride to give gifts of cash and both the mother and child etc. Age Cultivators Agricultural labourers Household Industry Other Workers experienced by children. It was learnt kind to the groom’s family at the time Group Person Male Female Person Male Female Person Male Female Person Male Female that girls perform more housework of marriage. The amount of dowry than boys- they work at home before increases with the age and sometimes 10-14 8 4 4 8 7 1 0 0 0 9 4 5 leaving for school and also after also with the level of education of 15-19 21 16 5 39 34 5 2 1 1 24 20 4 returning from school. The increasing the girl. Hence, families marry their pressure of household chores with age daughters young in order to avoid Source: Census of India, 2011 (Provisional figures) affects girls’ academic performance paying a hefty dowry.

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Table 3.5 Marginal Workers between 10-19years in Maharajganj, 2011 Table 3.7 Early Marriage in Maharajganj, 2011 Population Age Group Total Currently Married Age Total Population Scheduled Caste Scheduled Tribe Persons Males Females Persons Males Females Group Persons Males Females Persons Males Females Persons Males Females 0-9 639567 331274 308293 0 0 0 10-14 342689 176195 166494 63325 32647 30678 2015 1026 989 10-14 359522 184890 174632 9599 3153 6446 15-19 271778 143567 128211 49549 26231 23318 1616 809 807 15-19 288136 152063 136073 44100 12138 31962 Less than 18 1176215 608281 567934 25281 7613 17668 Marginal Workers Less than 21 1349361 702368 646993 82865 25852 57013

Age Total Scheduled Caste Scheduled Tribe Source: Census of India, 2011 (Provisional figures) Group Persons Males Females Persons Males Females Persons Males Females 3.2 ACCESS AND TRANSITIONS education observed in Uttar Pradesh the transition from upper primary 10-14 17868 9558 8310 3276 1790 1486 61 29 32 TO SECONDARY SCHOOL are reflected in Maharajganj without to secondary education is a greater 15-19 45471 28373 17098 9269 5961 3308 230 141 89 any major divergence, it may be safe challenge for girls. However, once In terms of access to secondary to attribute broad findings from state they have entered secondary and education in the three selected blocks level data in this section to the district higher secondary education, boys Source: Census of India, 2011 (Provisional figures) of Maharajganj, children in Mithaura of Maharajganj as well. constitute a larger share of the appear to have a low level of access The table below provides data repeaters. to secondary education opportunities, on the transition of boys and girls Data also shows that while some which children in Nautanwa and from upper primary to secondary to children with disability are being Nichlaul have average access (Digital higher secondary education in Uttar mainstreamed, the number of male Table 3.6 Disaggregated Data on Marginal Workers between 10-19 years in Maharajganj, 2011 Gender Atlas, MHRD). In contrast, Pradesh. More girls repeat the VIII students in this category exceeds that the elementary level presents a better standard than boys, indicating that of females from Classes VIII to XII. Marginal Worker picture, with children in all three blocks having medium access to Age Cultivators Agricultural labourers Household Industry Other Workers educational opportunities up to the Group Person Male Female Person Male Female Person Male Female Person Male Female age of 14 years or Class VIII. In 2012-13, the transition rates 10-14 2444 1252 1192 9726 5307 4419 1199 593 606 4499 2406 2093 of children from Upper Primary 15-19 5085 2810 2275 30529 19515 11014 2146 1203 943 7711 4845 2866 to Secondary School were low in Mithaura and Nautanwa, while the rate was average in Nichlaul (Digital Gender Atlas, MHRD). However, in Scheduled Caste Marginal Worker 2013-14, Mithaura demonstrated an Age Cultivators Agricultural labourers Household Industry Other Workers improvement over the last year, with Group a medium transition rate of children Person Male Female Person Male Female Person Male Female Person Male Female from Upper Primary to Secondary 10-14 374 185 189 2020 1127 893 193 96 97 689 382 307 School. However, Nautanwa and Nichlaoul had the same kind of 15-19 725 419 306 6907 4475 2432 331 199 132 1306 868 438 transition rates as the previous year, i.e. low and average respectively.

Scheduled Tribe Marginal Worker TRANSITIONS FROM UPPER Age Cultivators Agricultural labourers Household Industry Other Workers PRIMARY TO SECONDARY EDUCATION IN UTTAR PRADESH Group Person Male Female Person Male Female Person Male Female Person Male Female Since data on enrolment, drop outs, retention and stream choices in 10-14 11 4 7 36 19 17 3 1 2 11 5 6 higher secondary education is not 15-19 16 5 11 170 109 61 13 9 4 31 18 13 available at the district level from any reliable source, this section examines these aspects at the level Source: Census of India, 2011 (Provisional figures) of the State. Given that the trends in

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Table 3.8 Repeaters and Students with Disability from Classes VIII to XI FIGURE 3.1 Influence Mapping of Children Transiting from Class V to Class VI in Uttar Pradesh, 2013-14

MOST INFLUENTIAL Enrolment 2013-2014 Repeaters Drop Repe- Students with Disability GROUP Grade Boys Girls Total Boys Girls out tition Boys Girls Total Negative Influence Positive Influence Positive/Negative Influence Rate Rate GIRLS Social Leaders, Supportive Teachers Community VIII 1752580 1800634 3553214 15813 16093 6.72 0.94 11120 9417 20537 pushing for Other Family Elders Leaders IX 1671638 1525878 3197516 31975 26995 - 2.14 3251 2345 5596 & BOYS Negative Parents, Particularly Traditions Fathers X 1771388 1547051 3318439 54844 38226 8.54 3.32 2786 2088 4874 XI 1316756 1206734 2523490 26556 22280 - 2.08 1791 1370 3161 GRASSROOT LEVEL FUNCTIONARIES/ XII 1333021 1186273 2519294 30204 23021 2.73 1740 1094 2834 INSTITUTIONS GOVERNMENT DEPARTMENTS Sec. 3443026 3072929 6515955 86819 65221 - 2.73 6037 4433 10470 Positive Influence (9-10) Shiksha Mitras Negative Influence Positive Influence H.Sec. 2649777 2393007 5042784 56760 45301 2.37 3531 2464 5995 Panchayat Leaders Infrastructure Education Women & Child (11-12) Anganwadi Workers Health Workers Social Welfare

Source: Secondary Education in India, State Report Cards 2013-14, DISE LESS VISIBLE, POWERFUL GROUPS Negative Influence Positive Influence Positive/Negative Influence Table 3.9 Stream-wise Distribution of Boys and Girls in Classes XI and XII in Uttar Private Schools Lobby NEG-FIRE, Publishers, Business & Economic Other Donor NGOs Educational Aids Pradesh, 2013-14 Interests Note: Age Total (H. Sec.) Stream Class 11 Class 12 Bidirectional Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Directional - towards the entities <15yrs 1289816 1563138 Arts 243917 443965 262045 460633

15yrs 688788 467212 Science 370911 139032 376641 125937 of interventions with the aim of links, with linkages being represented The next two maps illustrate 16yrs 867088 794100 Commerce 42053 17865 39969 16176 increasing access to secondary by connecting lines. The size of the transition points of Class VIII- education by mapping the pathways the circle illustrates the relative IX separately for boys and girls. 17yrs 688788 467212 Vocational 13883 10223 14272 10459 by which various factors come to importance of the institution/actor, They show that while the same influence boys’ and girls’ uptake of while the thickness and direction of stakeholders influence boys and girls’ >17yrs 647324 371440 Other 13227 2169 10633 1726 education at the upper primary and the arrow that connects it with the access to secondary schooling, quite secondary levels. lives of children denotes the strength often the impact of their influence is Source: Secondary Education in India, State Report Cards 2013-14, DISE Three influence maps3 have been of the relationship and the direction in not the same. In the case of boys, the 3 The process of creating maps has prepared to illustrate the factors that which influence is exerted. Plus/minus support for education and schooling In line with national trends, even Communications Technology in 3.3 MAPPING INFLUENCES ON been adapted from: have a positive or negative influence signs illustrate whether the influence is explicit. However, in the case of Mayers, J., Ngalande, in Uttar Pradesh girls outnumber nine schools during 2007-08 and SECONDARY EDUCATION OF J., Bird, P. and over the decision to retain children, is positive or negative. girls, there are a range of actors who boys in the Arts stream, whereas boys 2011-12; the sanction of 20 new CHILDREN Sibale, B. 2001. particularly girl children, in school. The first influence map shows could have a positive influence on outnumber girls in all other streams. higher secondary schools; promotion Forestry Tactics: The maps help visualise institutional the transition point from primary to their access to secondary education Lessons learned from Through the RMSA, there have of vocational education such as Multiple factors influence the ability Malawi’s National and community relationships in an upper primary classes. While gender as well as those that could have a been attempts of different kinds automobile services, retail etc in of children to enrol in and complete Forestry Programme. attempt to explain the various actors/ differentials in opportunities are negative effect on the girls’ access to to improve opportunities for and one school; and upgradation of the secondary education, necessitating Policy that works entities that have power, influence visible here, these differentials are opportunities and possibilities. The for forests and experiences of secondary schooling infrastructure and facilities such as a gamut of integrated policy and people series no.11. and control over the girl child’s ability not strong enough to push girls out support to girls’ education is thus not in the selected study blocks. This laboratories, lavatories, libraries etc in programmatic interventions across London: International and willingness to access secondary of school. It is thus possible at the uncontested. Institute for has included: attempts of the four schools. different domains. This section Environment and schooling opportunities. Circles Class V level to develop one common On the whole, the maps show that State to improve Information and attempts to support cogent planning Development. represent institutions and actors and influence map for both boys and girls. at a local and household level, power

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FIGURE 3.2 Influence Mapping of Boys in Class VII-VIII-IX and attending another. school had been operational only on ›› Limited interaction with ›› In the private school, the trend is one day as the teacher did not attend government educational system: GOVERNMENT quite different. There are 142 boys to school on all other days of that week. Young girls’ engagement with the DEPARTMENTS 87 girls from OBCs and 18 boys and 6 Moreover, although 100 children government educational system girls from Scheduled Caste families in are enrolled at the school, the older beyond school is solely through the Negative Influence Positive Influence BOYS Grade 1. There are no Muslims in the children estimated that only about Kishori Manch of the Aanganwadi Labour Police private school. The private school has half this number attends classes. Centres, which meet twice a month › WCD & Social Welfare 3 teachers and classes are regular. › Lack of options to study beyond for about two hours each. the elementary level: For children ›› Differential attitude towards Education INSIGHTS FROM THE FIELD: The who wish to pursue education beyond education of boys and girls: Parents GRASSROOT LEVEL following observations made during Class V, there is no government school do invest in education, but more for FUNCTIONARIES/ MOST INFLUENTIAL the field visit in January 2015 are available in the region. (A junior boys than girls. They are found to be INSTITUTIONS GROUP noteworthy: school (Classes VI-VIII) has been more willing to send their boys to Positive Influence ›› Sub-optimal functioning of sanctioned, but no teachers have been bigger towns and even allow them to Negative Influence Positive Influence Positive/Negative Influence AWWs schools and attendance: The appointed as yet). Even for girls who stay as boarders. However, there is a Social Leaders, Community Parents government primary school has a have completed Class VIII from the reluctance to send girls, which they Panchayat Leaders pushing for Leaders Employers & single teacher and two Shiksha Mitras private school, there are no further explain by citing safety concerns. Youth Leaders Negative Potential Employers who live in the village. However educational opportunities in the ›› Poverty as an impediment to Health Workers Traditions Peer Group in Village during the week of the field visit, the vicinity. education: The income levels in within Family FIGURE 3.3 Influence Mapping of Girls in Class VII-VIII-IX LESS VISIBLE, POWERFUL GROUPS GOVERNMENT Positive Influence DEPARTMENTS

NEG-FIRE, Other Funding NGOs, Partners Negative Influence Positive Influence Private School Owners, Publishing Industry Labour Police Educated Men & Women in Village & Community WCD & Social Welfare Note: Faith Leaders at Community Level Education Bidirectional Politicians Directional - towards the entities MOST INFLUENTIAL GIRLS GROUP rests with those who have access 3.4 INSIGHTS FROM DATA AND trend from four years ago when this Negative Influence Positive/Negative Influence to local networks, those who play a FIELD RESEARCH proportion was 77.6%. Social Leaders, › Parents role in community management and › The Pupil Teacher Ratio (PTR) pushing for those who make decisions about the This section, containing insights from in both government schools is not Younger Siblings allocation or substitution of assets. published data and field research in compliance with the Right to Negative Peer Group in Village These areas of power are often very conducted on a village in Nichnaul Education norm of at least one teacher Traditions GRASSROOT LEVEL within Family closely linked to gender. The maps block, illustrates the manner in which for every 40 students. In SB Khas the FUNCTIONARIES/ Community Leaders also reveal that the lack of state some of these factors operate and PTR is 102, while in Shikarpur it is 67. INSTITUTIONS support to secondary education impact the situation on the ground. ›› In Class V in SB Khas, there were impacts boys and girls differently, four boys for 18 girls from the general Positive Influence Positive/Negative Influence LESS VISIBLE, with further variations in impact INSIGHTS FROM DATA: School-wise population. Among the SC population, AWWs Panchayat POWERFUL GROUPS on those coming from poor and data throws light on some interesting the number of boys is 8 and the girls Youth Leaders Leaders Negative Influence Positive Influence Positive/Negative Influence vulnerable groups. A thorough trends: are 10 in Class 1. By class V, there is Health Workers Politicians analysis of these influence maps ›› In both government schools, one boy for three girls. Among Other NEG-FIRE, Other Private School could help identify the manner in SB Khas and Shikarpur, girls Backward Classes, there are 3 boys for Funding NGOs, Owners, Publishing which various stakeholders mediate a outnumbered boys in every class in 15 girls in Class V. child’s access to secondary education 2012-13. ›› When the incentives provided are Partners Industry at different ages, thereby assisting ›› The student population in tracked, the situation slightly changes. Educated Men & Faith Leaders at planners to consider direct and government schools tends to be Among Other Backward Classes, Women in Village Community Level Note: indirect influences in the design predominantly from socially backward 80 boys and 86 girls received text & Community Politicians of comprehensive policies and communities. In Shikarpur, 92% of books, and uniforms demonstrating Bidirectional programmes. children are from Scheduled Caste that there is significant presence of Directional - towards the entities families, demonstrating an escalating children being registered at one school Directional - opposite the entities

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Girls of the landless KEY FINDINGS AND agricultural workers were the RECOMMENDATIONS worst hit by the dysfunctional education system.

the village are low. The majority of families are agricultural labourers with either nil or very small land CASE STUDY holdings. The Aanganwadi worker pointed out that the children, STATE OF FORMAL EDUCATION IN SOHAGI BARAVA VILLAGE particularly girls, of the landless (Nichnaul block, Maharajganj district) agricultural workers were the worst hit by the dysfunctional education Sohagi Barava is known to be among the most remote, most disadvantaged system. and least served by public services among all the villages in Maharajganj ›› Early marriage: Poverty, coupled district. There are three ways to get to the village- the most direct route with the lack of opportunities also is by boat across the river; the second and shorter route requires access opens up the possibility of girls being through ; and the third, which is used by the village folk and frontline married young. While most girls government community workers requires a trip through the forest and the claimed that their peers were getting Valmiki Tiger Reserve in . married after attaining the age of Demographic Profile: According to the Primary Census Abstracts, 2011, 18years, they eventually revealed that the village has 1099 households. The total population (as on April, 1, 2014) some of their classmates were already is as follows- 5208 from the general category, 1999 from the Scheduled married and most others got married Castes, and 44 from the Scheduled Tribes. within a year or two after their formal School Structure: Data from the Ministry of Women and Child schooling ends. Development (MWCD), District Information System for Education (DISE) ›› Girls’ eagerness to study and the School Report Card initiative of the NUEPA shows that there are six further: Girls have expressed their Prior to discussing key findings from the Rights of the Child, Millennium necessary to undertake policy analysis Aanganwadi Centres and three schools in the village. Two of the schools are desire to study further, but their the field study and recommendations Development Goals, now Sustainable to differentiate between these levels government-run primary schools (up to Class V), while the third is a private limited exposure poses difficulties for action, a word must be said about Development Goals); regional (e.g. of influence and to understand the school which charges a tuition fee of INR 100 (excluding other expenses to articulating what they want to the macro policy environment. The trade agreements on opening up manner in which they fashion ground such as books, uniforms etc) and provides education to both girls and boys study or become. Girls from the formulation of education policy and the education sector); national/ realities. up to Class VIII. All three schools are covered by the School Report Card private school were found to be more also children’s policy is complex. sub-national (made by state or Changes in the policy environment initiative. articulate and vocal in wanting more Education, especially for girls, is provincial authorities); and local over time can come about even Administrative Attention: The remote location of the village and education, though even they found influenced to different degrees by (made by decentralised authorities). without any change in government difficulties in accessing it complicate the challenges to service provision. it difficult to voice their dreams and personal, familial, social and state Furthermore, in districts like stance, policy statements and While the district administration has made efforts to improve the lives of aspirations. agenda and perspectives. As the Maharajganj which have a substantial attendant budget allocations. Such residents through initiatives such as installing solar lamps in all homes, ›› Recognition of the demand for institutional and social environment international border, policies of changes occur largely due to pressure education (especially for girls) remains a largely overlooked area. Even the education at the Panchayat level: The are neither uniform across regions nor neighbouring countries may impact or demand from families to which private school has not introduced Classes IX and X, possibly due to concerns Gram Panchayat head accepted that static in time, policies in practice can family livelihood strategies as a the market responds swiftly, though regarding financial viability. education provision was a pressing vary greatly across different parts of a result of which children may be not necessarily effectively. Market- Overall: Concerted administrative focus is required to further girls’ issue. He acknowledged the desire of country and over time. encouraged or forced into both based solutions to education have access to upper primary and secondary education, so that they can girls to study further but expressed Formal policies that impact legal and illegal income generation a significant impact on household overcome social and financial barriers to avail opportunities that can help helplessness in further girls education children’s lives may originate at a activities. In order to define relevant finances, necessitating critical their realise their potential and aspirations. or even adult education due to the number of ‘levels’: international (e.g. programme goals and design suitable choices by poor families with limited Panchayat’s financial constraints. the United Nations Convention on interventions to achieve them, it is resources. In financial decision-

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making on education by such families, low income families that do not the schooling facility to be available in those select schools where the state security. the male child often has an edge over have productive assets. This is within the village and to be free of government is providing secondary For creating ›› Promoting influence mapping the female child, as he is seen as a largely a function of generational cost. For their sons, however, there education, the incentives provided at the community level: Influence long-term, economically productive discrimination based on social is greater willingness to send them during elementary school years a sustainable mapping is a policy analysis tool asset due to which families are more stratification. further away and invest limited family (uniforms, books, mid-day meal etc.) which can easily be transposed into willing to invest scarce resources ›› The pressure on poor children to disposable income. are no longer available to secondary a programme support instrument for in educating their sons rather than engage in economically productive ›› Due to the fact that security of school students. environment for gender-based analysis. Enabling the daughters. Thus, market dimensions work in order to substantiate girls is a strong factor guiding family ›› The lack of teachers, their low creation of influence maps by local need to be taken into account for household income is the major factor decision-making on their mobility, levels of motivation and erratic girls’ education, residents would promote community- a more comprehensive analysis of constraining their access to education there is a clear correlation with the attendance pose barriers to the based analysis and understanding of differential access to secondary and their academic performance. availability of good quality schooling education of both boys and girls. it is essential to power dynamics, influencers, priority education for girls especially in ›› Child marriage is another barrier to facilities in the village/hamlet and the Opportunities to learn science and concerns and practical strategies the remote parts of India that are education, but is now a largely female retention of girls in schooling. Where mathematics are limited due to low build support for development. The analysis of predominantly occupied by poor phenomenon. Married girls are often good quality schooling facilities are availability of qualified teaching staff. community-level stakeholders could families, such as Maharajganj district. able to continue schooling as long available in the vicinity, parents are Overall, the availability of qualified amongst not be combined with the knowledge of This section attempts to as they remain with their parents, willing to keep their girls in school teachers in the district for the higher domain experts to design powerful enumerate the key socio-economic but shifting residence to the marital longer as opposed to marrying them classes and especially in more interventions that are responsive to and education-related findings with home usually puts a permanent end off at a young age. specialized subjects is far less than the just women but people’s needs and preferences, while regard to the differential access to schooling. There are indications of ›› The gender-based division of roles norm. simultaneously promoting community of boys and girls to education in improvement with gradual increases and responsibilities between sons and ›› Teachers’ own location within the men too for awareness and ownership. Maharajganj district, based on in the mean age at marriage of girls. daughters becomes more pronounced social environment and their gender- ›› Addressing men’s attitudes which it provides constructive However, despite being a legally when children reach adolescence. Boys biases place additional limits to girls’ education girls. towards girls’ education: Efforts to recommendations for programming. punishable offence, child marriage are expected to train as bread-earners ability to explore their full potential. promote girls’ education have largely still finds social sanction in some and girls as home-makers. Girls currently in school are mostly concentrated on helping girls and KEY FINDINGS regions. ›› Girls want to study further and first generation learners, and have as using media such as televisions, women voice their concerns and Socio-Economic: ›› Parents are willing to send both seek lives different from their limited access to family support for mobile phones and internet) could negotiate confidently on behalf of ›› The vast majority of children sons and daughters to school. For mothers. They notice and dislike the help with difficulties in grasping be explored to help drop outs their interests. However, in order in rural Maharajganj belong to their daughters’ education they want fact that greater limits are placed concepts or lessons. continue their education, as well as to accelerate the process of creating on their mobility and access to to supplement learning for those a more favourable and sustainable opportunities and assets (mobile RECOMMENDATIONS still enrolled in schools. In fact, such environment for girls’ education, phones, cash etc.) in comparison to The recommendations for strategies could prove especially and it is necessary to address men’s boys. However, nothing is done to strengthening interventions for girls’ useful for both boys and girls from attitudes and build support amongst challenge the status quo. secondary education are located at the poor and marginalised communities in men for girls’ education. Although level of the community, school and areas where schools are few schooling challenging in practice, constructively Education-related: wider policy environment. opportunities are limited due to engaging with men in addition to ›› The quality of elementary ›› Preparing girls for secondary extraneous pressures. women will provide greater scope for schooling impacts the willingness of education from an early stage: ›› Creating a cadre of community- dismantling negative gender norms parents and children to participate in Designing and rolling out a based gender champions: Local and behaviour, thus paving the path secondary schooling. comprehensive engendered members of the community, for significant long-term benefits. ›› The demand for secondary educational initiative that begins especially educated women, may be ›› Addressing negative gender tropes schooling options within the villages/ providing support to girls at the identified as gender champions to in the school environment: Those hamlets studied far outweighs the stage of upper primary education, mentor and support girls in school. preparing school textbooks and existing supply. More options for i.e. in Classes VI-VII. Increasing An early area of intervention for those interpreting them, i.e. authors, secondary schooling are available girls’ retention beginning with these these gender champions could be teachers and students, are all located in larger villages and peri-urban classes, improving the quality of the development of a gender-aware within a socio-cultural environment settlements rather than in the remote school education and enhancing their risk and vulnerability mapping that shapes gendered norms, attitudes villages/hamlets. girls’ academic performance will go mechanism at the village level. Their and behaviour. Therefore, special ›› Secondary schooling is largely a long way towards ensuring more role would extend to identifying girls efforts must be made to undertake provided by the fee charging private girls make the transition from upper in vulnerable situations and trying a critical review of textbooks from sector and is unregulated with little primary to secondary education. to negotiate in favour of continuing a gender lens in order to identify or no government supervision or ›› Exploring alternate opportunities education (for instance, identifying and alter elements that emphasise specialized educational intervention for learning: Considering that girls’ girls who are at risk of being married traditional gender roles and negative to examine the curriculum being mobility is often restricted with early and persuading their families stereotypes, so that the teaching- taught to children. The lack of cost- increasing age, the possibilities to keep them in school and delay learning process can promote more free, state-run secondary schools is of furthering girls’ education marriage). They could also initiate equitable views. This is particularly a key factor limiting the educational through the use of Information and skill-based supplemental education true in the case of private schools and attainments of girls especially. Even Communications Technology (such that will provide long-term economic market-based educational aids which

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despite being significant stakeholders SELECT BIBLIOGRAPHY in the secondary education system, are not closely monitored by 1. ASER Centre (2015). Annual Status of Education government authority. Report (Rural) 2014. New Delhi: ASER Centre. › › Assigning specific school staff 2. Kingdon, G. and Muzamil, M. (2008) A political members with tracking school-based economy of education in India: The case of Uttar gender interventions: Assigning Pradesh. New Delhi: Oxford Policy Institute. specific staff members in schools Accessed online at:http://r4d.dfid.gov.uk/ with the responsibility of tracking PDF/Outputs/ImpOutcomes_RPC/OPI_ gender interventions is an effective KingdonMuzammil20081[1].pdf mechanism to monitor operations 3. Kumar, K. (2005) Political Agenda of Education: A and facilitate the process of decision- Study of Colonialist and Nationalist Ideas. (Second making for improving programming. Edition) New Delhi: Sage Publications. The key role of such staff persons 4. Kuvshinova, A. (2010) Dualities in theories of would be to serve as operational childhood. Accessed online at http://childstudies. and strategic focal points for livejournal.com/3941.html coordination and accountability on 5. Nandy, A. (1984) Reconstructing Childhood: A gender programming in schools. They Critique of the Ideology of Adulthood. Alternatives would also be responsible for regular/ 10 (3) (September.) periodic knowledge-sharing on best 6. Noor, M. (2006) Socio Economic Transformation of practices. Scheduled Castes in Uttar Pradesh (A Geographical › › Extending the Central Analysis). New Delhi: Concept Publishing Government’s MIS to cover Company. secondary education: The MHRD’s 7. Pai, S. (Ed.) (2007) Political Process in Uttar MIS system tracks only elementary Pradesh: Identity, Economic Reforms and Governance. education at present. Regular New Delhi: Pearson/Longman. collection, publication and analysis 8. Rehman, T. (2011) as the Language of of authentic data on children in Education in British India. Pakistan Journal of secondary education will add value to History and Culture, XXXII (2). Accessed online of the inequitable gender trends government and non-government changes in factors influencing at: http://www.nihcr.edu.pk/Latest_English_ existing at the national and state programmes aimed at improving children’s education will add value Journal/1.%20URDU%20AS%20THE%20 level to a greater degree. Although the educational attainments for boys and to long-term interventions. Apart LANGUAGE,%20Tariq%20Rahman%20FINAL.pdf investments made in primary schooling girls. from experts on education, inclusive 9. Sen, S. (2005) Colonial Childhoods: The Juvenile › over recent decades are showing › Research and policy advocacy social development and gender, Periphery of India 1850-1945. London: positive results in terms of an increased to extend the Right to Education to membership of the gender task force Anthem Press. demand for secondary education, a secondary education: At present, may be drawn from diverse fields 10. Weiner, M., Burra, N. and Bajpai, A. (2006) Born gender gap in education persists. While the RTE Act is limited to elementary such as law, marketing, supply chain Unfree: Child Labour, Education, and the State in this gap is reducing at a gradual pace, education. While strong data- management and even organizational India. New Delhi: Oxford University Press. based arguments exist in published behaviour. The emphasis on creating available data evidences a need for literature on the exponential benefits a combination of complementary the Central and State Governments of secondary education, particularly skill sets and experiences to guide as well as non-government bodies for girls, further context-specific the programme is for the purpose of to elevate and intensify their policy research at the national, state and developing swift and cutting-edge and programmatic response to the district level in India is required to strategic responses to emergent challenges that children, especially demonstrate the requirement and trends at ground level, as well as girls, face in accessing quality advantages of ensuring secondary for the capacity development of secondary education. The increasing education for all. Such research will programme staff. demand for education beyond the upper play a crucial role in strengthening primary level from poor communities policy advocacy efforts directed at CONCLUSION that cannot afford to pay for private making the provision of free and To conclude, secondary education is schooling makes a strong case in favour compulsory secondary education a recognised as a game changer not of government provision of free-of- matter of right under the Constitution only in terms of health, livelihood charge secondary schools at the village of India. generation and political participation, level in Maharajganj district, with ›› Setting up a gender task force: but also in terms of national additional focus on teacher recruitment Establishing a gender task force development. However, the state of and training, school infrastructure to provide a macro perspective on secondary education in Maharajganj is development and curriculum design. shifts in the policy scenario and abysmal, demonstrating a reflection

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