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The Soil of Abandoned Farmland, Cumberland Plain Woodland and Restored Vegetation: Implications for the Restoration of an Endangered Ecological Community

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The Soil of Abandoned Farmland, Cumberland Plain Woodland and Restored Vegetation: Implications for the Restoration of an Endangered Ecological Community The soil of abandoned farmland, Cumberland Plain Woodland and restored vegetation: implications for the restoration of an Endangered Ecological Community Jennifer Kit Fitzgerald A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy, University of Western Sydney, Australia. July, 2009. Cumberland Plain Woodland at Hoxton Park. Photo by Jennifer Kit Fitzgerald Abandoned farmland at Scheyville National Park. Photo by Jennifer Kit Fitzgerald ii Declaration This thesis does not incorporate, without acknowledgement, any material previously submitted for a degree or diploma in any university and to the best of my knowledge and belief it does not contain any material previously published or written by another person except where due reference is made in the text. Jennifer Kit Fitzgerald, July 2009. iii Abstract The restoration and management of Cumberland Plain Woodland, an „Endangered Ecological Community‟ found only in western Sydney, has occurred without a sound understanding of soil-vegetation relationships within this community. Since 1992, large tracts of abandoned farmland, which were originally covered with Cumberland Plain Woodland, have been planted with native trees and shrubs to facilitate woodland development. This approach was based on the theory of (small-scale) patch dynamics since it was envisaged that the developing overstorey would facilitate changes to the soil environment, which would advantage native woodland species and disadvantage exotic pasture species. To date, this approach has had limited success and importantly, the restoration of Cumberland Plain Woodland has ignored: (a) characterisation of the soil environment; (b) how different patch types (e.g. tree and shrub) influence the soil; (c) how past land use has affected the soil; and (d) the effects of revegetation on soil properties and processes. These issues are of the utmost importance since soil-related barriers to natural regeneration and restoration may exist as a result of a very long history of agriculture. This thesis addressed these issues by investigating the soils of abandoned farmland, Cumberland Plain Woodland and restored areas of various ages. In addition to this, the impacts of various patch types (woodland tree, shrub and open, as well as improved perennial pasture) on soil properties and processes, as well as the ground flora were examined. Several soil chemical properties and ecological processes were identified as being of particular importance for the ecology of Cumberland Plain Woodland and its restoration on abandoned farmland. The greatest impact on the soil from past agricultural land use was an increase in the concentration of nitrate, ammonium and total nitrogen within the pasture compared to the woodland patch types, although there was an appreciable amount of site-to-site variability. Despite this, data from two different studies, which were carried out over different spatio-temporal scales, suggest that the abandoned pasture and Cumberland Plain Woodland function differently with respect to the cycling of nitrogen and this may hinder restoration efforts. iv Acknowledgements Special thanks to my Supervisor, Dr. E. Charles Morris (UWS), for his support and help in securing much-needed funds for this research. Thanks also to Associate Professor David Eldridge (DNR/UNSW), who co-supervised this work during 2006 and part-way through 2007. The financial support I received from the University of Western Sydney, by way of a Postgraduate Research Award, was invaluable. I am also grateful to the Penrith Lakes Development Corporation and the Linnaean Society of New South Wales for funding. A very big thank you is extended to those who helped with field and laboratory work, namely: Mark Emmanuel (UWS), Dorothy Yu (UNSW) and Chris Myers (UNSW) for their assistance with soil chemical determinations and analytical techniques; Nyree Webster (UNSW) for her untiring field assistance; Adam Birnbaum (UNSW) for his help with respiration measurements and Peter Nichols (UWS) and Alison Hewitt (UNE) for assistance in the field. Thanks also to Frank Hemming (UNSW) for his help with plant identification, Monique de Barse (UWS) for help with PRIMER, Dani Drewry (UWS) and Penny Watson (UWS) for early discussions on Cumberland Plain Woodland and Graeme Hastwell (UWS) for his input on various topics relating to this research. I gratefully acknowledge the National Parks and Wildlife Service (Col Davidson and Jonathon Sanders), the Botanic Gardens Trust (Peter Cuneo), the Department of Defence (Marina Peterson and Daryle McKone), the Sydney Catchment Authority (Jane MacCormick) and Greening Australia (Tim Beshara) for allowing me access to land that was under their control. Special thanks to Debra Little, Lotte von Richter and Doug Benson (all Royal Botanic Gardens) for sharing their knowledge on the Cumberland Plain Woodland at Mount Annan. Very special thanks to my dear friend Carolyn Stonham, my mother Jan Smith and my nanna Kitty Fitzgerald, for their continued support and encouragement. Most importantly, I thank my partner Scott Mooney. v This thesis is dedicated to two very strong women, Jan Louise Smith and Kitty Fitzgerald. I also dedicate this work to my grandfather, Arthur Bridgewater, who was a man well-ahead of his time. vi Table of contents CHAPTER 1: The significance of Cumberland Plain Woodland and the need for soil-based research ..................................................................... 1 1.1 The importance of Cumberland Plain Woodland ............................................... 1 1.2 The New South Wales Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995 ................... 3 1.3 Recovery of threatened species, populations and ecological communities ......... 4 1.4 Previous research on the soils and vegetation of the Cumberland Plain ............. 7 1.5 The attempted restoration of Cumberland Plain Woodland ................................ 9 1.6 The impacts of agriculture on the soil and vegetation ...................................... 13 1.7 Changes to the soil and vegetation during old field succession ........................ 15 1.8 Potential effects of fire on the soil environment .............................................. 18 1.9 The restoration and management of degraded woodlands ................................ 20 1.10 Aims of this thesis .......................................................................................... 24 CHAPTER 2: Description of the Cumberland Plain and study sites ....................... 25 2.1 The Cumberland Plain .................................................................................... 25 2.1.1 Location ................................................................................................... 25 2.1.2 Climate .................................................................................................... 26 2.1.3 Physiography ........................................................................................... 31 2.1.4 Geology ................................................................................................... 32 2.1.5 Soil associations and soil landscapes ........................................................ 33 2.1.6 Soil types and soil materials ..................................................................... 35 2.1.7 European land use history ........................................................................ 36 2.1.7.1 Discovery and settlement of the Cumberland Plain 1789-1821 .......... 36 2.1.7.2 Agricultural consolidation of the Cumberland Plain 1821-1858 ......... 42 2.1.7.3 Industrialisation of the Cumberland Plain 1858-1900 ........................ 43 2.1.7.4 Urbanisation of the Cumberland Plain 1880-present day ................... 44 2.1.8 Vegetation ................................................................................................ 46 2.2 The study sites ................................................................................................ 49 2.2.1 Hoxton Park ............................................................................................. 49 2.2.1.1 Location ............................................................................................ 49 2.2.1.2 Climate and physical geography ........................................................ 49 2.2.1.3 Vegetation ........................................................................................ 51 2.2.1.4 European land use history ................................................................. 51 2.2.2 Mount Annan Botanic Garden .................................................................. 52 2.2.2.1 Location ............................................................................................ 52 2.2.2.2 Climate and physical geography ........................................................ 52 2.2.2.3 Vegetation ........................................................................................ 52 2.2.2.4 European land use history ................................................................. 53 2.2.3 Orchard Hills Defence Estate ................................................................... 53 2.2.3.1 Location ............................................................................................ 53 2.2.3.2 Climate and physical geography ........................................................ 53 2.2.3.3 Vegetation ........................................................................................ 54 2.2.3.4 European land use history ................................................................
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