Contents

List of Figures ...... xi Chapter 3. The Archaeological Context by Stephanie M. Whittlesey...... 37 List of Tables ...... xix The West Branch Site: Archaeological Context and Research ...... 38 Abstract ...... xxiii Research History and Archaeological Localities . . . . 38 Extent and Character of the West Branch Site ...... 44 Acknowledgments...... xxiv Disturbance Processes and Site Condition ...... 45 The Archaeological Context of the SRI Locus Chapter 1. Introduction and Background by and Project History ...... 46 Stephanie M. Whittlesey...... 1 Project History ...... 46 Site Setting ...... 2 Environmental and Cultural Disturbance Site Localities and Previous Research ...... 2 Processes ...... 47 SRI’s Investigations ...... 4 Fieldwork Summary ...... 48 Summary of Results ...... 5 Archaeological Testing ...... 48 Report Organization ...... 6 Data Recovery ...... 49 The SRI Locus Project in Context ...... 7 Results of Data Recovery ...... 51 Stratigraphy ...... 52 Chapter 2. Research Framework by Architectural Features ...... 52 Stephanie M. Whittlesey...... 9 Nonarchitectural Features ...... 56 Environmental Setting...... 9 Site Structure ...... 57 Climate ...... 9 and Occupation Sequence ...... 58 Geomorphology and Hydrology ...... 10 and Soils ...... 13 Chapter 4. Chronology and Settlement History by Vegetation ...... 17 William L. Deaver and Stephanie M. Whittlesey . . . . 59 Cultural-Historical Framework ...... 17 Data and Methods ...... 60 Paleoindian and Archaic Periods ...... 17 ...... 61 Early Formative Period ...... 22 Stratigraphy ...... 61 Hohokam Culture ...... 23 Archaeomagnetic Dating ...... 63 Pioneer and Colonial Periods ...... 23 Decorated Ceramics ...... 66 The Rincon Phase ...... 26 Spatial Relationships among Architectural Units . . . 69 Classic and Protohistoric Periods ...... 27 Scheme ...... 70 Research Themes ...... 29 Occupational Periods and Building Episodes ...... 73 Chronology ...... 29 Dating the Periods and Building Episodes ...... 80 Household Organization ...... 30 Ceramic Signatures ...... 81 Village and Community Organization ...... 31 Summary of Settlement History and Correspondence Subsistence, Agriculture, and Environment ...... 32 with the Tucson Basin Chronology ...... 84 Ceramic Production and Distribution ...... 33 Modeling Growth and Development of Mortuary Practices and Formation Processes ...... 35 West Branch ...... 84 Settlement History and Chronology ...... 86

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Occupational Period WB 1 ...... 86 Ceramic Sequences ...... 162 Occupational Period WB 2 ...... 90 Comparison of Ceramic Sequences Occupational Period WB 3 ...... 93 with Stratigraphic Information ...... 165 Environmental Correlates ...... 95 Comparison of Ceramic Sequences with Conclusions ...... 95 Archaeomagnetic Information ...... 165 Multidimensional Scaling ...... 166 Chapter 5. Archaeomagnetic Dating by The SRI Locus Ceramic Chronology ...... 167 William L. Deaver ...... 101 MDS Analysis of the SRI Locus Collection . . . . 167 Sampling and Laboratory Procedures ...... 102 Cluster Analysis ...... 170 : The WB2000 Dating Curve...... 104 Summary and Conclusions ...... 172 Secular Variation in the U.S. Southwest: SWCV595 . . 105 Archaeomagnetic Dating Curves and Methods . . . . 105 Chapter 7. Theoretical Framework: Factors Affecting Accuracy and Resolution of Cultural Landscapes by Archaeomagnetic Dates ...... 109 Stephanie M. Whittlesey...... 181 Data and Procedures ...... 111 Scale and Units of Analysis ...... 182 The WB2000 Data Set ...... 111 Dimensions of Cultural Landscapes ...... 183 Dating Archaeomagnetic Events from The Cognitive Dimension ...... 183 Associated Tree-Ring and Radiocarbon The Formal Dimension ...... 184 Dates ...... 112 The Historical Dimension ...... 185 Constructing WB2000 ...... 114 The Relational Dimension ...... 185 Finding the Ancient Path of Secular Variation The Ideological Dimension ...... 186 between A.D. 825 and 1125 ...... 114 Concepts and Consequences ...... 187 Calibrating the Curve ...... 117 Conclusion ...... 189 Dating Archaeomagnetic Samples ...... 118 Discussion ...... 121 Chapter 8: The Built Environment: Interpreting : High-Precision Architecture and Site Structure by Archaeomagnetic Dating ...... 123 Stephanie Whittlesey ...... 191 Archaeomagnetic Parameters ...... 124 Concepts ...... 192 Establishing Contemporaneity of The Formal Dimension: Architecture and Archaeological Events ...... 128 Functional Typology of Pit Structures ...... 193 The Chronological Sequence ...... 132 Construction Features ...... 193 Summary and Conclusions ...... 132 Size and Orientation ...... 200 Floors and Floor Features ...... 201 Chapter 6. An Exploration of Ceramic Structure Function ...... 203 Dating at the SRI Locus by Special-Purpose Structures ...... 207 William L. Deaver and Stephanie M. Whittlesey . . . 135 Habitation Structures ...... 208 Background and Previous Research ...... 135 Standard Habitation Structures ...... 209 The Principle of Change in Hohokam Other Habitation Structures ...... 209 Painted Ceramics ...... 136 Structures of Unknown Function ...... 209 Temporal Change in Tucson Basin “Field Houses” ...... 212 Decorated Ceramics ...... 138 Remodeling and Abandonment Processes ...... 212 Analytical Procedures ...... 144 Historical and Relational Dimensions: House Identifying Temporally Sensitive Ceramic Traits . . 144 Clusters and Courtyard Groups ...... 213 Selecting a Sample and Recording Traits ...... 145 House Clusters ...... 213 Recording Procedures ...... 148 Courtyard Groups ...... 214 Evaluation of Chronological Expectations ...... 153 Precincts ...... 216 Association of Characteristics in Deposits . . . 153 The Village ...... 221 Association of Characteristics on Artifacts . . . 156 The Ideological Dimension: Modeling Meaning Associations of Characteristics in Site Structure ...... 222 with Decorated Wares ...... 156 Summary and Conclusions ...... 227 Associations of Characteristics with Vessel Form ...... 159 Chapter 9: Domestic Organization by Association among Decorative Stephanie M. Whittlesey ...... 231 Characteristics ...... 160 Concepts and Methods ...... 231 Correlating Ceramic Characteristics with . . . 160 Identification Procedures...... 232

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Activity Analysis ...... 233 Paleobotanical Data ...... 289 Activity Residues ...... 235 Recovery Context ...... 289 Spatial and Temporal Variation in Domestic Results ...... 289 Group Organization ...... 235 Formal-Functional Classes Irvington Road Locus ...... 235 (Intended Technofunction) ...... 289 Wyoming Street Locus ...... 238 Dry-Food-Storage Vessels ...... 290 SRI Locus–Wyoming Street Locus ...... 246 Cooking Vessels ...... 292 SRI Locus ...... 247 Processing, Transfer, Serving, and Cook Avenue Locus ...... 253 Consumption Vessels ...... 294 Sindle Place Locus ...... 255 Unplaced Vessels ...... 294 Activity Organization in Intramural and Actual Function: Use Alteration, Contents, Extramural Space ...... 256 and Recovery Contexts ...... 296 Cooking ...... 256 Dry-Food-Storage Vessels ...... 296 Food Preparation and Consumption ...... 257 Cooking Vessels ...... 300 Storage ...... 258 Food-Preparation, Transfer, Serving, and Manufacturing ...... 258 Consumption Vessels and Nonfood- Ritual Activities ...... 259 Processing or -Storage Vessels ...... 302 Refuse Disposal ...... 259 Liquid Fermenting or Storage ...... 307 Domestic Organization ...... 259 Multipurpose Vessels ...... 308 Domestic Groups ...... 260 Vessels of Unknown Function ...... 309 Households as Production Units ...... 262 Comparing Intended and Actual Function ...... 310 Households and Transmission of Property ...... 267 Wares and Intended Function ...... 310 Variability in Household Size and Complexity . . . . 267 Formal-Functional Classes ...... 311 Conclusions ...... 269 Storage Containers ...... 311 Cooking Vessels ...... 311 Chapter 10: Investigations into Processing and Serving Containers ...... 311 Ceramic Technology by Function and Technological Characteristics ...... 312 Karen G. Harry ...... 271 Permeability ...... 312 Description of Raw Materials ...... 271 Paste Inclusions ...... 312 Clays ...... 271 Vessel-Wall Thickness ...... 312 Temper ...... 271 Life of Ceramic Containers: Slips and Paints ...... 275 Production, Use, and Discard Contexts ...... 313 Firing Technology ...... 275 Production ...... 313 Comparison of Materials Quality...... 276 Use ...... 314 Workability of Clays ...... 276 Food and Liquid Storage ...... 314 Strength Analysis of Clays...... 278 Food Processing and Consumption ...... 315 Strength Analysis of Tempers ...... 278 Cooking ...... 316 Strength Analysis of Wares ...... 279 Reuse, Recycling, and Reshaping ...... 317 Discussion ...... 281 Reuse and Multifunctionality ...... 317 Recycling ...... 317 Chapter 11: Ceramic Containers by Reshaping ...... 318 Stephanie M. Whittlesey ...... 283 Summary ...... 318 Data and Methods ...... 283 Discard ...... 318 Inferring Intended Function ...... 284 Household Ceramic Assemblages ...... 319 Vessel Morphology and Dimensions ...... 284 Summary and Discussion ...... 321 Defining Formal-Functional Vessel Classes . . . . . 285 Dry-Food-Storage Vessels ...... 285 Chapter 12: Figurines and Other Cooking Vessels ...... 285 Modeled-Ceramic Artifacts by Food-Preparation, Transfer, Serving, and Stephanie M. Whittlesey ...... 323 Consumption Vessels and Nonfood- Reel-Shaped Artifacts ...... 323 Processing or Storage Vessels ...... 286 Figurines ...... 324 Liquid Storage and Transport Vessels ...... 286 Comparisons ...... 325 Technological Characteristics ...... 287 Hohokam Figurines and the Religious-Ritual Inferring Actual Function ...... 287 Complex ...... 327 Use-Alteration Characteristics ...... 288

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Figurines and the Introduction of Ceramic Design Organization ...... 384 Containers...... 329 Design Classes ...... 385 Summary ...... 331 Symmetry ...... 389 Function, Substitution, and Embedding ...... 390 Chapter 13: Rincon Phase Descriptions of Styles ...... 390 Polychrome Ceramics by The Colonial Style and Rincon Style A ...... 392 Stephanie M. Whittlesey ...... 333 Dating ...... 392 SRI Locus Polychrome Ceramics ...... 333 Design Organization ...... 393 Technology ...... 334 Decorative Units and Design Principles ...... 396 Construction and Finishing Techniques ...... 334 Scale of Design ...... 399 Paste, Pigments, and Slips ...... 335 Vessel Form, Design Fields, and Color Schemes . 399 Surface Finish ...... 336 Rincon Style A ...... 401 Vessel Morphology ...... 336 Design Organization ...... 402 Design ...... 337 Decorative Units and Design Principles ...... 403 Color Combinations ...... 337 Vessel Form and Design Fields ...... 403 Design Field ...... 339 Color Schemes ...... 405 Design Layout ...... 339 Sedentary Style and Rincon Style B ...... 406 Design Elements ...... 339 Dating ...... 407 Reconstructible Vessels ...... 340 Design Organization ...... 407 Comparisons to Other Rincon Phase Polychrome Scale of Design ...... 412 Ceramics ...... 341 Decorative Units and Design Principles ...... 414 Classification ...... 341 Vessel Form and Design Fields ...... 416 Design Structure ...... 343 Color Schemes ...... 420 Style ...... 351 Designs without Style: Rincon Style AB ...... 421 Function ...... 355 A Commentary on Pottery Styles ...... 425 Regional Distribution and Dating ...... 357 Comments on The Colonial Style ...... 428 Production and Distribution ...... 359 Comments on the Sedentary Style ...... 431 Comparisons ...... 360 Final Thoughts ...... 432 Salado Ceramics and Roosevelt Red Ware ...... 361 Northern Chihuahua Ceramic Tradition ...... 361 Chapter 15: Chemical Characterization The Babocomari Tradition ...... 362 of Ceramic Pastes by Trincheras Tradition ...... 363 Karen G. Harry and Dragoon Tradition ...... 364 María Nieves Zedeño...... 437 San Simon Tradition ...... 366 Methods ...... 437 Mogollon Tradition and Mimbres Polychrome . . . . 367 Sample Selection ...... 437 Sahuarita Polychrome ...... 368 Weak-Acid-Extraction Method ...... 439 Rio Rico Polychrome ...... 368 Total-Dissolution Method ...... 440 El Paso Polychrome ...... 368 Data Reduction...... 440 Santa Cruz Polychrome ...... 369 Results ...... 441 Tucson and Maverick Mountain Polychromes . . . . 369 Evaluation of Ceramic Groups Identified White Mountain Red Ware ...... 371 from Temper Differences ...... 441 Polychromes of Northwestern Mexico ...... 371 Evaluation of Ceramic Groups Identified Discussion ...... 371 through Ward Cluster Analysis...... 442 Evaluation of Chemical Data Obtained Chapter 14: A Consideration of Style in from Clays...... 442 Colonial and Sedentary Period Ceramics: Evaluation of the Weak-Acid-Extraction Data . . . . . 442 Rincon Styles A and B Revisited by Data Interpretion ...... 446 William L. Deaver ...... 377 An Evaluation of Ceramic Specialization A Brief Discussion of Style ...... 378 at the West Branch Site...... 446 Style Defined ...... 378 Variation in Ceramic Production Practices The Social Relevance of Style ...... 378 at the West Branch Site...... 450 The Historical Relevance of Style ...... 380 Discussion ...... 451 Approaches to Analyzing Styles ...... 380 The Concept of the Schema ...... 381 Design Organization and Symmetry ...... 382

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Chapter 16: Craft Specialization: Economic Organization ...... 496 Context, Models, And Theory by Consumption ...... 496 Karen G. Harry and Trixi Bubemyre...... 453 Production ...... 498 A Review of The Evidence...... 453 Scale ...... 498 Compositional Data ...... 453 Intensity and Efficiency ...... 499 Distribution of Ceramic-Production Materials . . . . . 456 Variability of Products ...... 500 Trade or Mobility? ...... 459 Distribution ...... 501 Discussion...... 459 Causes of Craft Specialization ...... 502 Economic Organization ...... 460 Summary and Discussion ...... 505 Dimensions of Consumption...... 460 Scale and Intensity ...... 460 Chapter 18: Mesoamerica, the Hohokam, Location and Nucleation of Consumers ...... 463 and the Tucson Basin by Dimensions of Production ...... 463 Stephanie M. Whittlesey ...... 509 Context ...... 463 Mesoamerica and the U.S. Southwest ...... 509 Concentration ...... 464 The Mesoamerican Religious Complex...... 512 Size and Composition of the Production Unit. . . . 464 Cosmological Principles ...... 512 Scale of the Production Output ...... 464 Themes and Religious Rituals...... 513 Segregation of Activities...... 465 Deities and Cults ...... 514 Intensity and Efficiency ...... 466 Iconography and Symbolism...... 515 Variability of Products ...... 467 The Sacred Landscape ...... 517 Dimensions of Distribution ...... 469 Parallels Among the Gila River Hohokam Range and Direction ...... 470 and in the Tucson Basin ...... 518 Centralization ...... 470 Cosmology ...... 518 Discussion of Economic Organization ...... 473 Themes and Rituals ...... 519 Ceramic Specialization Models ...... 475 Deities and Cults ...... 520 Review of Previous Models...... 475 Iconography and Symbolism...... 521 Evaluation of the Models...... 476 The Sacred Landscape ...... 523 Evaluation of the Subsistence-Supplement Mesoamerican Origins ...... 524 Model ...... 476 Changing : The Sedentary Period Wealth...... 476 in the Tucson Basin ...... 527 Subsistence Potential ...... 478 Conclusions ...... 529 Evaluation of the Social Model ...... 480 Alternative Model ...... 480 Chapter 19: Data Summary by Discussion of Ceramic-Specialization Models. . . . . 482 Karen G. Harry ...... 531 Some Concluding Thoughts ...... 483 Site Structure and Chronology ...... 531 Environment and Subsistence...... 532 Chapter 17: Pots, Potters, and Models: Subsistence Patterns...... 533 An Alternative View of Craft Temporal Trends...... 535 Specialization at West Branch Craft Manufacture and Nonsubsistence by Stephanie M. Whittlesey ...... 485 Production ...... 536 A Review of the Evidence ...... 486 Exchange and Interaction with Ceramic-Compositional Data ...... 486 Surrounding Regions ...... 537 Petrographic Data ...... 487 Self-Tempered Clays ...... 488 Appendix A: Dating Summary for Key Grains ...... 490 Architectural Features...... 539 Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectroscopy . . . . . 492 Distribution of Ceramic-Production Materials . . . . 493 Appendix B: Archaeomagnetic Dating...... 601 Trade or Mobility? ...... 494 Year-Round Occupation versus Appendix C: Ceramic Dating ...... 619 Residential Mobility ...... 494 Quantities of Exchanged Pottery ...... 496 References Cited ...... 639

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