The Unpaid Care Work and the Labour Market. an Analysis of Time Use Data Based on the Latest World Compilation of Time-Use Surveys

The Unpaid Care Work and the Labour Market. An analysis of time use data based on the latest World Compilation of Time-use Surveys

Jacques Charmes The Unpaid Care Work and the Labour Market. An analysis of time use data based on the latest World Compilation of Time-use Surveys Compilation of Time-use and the Labour Market. An analysis of time use data based on latest World The Unpaid Care Work

Gender, Equality and Diversity & ILOAIDS

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The Unpaid Care Work and the Labour Market. An analysis of time use data based on the latest World Compilation of Time-use Surveys / Jacques Charmes; International Labour Office – Geneva: ILO, 2019.

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The Unpaid Care Work and the Labour Market. An analysis of time use data based on the latest World Compilation of Time-use Surveys Jacques Charmes

Preface

In the coming years, the need for care work is likely to increase due to demographic, socio- economic and environmental transformations. Across the world, unpaid carers, especially women, meet the large majority of care needs. For an analysis of unpaid care work, time- use data are one of the most important data sources to look at, especially considering the important gender dimension of its work. How much time do people spend on doing paid and unpaid care work? How do women and men spend their time differently on unpaid care work? Are there any differences in time use among the regions? How do socio- economic factors influence people’s choices to do paid and unpaid care work?

To address these questions, the Unpaid Care Work and Labour Market: An Analysis of Time Use Data on the Latest World Compilation of Time-use Surveys provides a comprehensive overview of the extent, characteristics and historical trends of unpaid care work based on the analysis of the most recent time-use surveys carried out at the national level across the world. By discussing the concepts and methodological approaches which underlie the analysis of time-use data, this research paper shows the differences in time spent on unpaid care work between women and men and among people with different socioeconomic characteristics: geographical location, age group, educational level, activity status, employment status, income group, marital status and presence and age of children in the household.

Through examining the trends in time spent on paid and unpaid care work over the last twenty years, this paper shows that women have unequal accesses to the labour market due to a significant extent to the disproportionate amount of time they spend on unpaid care work. Across the world, without exception, women carry out three-quarters of unpaid care work, or more than 75 per cent of the total hours provided. Women dedicate on average 3.2 times more time than men to unpaid care work. There is no country where women and men perform an equal share of unpaid care work. As a result, women are constantly time poor, which constrains their participation in the labour market. The paper highlights the importance of collecting and publishing sex-disaggregated data and calls for more robust methodologies to harmonize and improve the comparability of time- use survey data across countries.

The Unpaid Care Work and Labour Market: An Analysis of Time Use Data on the Latest World Compilation of Time-use Surveys is part of a series of papers that was commissioned as background research for the major ILO report Care work and care jobs for the future of decent work. This major report and related research build a compelling and evidence-based case for placing good quality care work as a priority in macroeconomic, social protection, labour and migration policy agendas. These publications represent an important contribution to the ILO’s women at work centenary initiative, which has been examining why progress in closing the gender gaps in the world of work has been so slow and what needs to be done for real transformation. It has also

3 been identifying innovative action to guide work on gender equality and non- discrimination as the ILO enters its second centenary.

Shauna Olney Chief Gender, Equality and Diversity & ILOAIDS Branch Conditions of Work and Equality Department

Acknowledgements

This research paper was authored by Jacques Charmes. Inputs were provided by Laura Addati (GED&ILOAIDS), Umberto Cattaneo (GED&ILOAIDS), Valeria Esquivel (EMPLAB), Monica Castillo (STATISTICS), Elisa Benes (STATISTICS), Kieran Walsh (STATISTICS). We would like to thank Nancy Folbre for her kind review and valuable inputs. We are also grateful to Mai Hattori (GED&ILOAIDS) for her support in the publication of this paper.

Table of contents

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………………7

Section 1: Concepts and methodologies……………………………………………………………………..…8

1) Concepts…………………………………………………………………………………...……………………………8 2) Methodologies…………………………………………………………………………………...…………………13

Section 2: Gender variations in paid work and unpaid care work by country in the various regions of the world…………………………………………………………………………………...……………..17

Section 3: Gender variations in paid work and unpaid care work in the various regions of the world: global averages…………………………………………………………………………………..…….47 1) World estimates…………………………………………………………………………………..…………..…...47 2) Estimates by regions defined by income group………………………………………………………49 3) Estimates by regions and sub-regions……………………………………………………………………54

Section 4: Unpaid care work according to various socioeconomic characteristics…………72

1) Paid work and unpaid care work by geographical location………………………………………72 2) Paid work and unpaid care work by age group………………….…………………………………….88 3) Paid work and unpaid care work by educational level………………….…………………………97 4) Paid work and unpaid care work by activity status………………….……………………….……101 5) Paid work and unpaid care work by employment status………………….……………………102 6) Paid work and unpaid care work by income group………………….…………………………….106 7) Paid work and unpaid care work by marital status………………….…………………………….110 8) Paid work and unpaid care work by presence and age of children in the household…113

Section 5: Trends in paid work and unpaid care work by regions………………………………..116

Conclusion………………………..……………………………………………………………………………………137

References of time use surveys…………………………………………………………………………….….138

Introduction

The present exercise is a tentative compilation of data on unpaid work and more specifically on unpaid care work based on the systematic analysis of the most recent time- use surveys carried out at national level across the various regions of the world. It has not been attempted to gather micro data of all surveys – a too long-standing and lasting task ending with a too little number of countries – but rather to rely on existing official publications from the National Statistical Offices or Technical Departments, currently available on the websites of these institutions.

While our previous work for the 2015 Human Development Report (Time use across the world. Findings of a world compilation of time-use surveys, Working paper for the Human Development report 2015, New York, UNDP-HDRO, 90p. http://www.hdr.undp.org/en/content/time-use-across-world-findings-world- compilation-time-use-surveys) focussed on unpaid care work analysed globally and by sex at national and regional levels, the present report attempts to analyse unpaid care work by sex and by socio-economic characteristics: geographical location (urban-rural), age groups, marital status, education level, activity status, employment status, income group, and presence and age of children in the household. It also attempts to analyse trends over time, as many countries have repeated their time-use surveys, sometimes on more than 5 decades.

These are the main socio-economic characteristics that are the most significant for labour market analyses and that are the most widely available in the publications. There are many other characteristics that would be of interest for the analysis of unpaid care work. Yet, one of the findings of the present compilation is to highlight the fact that many countries have carried out such surveys without having the sense of the necessity of engendering time-use statistics: for example, the time-use tabulations are not systematically disaggregated by sex. Sex remains a variable like the others – one of many analytical dimensions – instead of being cross-tabulated with all other dimensions.

The short list of variables selected for this report (geographical location, age group, educational level, marital status, activity status, employment status, income group, presence and age of children), was tentatively gathered. The number of countries varies depending on the variable. Still they are far from being easily comparable, because the harmonisation process seems to have not yet started, a supplementary evidence of the underutilisation of time-use data. The present work intends to be a step toward a better sensitisation of users as well as producers towards a more complete utilisation of time- use data.

In a first section we will first recall the concepts and methodologies on which the analysis of time use is based. A second and third section will show the gender variations in paid and unpaid work in the various regions of the world and the global estimates. The fourth section will proceed to the analysis of unpaid work according to various socio-economic characteristics across regions. Finally, section five will present trends over the last twenty years.

Section 1: Concepts and methodologies

1) Concepts

The present study measures the unpaid care work as captured by time-use surveys.

The unpaid care work is based on the definition of the Non-SNA work in the System of National Accounts (SNA) in its 1993 and 2008 revisions.

Work is a generic term covering all activities said to be productive and as such falling within the “general production boundary”.

The productive activities satisfy the “third-party criterion” (or “third person criterion”) that was firstly defined by Alfred Marshall in its “Economics of Industry” in 1879 where he pointed out “all other services which one person may be hired to perform for another”, then put into discussion among the economists by Margaret Reid in her “Economics of Household Production” in 1934 where she states that “if an activity is of such character that it might be delegated to a paid worker, then that activity shall be deemed productive”.

The SNA production boundary is more restrictive and includes “all production actually destined for the market, whether for sale or barter. It also includes all goods or services provided free to individual households or collectively to the community by government units or Non-Profit Institutions serving households. (…). The SNA therefore includes all production of goods for own use within its production boundary, as the decision whether goods are to be sold or retained for own use can be made even after they have been produced, but it excludes all production of services for own final consumption within households (except for the services produced by employing paid domestic staff and the own-account production of housing services by owner-occupiers).” (SNA, 2008, §§ 1.40- 1.42).

Therefore the unpaid care work includes all non-SNA productive activities falling within the general production boundary. Following the Guide to Producing Statistics on Time Use: Measuring Paid and Unpaid Work (United Nations Statistical Division, 2004) 1 and the International Classification of Activities for Time-Use Statistics (ICATUS)2 unpaid care work and paid work can be defined as follows:

Unpaid care work (or non-SNA work activities) consists in the three categories of the classification: - Providing unpaid domestic services for own final use within households (06); - Providing unpaid caregiving services to household members (07); - Providing community services and help to other households (08).

Paid work (or SNA work activities) is defined as comprising:

1 https://unstats.un.org/unsd/publication/SeriesF/SeriesF_93E.pdf 2 The new ICATUS 2016 (https://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic-social/time-use/icatus-2016/) now distinguishes, in accordance with the 19th ICLS : Unpaid domestic services for household and family members (3); Unpaid caregiving services for household and family members (4); Unpaid volunteer, trainee and other unpaid work (5). And for SNA work: employment and related activities (1); production of goods for own final use (2). However this new classification has not been applied yet

- Work for corporations/quasi-corporations, non-profit institutions and government (formal sector work) (01) - Work for household in primary production activities (02) - Work for household in non-primary production activities (03) - Work for household in construction activities (04) - Work for household providing services for income (05)

Reference to the SNA plays a major role in time-use statistics because one of the objectives of such data collection is to build satellite accounts of household production that come and complement the central framework of the national accounts.

Reference to the labour force concepts is not less important as time-use surveys collect data on time spent in employment.

Since their conception, there has been a close link between the concepts of labour force and employment on one hand, and the scope of production activities as measured by the National Accounts on the other. From 1982 to 2013, the "employed" was defined by international statistics standards adopted by the International Conference of Labour Statisticians (ICLS) as comprising all persons above a specified age who during a specified brief period were either in paid employment or in self-employment. Prior to 2013 there was a one-to-one correspondence between the productive activities of the employed and the production boundary as defined by the United Nations System of National Accounts (SNA). Currently, employment is a much narrower concept capturing work for pay or profit only, as per Resolution 1 of 19th ICLS in 2013. Yet, it should be noted that the definitions adopted in the TUS this report is based on in all cases utilize the pre-19th ICLS definition of employment.

As a matter of fact, before the adoption of the new standards in 2013, measurement of employment was intended to include work for pay or profit as well as some forms of unpaid work (included in SNA work activities). However, the unpaid forms of work that were included as part of employment prior to 2013 such as own-use production of goods, where the production was intended for own use (e.g. subsistence farming), could be excluded from measurement if they were not deemed to represent an important contribution to household consumption. As a result, these activities were poorly captured or not at all measured to estimate employment in labour force surveys. This meant that workers engaged in subsistence farming were not well-identified or monitored for policy purposes. Attempts to use the results of time-use surveys for a better capture of women’s SNA activities in countries where female labour force participation rates are low have turned short.

Similarly, until 2013 there were no international statistical standards to define work in own-use provision of services or volunteer work, so that work such as unpaid care work in one’s own household or volunteer care work for other households even when captured was not measured in any consistent way. And as the SNA (2008) puts it: “The location of the production boundary in the SNA is a compromise, but a deliberate one that takes account of the needs of most users. In this context it may be noted that in labour force statistics economically active persons are defined as those engaged in productive activities as defined in the SNA. If the production boundary were extended to include the production of personal and domestic services by members of households for their own

9 final consumption, all persons engaged in such activities would become self-employed, making unemployment virtually impossible by definition. This illustrates the need to confine the production boundary in the SNA and other related statistical systems to market activities or fairly close substitutes for market activities”.

Although water and wood fetching have long been considered as production of goods by the System of National Accounts and thus an economic activity, most labour force surveys did not count them as part of the activities to identify the employed. The 2006 Integrated Labour Force Survey of the United Republic of Tanzania was one exception 3 . More common has been for countries to measure these activities separately from employment or to not measure them at all. In this report these activities - where measured - have been included in “paid work” as part of SNA productive activities.

In an attempt to reconcile these various conceptions and definitions, the 19th International Conference of Labour Statisticians (ICLS 2013) recognised “the need to revise and broaden the existing standards in order to enable better statistical measurement of participation of all persons in all forms of work and in all sectors of the economy (…) in particular (…) to estimate volume of work or labour input for national production accounts, including existing ‘satellite’ accounts, and the contribution of all forms of work to economic development, to household livelihoods and to the well-being of individuals and society”.

Resolution I adopted by the Conference identifies – for separate measurement- “five mutually exclusive forms of work:

(a) own-use production work comprising production of goods and services for own final use; (b) employment work comprising work performed for others in exchange for pay or profit; (c) unpaid trainee work comprising work performed for others without pay to acquire workplace experience or skills; (d) volunteer work comprising non-compulsory work performed for others without pay; (e) other work activities (not defined in this resolution)".

Chart 1 below presents the position of these various forms of work in relation with the production boundaries of the System of National Accounts.

3 See section 5.7 of the national report of ILFS 2006, p.39: “As explained above, employment in the private sector was divided into four sub-sectors namely; agriculture, informal sector, household-related economic work and other private. Other household chores were excluded, but fetching water and collecting firewood activities were included in the category household-related economic work in line with the SNA.”

Chart 1: Forms of work and the System of National Accounts 2008

Source: Resolution 1 concerning statistics of work, employment and labour underutilization, 19th ICLS, ILO Geneva, 2013.

‘Unpaid care work’ which is referred to in this report corresponds to the own-use production work of services and to the volunteer work in households producing services (in light grey on the chart), all activities inside the general production boundary of the SNA, but outside the strict SNA production boundary.

Important note about the concept of unpaid care work used in this report

In this report unpaid care work is limited to the unpaid services that are not taken into account in the compilation of GDP. It is neither comprised of the work undertaken by contributing family workers nor of activities such as fetching water and firewood that are not considered as services but as primary activities (in the sense of extractive or picking industries) by the System of National Accounts. Although these activities are part of the problem of women’s work invisibility, there are several reasons why this report does not include them within unpaid care work. Firstly the compilation of time spent by contributing family workers would require to have the data disaggregated by employment status and furthermore by detailed employment status (whereas many countries only disaggregate their data between paid employment and self-employment). Secondly, subsistence agriculture and other production of goods for own final use can hardly be considered as being care work. And thirdly in most developing countries agricultural production is measured by crop areas and yield per acre rather than by the output of the farming economic units and therefore data on agricultural employment are only used for the distribution between market and non market agriculture, or subsistence and market agriculture, as well as for the distribution of value added between compensation of employees and mixed income. As a wage is imputed to “contributing” family workers in national accounts, time measurement of unpaid work extended to family workers would introduce an obstacle to the comparison between total GDP and domestic production valued on the basis of time spent in unpaid care work. Despite these difficulties, it is clear that the estimation of total unpaid work including the production of goods and services for the market by unpaid ‘contributing’ family workers is an important indicator that could be calculated and compared to unpaid care work in a selected set of developing countries.

Box 1 below is an extract from the resolution of the 19th ICLS highlighting the definitions of the components of ‘unpaid care work’. Although these new definitions have been adopted, and because of the extensive and numerous works that have referred to the concept, we will continue to use in this report the notion of ‘unpaid care work’ for convenience and clarity.

Box 1: Definitions of the components of ‘unpaid care work’ by the Resolution concerning statistics of work, employment and labour utilization adopted by the 19th ICLS in 2013

Persons in own-use production work are defined as all those of working age who, during a short reference period, performed any activity to produce goods or provide services for own final use, where: (a) “any activity” refers to work performed in the various activities under paragraph 22(b) and (c) for a cumulative total of at least one hour; (b) production of “goods” (within the 2008 SNA production boundary) covers: (i) producing and/or processing for storage agricultural, fishing, hunting and gathering products; (ii) collecting and/or processing for storage mining and forestry products, including firewood and other fuels; (iii) fetching water from natural and other sources; (iv) manufacturing household goods (such as furniture, textiles, clothing, footwear, pottery or other durables, including boats and canoes); (v) building, or effecting major repairs to, one’s own dwelling, farm buildings, etc.; (c) provision of “services” (beyond the 2008 SNA production boundary but inside the General production boundary) covers: (i) household accounting and management, purchasing and/or transporting goods; (ii) preparing and/or serving meals, household waste disposal and recycling; (iii) cleaning, decorating and maintaining one’s own dwelling or premises, durables and other goods, and gardening; (iv) childcare and instruction, transporting and caring for elderly, dependent or other household members, etc.; (d) “for own final use” is interpreted as production where the intended destination of the output is mainly for final use by the producer in the form of capital formation, or final consumption by household members, or by family members living in other households: (i) the intended destination of the output is established in reference to the specific goods produced or services provided, as self-declared (i.e. mainly for own final use); (ii) in the case of agricultural, fishing, hunting or gathering goods intended mainly for own consumption, a part or surplus may nevertheless be sold or bartered.

Persons in volunteer work are defined as all those of working age who, during a short reference period, performed any unpaid, non-compulsory activity to produce goods or provide services for others, where: (a) “any activity” refers to work for at least one hour; (b) “unpaid” is interpreted as the absence of remuneration in cash or in kind for work done or hours worked; nevertheless, volunteer workers may receive some small form of support or stipend in cash, when below one third of local market wages (e.g. for out-of-pocket expenses or to cover living expenses incurred for the activity), or in kind (e.g. meals, transportation, symbolic gifts); (c) “non-compulsory” is interpreted as work carried out without civil, legal or administrative requirement, that are different from the fulfilment of social responsibilities of a communal, cultural or religious nature; (d) production “for others” refers to work performed: (i) through, or for organizations comprising market and non-market units (i.e. organization- based volunteering) including through or for self-help, mutual aid or community-based groups of which the volunteer is a member; (ii) for households other than the household of the volunteer worker or of related family members (i.e. direct volunteering).

2) Methodologies

Sources

Time-use surveys are the main sources of data for the measurement of “unpaid care work”, comprised by own-use production work and volunteer work as defined above.

Data collection on time spent in paid and unpaid work is still a challenge although the experience of time-use surveys is now rather long, especially in Europe. But the harmonisation of the methods of data collection is far from being achieved. Today, the most reliable and robust data on time-use are based on diaries (that is, the complete enumeration of activities during a 24-hour lapse time) and international classifications of time-use activities rather than on methodologies based on a set of various stylised questions on a reference period of a week. Recently, many household surveys have added short sections or modules on time-use that follow synthetic methodologies (short tasks surveys, stylized diaries) that are not 24-hour diaries. The present compilation relies on time-use surveys that were either stand-alone or full-fledged diaries as modules of regular household surveys.

More specifically, this report is based on the compilation of a hundred and thirty three (133) time-use surveys carried out in 76 countries through diaries, and at national level (Table 1 hereafter). The compilation excludes the household surveys collecting time use data through a short list of stylised questions (for instance the Living Standards Measurement Study LSMS-type of surveys). The only exception to this rule is for Latin America where, in the absence of time-use surveys based on diaries, the method used was a long and detailed set of questions on a week reference period. In this respect, the comparison of the findings for Latin America with the other regions is highlighting and must be interpreted with caution in the sense that it shows the tendency of stylised questions to overestimate the time dedicated to unpaid activities, one of the reasons for that being that it mixes simultaneous activities. Cabo Verde in Africa has also used the same method. Several surveys used the technique of diaries in Latin America: Cuba in 2001 (but the results were only published by region), Argentina (for the city of Buenos Aires that was added to the compilation), Chile for Gran Santiago in 2008 (not added to this review because a national survey was carried out more recently, Brazil in 2010 and the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela in 2012 (but no publications followed for these two countries, this is why they are not mentioned in this review)4.

The list of surveys, publications and url links are provided in references and a summary of metadata is provided in Annex (Table A1).5

4 For more details, see : Esquivel, Valeria (2017), Time-use Surveys in Latin America : 2005-15, in : Hirway, Indira ed. (2017), Mainstreaming Unpaid Work, Time-use Data in Developing Countries, New Delhi, Oxford University Press. 5 The time-use survey of Cameroon (2015) is under print (but not yet official), the survey for the United Kingdom UK (2015) has not provided results yet, but the required indicators were kindly provided from the microdata base by Dr. Jooyeoun Suh, at the Centre for Time Use Research, Oxford University and the detailed results of the time use survey for China (2008) were kindly provided by Pr. Xiao-Yuan Dong from the University of Winnipeg because the official publication of the survey was out of print. 13

Table 1: List of time-use surveys by year and region South- Central and Northern, Arab Sub-Saharan Eastern Asia Southern Latin Eastern Northern North Africa Eastern Asia Western Western and countries Africa and the Asia America Europe (6 America (3 countries (5 countries Asia Southern Europe (4 countries (10 countries Pacific (3 countries (12 countries countries/ (2 countries /3 surveys) /12 surveys) (5 countries (22 countries /5 surveys) /13 surveys) (4 countries /3 surveys) /15 surveys) 7 surveys) /19 surveys) /6 surveys) /42 surveys) /9 surveys) Canada (1992) Iraq Benin (1998) Australia (1992) Argentina (Buenos Albania Belarus Algeria (2012) China (2008) India (1998-99) Armenia (2008) (1998) (2005) (2007) (2015) (1997) (2006) Aires) (2005) (2010-11) (2014-15) (2010) (2015) Iran, Islamic Morocco Oman Japan (2001) (2006) Azerbaijan (2008) Austria Bulgaria Cameroon (2014) Cambodia (2004) Republic of Chile (2015) (2011-12) (2007-08) (2011) (2016) (2012) (2008-09) (2009-10) (2009) United States (2003) (2004) Occupied Belgium (1999) (2005) Korea, Republic of (2005) (2006) Palestinian New Zealand (2013) Hungary Tunisia (1999) (2004) Kazakhstan Colombia (2007) (2008) Territory Cabo Verde (2012) (1998-99) Pakistan (2007) Denmark (2001) (1999-2000) (2005-06) (2009) (2012) (2012-13) (2009) (2010) (1999-2000) (2009-10) Estonia (2009-10) (2014) (2011) (2012) (2012-13) (1999-2000) (2009-10) (2013) Moldova, Qatar Mongolia Thailand (2004) Finland (1979) (1987) (2014) Ethiopia (2013) Kyrgyzstan (2010) Costa Rica (2004) Republic of (2012-13) (2007) (2011) (2009) (2014-15) (1999) (2009) (2015) (2011-12) (2016) Taiwan, China Turkey (2006) France (1974) Poland Ghana (2009) Cuba (2001) (2004) (2014-15) (1986) (1999) (2010) (2003-04) Germany (2001-02) Romania Madagascar (2001) Ecuador (2012) (2012) (2011-12) Mali (2008) El Salvador (2010) Greece (2013-14) Ireland (2005) Mexico (2002) Mauritius Italy (1988-89) (2009) (2003) (2002-03) (2008-09) (2014) (2013-14) South Africa (2000) Panama (2011) Latvia (2003) (2010) Lithuania (2003) Tanzania, United Macedonia, the Former Republic of (2006) Paraguay (2016) Yugoslav Republic of (2014) (2014-15) Peru (2010) Netherlands (2005-06) Uruguay (2007) Norway (1970) (1980)

(2013) (1990) (2000) (2010) Portugal (1999) Serbia (2010-11) Slovenia (2000-01) Spain

(2002-03) (2009-10) Sweden (2000-01)

(2010-11) United Kingdom (2000)

(2005) (2015)

Classifications

One of the difficulties in the international comparison of time use statistics is related to the absence of use of a system of harmonized classifications of time-use activities. A trial International Classification of Activities for Time Use Statistics (ICATUS) was published in 2005 by the United Nations, as part of the Guide to Producing Statistics on Time Use: Measuring Paid and Unpaid Work. This classification has been used in time-use surveys conducted in many developing countries. The Harmonized European Time-Use Survey (HETUS) classification is used in Europe including Eastern Europe as well as in North Africa and in some transition countries. In Latin America the Classification of activities for time-use for Latin America and the Caribbean (CAUTAL) 6 is used. In addition, many countries, for example, Australia, New Zealand and the United States have developed their own classifications for time-use statistics.

Many countries still use classifications that do not distinguish child care from adult care, meaning that adult care is then captured through other household chores. Depending on the classification, volunteer work and help to other households is detailed in a specific digit of the classification or split between care-work and community services, and sometimes includes other activities (such as participating in meetings or religious activities).

The last difficulty is due to the treatment of travel related to a given activity. In principle, related travel time should be added to each activity. For childcare, related travel is clearly part of the time dedicated to this activity. However in some surveys, travel is measured in a single separate indicator and cannot be imputed to any specific activity.

A recent development which promises to improve international harmonization and comparison in time use statistics is the first non-trial version of the International Classification of Activities for Time Use Statistics (ICATUS 2016)7 which was adopted by the United Nations Statistical Commission at its 48th Session in 2017. This new classification was developed under the guidance of an Expert Group on Time Use Statistics whose members had experience in the use of the trial ICATUS, HETUS, CAUTAL and various national time use activity classifications.

The purpose of ICATUS 2016 is to provide a framework that can be used to produce meaningful and comparable statistics on time use across countries and over time. Its categories are aligned with the 19th ICLS definition of work and forms of work as well as with the SNA production boundaries. A correspondence between the 2008 version of the HETUS activity coding list has been developed and is available as part of the published ICATUS 2008. With certain limitations this would make it possible to map data coded to HETUS to an aggregate level of ICATUS 2016. Over time it is to be hoped that countries will increasingly adopt ICATUS 2016 in their national time use surveys, or develop mappings to national and regional classifications so as allow statistics on time use to be compiled according to the new international standard.

In summary, the comparability of data is not strictly respected, but at this stage of the harmonisation process of such types of surveys, it is a necessary requirement to accept a certain degree of uncertainty.

6 Clasificación de Actividades de Uso del Tiempo para América Latina y el Caribe 7 https://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic-social/time-use/icatus-2016/ 15

Indicators of time use

There are three basic indicators for time use: time use for participants, participation rate and time use for total population (also called social time in some surveys). Except for physiological needs (sleeping, eating), not all the population is involved in the various activities: time use for participants is an approach of the reality experienced by the population, for instance a workday is approximately of 8 hours for a worker, and a care- work day is of 7 hours for a young mother, but all the population is not at work during the reference period and not all women are young mothers entirely dedicating their time to care. Participation rates indicate the proportion of population, of workers, of mothers, etc., who, during the period of reference, participate in a precise activity. And time use for total population in a given activity is the ratio of the total time recorded in the survey by the total population or also the multiplication of time use for participants by participation rates. Time use for total population is an indicator that allows reconstituting a complete 24-hour day (or 1440 minutes). The average time spent in the activity by the total covered population is the indicator used in this report: in order to compute an annual value, the simple multiplication by 365 is enough, provided that the survey methodologies take the weekly and the seasonal variations into account.

However the published reports of time-use surveys across the world are not always clear about the indicators highlighted in the tables. In some countries, especially in Latin America, the indicator on time use for participants is privileged and the indicator on time use for total population cannot always be computed. Furthermore the published results emphasise the measurement of unpaid care work and do not always provide the data for paid work (and sometimes for personal activities). Many countries present tables with the three indicators, while others prefer tables with the sum at 1440 minutes.

Another difficulty is that many published tables mix paid (SNA) work with learning activities so that where the detailed tables are not available, it has not been possible to compare time spent in unpaid care work with time spent in paid work.

Finally a general remark must be made about the availability of data in the published reports: Although time-use surveys are – or should be – centered on gender, it is surprising to note that the variable ‘sex’ is often treated as any other socio-economic variable. In other words, not all the tables are disaggregated by sex, and many of the socio- economic characteristics sought for this report are available (for instance educational level, income groups, or activity status) but not disaggregated by sex.

Section 2: Gender variations in paid work and unpaid care work by country in the various regions of the world

Across the globe and with no exception, women dedicate more time than men to unpaid care work.

Chart 2 hereafter shows the importance of time (in number of minutes per day) dedicated by women to the three forms of unpaid care work (domestic services, care services, and community services or volunteering 8) across the world. It can be noted that in countries where caregiving services are not distinguished, they are included in domestic services.

Globally, women’s unpaid care work ranges from a maximum of 490 minutes (8 hours and 10 minutes or 34 per cent of a 24-hour day) in Cabo Verde (2012) to a minimum of 168 minutes (2 hours and 48 minutes or 11.7 per cent of a 24-hour day) in Taiwan, China (2004) and 178 minutes (2 hours and 58 minutes or 12.4 per cent of a day) in Thailand (2014)9.

However we must keep in mind that the five countries at the top (4 Latin American countries and Cabo Verde, the only African country to have followed the same methodology) have not applied the diary data collection method, which explains the overestimation of time spent in these unpaid activities. This is because it includes simultaneous activities and because the total time cannot be checked against the total number of hours per day. If we don’t take these 5 countries in consideration, then time spent in unpaid care work ranges from the maximum of 345 minutes (5 hours and 45 minutes or 24 per cent of a 24-hour day) for Iraq (2007) to the minimum of 11.7 per cent in Taiwan, China. That means that depending on countries, time devoted to unpaid care work can vary from single to double. This is why a regional analysis is so important.

The average time devoted to unpaid care work for women at the global level (including 75 countries) is 277 minutes (4 hours and 37 minutes or 19.7 per cent of a 24-hour day). The median value for 75 countries is represented by Ecuador (2012) with 273 minutes (4 hours and 33 minutes or 19.0 per cent of a 24-hour day).

Looking now at men’s unpaid work (Chart 3), it ranges from a maximum of 246 minutes (4 hours and 6 minutes or 17.1 per cent of a 24-hour day) in Cabo Verde again to a minimum of 18 minutes in Cambodia (1.2 per cent). Here again the country (Cabo Verde) at the top is characterised by a difference in methodology. Without it, the maximum is at 200 minutes (3 hours and 20 minutes or 13.9 per cent of a 24-hour day) for the Republic of Moldova (2011-12), with a gap between the maximum and the minimum reaching a factor of 11. The world average is 111 minutes (1 hour and 51 minutes: 7.7 per cent of a 24-hour day) and the median value is represented by Kazakhstan (2012) with exactly the same value as the average.

8 The three categories of unpaid care work have been defined in section 1 above. 9 In this section average numbers are unweighted: each country has the same weight. Weighted averages will be calculated in section 3. Unweighted averages provide a general profile, avoiding giving too strong importance to the most populated countries. 17

Chart 2: Time spent by women in the various categories of unpaid care work. Country averages. 75 countries Cabo Verde 392 73 25 Mexico 251 153 19 Colombia 195 192 6 Costa Rica 312 68 5 Chile 224 94 30 Azerbaijan 316 29 2 Iraq 300 45 Peru 258 68 13 Moldova, Republic of 270 34 26 Turkey 234 41 55 Tunisia 288 32 6 Albania 270 43 1 Algeria 282 30 Armenia 266 46 Australia 239 64 8 Uruguay 222 68 19 Lithuania 267 26 15 Iran, Islamic Republic of, urban average 305 2 Italy 286 19 Portugal 258 23 21 Serbia 266 25 10 Panama urban 201 85 15 Morocco 300 Bulgaria 267 16 15 India 297 Poland 243 39 13 Occupied Palestinian Territory 217 59 17 Ethiopia 231 47 13 Belarus 242 34 15 Mongolia 232 54 4 Pakistan 231 55 1 Slovenia 251 30 5 Ireland 185 94 7 Latvia 239 24 14 Mauritius 229 44 4 Greece 229 28 20 Kyrgyzstan 250 20 5 Oman 274 Ecuador 273 Germany 227 27 15 Austria 222 39 8 Hungary 240 28 0 Romania 264 United States 187 42 35 Spain 211 36 16 Estonia 217 31 13 Canada 194 39 24 Argentina (BA) 183 58 16 Japan 222 27 5 Netherlands 191 42 21 New Zealand 199 48 Kazakhstan 246 Denmark 197 35 11 Mali 241 Sweden 203 37 Tanzania, United Republic of 196 41 1 China 203 31 3 Providing unpaid domestic France 201 31 2 services for own final use within United Kingdom 180 32 20 Norway 188 42 household South Africa 195 29 5 Providing unpaid caregiving El Salvador 136 49 43 Macedonia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of 201 22 1 services to household members Madagascar 187 28 7 Benin 189 32 Ghana 155 53 12 Providing community services Paraguay 144 63 7 and help to other households Belgium 186 28 Cameroon 170 38 4 Finland 178 27 6 Qatar 199 Cambodia 188 Korea, Republic of 146 40 2 Thailand 139 31 3 Taiwan, China 168 Minutes per day 0 100 200 300 400 500 600

Chart 3: Time spent by men in the various categories of unpaid care work. Country averages. 75 countries Cabo Verde 204 22 20 Moldova, Republic of 169 8 23 Sweden 168 26 Denmark 151 20 15 Norway 149 31 Australia 130 27 15 Canada 131 18 21 Estonia 144 11 14 United States 122 19 27 Slovenia 145 11 10 Lithuania 141 8 17 Bulgaria 142 6 16 Germany 137 10 17 Poland 127 15 15 Chile 101 41 13 Belarus 124 13 14 France 130 14 4 Serbia 126 10 12 Austria 118 19 9 Mexico 79 58 9 Latvia 126 5 12 New Zealand 122 19 Finland 121 11 7 Mongolia 111 20 8 Peru 101 26 9 Netherlands 95 19 19 Uruguay 88 35 10 Belgium 117 15 United Kingdom 101 15 15 Ireland 91 29 9 Panama urban 97 23 8 Hungary 114 12 1 Spain 93 21 12 Romania 125 Ethiopia 87 8 30 Colombia 51 66 3 Azerbaijan 103 10 3 Oman 115 Kazakhstan 111 Qatar 110 Italy 97 11 Greece 81 14 12 Costa Rica 82 19 Kyrgyzstan 82 9 9 South Africa 88 5 5 China 80 11 3 Argentina (BA) 66 22 5 Turkey 45 5 37 Macedonia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of 71 8 6 Ecuador 78 Iran, Islamic Republic of, urban average 75 2 Japan 63 8 6 Portugal 61 6 10 Cameroon 53 14 7 Mauritius 56 13 4 Ghana 40 11 17 Providing unpaid domestic Paraguay 33 28 3 services for own final use within Tanzania, United Republic of 52 9 3 Armenia 54 9 household Iraq 52 4 Thailand 44 10 2 Providing unpaid caregiving Occupied Palestinian Territory 35 9 11 Tunisia 42 8 4 services to household members Algeria 42 12 Albania 45 5 2 Madagascar 36 8 7 Morocco 43 Providing community services El Salvador 411 28 and help to other households Benin 39 3 Taiwan, China 41 Korea, Republic of 2710 2 India 31 Pakistan 179 2 Mali 21 Cambodia 18 Minutes per day 0 50 100 150 200 250 300

Chart 4 summarises the existing gaps in the relative contributions of women and men to unpaid care work making visible the remaining path to reach parity (when women and men share an equal part of the unpaid care work burden at 50 per cent). Women’s share is the complement to 100 per cent for this indicator. Countries are ranked by increasing share of women’s contribution to unpaid care work. None of the countries reaches parity (at 50 per cent) as regards men’s contribution to total unpaid care work. But as expected Northern European countries come close to it, with Sweden, Norway and Denmark above 40 per cent (respectively 44.7, 43.9 and 43.4 per cent), followed by Canada, Finland and Estonia (above 39 per cent). At the other extreme we find Mali, Cambodia, Pakistan and India with fewer than 10 per cent (respectively 8.0, 8.7, 8.9 and 9.5 per cent).

The world average is 27.5 per cent (corresponding to the situation in the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia 2014-15) and the median value is slightly higher, at 28.4 per cent (for China 2008). Thus in average at world level, men’s contribution to total unpaid care work hardly exceeds one fourth of the total burden.

The series of Charts that follows (Charts 5 to 33) present time (in minutes per day) spent by women and men in unpaid care work and men’s share of total unpaid care work, for the various regions and sub-regions of the world according to the ILO regional, country groupings, as well as (charts 27 to 33) for the income groupings (developed-high income, emerging-middle income and developing-low income countries). On these Charts, countries are ranked by increasing order of women’s time spent in unpaid care work or by decreasing order of women’ s share of total unpaid care work. Charts show that there is no direct relationship between women and men’s allocations of time in unpaid care work: in other words, countries characterised by high levels of time allocated by women to domestic and care-work are not always simultaneously characterised by higher levels of time allocated by men to these tasks. As a matter of fact, it is the share of men (or of women) in the fulfilment of the burden of domestic work that reflects the relative status of women across the countries and better accounts for target 5.4 of the SDGs monitoring framework (proportion of time spent in unpaid domestic and care work by sex).

In this regard, the ranking of countries within each region or sub-region according to this indicator is significant.

Chart 24 for example shows that, in Northern, Southern and Western European countries, as expected, the countries that perform better (situated on the right-hand side of the Chart and highlighted in red) are the Northern European, with men contributing for more than 39 per cent of total unpaid care work whereas Southern European countries (highlighted in yellow) are clearly on the left-hand side with men’s shares below 30 per cent (Albania, Portugal, Italy, FYR of Macedonia, Greece) and Western European countries (highlighted in blue) in between.

The same observations can be made for developed (high income) countries on Charts 27 and 28 where again the Northern European countries perform the best on the right-hand side, together with Canada (above 40 per cent), while Southern European countries share the left-hand side with the Republic of Korea, Taiwan China (below 20 per cent), Japan and Oman.

Eastern Europe (Charts 25 and 26) is the only region where the longer the time dedicated by women to unpaid care work, the longer is also the time dedicated by men to these tasks. In these countries, men’ share of total unpaid care work represents one third of the total (with the minimum in Romania: 32.1 per cent and the maximum in the Republic of Moldova: 37.7 per cent).

In emerging (middle income) countries (Charts 29 and 30), Eastern European countries (Republic of Moldova, Bulgaria, Serbia, Romania) perform the better with men’s share of total unpaid care work higher than 30 per cent, together with one Latin American country (Chile), two Central Asian countries (Mongolia, Kazakhstan) and one African country (South Africa). At the other end with men’ share of total unpaid care work below 20 per cent, Asian countries (Cambodia, Pakistan, India) with a low share (less than 10 per cent), followed by Northern African countries (Morocco, Tunisia, Algeria), Arab countries (Iraq, Occupied Palestinian Territory) and also one country from Southern Europe (Albania), one Latin American country (El Salvador) and one Central Asian country (Armenia).

Finally Chart 33 summarises the situation for the three categories of countries, on the same scale. It shows that the emerging countries (36 countries) are generally situated below the developed countries (33 countries) as regards the remaining distance to parity, and the developing countries below the emerging countries (although the number of developing countries remains small in the sample (6). Disparities between countries within each group are not very different between groups.

Chart 4: Women’s and men’s share of total unpaid care work (75 countries)

Sweden 55.3 44.7 Norway 56.1 43.9 Denmark 56.6 43.4 Canada 60.2 39.8 Finland 60.3 39.7 Estonia 60.7 39.3 United States 61.1 38.9 France 61.3 38.7 Belgium 61.8 38.2 Germany 62.1 37.9 Moldova, Republic of 62.3 37.7 Slovenia 63.3 36.7 New Zealand 63.7 36.3 United Kingdom 63.9 36.1 Australia 64.4 35.6 Qatar 64.4 35.6 Bulgaria 64.5 35.5 Austria 64.8 35.2 Lithuania 65.0 35.0 Poland 65.3 34.7 Netherlands 65.6 34.4 Belarus 65.8 34.2 Latvia 66.0 34.0 Cabo Verde 66.6 33.4 Serbia 67.0 33.0 Mongolia 67.6 32.4 Spain 67.6 32.4 Hungary 67.8 32.2 Romania 67.9 32.1 Kazakhstan 68.9 31.1 Ireland 68.9 31.1 Chile 69.2 30.8 Uruguay 69.9 30.1 Ethiopia 70.0 30.0 South Africa 70.0 30.0 Panama urban 70.2 29.8 Oman 70.4 29.6 Peru 71.4 28.6 China 71.6 28.4 Greece 72.1 27.9 Macedonia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of 72.5 27.5 Kyrgyzstan 73.3 26.7 Argentina (BA) 73.4 26.6 Italy 73.8 26.2 Cameroon 74.1 25.9 Mexico 74.3 25.7 Azerbaijan 74.9 25.1 Thailand 75.5 24.5 Ghana 76.4 23.6 Colombia 76.6 23.4 Japan 76.7 23.3 Paraguay 77.0 23.0 Ecuador 77.8 22.2 Tanzania, United Republic of 78.8 21.2 Turkey 79.1 20.9 Mauritius 79.1 20.9 Costa Rica 79.2 20.8 Portugal 79.7 20.3 Iran, Islamic Republic of, urban average 79.9 20.1 Taiwan, China 80.4 19.6 Madagascar 81.3 18.7 Korea, Republic of 82.8 17.2 Armenia 83.2 16.8 Benin 84.0 16.0 El Salvador 84.1 15.9 Occupied Palestinian Territory 84.2 15.8 Algeria 85.2 14.8 Tunisia 85.8 14.2 Albania 85.8 14.2 Iraq 86.0 14.0 Morocco 87.5 12.5 India 90.5 9.5 Pakistan 91.1 8.9 Cambodia 91.3 8.7 Mali 92.0 8.0 0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Chart 5: Time spent by women and men in the various categories of unpaid care work by region: Northern Africa. 3 countries

350 Providing 6 community 300 30 32 services and help to other households 250 Providing unpaid caregiving services 200 to household members 150 300 Providing unpaid 282 288 domestic services

Minutes Minutes day per 100 for own final use within household 4 50 12 8 43 42 42 0 Women Men Women Men Women Men Morocco 2011-12 Algeria 2012 Tunisia 2005-06

Chart 6: Share of women in total unpaid care work by region: Northern Africa. 3 countries

100.0% 90.0% 80.0% 70.0% 60.0% 50.0% 87.5% 40.0% 85.8% 85.2% 30.0% 20.0% 10.0% 0.0% Morocco 2011-12 Tunisia 2005-06 Algeria 2012

Chart 7: Time spent by women and men in the various categories of unpaid care work by region: Sub-Saharan Africa, 10 countries 500 25 450 Providing community services and help to other households 73 400 Providing unpaid caregiving services to household members 350 300 4 13 1 250 4 12 7 5 44 47 20 200 32 28 29 41 22 38 53 392

Minutes Minutes per day 150 5 241 231 30 100 7 195 196 3 229 4 204 170 155 17 189 187 7 5 8 50 14 11 9 13 53 3 8 88 52 56 87 0 40 39 36 21 W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M Cameroon Ghana Benin Madagascar South Africa Tanzania, Mali Mauritius Ethiopia Cabo Verde United Republic of

Chart 8: Share of women in total unpaid care work by region: Sub-Saharan Africa. 10 countries 100.0 80.0 60.0 40.0 92.0 84.0 81.3 79.1 78.8 76.4 74.1 70.0 70.0 66.6 20.0 0.0 Mali Benin Madagascar Mauritius Tanzania, Ghana Cameroon South Africa Ethiopia Cabo Verde United Republic of

Chart 9: Time spent by women and men in the various categories of unpaid care work by region: Northern America

300

250 35 24 Providing community 39 services and help to other 200 42 households

150 21 27 Providing unpaid 18 19 caregiving services to household members 100 194 187 131 Providing unpaid domestic 50 122 services for own final use within household 0 Women Men Women Men

Canada 2010 USA 2015

Chart 10: Share of women in total unpaid care work by region: Northern America

100.0% 90.0% 80.0% 70.0% 60.0% 50.0% 40.0% 30.0% 61.1% 60.2% 20.0% 10.0% 0.0% USA 2015 Canada 2010

Chart 11: Time spent by women and men in the various categories of unpaid care work by region: Latin America and the Caribbean. 11 countries 450 Providing community services and help to other 400 households 19 Providing unpaid caregiving services to 5 6 350 household members 68 Providing unpaid domestic services for own final 13 30 153 300 use within household 15 19 68 192 94 250 16 85 68 200 7 43 58 63 150 49 312 Minutes Minutes per day 273 13 9 8 10 258 9 41 3 251 100 201 23 222 35 26 224 58 183 5 19 195 66 144 136 22 50 3 97 101 101 28 66 78 88 82 79 33 28 51 0 114 W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M

Paraguay El Salvador Argentina Ecuador Panama Uruguay Peru Chile Costa Rica Colombia Mexico (BA) urban Chart 12: Share of women in total unpaid care work by region: Latin America and the Caribbean. 11 countries 100.0 80.0 60.0 84.1 40.0 79.2 77.8 77.0 76.6 74.3 73.4 71.4 70.2 69.9 69.2 20.0 0.0 El Salvador Costa Rica Ecuador Paraguay Colombia Mexico Argentina Peru Panama Uruguay Chile (BA) urban

Chart 13: Time spent by women and men in the various categories of unpaid care work by region: Arab countries. 4 countries

400

Providing community 350 services and help to 45 other households 300 17 Providing unpaid 250 caregiving services to 59 household members

200 Providing unpaid domestic services for 150 Minutes Minutes per day 300 own final use within 274 household 100 199 217 11 50 110 115 4 9 35 52 0 W M W M W M W M Qatar Oman Occupied Iraq Palestinian Territory

Chart 14: Share of women in total unpaid care work by region: Arab countries

100.0 90.0 80.0 70.0 60.0 50.0 40.0 86.0 84.2 70.4 30.0 64.4 20.0 10.0 0.0 Iraq Occupied Palestinian Oman Qatar Territory

Chart 15: Time spent by women and men in the various categories of unpaid care work by region: Eastern Asia. 5 countries

350 Providing community services and help to other households

300 Providing unpaid caregiving 4 services to household members 5 250 3 54 Providing unpaid domestic 27 services for own final use within 31 200 household 2 40 150 8

Minutes Minutes per day 20 222 232 100 203 3 168 11 6 146 8 50 2 111 10 80 63 41 27 0 W M W M W M W M W M Taiwan, China Korea, Republic China Japan Mongolia of

Chart 16: Share of women in total unpaid care work by region: Eastern Asia

100.0

90.0

80.0

70.0

60.0

50.0 82.8 40.0 80.4 76.7 71.6 67.6 30.0

20.0

10.0

0.0 Korea, Republic Taiwan, China Japan China Mongolia of

Chart 17: Time spent by women and men in the various categories of unpaid care work by region: South-Eastern Asia and the Pacific. 4 countries

350 Providing community services and help to other households Providing unpaid caregiving services to 8 300 household members Providing unpaid domestic services for own final 64 250 use within household 48 200 3 15 31 150 27 19 Minutes Minutes per day 239 100 188 199 2 139 122 130 50 10 44 0 18 W M W M W M W M

Thailand Cambodia New Zealand Australia

Chart 18: Share of women in total unpaid care work by region: South-Eastern Asia and the Pacific

100.0

90.0

80.0

70.0

60.0

50.0 91.3 40.0 75.5 30.0 64.4 63.7

20.0

10.0

0.0 Cambodia Thailand Australia New Zealand

Chart 19: Time spent by women and men in the various categories of unpaid care work by region: Southern Asia. 3 countries

350 Providing community 2 services and help to 300 1 other households Providing unpaid 250 55 caregiving services to household members

200 Providing unpaid domestic services for own final use within 150 297 305 household 231 100 2

50 2 75 9 31 0 17 W M W M W M Pakistan India Iran, Islamic Republic of, urban average

Chart 20: Share of women in total unpaid care work by region: Southern Asia

100.0

90.0

80.0

70.0

60.0

50.0 91.1 90.5 40.0 79.9

30.0

20.0

10.0

0.0 Pakistan India Iran, Islamic Republic of, urban average

Chart 21: Time spent by women and men in the various categories of unpaid care work by region: Central and Western Asia. 5 countries

Providing 400 community services 2 and help to other 350 households 29 Providing unpaid 300 5 46 55 caregiving services to household 250 20 41 members Providing unpaid 200 domestic services for own final use within household 150 316 250 266 3 246 9 234 100 10 9 37 50 111 9 103 82 5 54 45 0 W M W M W M W M W M Kazakhstan Kyrgyzstan Armenia Turkey Azerbaijan

Chart 22: Share of women in total unpaid care work by region: Central and Western Asia

100.0

90.0

80.0

70.0

60.0

50.0

40.0 83.2 79.1 74.9 73.3 68.9 30.0

20.0

10.0

0.0 Armenia Turkey Azerbaijan Kyrgyzstan Kazakhstan

Chart 23: Time spent by women and men in the various categories of unpaid care work by region: Northern, Southern and Western Europe. 22 countries

350 Providing community services and help to other households 1 Providing unpaid caregiving services to 15 300 household members 10 19 7 5 21 43 Providing unpaid domestic services for own final 26 8 14 25 use within household 15 20 30 23 13 16 250 24 2 11 21 39 27 28 1 32 31 36 94 6 31 37 22 42 35 42 200 28 40 27 26 15 14 10 31 20 17 17 150 4 11 7 11 9 12 8 Minutes Minutes per day 10 12 286 14 266 267 270 11 15 19 12 19 5 9 10258 15 239 251 222 227 229 15 19217 21121 12 29 11 100 201 201 203 197 191 178 186 6 188 180 14 185 168 10 8 149 151 144 145 130 137 141 121 117 118 126 126 6 2 50 101 95 97 5 93 81 91 71 61 45

0 W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M Finland Belgium Macedonia, Norway France Sweden Denmark United Netherlands Estonia Spain Austria Germany Greece Latvia Ireland Slovenia Serbia Portugal Italy Lithuania Albania the Former Kingdom Yugoslav Republic of

Chart 24: Share of women in total unpaid care work by region: Northern (in red), Southern (in yellow) and Western (in blue) Europe

100.0

90.0

80.0

70.0

60.0

50.0 85.8 40.0 79.7 73.8 72.5 72.1 68.9 67.6 67.0 66.0 65.8 65.6 30.0 65.0 64.8 63.3 62.1 61.8 61.3 60.7 60.3 56.6 56.1 55.3 20.0

10.0

0.0

Chart 25: Time spent by women and men in the various categories of unpaid care work by region: Eastern Europe. 6 countries

350 Providing community services and help to other households Providing unpaid caregiving services to household members 26 300 13 15 Providing unpaid 0domestic services15 for own final use within household 34 16 34 39 250 28

200 23 8 15 16 150 14 6 1 270 Minutes Minutes per day 264 13 15 267 240 12 242 243 100 169 142 125 124 127 50 114

0 W M W M W M W M W M W M Romania Hungary Belarus Poland Bulgaria Moldova, Republic of

Chart 26: Share of women in total unpaid care work by region: Eastern Europe

100.0

90.0

80.0

70.0

60.0

50.0

40.0 67.9 67.8 65.8 30.0 65.3 64.5 62.3

20.0

10.0

0.0 Romania Hungary Belarus Poland Bulgaria Moldova, Republic of

Chart 27: Time spent by women and men in the various categories of unpaid care work by region: Developed countries (high income). 33 countries

Chart 28: Share of women in total unpaid care work by region: Developed countries (high income). 33 countries

100.0

90.0

80.0

70.0

60.0

50.0 82.8 79.7 73.8 40.0 80.4 72.1 69.9 76.7 73.4 68.9 67.6 65.6 65.0 64.4 63.9 63.3 61.8 61.1 70.4 69.2 67.8 66.0 65.3 64.8 64.4 60.3 56.6 55.3 30.0 63.7 62.1 61.3 60.7 60.2 56.1

20.0

10.0

0.0

Chart 29: Time spent by women and men in the various categories of unpaid care work by region: Emerging countries (middle income). 36 countries

450 Providing community services and help to other households 19 400 6 Providing unpaid caregiving services to household 5 members 2 350 Providing unpaid domestic services for own final 13 68 use within household 1 6 29 2 26 45 153 10 300 1 4 15 15 30 32 5 4 15 17 46 43 34 55 68 192 16 25 20 55 54 34 250 3 44 41 1 5 59 85 4 7 12 31 22 29 200 43 3 38 23

Minutes Minutes per day 53 63 8 49 16 150 31 14 12305 316312 9 8 297 6300 288 9300 273 267 8 282 270 270 264 250 13 26610 266 258 3 3251 246 23123220242 234 170 5 3 9229 217 23 26 10 58 100 188 2016 195203 201 195 5 11 9 2 19 7 3155 4 169 66 1392 144 17 8136 142 14 125 13 124 11 126 9 2 4 37 50 10 111 111 97 101 4 103 28 11 88 80 82 2 12 5 8 5 82 71 28 78 9 75 79 44 53 40 56 9 43 42 54 45 42 45 52 51 33 11 35 31 0 18 4 17 W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M W M ThailandCambodiaCameroonParaguayGhanaMacedoniaEl SalvadorSouth AfricaChinaKazakhstanRomaniaEcuadorKyrgyzstanMauritiusPakistanMongoliaBelarusOcc PalestinianIndia Ter.BulgariaMoroccoPanama urbanSerbia Iran AlgeriaArmeniaAlbaniaTunisiaMoldovaTurkey Peru IraqAzerbaijanCosta RicaColombiaMexico

Chart 30: Share of women in total unpaid care work by region: Emerging countries (middle income). 36 countries.

100.0

90.0

80.0

70.0

60.0 91.1 50.0 87.5 85.8 85.2 84.1 91.3 79.9 79.1 77.8 76.6 75.5 90.5 86.0 85.8 40.0 84.2 83.2 79.2 79.1 74.3 73.3 71.6 70.2 68.9 65.8 77.0 76.4 74.9 74.1 72.5 67.6 62.3 71.4 70.0 67.9 67.0 30.0 64.5

20.0

10.0

0.0

Chart 31: Time spent by women and men in the various categories of unpaid care work by region: Developing countries (low income). 6 countries

600 Providing community services and help 500 to other households 25 Providing unpaid caregiving services to household members 73 400 Providing unpaid domestic services for own final use within household 300 13 1 7 47 20 41 22

Minutes Minutes per day 200 32 28 392 241 30 100 231 204 189 187 7 196 3 8 3 9 8 52 87

0 39 36 21

Men Men Men Men Men Men

Women Women Women Women Women Women Benin Madagascar Tanzania, Mali Ethiopia Cabo Verde United

Chart 32: Share of women in total unpaid care work by region: Developing countries (low income). 6 countries

100.0

90.0

80.0

70.0

60.0

50.0 92.0 40.0 84.0 81.3 78.8 70.0 66.6 30.0

20.0

10.0

0.0 Mali Benin Madagascar Tanzania, Ethiopia Cabo Verde United Republic of

Charts 33: Share of women and men in total unpaid care work-Summary by region

100.0 Developed countries 90.0 82.8 Korea, 80.0 55.3% Rep of 70.0 Sweden 60.0 Share of women in total unpaid 50.0 work 40.0 Share of men 30.0 44.7% Sweden 20.0 17.2 Korea, 10.0 Rep of 0.0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 100.0 91.3% 90.0 Emerging countries Cambodia 80.0 70.0 62.3 % Share of women in total unpaid 60.0 work Moldova, 50.0 37.7% Share of men Rep of 40.0 Moldova, 30.0 Rep of 20.0 10.0 8.7 % 0.0 Cambodia 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 100.0 Developing countries 92.0% 90.0 66.6% Cabo Mali 80.0 Verde 70.0

60.0 Share of women in total unpaid 50.0 work 40.0 Share of men 30.0 20.0 33.4% Cabo 10.0 Verde 8.0% Mali 0.0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Looking now at the share of unpaid care work in total work (paid and unpaid), Chart 34 shows that for women this indicator ranges from a maximum of 91.8 per cent in Iraq (2007) to a minimum of 41 per cent in Cambodia (2004). Very high levels of this indicator (above 74 per cent) characterise Arab countries such as Iraq, the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Oman, Northern African countries (Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia), Central and Western Asia (Turkey, Armenia, Azerbaijan), Southern Asia (Iran, Pakistan), and also Greece and Italy, as well as Costa Rica. Most of these countries are known for their very low female labour force participation rates: women devote almost all their working time to household duties and care. At the bottom of the Chart, on the contrary, women dedicate more than half of their working time to paid work in Asian countries such as Cambodia, Thailand and China, and also in Sub-Saharan countries such as Madagascar and Ghana. Northern European countries that we have already pointed out for their high share of men’s contribution to unpaid care work are situated just above the 50 per cent line (with 54.4 per cent for Sweden, 56 per cent for Norway and 56.6 per cent for Finland). Three Latin American countries also belong to this category: Paraguay (48.3 per cent), Chile (51.9 per cent) and El Salvador (54.3 per cent).

The world average is 65.0 per cent (represented by France) where women devote a little bit less than two thirds of their working time to household duties and care for a labour force participation rate of 51.2 per cent in 2014) and the median value is 63.3 per cent (represented by New Zealand where the female labour force participation rate reaches 63.4 per cent in 2014).

As to men (Chart 35) the share of unpaid care work in their total work time is everywhere below 50 per cent. Minimums (less than 12 per cent) are observed in India (7.9 per cent), Pakistan (8 per cent), El Salvador (11.1 per cent), Mali (11.4 per cent) and Morocco (11.7 per cent), as well as Thailand and Taiwan China. Such cases reflect very different situations: Thailand and El Salvador, for example, are countries where women dedicate less than 50 per cent of their working time to household chores and care (and respectively 62.5 and 49.3 per cent for their participation to the labour force in 2013-14), whereas in Morocco and Pakistan they dedicate more than 78 per cent of their working time to unpaid care work (and respectively 25.2 and 23.2 per cent for their participation to the labour force in 2014). More generally in countries where women find obstacles to enter the labour market because of their status and the fact that their access to public space is limited by social or religious norms, their contribution to unpaid care work is the highest (top of Chart 34 and bottom of Chart 35) and it is exactly the reverse for countries where women are naturally and socially present on the labour market (bottom of Chart 34 and top of Chart 35).

Countries where men devote the larger part of their working time to unpaid care work are the Republic of Moldova (48 per cent) and other Eastern European countries (such as Bulgaria and Romania) or Northern-Western European countries (Denmark, Estonia, Belgium, Sweden), with more than 43 per cent.

For men, the world average and the median value are the same with 29.1 per cent (represented by the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia).

Finally Charts 36 and 37 present the number of minutes per day women and men spend in unpaid care work and paid work (excluding Uruguay, Slovenia, Cape Verde for which time spent in paid work is not provided by the surveys).

The maximum for women for Latin American countries that did not use the diaries in their surveys is observed in Chile (670 minutes or 11 hours and 10 minutes) and the minimum in Paraguay (373 minutes or 6 hours and 13 minutes) whereas the maximum for women for countries that used the diaries is observed in Lithuania (2003) where the total daily working time amounts to 539 minutes (or 8 hours and 59 minutes: 37.4 per cent of a 24- hour day), followed by Mongolia (2011). And the minimum is in Belgium (2013) where the daily working time amounts 313 minutes (or 5 hours and 13 minutes: 21.7 per cent of a 24-hour day). Other countries at the bottom are Arab countries (Qatar, the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Oman), as well as the Republic of Korea and Mali.

The world average (including Latin American countries) is 425 minutes (or 7 hours and 5 minutes: 19.2 per cent of a 24-hour day, represented by Latvia 2003) and the median value is 420 minutes (for El Salvador 2010).

As for men, again for countries that used the diaries, the maximum is observed in Mongolia with 487 minutes (or 8 hours and 7 minutes: 33.8 per cent of a 24-hour day), followed by Thailand, Latvia, Lithuania and China, and the minimum in the Occupied Palestinian Territory (with 143 minutes or 2 hours and 23 minutes: 9.9 per cent of a day), Mali (184 minutes) and Algeria (252 minutes). For countries that did not use the diaries, the maximum for men is observed in Chile (555 minutes or 9 hours and 15 minutes) and the minimum in Paraguay (373 minutes or 6 hours and 13 minutes).

The average working day for men (including Latin America) amounts to 375 minutes (or 6 hours and 15 minutes: 26.0 per cent of a day) represented by Serbia (2010-11) while the median value is 373 minutes (Paraguay 2016). Women’s working time is therefore equivalent to 113 per cent of men’s total working time.

Table 2 summarises the findings for world averages: Women devote 2.51 times more time to unpaid care work than men, a little bit more than half (0.57) the time men spend in paid work, and 1.13 more time than men in total work.

Table 2: Average time spent by women and men in paid, unpaid and total work 75 countries

Average time of Average time of Average time of In minutes per day unpaid work paid work total work Women 276 152 425 Men 110 266 375 Women/Men 2.51 0.57 1.13 Note: Unweighted averages. Three countries have not collected data on paid work in their time-use surveys: Cabo Verde, Slovenia, Uruguay

More detailed results at world and regional levels will be presented in section 3 below where countries are weighted according to their population.

Chart 34: Women’s share of unpaid care work in total women’s work. 72 countries

Iraq 91.8 Algeria 91.2 Occupied Palestinian Territory 89.1 Iran, Islamic Republic of, urban average 88.5 Oman 82.5 Turkey 81.3 Azerbaijan 80.9 Morocco 78.7 Pakistan 78.6 Greece 78.0 Costa Rica 76.4 Armenia 75.5 Italy 74.8 Tunisia 74.6 Albania 72.9 Romania 72.5 Colombia 72.2 Mali 71.1 Australia 70.8 Mexico 70.6 Serbia 70.0 Mauritius 69.9 Bulgaria 68.5 Poland 68.4 Belgium 68.4 Spain 67.3 Ireland 66.8 Germany 66.7 Moldova, Republic of 66.3 France 65.0 India 65.0 Peru 64.9 Kazakhstan 64.7 Ecuador 64.5 South Africa 64.0 Netherlands 63.5 New Zealand 63.3 Portugal 62.9 Kyrgyzstan 62.8 Austria 62.7 Macedonia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of 62.4 Qatar 62.4 Denmark 62.3 Estonia 61.8 United Kingdom 61.5 Hungary 61.0 Argentina (BA) 60.9 Japan 60.6 Belarus 60.2 United States 60.1 Panama urban 60.0 Ethiopia 59.5 Canada 58.8 Lithuania 57.1 Finland 56.6 Korea, Republic of 56.5 Benin 56.4 Norway 56.0 Tanzania, United Republic of 55.0 Mongolia 54.6 Sweden 54.4 El Salvador 54.3 Latvia 54.2 Chile 51.9 Cameroon 51.1 Ghana 49.1 Paraguay 48.3 Madagascar 48.1 China 47.4 Taiwan, China 43.2 Thailand 42.6 Cambodia 41.0 0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0 70.0 80.0 90.0 100.0

Chart 35: Men’s share of unpaid care work in total men’s work. 72 countries

Moldova, Republic of 48.0 Denmark 46.9 Bulgaria 46.3 Estonia 46.2 Belgium 45.7 Sweden 44.2 Romania 43.4 France 42.7 Germany 42.5 Norway 41.9 Greece 41.3 Slovenia 41.3 Finland 40.8 Australia 40.8 Poland 40.2 United States 40.1 Canada 40.0 Serbia 39.5 Occupied Palestinian Territory 38.5 Oman 38.1 Spain 38.1 United Kingdom 36.0 New Zealand 35.7 Austria 35.6 Kazakhstan 35.4 Belarus 35.2 Lithuania 34.7 Hungary 32.7 Italy 32.6 Qatar 32.4 Azerbaijan 32.4 Netherlands 32.3 Ireland 31.5 South Africa 31.4 Latvia 29.8 Ethiopia 29.3 Macedonia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of 29.1 Mongolia 28.5 Mexico 28.5 Chile 27.9 Colombia 27.8 Peru 27.4 Kyrgyzstan 27.2 Panama urban 26.3 Turkey 24.6 Argentina (BA) 22.9 Costa Rica 22.3 Algeria 21.4 Iran, Islamic Republic of, urban average 21.4 China 20.7 Cameroon 20.7 Portugal 20.5 Ecuador 20.3 Mauritius 19.8 Ghana 19.1 Japan 18.9 Iraq 18.5 Armenia 17.8 Madagascar 17.5 Paraguay 17.2 Albania 16.8 Tanzania, United Republic of 15.8 Tunisia 15.3 Benin 14.8 Korea, Republic of 13.7 Taiwan, China 12.0 Morocco 11.7 Thailand 11.5 Mali 11.4 El Salvador 11.1 Pakistan 8.0 India 7.9 0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 60.0

Chart 36: Time devoted by women to unpaid care work and paid work (in minutes per day), countries ranked by decreasing time devoted to total work. 72 countries Chile 348 322 Mexico 423 176 Colombia 393 151 Lithuania 308 231 Mongolia 290 241 Peru 339 183 Latvia 277 234 Costa Rica 385 119 Panama urban 301 201 China 237 263 Moldova, Republic of 330 168 Ethiopia 291 198 Belarus 290 192 Portugal 302 178 Madagascar 222 240 Cambodia 188 270 India 297 160 Ghana 220 228 Paraguay 214 229 Sweden 240 201 Australia 311 128 Hungary 268 171 United States 264 175 Kyrgyzstan 275 163 Tunisia 326 111 Canada 257 180 Bulgaria 298 137 Tanzania, United Republic of 238 195 Albania 314 117 Poland 295 136 Serbia 301 129 Azerbaijan 347 82 Austria 269 160 Ireland 286 142 Ecuador 273 150 Estonia 261 161 Argentina (BA) 257 165 El Salvador 228 192 Unpaid care work Japan 254 165 Cameroon 212 203 Paid work Armenia 312 101 Norway 230 181 Italy 305 103 Turkey 330 76 Thailand 173 233 Germany 269 134 Netherlands 254 146 Mauritius 277 119 Benin 221 171 Spain 263 128 New Zealand 247 143 Denmark 243 147 Taiwan, China 168 221 Morocco 300 81 Kazakhstan 246 134 United Kingdom 232 145 Iraq 345 31 Finland 211 162 Pakistan 287 78 Romania 264 100 France 234 126 Macedonia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of 224 135 South Africa 229 129 Greece 277 78 Iran, Islamic Republic of, urban average 307 40 Algeria 312 30 Mali 241 98 Korea, Republic of 188 145 Oman 274 58 Occupied Palestinian Territory 293 36 Qatar 199 120 Belgium 214 99 Uruguay 309 Slovenia 286 Cabo Verde 490 Minutes per day 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

Chart 37: Time devoted by men to unpaid care work and paid work (in minutes per day), countries ranked by decreasing time devoted to total work. 72 countries

Chile 155 400 Mexico 146 367 Peru 136 361 Mongolia 139 348 Panama urban 128 359 Thailand 56 430 Latvia 143 337 Lithuania 166 313 China 94 360 Costa Rica 101 352 Sweden 194 245 Colombia 120 311 Norway 180 250 Belarus 151 278 Ethiopia 125 301 Canada 170 255 Australia 172 250 United States 168 251 Moldova, Republic of 200 217 Netherlands 133 279 Austria 146 264 Ireland 129 280 Argentina (BA) 93 314 Japan 77 330 Tanzania, United Republic of 64 341 Slovenia 166 236 Denmark 186 211 New Zealand 141 254 Poland 157 234 India 31 360 El Salvador 43 346 Hungary 127 261 Germany 164 222 Ecuador 78 306 Serbia 148 227 Portugal 77 298 Paraguay 64 309 Mauritius 73 296 Unpaid care work Morocco 43 325 Kyrgyzstan 100 267 Paid work Estonia 169 197 United Kingdom 131 233 Iran, Islamic Republic of, urban average 77 283 Azerbaijan 116 242 Cameroon 74 284 Ghana 68 288 Bulgaria 164 190 Turkey 87 267 Armenia 63 291 Tunisia 54 299 Pakistan 28 322 France 148 199 Taiwan, China 41 303 Finland 139 202 Qatar 110 229 Spain 126 205 Italy 108 223 Kazakhstan 111 203 South Africa 98 214 Albania 52 257 Oman 115 187 Iraq 56 246 Macedonia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of 85 207 Madagascar 51 240 Belgium 132 157 Romania 125 163 Korea, Republic of 39 246 Benin 42 241 Greece 107 152 Algeria 54 198 Mali 21 163 Occupied Palestinian Territory 55 88 Uruguay 133 Cabo Verde 246 Cambodia 18 Minutes per day0 100 200 300 400 500 600

Section 3: Gender variations in paid work and unpaid care work in the various regions of the world: global averages

In Section 2, we presented the results on paid work and unpaid care work by country regrouped by regions. Global averages presented there were simple (unweighted) averages that provide a general profile by region (each country having the same weight). In this section, the global averages and the averages by countries grouped by income levels, and by region, are calculated using weighted averages. Each of the 75 countries we have data for (there is no national data for Cuba) is weighted by its population in 2015, as provided by the most recent revision of the World Population Prospects of the United Nations Population Division. The 75 countries represent 67.8% of world total population. Consequently, the world and regional averages presented in this section are impacted by the weight of two countries: China and India that represent more than 53.6 per cent of the population of the 75 countries with data on time-use.

1) World estimates

Charts 38 show that at world level, women dedicate 3.2 times more time than men to unpaid care work: 4 hours and 32 minutes (272 minutes) per day against 1 hour and 24 minutes for men (84 minutes), or more than three-fourths (76.4 per cent) of the total amount of unpaid care work.

On the contrary, women devote a little bit more than 1/3 (36.1 per cent) of the total amount of paid work, or 0.3 time the time dedicated by men: 3 hours and 1 minute (181 minutes) against 5 hours and 21 minutes (321 minutes) for men.

As to total work obtained by adding up unpaid care work and paid work, it appears that the women’s burden is heavier than men’s by 5.8 percentage points (2.9 percentage point above parity): 7 hours and 33 minutes per day (453 minutes), against 6 hours and 44 minutes for men (404 minutes). But gender inequality mostly resides in the unequal distribution of roles between paid work and unpaid care work.

Charts 38: Gender distribution of paid work, unpaid care work and total work: world average, 75 countries

900

800 Men

700 Women 404 600

500

400

Minutes Minutes per day 321 300 84 453 200 272 100 181

0 Unpaid care work Paid work Total work

100%

90% 23.6 80% 47.1 70% 63.9 60% Men 50% Women 40% 76.4 30% 52.9 20% 36.1 10%

0% Unpaid care work Paid work Total work

2) Estimates by regions defined by income groups

Looking now at the same patterns in developed, emerging and developing countries (Charts 39, 40 and 41) it is clear that there are substantial differences between regions. Chart 42 helps to visualise those differences by ranking the regions by income groups according to the decreasing burden of unpaid work, of paid work and of total work.

Charts 39: Gender distribution of paid work, unpaid care work and total work: average for 33 developed countries

900

800

700 Men

600 Women 387

500

400 137 Minutes Minutes per day 300 251 200 413 260 100 154 0 Unpaid care work Paid work Total work

100% 90% 80% 34.5 48.4 70% Men 62.0 60% Women 50% 40% 30% 65.5 51.6 20% 38.0 10% 0% Unpaid care work Paid work Total work

Note: Regional estimates based on the following countries: Argentina, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Canada, Chile, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Japan, Republic of Korea, Latvia, Lithuania, Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Oman, Poland, Portugal, Qatar, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, Taiwan China, United Kingdom, Uruguay, United States.

Charts 40: Gender distribution of paid work, unpaid care work and total work: average for 36 emerging countries

1000

900 Men 800 Women 700 411 600

500

400

343 Minutes Minutes per day 300 68 465 200 276 100 189 0 Unpaid care work Paid work Total work

100%

90% 19.8

80% 46.9 70% 64.5 60% Men

50% Women 40% 80.2

30% 53.1 20% 35.5 10%

0% Unpaid care work Paid work Total work

Note: Regional estimates based on the following countries: Albania, Algeria, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Bulgaria, Cambodia, Cameroon, China, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Ghana, India, the Islamic Republic of Iran, Iraq, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, the Former Yugoslav republic of Macedonia, Mauritius, Mexico, Republic of Moldova, Mongolia, Morocco, Pakistan, the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Romania, Serbia, South Africa, Thailand, Tunisia, Turkey.

Charts 41: Gender distribution of paid work, unpaid care work and total work: average for 6 developing countries

900

800 Men 700 Women 376 600

500

400 289 Minutes Minutes per day 300 88 453 200 262 100 192

0 Unpaid care work Paid work Total work

100%

90% 25.1 80% 45.4 70% 60.1 Men 60%

50% Women

40% 74.9 30% 54.6 20% 39.9

10%

0% Unpaid care work Paid work Total work

Note: Regional estimates based on the following countries: Benin, Cabo Verde, Ethiopia, Madagascar, Mali, the United Republic of Tanzania.

Chart 42: Regions by income group ranked by decreasing order of women’s burden of unpaid care work, paid work and total work, 75 countries

500

450

400

350

300

250 465 453 453

200 413 Minutes Minutes per day

150 276 272 262 260 100 192 189 181 154 50

0 Emerging World Developing Developed Developing Emerging World Developed Emerging World Developing Developed Unpaid care work Paid work Total work

Chart 43: Regions by income group ranked by increasing order of men’s burden of unpaid care work, paid work and total work, 75 countries

450

400

350

300

250

200 404 411 376 387 Minutes Minutes per day 343 321 150 289 251 100

137 50 88 68 84

0 Emerging World Developing Developed Developed Developing World Emerging Developing Developed World Emerging Unpaid care work Paid work Total work

It is in the emerging countries that women spend the longest hours in unpaid care work (4 hours and 36 minutes) and in the developed countries that they spend the shortest (4 hours and 20 minutes). But there is a very little difference: only 16 minutes, even when in developed countries the household chores are much more capital intensive and therefore less time-demanding. It is interesting to note (Chart 43) that in these two regions, men are the least contributing to household chores (emerging countries: only 1 hour and 8 minutes) or the most (developed countries: 2 hours and 17 minutes), highlighting the variations in gender disparities in these two regions. In the developing economies (represented by only 6 African countries), women’s unpaid care work is higher than in developed countries by only 2 minutes but the gender gap is of 49 minutes, men dedicating only 88 minutes to domestic work.

The contribution of women to paid work is the highest in developing countries (3 hours and 12 minutes), followed by emerging countries (3 hours and 9 minutes) and developed countries are lagging behind with only 2 hours and 34 minutes. The difference however is that, in developed countries, women are mostly wage and salaried workers whereas in developing and emerging countries a high proportion is self-employed and (unpaid) contributing family workers in their family’s farms. In emerging countries, time spent by men in paid work is as high as 5 hours and 43 minutes or 1.8 times the time spent by women against 1.6 times in developed countries.

Regarding total work, the emerging countries come first with the heaviest women’s burden (7 hours and 45 minutes), and the developed countries come last with 6 hours and 53 minutes (the difference between the two groups being 52 minutes). It is in developing countries however that the difference is the most striking between women and men: women work 77 minutes more than men, against 54 minutes in emerging countries and only 26 minutes in developed countries.

3) Estimates by regions and sub-regions

Northern Africa (Charts 44) and Arab countries (Charts 45) are the two sub-regions, which are characterised by a very low participation of women to paid work (respectively 18.8 per cent and 14.5 per cent) and a very low participation of men to unpaid care work (respectively 13.9 per cent and 16.4 per cent). On the latter aspect, only men in Southern Asia (and specifically India) do worse (with only 10 per cent), as shown on Charts 46 hereafter.

Except for these latter regions as well as for Western and Central Asia, the patterns are quite similar in the various regions with Northern America (Charts 52) performing the best at the extreme with a contribution of women to paid work reaching 41.2 per cent and a contribution of men to unpaid care work at 39 per cent.

In Sub-Saharan Africa (Charts 46), women contribute much more to paid work (40.1 per cent) and men to ¼ of unpaid work (24.9 per cent).

In Latin America (Charts 47), women’s contribution to paid work hardly reaches 1/3 of the total (33.3 per cent) whereas men contribute to a little bit more than ¼ of unpaid work (25.9 per cent).

Charts 44: Paid work, unpaid care work and total work by regions and sub- regions: global averages for Northern Africa, 3 countries

800

700

600 Men 312 500 Women

400 50

300 Minutes Minutes per day

200 263 370 309 100 61 0 Unpaid care work Paid work Total work

100% 13.9 90%

80% 45.7 70%

60% 81.2 Men 50% 86.1 Women 40%

30% 54.3 20%

10% 18.8

0% Unpaid care work Paid work Total work

Note: Regional estimates based on the following countries: Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia.

Charts 45: Paid work, unpaid care work and total work by regions and sub-regions: global averages for Arab countries, 4 countries

800

700

600 Men

Women 500 288

400 64

300 Minutes Minutes per day

200 365 326 224 100

0 38 Unpaid care work Paid work Total work

100%

90% 16.4

80% 44.1 70%

60% 85.5 50% Men

40% 83.6 Women

30% 55.9 20%

10% 14.5 0% Unpaid care work Paid work Total work

Note: Regional estimates based on the following countries: Iraq, Oman, Occupied Palestinian Territory, Qatar

Charts 46: Paid work, unpaid care work and total work by regions and sub-regions: global averages for Sub-Saharan Africa, 10 countries

900

800

700 Men 600 361 Women 500

400

Minutes Minutes per day 275 300 87

200 432 249 100 184

0 Unpaid care work Paid work Total work

100%

90% 25.9 80% 45.5 70% 59.9

60% Men

50% Women 40% 74.1 30% 54.5 20% 40.1

10%

0% Unpaid care work Paid work Total work

Note: Regional estimates based on the following countries: Benin, Cameroon, Cabo Verde, Ethiopia, Ghana, Madagascar, Mali Mauritius, South Africa, United Republic of Tanzania.

Charts 47: Paid work, unpaid care work and total work by regions and sub-regions: global averages for Latin America, 11 countries

1200

1000 Men

Women 800 473

600

Minutes Minutes per day 130 400 342 543 200 371 171 0 Unpaid care work Paid work Total work

100%

90% 25.9 80% 46.6 70% Men 66.7 60% Women 50%

40% 74.1 30% 53.4 20% 33.3 10%

0% Unpaid care work Paid work Total work

Note: Regional estimates based on the following countries: Argentina, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Mexico, Panama, Paraguay, Peru, Uruguay.

Charts 48: Paid work, unpaid care work and total work by regions and sub-regions: global averages for Eastern Asia, 5 countries

1000

900

800 Men 700 443 Women 600

500

400 353 Minutes Minutes per day 300 90 487 200

100 236 251

0 Unpaid care work Paid work Total work

100%

90% 27.6 80% 47.6 70% 58.4

60%

Men 50% Women 40% 72.4 30% 52.4 20% 41.6

10%

0% Unpaid care work Paid work Total work

Note: Regional estimates based on the following countries: China, Japan, Republic of Korea, Mongolia, Taiwan China.

Charts 49: Paid work, unpaid care work and total work by regions and sub-regions: global averages for South-Eastern Asia and the Pacific, 4 countries

900

800

700 Men

600 401 Women

500

400 325

Minutes Minutes per day 300 79 200 420

100 208 212

0 Unpaid care work Paid work Total work

100%

90% 27.5 80% 48.8 70% 60.5

60% Men 50% Women 40% 72.5 30% 51.2 20% 39.5

10%

0% Unpaid care work Paid work Total work

Note: Regional estimates based on the following countries: Australia, Cambodia, New Zealand, Thailand.

Charts 50: Paid work, unpaid care work and total work by regions and sub-regions: global averages for Southern Asia, 3 countries

900

800 Men 700 Women 385 600

500

400

Minutes Minutes per day 300 33 352

200 440 296 100 144 0 Unpaid care work Paid work Total work

100% 10.0 90%

80% 46.7 70% 71.0 60% Men 50% 90.0 Women 40%

30% 53.3 20% 29.0 10%

0% Unpaid care work Paid work Total work

Note: Regional estimates based on the following countries: India, Islamic Republic of Iran, Pakistan.

Charts 51: Paid work, unpaid care work and total work by regions and sub-regions: global averages for Central and Western Asia, 5 countries

800

700 Men

600 Women 353

500

400 95

300 Minutes Minutes per day 257 200 406 309 100 96 0 Unpaid care work Paid work Total work

100%

90% 23.5 80% 46.5 Men 70% 72.8 60% Women

50%

40% 76.5 30% 53.5 20% 27.2 10%

0% Unpaid care work Paid work Total work

Note: Regional estimates based on the following countries: Armenia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkey.

Charts 52: Paid work, unpaid care work and total work by regions and sub-regions: global averages for Northern America, 2 countries

1000

900

800 Men Women 700 420 600

500

400 Minutes Minutes per day 168 300 251

200 439 263 100 176

0 Unpaid care work Paid work Total work

100% 13.9 90%

80% 45.7 70%

60% 81.2 Men 50% 86.1 Women 40%

30% 54.3 20%

10% 18.8 0% Unpaid care work Paid work Total work

Note: Regional estimates based on the following countries: Canada, United States.

Charts 53: Paid work, unpaid care work and total work by regions and sub-regions: global averages for Northern, Southern and Western Europe, 22 countries

800

700

600 Men 360 500 Women

400 138

300 Minutes Minutes per day 222 200 391 261 100 132 0 Unpaid care work Paid work Total work

100%

90%

80% 34.6 47.9 70% 62.7 60% Men 50% Women 40%

30% 65.4 52.1 20% 37.3 10%

0% Unpaid care work Paid work Total work

Note: Regional estimates based on the following countries: Albania, Austria, Belgium, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, France, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Latvia, Lithuania, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, Serbia, Slovenia, Spain, Sweden, United Kingdom

Charts 54: Paid work, unpaid care work and total work by regions and sub-regions: global averages for Eastern Europe, 6 countries

900

800

700 Men

600 Women 369

500

400 147 Minutes Minutes per day 300 222 200 425 285 100 140 0 Unpaid care work Paid work Total work

100%

90% 34.0 80% 46.5 70% 61.3

60% Men

50% Women 40% 66.0 30% 53.5 20% 38.7 10%

0% Unpaid care work Paid work Total work

Note: Regional estimates based on the following countries: Belarus, Bulgaria, Hungary, Republic of Moldova, Poland, Romania.

Charts 55 shows a cross regional comparison of gender gaps in unpaid, paid and total work.

As regards unpaid work, women spend more time than men in all regions, ranging from 1.57 time more in Northern America, 1.89 time more in Northern, Southern and Western Europe, to 2.85 times in Latin America and 2.86 times in sub-Saharan Africa, up to 3.25 times in Western and Central Asia, 5.09 in Arab countries, 6.18 in Northern Africa and 8.97 in Southern Asia.

In all regions, women dedicate less time than men to paid work: the ratio ranges from 17 per cent in Arab countries, 23 per cent in Northern Africa, 37 per cent in Western and Central Asia and 41 per cent in Southern Asia, up to 70 per cent in Northern America and 71 per cent in Eastern Asia.

In all regions, women are working more than men when we add up unpaid work and paid work. The women-to-men ratio for total work ranges from 1.05 in Northern America and South-Eastern Asia and the Pacific, up to 1.19 in Northern Africa, 1.2 in sub-Saharan Africa and 1.27 in the Arab countries.

Charts 55: Ratio Women to Men of unpaid care work, paid work and total work by regions, 75 countries 10.00 9.00 8.00 7.00 6.00 5.00 8.97 4.00 3.00 6.18 5.09 2.00 2.62 2.63 2.85 2.86 3.25 1.00 1.57 1.89 1.94

0.00

Eastern Asia Eastern

Latin America Latin

Southern Asia Southern

Arab countries Arab

Eastern Europe Eastern

Northern Africa Northern

Pacific

Northern Northern America

Sub-Saharan AfricaSub-Saharan

Western Europe Western

Northern, Southern and Southern Northern,

Central and Western Asia Western Central and South Eastern Asia and the Asia and South Eastern Unpaid care work

0.80

0.70

0.60

0.50

0.40 0.71 0.65 0.67 0.70 0.30 0.59 0.63 0.50 0.20 0.37 0.41 0.23 0.10 0.17

0.00

Eastern Asia

Latin America

SouthernAsia

Arabcountries

Eastern Europe

NorthernAfrica

Pacific

NorthernAmerica

Sub-SaharanAfrica

WesternEurope

Northern,Southern and

Central and WesternAsia SouthEastern Asia and the Paid work

Charts 55 (continued): Ratio Women to Men of unpaid care work, paid work and total work by regions

1.40 1.20 1.00 0.80 0.60 1.27 1.05 1.05 1.09 1.10 1.14 1.15 1.15 1.15 1.19 1.20 0.40 0.20

0.00

Eastern Asia

Asia

Latin Latin America

SouthernAsia

Arabcountries

Eastern Europe

NorthernAfrica

the the Pacific

NorthernAmerica

Sub-SaharanAfrica

Northern,Southern

andWestern Europe

Central and Western SouthEastern Asia and Total work

Charts 56, 57 and 58 rank the regions according to women’s time spent in unpaid care work, to gender gap in unpaid care work, and to women’s time spent in total work. Latin America comes in the first place for women’s time in unpaid care work and total work (Charts 56 and 58), because of the survey methodology, as already explained. The region gains a better rank when it comes to the gender gap in unpaid care work due to the role of men in sharing unpaid care work (Chart 57).

Chart 56: Regions ranked by decreasing order of women's time in unpaid care work

600 Unpaid care work Paid work

500 Total work

400

300 Minutes Minutes per day 200

100

Men Men Men Men Men Men Men Men Men Men Men

Women Women Women Women Women Women Women Women Women Women Women Latin Arab Central and Northern Southern Eastern Northern Northern, Sub-Saharan Eastern Asia South America countries Western Asia Africa Asia Europe America Southern and Africa Eastern Asia Western and the Europe Pacific

Chart 57: Regions ranked by decreasing order of gender gap in unpaid care work

600 Unpaid care work

500 Paid work

400 Total work

300 Minutes Minutes per day 200

100

Men Men Men Men Men Men Men Men Men Men Men

Women Women Women Women Women Women Women Women Women Women Women Southern Arab Northern Latin Central and Sub-Saharan Eastern Asia Eastern South Northern, Northern Asia countries Africa America Western Asia Africa Europe Eastern Asia Southern and America and the Western Pacific Europe

Chart 58: Regions ranked by decreasing order of women's time in total work

Unpaid 600 care work Paid work 500 Total work 400

300

Minutes Minutes per day 200

100

Men Men Men Men Men Men Men Men Men Men Men

Women Women Women Women Women Women Women Women Women Women Women Latin Eastern Asia Southern Northern Sub-Saharan South Eastern Central and Northern, Northern Arab America Asia America Africa Eastern Asia Europe Western Asia Southern Africa countries and the and Western Pacific Europe

Section 4: Unpaid care work according to various socioeconomic characteristics

The gaps and variations between women and men observed in time use across regions and countries can even be amplified depending on geographical location (urban or rural areas), age group, education level, activity status, employment status, income group, marital status and presence of children in the household.

1) Paid work and unpaid care work by geographical location

Although the definition of urban and rural may vary from region to region and from country to country the main difficulty in the present comparative work has been that some surveys provide an excess of details without allowing aggregation: geographical areas may distinguish the capital city, another major city (the economic capital for instance), secondary urban areas, semi-urban areas and finally rural areas. For comparison purposes and in order to avoid very complex tables, only two areas per country were retained: rural and urban. The limited cases in which the urban areas were only represented by the capital city, and aggregation was not possible, were taken into account in the narrative.

Charts 59 to 62 below present time spent by women and men in paid work and unpaid care work by urban and rural areas. Countries were ranked by increasing order of time spent in urban areas. The results show that two different categories of countries can be distinguished: a first category where women spend less time in paid (or unpaid care) work in rural areas, compared with urban areas, and a second category where it is exactly the reverse. Therefore, we tried to isolate each category of countries.

Most of the 14 countries where time spent by women in paid work is longer in rural areas than in urban areas are characterised by a vast agricultural population and include: Mali, India, China, Madagascar, Ethiopia, Mongolia, Benin, Ghana (with rural populations ranging from 46 per cent in Ghana, up to 80 per cent in Ethiopia), and also Armenia, Albania. Tunisia, much more urbanised (with 66 per cent of urban population), looks like an exception in the group. On the other hand, the 10 countries where women spend more time in paid work in urban areas than in rural areas are Latin American countries, as well as South Africa (note that in South Africa, urban formal areas are opposed to tribal areas), Thailand, Belgium (Brussels as opposed to Wallonie), and Greece.

A striking feature is that in almost all countries women dedicate more time to unpaid care work in rural areas than in urban areas. The reason is that unpaid care work is usually less time consuming in urban areas, because these types of unpaid activities may become more capital intensive, there is better access to basic infrastructure, labour-saving devices and processed food, whereas in rural areas lot of time can be devoted to the processing of food products (pounding of grains for example and also water and wood fetching). There are however three exceptions: India, Madagascar and China, where women’s unpaid care work is more time-consuming in urban areas than in rural areas. These three countries belong to the category where women spend more time in paid work in rural areas compared with urban areas.

Interestingly, the countries where men spend more time in unpaid care work in rural areas do not coincide with the countries where women dedicate less time to these activities in these same areas. In China and Madagascar, similar to women, men also devote less time to unpaid care work in rural areas than they do in urban areas, due to their higher engagement into paid work.

Chart 59: Time spent by women in paid work in urban and rural areas (countries ranked by increasing order of time in urban areas). 31 countries

500 Women 450

400

350

300

250

200 Miutes Miutes day per 337 150 320 Urban 262 277 272 270 236 239254246 254 Rural 214 214 217 216 100 193 206 192 197 180165 166 168 177 184 155 146 152146162 126 133 136 138 144 145 133 145 50 98 114108 116 99 79 92 96 85 88 72 59 78 70 3030 3640 42 42 56 0

Note: The surveys of Cabo Verde, El Salvador, Peru and Uruguay provide data only for unpaid care work, not for paid work

Chart 60: Time spent by women in unpaid care work in urban and rural areas (countries ranked by increasing order of time in urban areas). 35 countries

600

505 500 457458 Urban Rural 417 400 382 355 356363 362 324 317 322316 330315 305301302 295 291 300 263 247 245 225 226 236 230 215 211 476

Minutes Minutes per day 186186 200 380405 330331349 293299306312312322322 104 257257268272273275277282 225225235237246252 100 189190203216217 158180 100 0

Chart 61: Time spent by men in paid work in urban and rural areas (countries ranked by increasing order of time in urban areas), 30 countries 500 Men 443 450 415 390 400 375 363 340 342 350 329 324 322 320 312 293 296294 300 281 278 266 247 255 250 226 210 200 200 177 412 Minutes Minutes per day 352354363 148143 153 345 150 302306314316318320 278279282283288289290297298298 Urban 245246263 235236 Rural 100 169174185 135 50

Note: The surveys of Cabo Verde, El Salvador, Peru and Uruguay provide data only for unpaid care work, not for paid work

Chart 62: Time spent by men in unpaid care work in urban and rural areas (countries ranked by increasing order of time in urban areas). 34 countries

600

500

400 Urban Rural

300 254

Minutes Minutes per day 188 200 166 141 132 134 131 104110112 104 113109 88 86 229 100 67 71 70 56 52 48 58 58 151152 32 44 40 38 122122131141 18 18 28 88 89 90 93 94 111117 24 27 27 29 42 43 45 48 50 54 56 56 56 66 70 72 76 77 80 0

Charts 63 to 70 show the respective shares of women and men in paid work and in unpaid care work, in urban and rural areas, in absolute terms (number of minutes) and in relative terms (share of the total burden).

As regards paid work in urban areas, women contribute from a minimum of 11-14 per cent of the total amount of paid work in Pakistan, Iran, Iraq or Algeria to a maximum of 42-45 per cent in China, Macedonia, Thailand and Ghana (Chart 64). Only in eight countries out of 28), including India and Tunisia, the share of women’s paid work in urban areas is below 30 per cent of the total. As regards rural paid work, women’s contribution ranges from 12-15 per cent in Algeria and Iraq up to 42-45 per cent in China, Benin, Thailand, Ghana and Mali. Again, eight countries (not the same as in urban paid work), including Pakistan and Mexico, are below 30 per cent.

Chart 67 on unpaid care work in urban areas shows that women contributes from a minimum of 62 per cent of the total daily burden in Belgium to a maximum of 90-92 per cent in Mali, Pakistan and India. In rural areas (Chart 66), the distribution is approximately the same (from 62 up to 92 per cent) for the same countries.

Charts 63: Time spent by women and men in paid work in urban areas (countries ranked by increasing order of time spent by women in the area), 31 countries

800

700

600 412 500

354320 400 289 363 283298 314 318278 277 300 345 288306 Minutes Minutes per day 302 282 263 235 352 279279 236 Men 290297246 185 200 298316 169 Women 245 337 135 246254 100 174 214217239 162165166168177184192197 116133133136138144145146152 72 79 92 96108 0 30 36 42 42

Note: The surveys of Cabo Verde, El Salvador, Peru and Uruguay provide data only for unpaid care work, not for paid work

Chart 64: Time spent by women and men in unpaid care work in urban areas (countries ranked by increasing order of time spent by women in the area), 35 countries

800

700 229

600 Men

152 500 Women 151122 131 400 141 144 122 88 76 77 56 111 90 93 50 54 42 Minutes Minutes per day 300 89 55 29 117 94 80 66 43 56 27 70 72 45 27 476 200 380405 56 24 331349 293299306312312322322330 246252257257268272273275277282 100 48 203216217225225235237 158180189190 100 0

Charts 65: Time spent by women and men in paid work in rural areas (countries ranked by increasing order of time spent by women in the area), 28 countries

900

800

700

600 443 500 390415 329322 400 340 293 363296 294

Minutes Minutes per day 375 300 312320281247 342324 278266255 Men 200 281 Women 153 226 200 177143 320 210 148 236254262270272 100 178180193206214216 114126133145146155 56 59 70 78 85 88 98 99 0 30 40

Note: The surveys of Cabo Verde, El Salvador, Peru and Uruguay provide data only for unpaid care work, not for paid work

Charts 66: Time spent by women and men in unpaid care work in rural areas (countries ranked by increasing order of time spent by women in the area), 32 countries

900

800

700 254 600 Men Women

500 188113131 166 400 172 88 104 141 109 134 56 58 110112 44 40 48 Minutes Minutes per day 300 132 104 86 32 28 70 18 71 38 67 40 457458505 200 58 417 18 355356362363382 295301302305315316317322324330 52 245247263291 100 186186205211215225226230 104 0

Chart 67: Share of women and men in paid work in urban areas, 31 countries

100%

90%

80%

55.054.7 70% 59.359.259.058.457.956.956.155.7 63.462.160.2 67.767.166.565.665.465.264.664.364.2 71.769.5 75.975.6 60% 81.7 88.387.687.285.3 50%

40%

30% Men 45.045.3 Women 20% 40.740.841.041.642.143.143.944.3 36.637.939.8 32.332.933.534.434.634.835.435.735.8 28.330.5 24.124.4 10% 18.3 11.712.412.814.7 0%

Note: The surveys of Cabo Verde, El Salvador, Peru and Uruguay provide data only for unpaid care work, not for paid work

Chart 68: Share of women and men in paid work in rural areas, 28 countries

100%

90%

80%

58.1 57.8 57.6 56.4 55.4 55.1 70% 62.7 61.4 61.2 60.7 60.4 59.1 59.0 68.1 67.9 67.4 65.7 65.3 72.5 72.1 70.9 69.4 60% 80.1 79.5 77.2 76.8 87.5 85.0 50%

40%

30%

41.9 42.2 42.4 43.6 44.6 44.9 20% 37.3 38.6 38.8 39.3 39.6 40.9 41.0 31.9 32.1 32.6 34.3 34.7 27.5 27.9 29.1 30.6 10% 19.9 20.5 22.8 23.2 12.5 15.0 0%

Note: The surveys of Cabo Verde, El Salvador, Peru and Uruguay provide data only for unpaid care work, not for paid work

Chart 69: Share of women and men in unpaid care work in urban areas, 35 countries

100% 10.3 9.0 8.5 15.014.614.513.511.911.8 19.319.117.216.6 90% 22.721.219.9 27.327.026.626.226.226.226.125.924.3 30.930.230.228.4 34.533.832.532.431.9 80% 38.1

70%

60%

50% 91.5 88.188.289.791.0 85.085.485.586.5 80.780.982.883.4 40% 77.378.880.1 72.773.073.473.873.873.873.974.175.7 69.169.869.871.6 Men 65.566.267.567.668.1 30% 61.9 Women

20%

10%

Chart 70: Share of women and men in unpaid care work in rural areas, 32 countries

100% 6.8 11.0 9.9 8.8 8.7 15.3 15.0 13.8 13.6 12.7 12.3 90% 19.8 19.8 25.7 25.6 24.6 23.8 23.8 23.3 22.3 22.2 29.6 29.3 27.1 26.8 33.5 33.3 31.6 31.1 30.3 80% 37.0 35.2

70%

60%

50% 93.2 89.0 90.1 91.2 91.3 84.7 85.0 86.2 86.4 87.3 87.7 40% 80.2 80.2 74.3 74.4 75.4 76.2 76.2 76.7 77.7 77.8 70.4 70.7 72.9 73.2 66.5 66.7 68.4 68.9 69.7 30% 63.0 64.8

20% Men Women 10%

2) Paid and unpaid care work by age group

Defining youth, adults and the elderly by age groups is not easy. The age group of 15-24 or 15-29 is commonly used in high-income countries, whereas in Africa youth is defined (for instance, by the African Union) as comprising the whole range from 15 to 35 years. The 65+ age group most commonly defines the elderly, but in high-income countries the age group 75+ is sometimes used. The adult group is in between. Still the age groups used for tabulating the time-use surveys vary extremely so that it would be impossible to build a homogeneous table for comparative purposes unless we accept some discrepancies. The range for youth varies from 10-15, 10-17 or 10-19 (in Cameroon, South Africa and Mauritius respectively) to 18-29 (in Uruguay or in the Occupied Palestinian Territory) or 20-24 (in Greece or in the USA) or 15-24 (in China). The age groups for the elderly range from 45+ in South Africa, 50-74 in Tunisia, 55+ in Turkey, up to 65+ for a majority of countries, and 66+ in Chile. Age groups for adults vary accordingly, but due to the impossibility of aggregating sub-groups, the age group 25-44 or 35-44, or even 25-34 represents adults in a non-negligible number of countries. For one country (Albania), the age group 15-64 stands for adults (without any youth category).

Charts 71 and 72 show that, as expected, adult women and men spend more time than youth or the elderly in paid work. The United Kingdom and the United States are two exceptions regarding women: in these two countries, young women spend more time than adult women in paid work. In the case of the United States, the age groups concerned possibly explain the difference (20-24 and 25-34 cannot allow a clear differentiation between generations).

Charts 72 are more differentiated (heterogeneous?) showing that young women generally spend less time than adults in unpaid care work, except in China (due to the specificity of the age group) and in the United Republic of Tanzania where they spend more time, and in Ghana and Ethiopia where they spend almost as much time. Still among women, the elderly spend less time in unpaid care work than the adults, but their contribution remains quite high and even almost equivalent in some countries (e.g. Norway, Argentina, Greece). In three countries women in old age spend more time in unpaid care work than their adult counterparts: Japan, Belgium (two countries where the age group for the elderly is capped at 75) and Italy. Ageing populations are part of the explanation. Moreover it is a common practice in these countries (and others) that grandparents increase their contribution to childcare, especially where such public or private services are lacking or are unable to meet the demand.

As regards men’s unpaid care work, the most striking feature emerging from Chart 72 is that men strongly increase their time in unpaid care work when getting older: in 21 countries among 28, men spend more time in unpaid care work than the adults or the youth. The same explanations as for women remain valid for men. The exceptions are for Latin American countries (Chile, Colombia, Argentina), Cabo Verde, and also Ethiopia and Benin.

Charts 73 to 78 summarise the patterns described above and show more clearly the general opposite trends: in all regions, the number of hours spent by women in unpaid care work declines in old age, whereas the time spent by men in these activities increases during this transition.

Charts 71: Time spent by women and men in paid work by age group (countries ranked by increasing order of adults’ time), 31 countries

500 450 400 Women Youth 350 300 Women Adults 250 Women Elderly 200

minutes minutes day per 150 100 50 0

500 450 Men Youth 400 Men Adults 350 300 Men Elderly 250 200

Minutes Minutes per day 150 100 50 0

Note : The surveys of Cabo Verde and Uruguay provide data only for unpaid care work, not for paid work

Charts 72: Time spent in unpaid care work by age group (countries ranked by increasing order of adults’ time), 33 countries

600 Women Youth 500 Women Adults

400 Women Elderly

300

200 Minutes Minutes per day

100

600

500 Men Youth

400 Men Adults

Men Elderly 300

Minutes Minutes per day 200

100

89 Chart 73: Patterns of change in time spent by women and men in unpaid care work by age group: Northern Africa, 2 countries

450

400

350

Women Tunisia 300

250 Women Algeria

200 Minutes Minutes per day

150

100 Men Tunisia

50 Men Algeria

0 Youth Adults Elderly

90 Charts 74: Patterns of change in time spent by women and men in unpaid care work by age group: Sub-Saharan Africa, 8 countries

600

500 Women Cabo Verde 400

Women Ethiopia 300 Women Tanzania, Women Mauritius United Rep. of Women South Minutes Minutes per day Africa 200

Women Benin Women Cameroon 100 Women Ghana

0 Youth Adults Elderly 600

500

400

300

Men Cabo Verde

Minutes Minutes per day 200

Men Ethiopia

100 Men South Africa Men Ghana Men Cameroon Men Tanzania, Men Mauritius United Rep. of 0 Men Benin Youth Adults Elderly

Charts 75: Patterns of change in time spent by women and men in unpaid care work by age group: Asia, 5 countries

400 Asia Women Turkey 350 Women Japan 300

250

200 Women New Women Iran, 150 Zealand

Minutes Minutes per day Islamic Rep. of Women China 100

0 Youth Adults Elderly

Note: Indian adults stand at 104 minutes

300

Men New Zealand 250

200

Men Turkey

150

Men China Minutes Minutes per day 100 Men Japan

0 Youth Adults Elderly

Note: Indian adults stand at 54 minutes. No data on Iranian men by age group

92 Charts 76: Patterns of change in time spent by women and men in unpaid work by age group: Latin America, 5 countries

600

Women Colombia 500

Women Chile 400

Women Costa Rica 300 Women Uruguay

Minutes Minutes per day 200

100 Women Argentina

0 Youth Adults Elderly

600

500

400

300 Minutes Minutes per day 200 Men Chile

Men Uruguay Men Colombia 100 Men Costa Rica Men Argentina 0 Youth Adults Elderly

93 Charts 77: Patterns of change in time spent by women and men in unpaid care work by age group: Europe, 10 countries

400 Belgium 2013

350 Finland 2009-10

300 Greece 2013-14

250 Italy 2008-09

200 Norway 2010

UK 2005

150 Minutes Minutes per day Albania 2010-11 100 Macedonia 2014-15 50 Romania 2011-12 0 Women Youth Women Adults Women Elderly Serbia 2010-11

400 Belgium 2013

350 Finland 2009-10

300 Greece 2013-14

250 Italy 2008-09

Norway 2010 200

UK 2005

150 Minutes Minutes per day Albania 2010-11 100 Macedonia 2014-15 50 Romania 2011-12 0 Serbia 2010-11 Men Youth Men Adults Men Elderly

Chart 78: Patterns of change in time spent by women and men in unpaid care work by age group: United States

300 Women United States 250

200 Men United States

150

Minutes Minutes per day 100

0 Youth Adults Elderly

3) Paid work and unpaid care work by educational level

Classifications by educational level are also far from being harmonised. In some countries secondary education is split into lower and higher education levels. In such cases, we have opted for the higher level. Pre-schooling is sometimes included in primary education and finally some countries distinguish between university level and other post-secondary levels. In order to make comparisons possible, the university level was retained. Another type of classification includes the following categories: “secondary incomplete”, ”secondary complete + tertiary incomplete” and “tertiary complete”. Some discrepancies may be explained by the specificities of classifications used. However, and despite such heterogeneity in the categories, it is possible to identify some patterns.

In Charts 79 and 80 below, countries have been classified by region and within regions, by increasing order of time spent by tertiary level educated women and men (whether in paid work or in unpaid care work). The general pattern that emerges from the Charts is that women dedicate more and more time to paid work as their educational level increases: in 14 countries out of 18, such as Turkey, Cambodia and Costa Rica, women with tertiary level spend more time in paid work than their counterparts with secondary level and primary level. Exceptions are Benin and Cameroon where the non-educated and the primary-level educated women are spending more time in paid work than their counterparts with secondary and tertiary levels of education. The same observation is valid in India and to a lesser extent in China. The European exception is Greece, which could be explained by the specificity of the classification used, namely the following three educational levels: “up to lower secondary”, “upper secondary and post secondary” and “tertiary”. More generally the explanation for this drop in paid work when the educational level increases could be that in the countries concerned, women strongly participate to the labour force, mainly in informal employment and therefore by necessity. When this necessity is lacking, in more well off households, women may prefer to dedicate more time to household care.

The pattern for men in paid work is different: in 11 countries, men with tertiary level of education spend less time in paid work than their counterparts in secondary or primary levels. Three categories of countries emerge. In the first group, men’s time spent in paid work clearly declines with the increase in the educational level: India, China, Cameroon, Benin. Similar patterns are found in Algeria and Tunisia, which also stand out since men with no education spend less time in unpaid care work than those with higher levels of education. In the second category, the pattern is exactly the reverse: men’s time spent in unpaid care work increases with the level of education: South Africa, the United Republic of Tanzania, Ghana (in which non-educated men spend more time in paid work than each of the other categories), Argentina, Turkey, and Belgium. Finally, the third category includes countries in which the maximum of time spent by men in paid work is reached at secondary level and declines afterwards: Costa Rica, Serbia, Albania, Greece.

Regarding the patterns of time use for unpaid care work, Charts 80 shows that in 14 countries out of 21, women’s time spent in unpaid care work declines with the increase in educational level. In some countries, such as the United Republic of Tanzania and Colombia, time spent by women in unpaid care work increases with the educational level up to the secondary level and then declines. And in other countries, for example Argentina

96 or India, the time dedicated to unpaid care work is nearly the same at all educational levels.

As to the time spent in unpaid care work by men, the expected or desirable increase with the educational level is observed only in 6 countries: Benin, Cabo Verde, China, Colombia, Albania, Belgium. Costa Rica, Cameroon and Tunisia can be added to the list, if the non- educated (or those with primary level for Costa Rica) are not taken into account. In Ethiopia, Argentina, Uruguay, Greece and Serbia the reverse pattern can be observed: the more educated men are, the less time they devote to unpaid care work. Finally, in Algeria, Turkey, India, behaviours do not change with the level of education: these are countries where patriarchal attitudes remain widespread and strong.

97 Charts 79: Time spent in paid work by educational level (countries ranked by region and increasing order of time spent by tertiary educated women), 18 countries

600 None Primary 500 Secondary Tertiary 400

300

200 Minutes Minutes per day

100

WOMEN 600

None 500 Primary Secondary 400 Tertiary

300

Minutes Minutes per day 200

100

MEN

98 Charts 80: Time spent in unpaid care work by educational level (countries ranked by region and increasing order of time spent by tertiary educated women), 21 countries

600 None 500 Primary Secondary 400 Tertiary

300

Minutes Minutes per day 200

100

WOMEN 600

500 None

400 Primary

300

Minutes Minutes per day 200

100

MEN

99 4) Paid work and unpaid care work by activity status

The activity status distinguishes between the active and the inactive, and among the active, the employed and the unemployed. Challenges to comparisons come from the fact that in many countries several categories of inactive are distinguished, mainly including the “female housekeepers”, the “male retirees”. In other cases, the divide is between those “working” and “not working” or the “employed” and the “not employed,” the latter category including the “unemployed”. In addition, among the “employed”, the employed “full-time” and “part-time” are sometimes distinguished. As published data do not make possible the aggregation of several sub-categories, we have opted for the most representative (and aggregated) categories in this report.

On average (Charts 81), in the 24 countries with available data, employed women spend 5 hours per day in paid work. Although the unemployed and the inactive are not supposed (by definition) to work for pay or profit, as shown on Charts 55, non-employed women were respectively working for an average of 27 and 20 minutes per day: especially in Benin (89 minutes for the inactive), Ghana (69 minutes for the inactive) and Argentina (56 minutes for the unemployed)10.

Employed men spend on average approximately 6 hours and 30 minutes per day in paid work, and the unemployed and the inactive respectively 49 and 26 minutes. The difference between employed men and employed women is 1 hour and 30 minutes, highlighting the fact that women are – more often than men - involved in part-time jobs. In three countries, Japan, the Islamic Republic of Iran and Pakistan, men spend more than 7 hours and 30 minutes in paid work. In Kazakhstan and Belgium, they spend less than 5 hours.

In all countries but one (Cabo Verde), employed women dedicate less time to unpaid care work than their unemployed or inactive counterparts (Charts 82) – something that is expected given their different time availability. In the 27 countries for which data were gathered, the average time spent in unpaid care work by employed women is 4 hours per day, as compared with 5 hours and 9 minutes for the unemployed and 5 hours and 14 minutes for the inactive. In general, in Asia and the Pacific inactive women spend more time in unpaid care work than unemployed women, as well as in Northern Africa and in Europe, with exceptions for Finland, France, the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia, and the United Kingdom. In Africa, the reverse pattern is observed as well as in Chile and Argentina: inactive women spend less time than unemployed women in unpaid care work, and most often more than the employed themselves.

As to employed men, they spend an average of 1 hour 30 minutes per day in unpaid care work, against 2 hours and 11 minutes for the unemployed and 2 hours and 5 minutes for the inactive. In all countries (again with the exception of Cabo Verde), men increase their involvement in domestic work and care when they are unemployed or inactive. Similar to women, in many countries in all regions, including Argentina, France, Pakistan and South

10 Among the reasons of such a paradox, there is the difficulty for respondents of household’s surveys to understand the concept of economic activity and employment, a source of underestimation especially among women. Another reason is that the economic activity may be split into many episodes in a day or a week so that the question: “have you work for pay or profit at least one hour during the day or the week?” is not so easy to respond whereas the diary is an easier way of capture the activity without presuming whether this activity is productive or not in the sense of the SNA.

100 Africa, unemployed men dedicate more time to unpaid care work than their inactive counterparts. The reason is that the elderly represent a large share of the inactive.

Charts 81: Time spent in paid work by activity status (countries ranked by region and increasing order of time spent by the employed), 24 countries

500 Employed 450 Unemployed 400 Inactive 350 300 250 200

Minutes Minutes per day 150 100 50 0

WOMEN 500 Employed 450 Unemployed 400 Inactive

350

300

250

200 Minutes Minutes per day 150

100

MEN

101 Charts 82: Time spent in unpaid care work by activity status (countries ranked by region and increasing order of time spent by the employed women/men), 27 countries 600

Employed 500 Unemployed Inactive 400

300

Minutes Minutes per day 200

100

WOMEN 600

500 Employed Unemployed

400 Inactive

300

Minutes Minutes per day 200

100

MEN

102 5) Paid work and unpaid care work by employment status

Data on employment status disaggregated by sex were available only in 6 countries. In three countries, Tunisia, China and Finland, wage and salaried women spend more time in paid work than their self-employed counterparts (Charts 83). The time gap is more pronounced (75 minutes) in Tunisia where women’s labour force participation rate is low and the composition of female employment is dominated by wage and salaried employment in the formal economy. In China, Finland and to a lesser extent in France, women self-employed dedicate more time to paid work than wage and salaried women.

As to men and except in Benin, those in self-employment generally spend more time in paid work than wage and salaried men, with important time differences in France, Finland and China.

Charts 84 show that in all six countries wage and salaried women spend less time in unpaid care work than the self-employed, with important time differences, ranging from 164 minutes in Turkey and 102 minutes in Tunisia to 33 minutes in Benin, but only one minute in France. It is exactly the opposite as regards the time spent by men in unpaid care work: in four countries, except Tunisia, self-employed men dedicate more time to unpaid care work than the paid employed: the broader gap is observed in France (39 minutes).

For women, as well as for men, self-employment makes it easier to conciliate paid work with household and care duties, because the place of work is often close to the place of living, if not the same; young children can play and prepare their homework in the next room, etc.

103

Charts 83: Time spent in paid work by employment status, 6 countries

500 Paid employees

450 Self-employed 400 All employed 350 300 250 200

Minutes Minutes per day 150 100 50 0 Tunisia China France Finland Benin Turkey WOMEN

500 Paid employees

450 Self-employed

400 All employed 350

300

250

200 Minutes Minutes per day 150

100

0 Tunisia China France Finland Benin Turkey MEN

104 Charts 84: Time spent in unpaid care work by employment status, 6 countries

400 Paid employees 350 Self-employed

300 All employed

250

200

150 Minutes Minutes per day

100

0 Tunisia China France Finland Benin Turkey WOMEN

400

Paid employees 350

Self-employed 300 All employed 250

200

150 Minutes Minutes per day

100

0 Tunisia China France Finland Benin Turkey MEN

105

6) Paid work and unpaid care work by income groups

Income groups may refer to household expenditures or to household income and therefore being classified by expenditures or income groups, or by quintiles, quartiles (such as in China) or in three income categories in South Africa.

Charts 85 show that time devoted by women to paid work is clearly increasing with the income group in South Africa and Argentina. The more women work for pay or profit, the more the household income grows up. It means that women’s work is a determinant factor of the household’s standard of living and also that women’s work is more socially accepted in well-off households. China and Ghana show a different picture: women’s paid work seems to decline with the rise in income brackets.

Men’s paid work follows the same trends, upwards oriented for South Africa, for Argentina (but only for the three first quintiles), and also for Ethiopia, and downward oriented for Ghana and China, and less clearly for Tunisia.

Women’s unpaid care work (Charts 86) is obviously downward oriented in all countries except in Ghana where the decline is more pronounced for intermediary income groups.

As to men’s unpaid care work, Charts 86 highlight two different patterns. In countries such as Ethiopia, South Africa and Argentina, men reduce their time dedicated to unpaid care work as the household progresses through the income brackets. Whereas the contrary occurs - though not regularly - in Tunisia, Ghana, China and Uruguay, showing slow changes in cultural habits among higher-income groups.

Such findings do not imply that unpaid care work does not improve living standards, but simply mean that resorting to unpaid care work decreases as the households can access to these services through the market and dedicate more hours to paid work.

106

Charts 85: Time spent in paid work by income group, 6 countries

450 1st quintile 400

2nd quintile 350

3rd quintile 300

4th quintile 250

5th quintile

200 Minutes Minutes per day 150

100

0 Tunisia Ethiopia Ghana South Africa China Argentina WOMEN

450 1st quintile 400 2nd quintile 3rd quintile 350 4th quintile 300 5th quintile

250

200

Minutes Minutes per day 150

100

0 Tunisia Ethiopia Ghana South Africa China Argentina MEN Note: No data available on paid work in Uruguay

107 Charts 86: Time spent in unpaid care work by income group, 7 countries

400 1st quintile

2nd quintile 350 3rd quintile 300 4th quintile

250 5th quintile

200

150 Minutes Minutes per day

100

0 Tunisia Ethiopia Ghana South Africa China Argentina Uruguay WOMEN 400

350

1st quintile 300 2nd quintile

3rd quintile 250 4th quintile

200 5th quintile

Minutes Minutes per day 150

100

0 Tunisia Ethiopia Ghana South Africa China Argentina Uruguay MEN

108

7) Paid work and unpaid care work by marital status

Classifications of marital status are also very different by the details they provide. Married/non married or single is a divide, which is rarely presented as such in the survey reports. Generally many sub-categories are used: officially married/living together, married monogamous/married polygamous, and on the other hand divorced, separated, widowed are often distinguished. Here again where aggregation revealed not to be possible, we have chosen the most numerous categories.

Chart 87 points out that in general divorced women increase their time devoted to paid work. Whereas married women lessen their time dedicated to paid work in countries such as Algeria and Tunisia, where they leave the labour market at marriage or at first birth. The same trend is observed in the United Republic of Tanzania, Ethiopia, Turkey and Costa Rica. On the contrary, married women sharply increase their working time for pay or profit in Benin, South Africa, Cameroon and Ghana as well as in India and China, and also Belgium: a possible explanation (except for Belgium) is that in these countries women mostly perform their economic activities in the informal economy, which allows them to conciliate their care duties with an increase in paid work destined to satisfy increased needs and expenditures.

In the case of men, the increase of time spent in paid work is general for the married, while overall there is a decrease in paid work among the divorced (except in Ethiopia where the involvement remains at the same level) and the widowed, presumably due to old age and retirement.

As regards unpaid work (Charts 88), married women see a dramatic increase of their unpaid care work burden. Women’s burden doubles for married women compared with singles in Algeria and Tunisia (from 3 hours and 30 minutes per day up to 6 hours and 40 minutes and more) as well as in China (from 2 hours and 13 minutes to 4 hours and 9 minutes). Unpaid care work triples in Turkey (from 2 hours and 25 minutes up to 6 hours and 34 minutes). The increase is also quite high in Uruguay and Costa Rica (between double and triple).

Men’s burden increases when married as well but not so dramatically in Northern Africa and Turkey, and in Ethiopia, as well as in Latin America and in Belgium. But in other African countries their unpaid care work declines when married and rises up when divorced.

109 Charts 87: Time spent in paid work by marital status (countries ranked by region and increasing order of time spent by the married), 13 countries

600

Single 500 Married 400 Divorced

300 Widowed

200 Minutes Minutes per day

100

WOMEN

600 Single

500 Married

400 Divorced Widowed 300

200 Minutes Minutes per day

100

MEN

110

Charts 88: Time spent in unpaid care work by marital status (countries ranked by region and increasing order of time spent by the married), 15 countries

700 Single 600 Married 500 Divorced 400 Widowed 300

200 Minutes Minutes per day 100

WOMEN

700

600 Single

500 Married

400 Divorced

300 Widowed

Minutes Minutes per day 200

100

MEN

111 8) Paid work and unpaid care work by presence of children in the household and their age group

Maternity and care of children are major determinants of the increase of time spent in unpaid care work within the household. In order to capture changes in time-use due to childcare, survey reports use different methodologies. They adjust for age (for instance, 25+ years in Algeria or less than 45 years in Finland) or categorise households in sub- groups depending on the presence or not of children under a certain age or within an age bracket. It should be noted that these types of classification are not harmonised, therefore the age groups and classifications used in our tabulations and figures are not homogeneous.

Four categories have been defined: no children in the household; presence of children under 5 years of age; presence of children aged between 5 and 11 years; presence of children aged between 11 to 17 years. However, some countries use different age brackets, including 6 and 18 years (Ethiopia and Ghana, China); or 7 and 18 years (South Africa); 7 and 17 years (Belgium, Finland, Serbia, Albania), and 3, 6 and 12 (Uruguay). Sometimes, countries such as Ethiopia, Ghana, Uruguay include the precision: “at least one child aged less than…”.

As expected (Charts 89), women’s time dedicated to paid work declines with the presence of a young child and increases when the child gets older: from 4 hours and 18 minutes down to 1 hour and 37 minutes in the United Kingdom (2005), or from 3 hours and 30 minutes down to 2 hours and 32 minutes in Finland (2009-10) or from 4 hours and 41 minutes down to 3 hours and 56 minutes in China (2008). There are exceptions however: time spent by women in paid work increases with the presence of a young child as if the latter required the mother to work for pay or profit in South Africa and in Belgium (respectively from 1 hour and 38 minutes up to 2 hours and 26 minutes, and from 1 hour and 15 minutes up to 2 hours and 24 minutes).

Regarding men’s time in paid work, it substantially increases with the presence of children in most countries highlighting the transition from youth (or study) to work that corresponds to marriage and paternity, for instance from 1 hour and 55 minutes up to 4 hours and 25 minutes in Belgium (2013), or from 2 hours and 33 minutes up to 5 hours and 46 minutes in South Africa (2010), with the exception of Ghana where it declines (from 6 hours and 28 minutes down to 5 hours and 27 minutes).

Time dedicated to unpaid care work noticeably increases with the presence of children, and in particular of children less than 5 years old, in all reviewed countries (Charts 90). It more than doubles in Finland and it triples in the United Kingdom. The overload ranges from 1 hour and 24 minutes in Belgium up to 3 hours and 30 minutes in Finland and even 4 hours and 6 minutes in the United Kingdom. In these two countries, men also dramatically increase their unpaid care work (by one hour and 39 or 41 minutes respectively). The increase is more modest in the other countries, from 0 minute in South Africa, 3 minutes in Ghana, 6 minutes in Algeria, up to 35 minutes in Ethiopia and 36 minutes in China. Men’s unpaid care work even declines in Albania with the presence of a young child.

112

Charts 89: Time spent in paid work by presence and age of children in the household (countries ranked by region and increasing order of time spent by the households with no children), 11 countries

500 No children 450 Less than 5 400 5 to 10 350 11 to 17 300 250 200

150 Minutes per day 100 50 0

WOMEN

500 No children

450 Less than 5 400 5 to 10 350 11 to 17 300

250

200 Minutes Minutes per day 150

100

MEN

113

Charts 90: Time spent in unpaid care work by presence and age of children in the household (countries ranked by increasing order of time spent by the households with no children), 12 countries

600 No children

500 Less than 5

5 to 10 400 11 to 17 300

Minutes Minutes per day 200

100

WOMEN 600 No children

500 Less than 5

400 5 to 10

11 to 17 300

Minutes Minutes per day 200

100

MEN

114 Section 5: Trends in paid work and unpaid care work by regions

Among the 75 countries having carried out a time-use survey, only 27 have repeated the survey at least once. The periodicity of time-use surveys is generally irregular. The United States is the only country that has carried out such a survey regularly on a yearly basis since 2003. Norway conducts a time-use survey every ten years since 1970. For most countries, only two points (or three points) in time are available. Assessing trends is therefore difficult.

Charts 91 below clearly indicates that for the United States, trends in unpaid care work are downward oriented for women as well as for men, with a more rapid decline for women, so that in the country where the gender gap in unpaid care work is the least extended, it is still declining. Similarly trends in paid work are also downward oriented, less rapidly for women than for men. In terms of proportion of total work, the share of unpaid care work remained remarkably stable around 59 per cent for women, against 38 per cent for men.

The trends in time spent in paid work clearly illustrate the impact of the financial crisis, showing a dramatic drop between 2008 and 2010 among men (from 271 minutes per day or 4 hours and 31 minutes down to 245 minutes or 4 hours and 5 minutes), a drop that is interestingly preceded by a similar pattern among women from 2007 to 2009 (from 188 minutes or 3 hours and 8 minutes down to 171 minutes or 2 hours and 51 minutes). In other words women were the first to be impacted and they were also the first to recover in 2010. A similar shifted drop is observed between 2012 and 2013 for women and 2014 and 2015 for men. It is also interesting to note that similar drops – though less marked and ahead of paid work – are observed for unpaid care work, especially among men, as if just before the crisis men (and women) tended to reduce their unpaid care work (due to more intensive paid work ?).

In Canada (Charts 92), women and men’s unpaid care work is downward oriented (more rapidly for women, so that the gap is reducing) and dropped below the levels of the USA. Regarding paid work the trends are downward oriented, more rapidly for men compared with women. The impact of the 2008 financial crisis is again clearly visible: time spent by men in paid work is reduced by 27 minutes between 2005 and 2010 and by 60 minutes between 2005 and 2015. For women, the drop is less marked but still reduced by 6 minutes between 2005 and 2010, and by 24 minutes between 2005 and 2015. Interestingly an increase in unpaid care work is observed among women (+ 5 minutes) and especially among men (+ 14 minutes) between 2005 and 2010. Then after 2010, the downward trend in unpaid care work resumes even more strongly, especially among women.

115

Charts 91: Trends in unpaid care work and paid work in the USA

300 USA

280 268 268 263 263 260 262 259 258 251 252 252 251 Women Unpaid care work 249 249 246 240

220 Men Unpaid care work 200

180 Minutes per day 168 169 167 165 163 164 162 166 165 163 162 160 156 159 158 140

120 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

300

280 274 272 271 271 265 266 260 256 257 254 250 252 251 253 245 240 Women Paid work

220 Men Paid work

200

Minutes Minutes per day 188 180 181 178 180 179 176 177 176 176 173 171 175 173 166 160

140

120 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016

116

Charts 92: Trends in unpaid care work and paid work in Canada

300 Canada

280 270 264 260 257 252 240 Women Unpaid care work 220 216

200 Men Unpaid care work Minutes Minutes per day 180 170 160 162 156 156

140 144

120 1992 1998 2005 2010 2015

300

280 282 270 270 260 255 240 Women Paid work 220 222 Men Paid work 200

Minutes Minutes per day 186 180 180 168 160 162 162

140

120 1992 1998 2005 2010 2015

117

Charts 93 and 94 highlight the trends in women and men’s unpaid care work in Northern, Western and Southern Europe. In all countries, time spent by women in unpaid work has rapidly declined since the 1970s, in most countries, especially where unpaid care work was taking longer hours. In the recent period six countries have come down from 6 or 5 hours per day under the limit of 4 hours per day (240 minutes). In three other countries (Italy, Spain and Estonia), unpaid care work is still above 4 hours, but they are rapidly re- joining the other group.

Regarding men, the trends are unclear. While Norway and Sweden are characterised by an increased contribution of men to unpaid work (up to more than 3 hours per day), as well as Finland and Belgium (above two hours) but at a lower level, and also a very rapid increase in Spain (starting from a very low point), all the other countries have seen a recent decline of men’s contribution to unpaid work: the United Kingdom, Italy (after a very strong increase), Estonia, and more slowly: France.

Simultaneously, Charts 95 and 96 show that the contribution of men to paid work has been on the decline in all countries (except Belgium) of Northern, Western and Southern Europe whereas the contribution of women was rather on the increase (except in Estonia, Finland and Italy for the most recent period).

From these time-use data it is clear that women continue to bear the bulk of unpaid care work, while men’s participation to these activities has increased over time. These findings are in line with the conclusions of Oriel Sullivan (2000) and Man Yee Kan, Oriel Sullivan, Jonathan Gershuny (2011)11 who show that cross national trends over the last 40 years reveal a slow and incomplete convergence of women’s and men’s work patterns: beyond the trends, “gender segregation in domestic work is quite persistent over time. Women still do the bulk of routine housework and caring for family members while men have increased their contributions disproportionately to non-routine domestic work”.

Charts 97 to 104 show the trends in the few countries in the other regions. In some regions, women’s unpaid work is still on the rise, whereas in other regions it is declining. And at the same time, men’s unpaid work is declining in some regions whereas it is increasing in other regions.

However, Charts 105 to 110 summarize the global trends that emerge from our database by providing a general view for the 25 countries.

11 Oriel Sullivan (2000), The Division of Domestic Labour: Twenty Years of Change? Sociology, 34(3), 437- 456. Man Yee Kan, Oriel Sullivan, Jonathan Gershuny (2011), Gender Convergence in Domestic Work: Discerning the Effects of Interactional and Institutional Barriers from Large-scale Data, in Sociology 45 (2), 234-251.

118

Chart 93: Trends in women’s unpaid care work in Northern, Western and Southern Europe, 10 countries

360 Italy 340 France 320

Estonia 300

Norway 280 Spain United Germany 260

Minutes Minutes per day Kingdom Sweden 240 Finland Belgium 220

200 1970 1979-80 1987-90 1999-2000 2005 2009-2015

Table 3 : Time spent by women in unpaid care work in Northern, Western and Southern Europe (in minutes per day)

1970-74 1979-80 1987-90 1999-2000 2005 2009-2015 Belgium 224 214 214 Estonia 302 282 261 Finland 226 222 221 216 211 France 332 320 307 267 251 234 Germany 282 267 253 Italy 350 349 347 286 Norway 355 286 262 236 233 230 Spain 280 263 Sweden 254 247 240 United 261 232 229 Kingdom Note : Figures in italics have been interpolated in order to show up on the chart

119 Chart 94: Trends in men’s unpaid care work in Northern, Western and Southern Europe, 10 countries

210

Sweden 190

Germany 170 Estonia United 150 Kingdom

Norway 130

Mintes Mintes per day Belgium France Finland 110 Spain

Italy 70 1970-74 1979 1987 1999 2005 2009-2015

Table 4: Time spent by men in unpaid care work in Northern, Western and Southern Europe (in minutes per day)

1970-74 1979-80 1987-90 1999-2000 2005 2009-2015 Belgium 128 128 132 Estonia 179 174 169 Finland 120 128 130 135 139 France 123 125 127 151 150 148 Germany 177 171 166 Italy 78 102 126 97 Norway 133 146 156 161 171 180 Spain 101 126 Sweden 183 189 194 United 153 131 133 Kingdom Note : Figures in italics have been interpolated in order to show up on the chart

120

Chart 95: Trends in women’s paid work in Northern, Western and Southern Europe, 10 countries

190 Sweden

170 Finland Estonia

150 France

130 United Kingdom Spain

Minutes Minutes per day Germany 110 Norway

90 Italy Belgium

70 1970-74 1979 1987 1999 2005 2009-2015

Table 5: Time spent by women in paid work in Northern, Western and Southern Europe (in minutes per day)

Paid work 1970-74 1979-80 1987-90 1999-2000 2005 2009-2013 Belgium 96 94 99 Estonia 167 164 161 Finland 173 182 167 157 147 France 139 132 196 120 123 126 Germany 114 126 138 Italy 92 100 108 103 Norway 107 130 152 161 162 162 Spain 119 128 Sweden 163 172 181 United 127 132 129 Kingdom Note : Figures in italics have been interpolated in order to show up on the chart

121 Chart 96: Trends in men’s paid work in Northern, Western and Southern Europe, 10 countries

350

300 Norway France

250 Sweden Spain Finland Italy Estonia United KingdomGermany

200 Minutes Minutes per day

Belgium

150

100 1970-74 1979-80 1987-90 1999-2002 2005 2009-2015

Table 6: Time spent by men in paid work in Northern, Western and Southern Europe (in minutes per day)

1970-74 1979-80 1987-90 1999-2000 2005 2009-2013 Belgium 167 155 157 Estonia 234 216 197 Finland 240 249 248 218 187 France 279 251 223 207 203 199 Germany 212 214 216 Italy 212 214 216 Norway 241 247 252 223 Spain 302 257 246 249 237 224 Sweden 243 205 United Kingdom 239 230 221 Note : Figures in italics have been interpolated in order to show up on the chart

122 Charts 97: Trends in unpaid care work in sub-Saharan Africa, 3 countries

250

Tanzania, 240 United Republic 230

220 South Africa

Minutes Minutes per day 210 Benin

200

190 1998-2000 2006 2010-15 WOMEN

120

100 South Africa Tanzania, 80 United Benin Republic 60

Minutes Minutes perd ay 40

0 1998-2000 2006 2010-15 MEN

123

Charts 98: Trends in paid work in sub-Saharan Africa, 3 countries

300

250 Tanzania, United 200 Republic Benin 150 South Africa

Minutes Minutes per day 100

0 1998-2000 2006 2010-15 WOMEN

400 Tanzania, 350 United Republic 300

250 Benin South Africa 200

150 Minutes Minutes per day

100

0 1998-2000 2006 2010-15 MEN

124

Chart 99: Trends in unpaid care work in Thailand, Australia and New Zealand

350 Australia Women 300

250 New Zealand Women 200 Thailand Australia Men Women 150 New Zealand

Men Minutes Minutes per day 100 Thailand Men 50

0 1992 1998-99 2006-10 2014-15 Unpaid care work

Chart 100: Trends in paid work in Thailand, Australia and New Zealand

450 Thailand Men

400

350

300 Australia Men New Zealand 250 Men

Minutes Minutes per day Thailand Women 200

150 New Zealand Australia Women women 100 1992 1998-99 2006-10 2014-15 PAID WORK

125 Charts 101: Trends in unpaid care work and paid work in Eastern Asia, 3 countries

350

300 Mongolia Women 250 Japan Women

200 Korea Women

150

Mongolia Men Minutes Minutes per day 100 Japan Men 50 Korea Men

0 1999 2004-07 2009 2011-14 Unpaid care work

400

350 Mongolia Men Japan Men 300

250 Korea Men Mongolia Women 200 Japan Women 150 Minutes Minutes per day Korea Women

100

0 1999 2004-07 2009 2011-14 Paid work

126 Chart 102: Trends in unpaid care work and paid work in Mexico

450 423 400 385 381394 Mexico 367 350 327 300 Women unpaid work 250 Men unpaid work 200 Women paid work 172 176

150 146 Men paid work Minutes Minutes per day 122 114 100 88 50 0 2002 2009 2014

Chart 103: Trends in unpaid care work and paid work in the Occupied Palestinian Territory

350 307 Occupied Palestinian Territory 300 300 276 250 Women unpaid work 200 203 Men unpaid work 150 Women paid work

Minutes Minutes per day 100 Men paid work

50 52 44 32 34 0 1999-2000 2012-13

Chart 104: Trends in unpaid care work and paid work in Azerbaijan and Turkey

400 350 Azerbaijan women Turkey women 300 unpaid care work unpaid care work Turkey men paid 250 Azerbaijanwork men 200 paid work 150 Azerbaijan men Minutes Minutes per day unpaid care work Turkey men 100 Azerbaijan women unpaid care work Turkey women paid work 50 paid work 2006-08 2014-15

127

Charts 105 to 108 have selected for the 25 countries for which several observations over time are available, the earliest year and the latest. In all 4 charts the earliest year is green- coloured, and the latest is yellow-coloured whether the trend is upward-oriented, blue- coloured whether the trend is downward-oriented, and green in case of stability.

In sixteen countries (out of 25) of Northern America, Northern-Southern-Western Europe, South-Eastern Asia and Pacific (except in New Zealand), Arab countries and Western Asia (Chart 105), time spent by women in unpaid care work has declined (more dramatically in Norway, France, Italy, Canada, Turkey and much less in Thailand, New Zealand, Belgium and Spain). In nine countries (out of 25) of Africa, Eastern Asia, Western Asia and Latin America, women’s unpaid care work has increased (especially in Japan and Mexico).

As to men (Chart 106), progress is more mixed. During the same periods, men’s unpaid care work has increased in twelve countries (more dramatically in Norway and Mexico, and much less in Mexico, Japan, Belgium, United Kingdom) whereas it declined in eleven countries (more dramatically in France and Thailand and much less in Turkey, Germany and Estonia) and remained stable in two more countries (Canada and United States).

In eighteen countries (out of 25) (Chart 107), women’s paid work has increased (more dramatically in Mexico, Norway, Japan and Spain), whereas it declined in six countries (more dramatically in Benin and United Kingdom) and remained stable in one country (Azerbaijan). In the mean time, men’s paid work (Chart 108) has increased in 7 countries (more dramatically in the United Republic of Tanzania, Thailand and Mexico), remained stable in two countries (Japan and Turkey) and declined in seventeen countries (more dramatically in France, the Occupied Palestinian Territory, Norway, Finland, Canada).

Charts 109 and 110 summarize the global trends in unpaid care work and in paid work for the period. The average year for the earliest period is 1998 and for the latest 2012. For this set of 25 countries, weighed and unweighted averages are quite similar. The following charts present the weighted averages.

Whereas women’s unpaid care work decreased from 276 minutes (4 hours and 36 minutes) down to 266 minutes (4 hours and 26 minutes) or 10 minutes in total over 15 years, men’s unpaid care work increased by 1 minute (from 115 minutes or 1 hour and 55 minutes, up to 128 minutes). In proportion the share of women in total unpaid work has dropped from 70.6 per cent down to 67.5 per cent (or 3.1 percentage points) in 15 years.

During the same period, women’s paid work has decreased from 151 minutes down to 149 minutes (a drop of 2 minutes) whereas men lost 11 minutes (Charts 110). Proportionally in 2012 women contribute for 35.6 per cent of total paid work (a gain of 0.6 percentage points).

Finally women reduced by 11 minutes their contribution to total work over the 15 years, while men increased theirs by 2 minutes. Women still contribute to 51.1 per cent of total work in 2012 against 51.9 per cent in 1998.

128 Chart 105: Trends in women’s unpaid work across regions (earliest and latest years). 25 countries

450 Women Unpaid work

400

350

300

250

200 Minutes Minutes per day 150

100

1998 2015 2000 2010 2006 2014 1992 2015 2003 2016 2004 1992 2006 1999 2014 2001 2011 2007 2011 2002 2014 1999 2013 1979 2009 1986 2010 2012 1970 2010 2000 2015 2006 2008 2012

2014-15 1998-99 2009-10 2009-10 2001-02 1988-89 2013-14 2002-03 2009-10 2000-01 2010-11 2012-13 2014-15

1999-2000 1999-2000 Benin South Tanzania Canada US Thailand New Australia Korea Japan Mongolia Mexico Belgium Estonia Finland France Germany Italy Norway Spain Sweden UK Palestinian Turkey Azerbaijan Africa Zealand ter. Sub-Saharan Africa Northern America South-Eastern Asia & Pacific Eastern Asia Latin Europe Arab Western Asia America countries

Note: Earliest year in green. Latest year in yellow (where increase) and in blue where decrease

129

Chart 106: Trends in men’s unpaid work across regions (earliest and latest years). 25 countries

Men unpaid work

450

400

350

300

250

200 Minutes perday Minutes 150

100

1998 2015 2000 2010 2006 2014 1992 2015 2003 2016 2004 1992 2006 1999 2014 2001 2011 2007 2011 2002 2014 1999 2013 1979 2009 1986 2010 2012 1970 2010 2000 2015 2006 2008 2012

2014-15 1998-99 2009-10 2009-10 2001-02 1988-89 2013-14 2002-03 2009-10 2000-01 2010-11 2012-13 2014-15

Note: Earliest year in green. Latest year in yellow (where increase), in blue where decrease, in green where stable

130 Chart 107: Trends in women’s paid work across regions (earliest and latest years). 25 countries

Women paid work 450

400

350

300

250

200

150 Minutes per day

100

1998 2015 2000 2010 2006 2014 1992 2015 2003 2016 2004 1992 2006 1999 2014 2001 2011 2007 2011 2002 2014 1999 2013 1979 2009 1986 2010 2012 1970 2010 2000 2015 2006 2008 2012

2014-15 1998-99 2009-10 2009-10 2001-02 1988-89 2013-14 2002-03 2009-10 2000-01 2010-11 2012-13 2014-15

Note: Earliest year in green. Latest year in yellow (where increase), in blue where decrease, in green where stable

131 Chart 108: Trends in men’s paid work across regions (earliest and latest years). 25 countries

Men paid work

450

400

350

300

250

200

150 Minutes per day

100

1998 2015 2000 2010 2006 2014 1992 2015 2003 2016 2004 1992 2006 1999 2014 2001 2011 2007 2011 2002 2014 1999 2013 1979 2009 1986 2010 2012 1970 2010 2000 2015 2006 2008 2012

2014-15 1998-99 2009-10 2009-10 2001-02 1988-89 2013-14 2002-03 2009-10 2000-01 2010-11 2012-13 2014-15

Note: Earliest year in green. Latest year in yellow (where increase), in blue where decrease, in green where stable

132

Charts 109: Global trends in unpaid care work by sex, 1990s-2010s. 25 countries

450

400

350 115 128 300

250 Men unpaid care work 200 Women unpaid care work Minutes Minutes per day 150 276 266 100

0 1998 2012

100%

90% 29.4% 80% 32.5%

70%

60% Men unpaid care work 50% Women unpaid care work 40% 70.6% 30% 67.5%

20%

10%

0% 1998 2012

133

Charts 110: Global trends in paid work by sex, 1990s-2010s. 25 countries

500

450

400

350 300 281 270 250 Men paid work

200 Women paid work Minutes Minutes per day 150

100 151 149 50

0 1998 2012

100%

90%

80%

70% 65.0% 64.4% 60% Men paid work

50% Women paid work 40%

30%

20% 35.0% 35.6% 10%

0% 1998 2012

134 Chart 111: Global trends in total work by sex, 1990s-2010s. 25 countries

900

800

700

600 396 398

500 Men total work

400 Women total work

Minutes Minutes per day 300

200 427 416

100

0 1998 2012

100%

90%

80% 48.1% 48.9% 70%

60% Men total work 50% Women total work 40%

30% 51.9% 51.1% 20%

10%

0% 1998 2012

135

Conclusion

One of the most striking conclusions of the attempted exercise is methodological: the lack of harmonisation in the most basic classifications used for categorising the population in time-use surveys. Efforts concentrate on the classification of time-use activities, which is of course a priority and on the recommended use of diaries rather than stylised questions, but this is not enough for allowing robust international comparisons.

It is too often taken for granted that the generalisation of micro-data analyses makes it unnecessary to sensitise governments and statisticians about minimum standards in basic classifications. But this generalisation makes such an issue even more acute, because individual users may generate their own classifications and make international comparisons even more difficult. However worldwide comparisons cannot be done through micro-data analyses and the present exercise show that efforts in harmonisation would need to be strengthened.

The major issue with national reports of time-use surveys (and this is also true for other types of surveys) is that the analysts in charge of these reports are not aware or have not been sensitised enough to understand that gender is not a variable like others (such as educational level, or activity status). All variables should be cross-classified by sex and gender should not be kept in a stand-alone chapter. It is amazing to note that among the number of time-use surveys collated for this work, only a few of them have produced Tables on activity and employment status disaggregated by sex, whereas this is a major dimension to understand the constraints women face on the labour market.

Notwithstanding these difficulties and obstacles, the present work is an attempt to demonstrate the magnitude of unpaid work across the various regions and sub-regions of the world and of the share incumbent on women.

Although more puzzling, the more detailed analyses by urban-rural location, age groups, educational levels, activity and employment status, income groups, marital status, and number of children clearly show the challenges that women face in their access to the labour market: their double burden is hardly alleviated by their male counterparts. In this respect, trends must be assessed that could highlight whether, over the past two decades, all the efforts towards raising awareness about the obstacle that unpaid care work represents for women’s participation to the economy and society have been successful.

This report is a tentative contribution to this aim.

136

References of time use surveys

AFRICA

Northern Africa

Algeria

Office National des Statistiques (2013), Enquête Nationale Emploi du Temps ENET 2012, Alger, 90p.

Morocco

Royaume du Maroc, Haut Commissariat au Plan (2014), Le Budget temps ou l’Enquête Nationale sur l’Emploi du Temps au Maroc 2011-12, Principaux résultats, Rabat, 44p.

Royaume du Maroc, Haut Commissariat au Plan (2014), Le Budget temps ou l’Enquête Nationale sur l’Emploi du Temps au Maroc 2011-12, Pré sentation des premiers ré sultats par Monsieur Ahmed LAHLIMI ALAMI, Haut-Commissaire au Plan, Rabat, 10p.

Royaume du Maroc, Haut Commissariat au Plan (2016), La Femme marocaine en chiffres. Tendances d’évolution des caractéristiques démographiques et socioprofessionnelles 2016, Rabat.

Tunisia

République Tunisienne, Ministère des Affaires de la Femme (2011), Budget temps des femmes et des hommes en Tunisie, 2005-06, Tunis, 189p.

Sub-Saharan Africa

Benin

INSAE/PNUD (1998), Enquête emploi du temps au Bénin, Méthodologie et résultats, Cotonou, 32p. + 156 p. annexes.

INSAE (2017), Enquête Modulaire Intégrée sur les Conditions de Vie des Ménages 2ème edition (EMICoV-2015), Rapport d’analyse du volet emploi du temps, INSAE-GIZ.

Cameroon

INS (2017), Enquête sur l’emploi du temps au Cameroun en 2014, Rapport d’analyse, Yaoundé.

137 Cabo Verde

Instituto Nacional de Estatística (2014), Inquérito Multi-objectivo Contínuo, Relatório do módulo uso do tempo e trabalho não remunerado em Cabo Verde (2012), Praia, 110p.

Ethiopia

Central Statistical Agency (2014), How Women and Men Spend Their Time, Ethiopian Time Use Survey 2013, Main Report, Addis Ababa, 104p.

Ghana

Ghana Statistical Service (2012), How Ghanaian women and men spend their time, Ghana Time-Use Survey 2009, Main Report, Accra, GSS-UNECA, 121p.

Madagascar

INSTAT (2001), EPM 2001- Module Emploi du Temps, Antananarivo, INSTAT-DSM/PNUD- MAG/97/007.

Mali

INSTAT (2009), Rapport de l’enquête malienne sur l’utilisation du temps (EMUT 2008), Bamako, 54p.

Mauritius

Republic of Mauritius, Central Statistics Office (2004), Continuous Multi-Purpose Household Survey 2003, Main results of the time-use study, 14p.

South Africa

Statistics South Africa (2001), How South African Women and Men spend their time, A survey of time use, Pretoria, 118p.

Statistics South Africa (2013), A survey of time use 2010, Pretoria, 67p.+43p.

Tanzania, United Republic of

Fontana Marzia and Luisa Natali (2008), Gendered Patterns of Time Use in Tanzania: Public Investment in Infrastructure Can Help, Paper prepared for the IFPRI Project on ‘Evaluating the Long-Term Impact of Gender-focussed Policy Interventions’, December 2008, 53p.

United Republic of Tanzania, National Bureau of Statistics, (2007), Analytical Report for Integrated Labour Force Survey ILFS 2006, Dar es Salam, 124p.

United Republic of Tanzania, National Bureau of Statistics, (2015), Analytical Report for Integrated Labour Force Survey 2014, Tanzania mainland, Dar es Salam, 152p.

138 AMERICAS

Latin America

Argentina

Esquivel, Valeria (2009), Uso del tiempo en la Ciudad de Buenos Aires, Los Polvorines : Univ. Nacional de General Sarmiento, 126 p.

Brazil

IBGE (2014), First Results of the Brazilian Pilot Time Use Survey 2009, Presented at the 5th Forum on gender Statistics, Aguascalientes, Mexico 3-5 November 2014, 29p.

Chile

INE (2016), Encuesta Nacional Sobre Uso del Tiempo, Documento de Principales Resultados ENUT 2015, Santiago, 69p.

Colombia

DANE (2015), Investigas, Siete estudios realizados a partir de la encuest nacional de uso del tiempo, Colombia 2012-2013,

DANE (2014), Medición de la Economía del Cuidado, Bogota, 32p.

DANE (2013), Encuesta nacional de uso del tiempo (ENUT), Año 2012-2013 Datos definitivos, Diciembre 5 de 2013, Boletin de Prensa, Bogota, 15p.

Data available at : http://www.dane.gov.co/index.php/estadisticas-sociales/encuesta-nacional-del-uso- del-tiempo-enut

Costa Rica

Comisión Técnica Interinstitucional de Contabilización del Trabajo Femenino (2008), ¿2 + 2 = 6? El trabajo que hacen mujeres y hombres en Costa Rica no se cuenta igual. Principales Resultados del Módulo de Uso del Tiempo 2004, San José, 115p.

Cuba

Oficina Nacional de Estadísticas (2002), Encuesta sobre el uso del tiempo, La Habana, 106p.

Ecuador

INEC (2014), Encuesta de Uso del Tiempo, Quito, 37p.

INEC (2013), Metodologia de la Encuesta Especefica de Uso del Tiempo 2013, Quito, 53p.

139

INEC (2013), Plan de tabulados EUT, available at : http://www.ecuadorencifras.gob.ec/uso-del-tiempo-2/

El Salvador

Dirección General de Estadística y Censos (2012), Principales Resultados de Encuesta del Uso del Tiempo, El Salvador, 76p.

Mexico

INEGI (2010), Encuesta Nacional sobre el Uso del Tiempo ENUT 2009, Metodología y tabulados básicos, Aguascalientes, 264p.

INEGI (2010), Clasificación mexicana de actividades de uso del tiempo CMAUT, Aguascalientes, 151p.

INEGI (2005), Encuesta Nacional sobre el Uso del Tiempo ENUT 2002, Tabulados básicos definitivos, Aguascalientes, 71p.

Tables available at : http://www3.inegi.org.mx/sistemas/tabuladosbasicos/tabgeneral.aspx?s=est&c=27602

Panama

INEC (2013), Informe Sobre La Planificación Y Ejecución De La Encuesta De Uso Del Tiempo, 45p.

INEC (2013), Encuesta De Uso Del Tiempo, Commentarios, 16p.

INEC (2013), Encuesta De Uso Del Tiempo, Sintesis metodologica y indicadores generados, 40p.

Tables available at : http://www.contraloria.gob.pa/INEC/Publicaciones/Publicaciones.aspx?ID_SUBCATEG ORIA=63&ID_PUBLICACION=515&ID_IDIOMA=1&ID_CATEGORIA=5

Paraguay

Direccion General de Estadistica, Encuestas y Censos (2017), Encuesta sobre actividades remuneradas y no remuneradas, EUT 2016, Fernando de la Mora 98p.

Peru

INEI (2011), Encuesta Nacional De Uso Del Tiempo 2010, Principales Resultados, Lima, 242p.

140 Uruguay

INE (2014), Uso Del Tiempo Y Trabajo No Remunerado En Uruguay 2013, 6p.

INE (2008), Uso del tiempo y trabajo no remunerado en el Uruguay, Módulo de la Encuesta Continua de Hogares, Septiembre 2007, Montevideo, 53p.

Northern America

Canada

Statistics Canada (2011), General Social Survey – 2010, Overview of the Time Use of Canadians, Ottawa, 31p. http://www23.statcan.gc.ca/imdb/p2SV.pl?Function=getSurvey&SurvId=62269&InstaI d=56441#a2

United States

Bureau of Labor Statistics (2016), American time use survey - 2015 results, News Release, various years, 24p. www.bls.gov/tus

Bureau of Labor Statistics and US Census Bureau (2014), American time use survey user’s guide, 113p.

141

ARAB STATES

Iraq

Central Organization for Statistics and Information Technology (COSIT) of Iraq, Kurdistan Region Statistics Organization (KRSO), and World Bank (2008), Iraq Household Socio- Economic Survey IHSES 2007, COSIT, Baghdad, 986p. Volume I: Objectives, Methodology, and Highlights. Volume II: Data Tables. Volume III: Annexes.

UNESCWA and Central Organization for Statistics and Information Technology (COSIT) (2010), Time use in gender statistics in Iraq, (in Arabic), Amman, 71p. http://www.escwa.un.org/divisions/projects/tus/main.asp?menuNum=5

Occupied Palestinian Territory

Palestinian Bureau of Statistics (2014), Main Findings of Time Use Survey 2012/13, Ramallah, 51p.

Palestinian Bureau of Statistics (2000), Time Use in the Palestinian Territory: Main Findings of Survey 1999-2000, Ramallah, 145p.

Oman

Sultanate of Oman (2011), Time use survey for the period 20/05/2007-19/05/2008, 15p. Presented at the Arab Time Use statistics workshop in Amman 25-28 April 2011.

142 ASIA AND THE PACIFIC

Eastern Asia

China

Liu Wei (2010a), Unpaid Housework, Women Burden More, Global Forum on Gender Statistics, Manila, Philippines, 11-13 October 2010, 15p.

Liu Wei (2010b), 2008 Time use survey in China, International Workshop on Social Statistics, Beijing, China, 22-24 November 2010, 13p.

National Bureau of Statistics (2009), Time Use Patterns in China: Abstract of the 2008 Time Use Survey, China Statistics Press.

Xiao-Yuan Dong and Xinli An (2012), Gender Patterns and Value of Unpaid Work, Findings from China’s First Large-Scale Time Use Survey, UNRISD Research Paper, Geneva, 22p.

Japan http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/shakai/index.htm http://www.stat.go.jp/english/data/shakai/2011/h23kekka.htm

Korea, Republic of

Jonghee Choi (2009), New approaches of the 2009 Korean Time Use Survey, Paper presented at the IATUR Conference, 31p.

Tables for TUS 2001, 2004 and 2009 available at : http://kosis.kr/statHtml/statHtml.do?orgId=101&tblId=DT_1TM1011Z&language=en& conn_path=I3

Mongolia

National Statistical Office of Mongolia (2009), Report of the time-use survey 2007, NSO, UNDP, Ulanbaatar, 96p.

National Statistical Office (2014), Time use survey Mongolia, presented at the « Time Use Survey data analysis workshop » 11-15 October 2014, Bangkok, 12p.

143 South-Eastern Asia and the Pacific

Australia http://www.abs.gov.au/AUSSTATS/[email protected]/ViewContent?readform&view=Productsb yTopic&Action=Expand&Num=5.6.16

Cambodia

Hang Lina (2013), 2004 Time use survey in Cambodia, International seminar on gender statistics, Incheon, Republic of Korea, 12-14 November 2013, 19p.

Uy Bossadine (2005), Time Use Profile of Cambodia 2004, Workshop of final statistical analyses of CSES 2003-04, Phnom Penh Hotel, 16-17 June 2005, 14p.

New Zealand

Statistics New Zealand (2011), Time Use Survey 2009/10, Wellington, 47p. Tables available at: http://www.stats.govt.nz/browse_for_stats/people_and_communities/time_use.aspx

Thailand

National Statistical Office (2014), The time use survey in Thailand, presented at the « Time Use Survey data analysis workshop » 11-15 October 2014, Bangkok, 25p.

Tables for TUS 2001, 2004, 2009, 2015 available at : http://service.nso.go.th/nso/nso_center/project/search_center/23project-en.htm

General references

OECD (2012), “How do People in the Asia/Pacific Region Spend their Time?”, in Society at a Glance: Asia/Pacific 2011, OECD Publishing, Paris. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264106154-4-en

OECD Gender data portal (2014), Time use across the world, available at : www.oecd.org/gender/data/OECD_1564_TUSupdateportal.xls

144 Southern Asia

India

Gupta Pratima (2007), Time Use Survey in India, 15p.

Ministry Of Statistics and Programme Implementation (MOSPI)(2000), Report of the India Time use Survey 1998, New Delhi, 118p.

Narasimhan R. L. and R. N. Pandey (1999), Some main results of the pilot time use survey in India and their policy implications, New Delhi, 18p.

Pandey R. N. (1999), Operational Issues in Conducting the Pilot Time Use Survey in India, Delhi, 7p.

Rajivan Anuradha Khati (1999), Policy Implication for Gender Equity : The India Time Use Survey 1998-1999, International Seminar on Time-use surveys 7-10 December 1999, Ahmedabad, 31p.

Iran, Islamic Republic of

Statistical Centre of Iran (2012a), Summary findings of time use survey in urban areas, Autumn 2008 (23 September 2008-22 December 2008), 19p.

Statistical Centre of Iran (2012b), Summary findings of time use survey in urban areas, Summer 2009 (22 June-22 September), 20p.

Statistical Centre of Iran (2012c), Summary findings of time use survey in urban areas, Winter 2009 (22 December 2008-20 March 2009), 20p.

Pakistan

Federal Bureau of Statistics (2009), Time use Survey 2007, Islamabad, 180p.

145 EUROPE AND CENTRAL ASIA

Northern, Southern and Western Europe

Several countries offer the opportunity for creating tables on their website (or give access to a list of downloadable tables). Below are the links for this service, as well as some other important links.

CREATE TABLES

Belgium : http://www.time-use.be/tostat/config.php?lang=fr&easy

Estonia : http://www.stat.ee/66481

Finland : http://193.166.171.75/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=010_akay_tau_101&ti=Time+Use+%2826 +categories%29+in+autumn+1979%2C+1987+1999+and+2009&path=../Database/Stat Fin/eli/akay/&lang=1&multilang=en

Netherlands : http://statline.cbs.nl/Statweb/publication/?DM=SLEN&PA=37881eng&D1=0-3,28- 29,31,35,37-38,69-70,72,76,78- 79&D2=0&D3=a&D4=a&LA=EN&HDR=T&STB=G1,G2,G3&VW=T

Norway : https://www.ssb.no/statistikkbanken/selecttable/hovedtabellHjem.asp?KortNavnWeb =tidsbruk&CMSSubjectArea=kultur-og-fritid&PLanguage=1&checked=true

Portugal : http://www.ine.pt/xportal/xmain?xpid=INE&xpgid=ine_publicacoes&PUBLICACOESpu b_boui=138463&PUBLICACOESmodo=2&xlang=en

Spain : http://www.ine.es/jaxi/menu.do?type=pcaxis&path=%2Ft25/e447&file=inebase&L=1

Sweden : http://www.scb.se/en_/Finding-statistics/Publishing-calendar/Show-detailed- information/?publobjid=18561+

146 Albania

Institute of Statistics (2011), Albania Time Use Survey 2010-2011, Tirana, 144p.

Austria

Statistik Austria (2009), Zeitverwendung 2008/09, Ein Überblick über geschlechtsspezifische Unterschiede, Wien, 177p.

Belgium

Glorieux I. Minnen J. and van Tienoven T.P. (2008), Une semaine en Belgique. Résultats de l’enquête 2005 sur l’emploi du temps en Belgique EET’05, Vrije Universiteit Brussels, 13p.

Institut pour l’Egalité des Femmes et des Hommes (2009), Genre et Emploi du temps, Différences et évolution dans l’emploi du temps des femmes et des hommes belges (2005, 1999 et 1966), Bruxelles, 101p.

Estonia

CREATE TABLES: http://pub.stat.ee/pxweb.2001/Dialog/varval.asp?ma=Ti011&ti=AVERAGE+TIME+USE+IN+A+DAY+BY+PRI MARY+ACTIVITY+AND+SEX&path=../I_Databas/Social_life/17Time_use/&lang=1

Finland

Tables available at: http://pxnet2.stat.fi/PXWeb/pxweb/en/StatFin/StatFin__eli__akay/

France

Ricroch Layla et Benoît Roumier (2011), Depuis 11 ans, moins de tâches ménagères, plus d’Internet, INSEE Première, N°1377, 4p.

Tables available at: https://www.insee.fr/fr/statistiques/2118047?sommaire=2118074

Dumontier F. et Pan Ké Shon J-L. (2000), Enquête emploi du temps 1998-99, Description des activités quotidiennes, INSEE Résultats, Paris, 324p.

Germany

Destatis (2015), Zeitverwendungserhebung Aktivitäten in Stunden und Minuten für ausgewählte Personengruppen 2012/2013, Statistisches Bundesamt, Wiesbaden, 162p.

Destatis (2016), Wie die Zeit vergeht. Analysen zur Zeitverwendung in Deutschland, Beiträge zur Ergebniskonferenz der Zeitverwendungserhebung 2012/2013 am 5/6 Oktober 2016 in Wiesbaden, 400p.

147

Tables available at: https://www.destatis.de/DE/ZahlenFakten/GesellschaftStaat/EinkommenKonsumLebe nsbedingungen/Zeitverwendung/Zeitverwendung.html#Tabellen

Greece

ELSTAT (2014), Time Use Survey 2013-14, Press Release, Athens, 15p.

Ireland

Mc Ginnity Frances, Russell Helen, Williams James and Blackwell Sylvia (2005), Time Use in Ireland 2005, Survey Report, Dublin, 68p.

Italy

Istat (2007), L'uso del tempo, Indagine multiscopo sulle famiglie "Uso del tempo" Anni 2002-2003, 264p.

Tables and survey 2008-09 available at : http://www.istat.it/it/archivio/52079

Tables and survey 2013 at: http://dati.istat.it/?lang=en Select topic “Communication, Culture, Trips ad Time-use”

Macedonia, the Former Yugoslav Republic of

Државен завод за статистика - State Statistical Office (2015), АНКЕТА за користење на времето, 2014/2015 година = Time use survey, 2014/2015. – Скопје, Статистички преглед / Државен завод за статистика. Население и социјални статистики – Skopje, Statistical review / State statistical office, Population and social statistics. 118 стр, 118p.

Netherlands

Cloïn Mariëlle (2012), A day with the Dutch, Time use in the Netherlands and fifteen other countries, The Netherlands Institute for Social Research/SCP, The Hague, 57p.

Norway https://www.ssb.no/statistikkbanken/selecttable/hovedtabellHjem.asp?KortNavnWeb =tidsbruk&CMSSubjectArea=kultur-og-fritid&PLanguage=1&checked=true

Portugal

Instituto National de Estatistica (2001), Inquérito à Ocupação do Tempo, Principais Resultados 1999, Lisboa, 175p.

Serbia

Statistical Office of the Republic of Serbia (2012), Time Use in the Republic of Serbia 2010- 11, Belgrad, 86p.

148

Spain

Instituto Nacional de Estadistica (2004), Encuesta de Empleo del Tiempo 2002-2003, Tomo I. Resultados Nacionales, Madrid, 378p.

Sweden

Statistics Sweden (2012), Nu för tiden, En undersökning om svenska folkets tidsanvändning år 2010/11, (Swedish Time Use Survey 2010/11), Living Conditions Report 123, 294p.

Statistics Sweden (2003), Tid förvardagsliv, Kvinnors och mäns tidsanvändning 1990/91 och 2000/01 (Time for everyday life, Women ́s and men ́s time use 1990/91 and 2000/01), Living Conditions, Report no 99, 223p.

United Kingdom

Lader Deborah, Short Sandra and Gershuny Jonathan (2006), The Time Use Survey 2000, How we spend our time, Office for National Statistics, London, 82p.

Centre for Time Use Research (2016),- United Kingdom Time Use Survey, 2014-2015, UK Data Archive Study Number 8128, University of Oxford, Oxford, 22p. www.timeuse.org

Sarah Morris, Alun Humphrey, Pablo Cabrera Alvarez, Olivia D’Lima (2016), The UK Time Diary Study 2014 – 2015, Technical report, UK Data Archive Study Number 8128 - United Kingdom Time Use Survey, 2014-2015, University of Oxford, NatCen Social Research, London, 226p.

General

EU, EUROSTAT (2004), How Europeans spend their time, Everyday life of women and men 1998-2002, Luxemburg, 132p.

149

Eastern Europe

Belarus

National Statistical Committee (2016) How we use our time, Minsk, 15p.

Bulgaria

National Statistical Institute (2011), 2009-2010 Time Use Survey, Basic Results, Sofia, 13p. Tables available at: http://www.nsi.bg/census2011/pageen2.php?p2=167&sp2=168

Moldova, Republic of

Biroul Naţional de Statistică (2013), Utilizarea timpului în Republica Moldova, Sinteză, Chişinău, 2013, 43p.

Statistica Moldovei (2013), Utilizarea timpului în Republica Moldova, Principalele rezultate ale cercetării „Utilizarea timpului” http://www.statistica.md/newsview.php?l=ro&idc=168&id=4055

Romania

National Institute of Statistics (2013), Time use in Romania, Press Release No. 307 of December 20, 2013, Bucharest, 7p.

150 Central and Western Asia

Armenia

National Statistical Service of the Republic of Armenia (2005), Armenia time use pilot survey, 2004 July 1-31, Yerevan, 14p.

National Statistical Service of the Republic of Armenia (2009), Report on Time Use Sample Survey in the Republic of Armenia, 2008 October 1-31, Yerevan, 36p.

Azerbaijan

State Statistical Committee (2017), Women and Men in Azerbaijan, Statistical Yearbook 2016, Baku, 191p.

State Statistical Committee (2016?), Main Results of Time use survey of Azerbaijan, 2007- 08, Statistical Bulletin, Baku, 62p.

Kazakhstan

Committee of Statistics of the Ministry of National Economy (sd), The experience of Kazakhstan in conducting time-use surveys,

Kyrgyzstan

National Statistics Committee (2014), Results of the time use survey in Kyrgyzstan, 2010, presented at the « Time Use Survey data analysis workshop » 11-15 October 2014, Bangkok, 5p.

Turkey

Turkstat (2007), Results of the Time Use Survey 2006, Press Release N°119, July 25, 2007, Ankara, 3p. Tables available on http://www.turkstat.gov.tr/PreTablo.do?alt_id=1068

Turkstat (2016), Time Use Survey 2014-15, Press Release N°18627, December 4, 2015, Ankara, 2p. Tables available on http://www.turkstat.gov.tr/PreTablo.do?alt_id=1009

151

Other multinational websites

Time use and lifestyle : http://www.timeuse.ase.ro/english/despre_proiect.php.htm

HETUS : https://www.h2.scb.se/tus/tus/Statistics.html

OECD http://www.oecd.org/social/family/database.htm

OECD Gender data portal http://www.oecd.org/gender

Centre for Time Use Research, University of Oxford http://www.timeuse.org/information/access-data

UN statistics division http://www.unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/sconcerns/tuse/default.aspx

152 Table A 1: Overview of TUS main characteristics across regions and countries

AFRICA Minimum Sample size Type of Survey Mode of data Classification Year Period Type of survey age (individuals) sample instrument collection used Northern Africa Algeria 2012 2 months Stand alone 12+ 22,138 All eligible One diary Interview HETUS 2011- 9,200 Morocco Year Stand alone 7+ Random selection One diary Mixed HETUS 12 households Stand alone, sub 2005- Tunisia Year sample of household 15+ 11,594 All eligible Two diaries Mixed HETUS 06 survey Sub-Saharan Africa 12,604 Pre-listing (63 1998 2 months Module of household 6-65 Benin 4,920hh, 13,026 All eligible One diary Interview activities) 2015 1 month survey 6+ individuals (84 activities) Household head, spouse, random Module of household 4,988 Cameroon 2014 1 month 10+ men/women One diary Interview ICATUS survey households among others aged 10-14 and 15+ Module of household Cabo Verde 2012 10+ Interview Ad-hoc detailed survey Ethiopia 2013 One month Stand alone 10+ 52,262 All eligible One diary Interview ICATUS Ghana 2009 2 months Stand alone 10+ 9,297 All eligible One diary Interview ICATUS Stand alone, sub Pre-listing (77 Madagascar 2001 2 months sample of household 6-65 7,749 All eligible One diary Interview activities) survey Pre-listing (63 Mali 2008 2 months Stand alone 6-65 2,249 Random selection One diary Interview activities) Module of household 6,480 Mauritius 2003 2 months 10+ All eligible One diary Interview ICATUS survey households 2000 3 rounds 14,553 South Africa Stand alone 10+ Random selection One diary Interview ICATUS 2010 4th quarter 30,897 2006 Module of household Tanzania, United 4 quarters 5+ 10,553 All eligible One diary Interview ICATUS Republic of 2014 survey

153

AMERICAS

Mini- Sample size Type of Survey Mode of data Classification Year Period Type of survey mum age (individuals) sample instrument collection used Latin America and the Caribbean Argentina Module of 2005 1 month 15-74 1,408 individuals All eligible Diary Interview ICATUS (Buenos Aires) household survey Weekday/week 10,502 Chile 2015 3 months 12+ All eligible end day on one Interview CAUTAL households week Colombia 2012-13 Year Stand alone 10+ 148,492 All eligible Yesterday Interview Ad hoc detailed One Module of Costa Rica 2004 12+ 32,437 All eligible Yesterday Interview Ad hoc detailed month household survey Cuba 2001 20,767 Weekday/week Ecuador 2012 2 months Stand alone 12+ All eligible Interview CAUTAL households end day Module of 3,305 El Salvador 2010 Year 10+ All eligible Interview Ad hoc detailed household survey households One 5,445 hh 2002 month Module of hh 17,000 hh Weekday/week Mexico 2009 2 months survey. 12+ All eligible Interview Ad hoc detailed 18,996 end day 2014 4th Stand alone households quarter One Weekday/week Panama 2011 Stand alone 15+ 6,907 All eligible Interview Ad hoc detailed month end day One able to Interview of One Paraguay 2016 14+ 4,272 hh respond for all Past week one able to CAUTAL quarter eligible respond for all Weekday/week Peru 2010 Stand alone 12+ 4,580 hh All eligible Interview Ad hoc detailed end day One 3,391 2007 quarter Module of Weekday/week Uruguay 14+ households, All eligible Interview Ad hoc detailed 2013 (May- household survey end day 7,447 individuals August)

154 Mini- Sample size Type of Survey Mode of data Classification Year Period Type of survey mum age (individuals) sample instrument collection used Northern America 1992 1998 Computer assisted Module of Canada 2005 2010 Year 15+ 25,000 One diary telephone household survey 2015 interview 2003 2004 2005 2006 3,375 households Computer 2007 2008 per month in 2003 Random United States assisted 2009 2010 Year Stand alone 15+ 2,190 households selection (one One diary ATUS telephone 2011 2012 per month since person) interview 2013 2014 2004 2015 2016

ARAB STATES

Minimum Sample size Type of Survey Mode of data Classification Year Period Type of survey age (individuals) sample instrument collection used Arab States Module of household 6,048 Pre-listing (27 Iraq 2007 2 months 10+ All eligible One diary Interview survey households activities) Stand alone, sub Pre-listing (23 Oman 2007-08 Year sample of household 15+ 9,063 One diary activities) survey Occupied 1999-2000 8,038 Palestinian Year Stand alone 10+ Random selection One diary Interview ICATUS 2012-13 4,605 Territory Qatar 2012-13 Year 15+ 16,754 One diary Pre-listing

155 ASIA and the PACIFIC

Minimum Sample size Type of Survey Mode of data Classification Year Period Type of survey age (individuals) sample instrument collection used Eastern Asia Mixed China 2008 One month Stand alone 15-74 37,142 All eligible Two diaries Interview HETUS/ICATUS 2001, 2006 One Japan Stand alone 10+ 19,982 One diary Mixed 2011 2016 month 1999 Korea, One month 46,109 2004 Republic of One month Stand alone 21,000 All eligible Two diaries Mixed Ad hoc detailed 2009 10+ 2 rounds 20,657 2014 2007 3,135 (7,136) All eligible who Mongolia Quarterly Stand alone 12+ One diary Interview ICATUS 2011 4,000 were at home Taiwan, 2004 China South Eastern Asia and the Pacific 1992 1997 Four 13- Australia 15+ 2006 day period Module of Pre-listing (22 Cambodia 2004 3 months 5+ (15-64) 15,000 households All eligible One diary Interview household survey activities) Random New 1998-99 Year Stand alone 12+ selection (two Zealand 2009-10 9,159 Two diaries Mixed ACTUS persons) 2004 One month 79,560 hh Random Thailand 2009 Stand alone 10+ One diary Mixed ICATUS One quarter 83,880 hh selection 2014-15 Southern Asia India 1998-99 4 rounds Stand alone 6+ 77,593 All eligible Three diaries Interview Ad hoc list Iran 2009 3 quarters 15+ One diary Mixed ICATUS Random Pakistan 2007 2 months Stand alone 10+ 19,380 households One diary Interview ICATUS selection

156 EUROPE and CENTRAL ASIA Mode of Minimum Sample size Type of Survey Classification Year Period Type of survey data age (individuals) sample instrument used collection Northern, Southern and Western Europe Albania 2010-11 Year Stand alone 10+ 10,333 diaries All eligible Two diaries HETUS Austria 2008-09 Year 10+ 8,200 All eligible One diary Mixed HETUS 1999 Module of 8,382 Belgium 2005 Year 12+ All eligible Two diaries Mixed Ad hoc detailed household survey 6,400 2013 Denmark 2001 All eligible Mixed Ad hoc detailed 1999-2000 Year 10+ 7,225 All eligible Two diaries Mixed HETUS Estonia 2009-10 Stand alone 1979 1987 Finland Year Stand alone 10+ 3,795 All eligible Two diaries Mixed Ad hoc detailed 1999 2009 1974

1986 France Year Stand alone 15+ 15,441 All eligible Two diaries Mixed Ad hoc detailed 1999 11+ (15+) 17,383 2010 12,655 2001-02 Germany Year Stand alone 10+ 5,000 households, All eligible Three diaries Mixed Ad hoc detailed 2012 11,000 individuals Greece 2013-14 Year Stand alone 10+ All eligible Two diaries Mixed HETUS Ireland 2005 Stand alone 18+ 1,023 All eligible Two diaries Mixed Ad hoc detailed 1988-89 2002-03 Italy Year Stand alone 3+ (15+) All eligible One diary Mixed Ad hoc detailed 2008-09 50,968 2013-14 Latvia 2003 8 months Stand alone 10+ (20-74) 3,804 diaries All eligible Two diaries Mixed HETUS Lithuania 2003 Year Stand alone 10+ (20-74) 4,768 diaries All eligible Two diaries Mixed HETUS Macedonia, 2014-15 Year Stand alone 10+ 2,080 households All eligible All eligible HETUS the Former Yugoslav Republic of Netherlands 2005-06 12+ All eligible Mixed Ad hoc detailed

157

Mode of Minimum Sample size Type of Survey Classification Year Period Type of survey data age (individuals) sample instrument used collection 1970 16-74 1980 16-74 Diaries for two Norway 1990 Year Stand alone 16-79 4,000 All eligible consecutive Mixed Ad hoc detailed 2000 9-79 days 2010 9-79 Portugal 1999 2 months Stand alone 15+ 10,013 All eligible One diary Interview Ad hoc detailed Serbia 2010-11 Year Stand alone 15+ 2,340 households All eligible Two diaries Mixed HETUS Slovenia 2000-01 Year Stand alone 10+ (20-74) 2,364 households All eligible Two diaries HETUS 2002-03 Spain Year Stand alone 10+ All eligible One diary Mixed HETUS 2009-10 19,295 2000-01 Sweden Year Stand alone 20-84 7,955 diaries All eligible Two diaries Mixed Ad hoc detailed 2010-11 21,000 diaries Year 5,000 diaries Stand alone All eligible 2000 4 months 8+ 9,388 individuals United Module of Random Mixed 2005 over the 16+ in 4,238 Two diaries Ad hoc detailed Kingdom household survey selection Interview 2015 year 8+ households Stand alone All eligible Year provided 16,553 diary days Eastern Europe Belarus 2014-15 Year Stand alone 10+ 6,000 households Bulgaria 2009-10 Year Stand alone 10+ 5,503 All eligible Two diaries Mixed HETUS 1999-2000 15-74 Hungary Stand alone HETUS 2009-10 15-84 Moldova, 2011-12 Year Stand alone 10+ 10,642 households All eligible All eligible HETUS Republic of Poland 2003-04 Stand alone 15-64 HETUS Romania 2011-12 Year Stand alone 10+ 18,720 households All eligible Two diaries Mixed HETUS

158 Mode of Minimum Sample size Type of Survey Classification Year Period Type of survey data age (individuals) sample instrument used collection Central and Western Asia Armenia 2004 One month Stand alone 15-80 1,342 All eligible Two diaries Interview HETUS Module of the 3910 2008 Azerbaijan Year household budget 15+ households, All eligible Two diaries Interview HETUS 2012 survey 9633 individuals 12,000 Module of a living households Kazakhstan 2012 10+ All eligible Two diaries Interview ICATUS standard survey 33,830 individuals 4,929 Kyrgyzstan 2010 Year Stand alone 12+ All eligible One diary Interview households 5,070 households Interview 2006 15+ 11,815 Turkey Year Stand alone All eligible Two diaries HETUS 2014-15 10+ individuals Mixed 11,440 households Notes: Blanks mean that no information was found in the methodological documents or that the survey results were obtained from an international database (OECD for example). The mixed mode of data collection means that diaries are self-recorded by the interviewees and individual/household questionnaires are filled by interviewers.

159 www.ilo.org/ged [email protected] tel. +4122799 6730 CH-1211 Geneva22,Switzerland 4, RoutedesMorillons International LabourOffice(ILO) Department Conditions ofWork and Equality & ILOAIDSBranch Gender, EqualityandDiversity

ILO The Unpaid Care Work and the Labour Market. An analysis of time use data based on the latest World Compilation of Time-use Surveys