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An Analysis of the Empathising-Systemising Theory: A An analysis of the Empathising-Systemising theory: A new typology of sex differences in psychological functions and the particular role of prenatal testosterone. Chiara Horlin BSc (Hons) Neurocognitive Development Unit School of Psychology University of Western Australia This thesis is presented for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the University of Western Australia School of Psychology June, 2010 Abstract A new theoretical framework for understanding sex differences in psychological functioning has recently been proposed. This theory suggests that the relative balance of two little studied domains, empathising and systemising, are vital to gaining insight into psychological differences between males and females. Simon Baron-Cohen’s Empathising-Systemising (hereafter E-S) theory (Baron-Cohen, 2003) posits that two personality dimensions or factors explain the social and non-social features of autism spectrum conditions as well as sex differences in cognitive functioning. According to Baron-Cohen’s theory, the empathising domain encompasses both the cognitive and affective components of empathy and is reflected in an individual’s preference and propensity for empathising-related behaviours and experiences (Baron-Cohen, 2009). The systemising domain encompasses the predilection for analysing or constructing rule-based and predictable systems. The defining feature of systems is their dependence on regularities, input-output operations and if-then logical reasoning (Baron-Cohen, 2009). Baron-Cohen argues that differences in the relative balance of empathising and systemising tendencies drives the differences in behaviours between males and females, and between typically developing populations and individuals with autism spectrum conditions. Baron-Cohen also states that relative differences in systemising and empathising do not equate to differences in general intelligence (Baron-Cohen, 2005), but that these domains may drive interest, motivation and performance in a variety of ability areas that have, up until now, been conceived of as verbal and spatial ability. Baron- Cohen suggests a fundamental biological mechanism at the root of this relative balance in dimensions is prenatal testosterone. The prenatal period of testosterone secretion is thought to produce a neurological basis for the differential psychological profiles typically exhibited between males and females. This thesis examines the manifestation of these psychological profiles in typically developing children and their potential relationship with a proximal marker of prenatal i testosterone concentration, the second-to-fourth digit ratio (2D:4D). The suitability of using the empathising and systemising dimensions as a stronger and more appropriate typology of cognitive and affective sex differences than the conventional verbal and spatial ability distinction is also investigated. Much of the literature and research into the E-S theory of sex differences is dominated by self-report measures of every-day characteristics, behaviours and preferences thought to reflect the empathising and systemising domains. To date no comprehensive analysis of this theory and the psychological profiles it predicts has been conducted using primarily performance-based measures of the empathising and systemising dimensions. Investigation of these dimensions using performance-based measures has the advantage of assessing an individual’s objective capacity rather than subjective judgments of their own behaviour and skills. Performance-based assessment of children this age also goes some way to avoid the complications of an individual’s expectations and perceived socially-desirable responses, thus giving a clearer indication of the orthogonality of the empathising and systemising dimensions in a performance-based context. Baron-Cohen’s E-S theory of sex differences is examined developmentally in a population of children aged between seven and ten years that has been collected over two years through the Project Kids Intellectual Development Study (Project K.I.D.S.). Answering these questions from a developmental perspective is advantageous because this particular population is in the middle of a critical period of physical, cognitive and neurological development, and children may in fact be better candidates for researching Baron-Cohen’s empathising and systemising domains as a result of this development and the ensuing individual differences. At this developmental juncture, children are passing through critical stages of development in reasoning ability and socialisation that have a great deal of impact on empathising ability. Similarly, at this age there is limited opportunity for enculturation of academic and scholastic stereotypes that have been posited by some to possibly influence sex differences in psychological functions. ii This thesis examines Baron-Cohen’s empathising and systemising dimensions using performance-based measures and the 2D:4D finger ratio, and considers the possibility of these dimensions being a more appropriate typology of sex differences in psychological functions than the traditional sex differences conceptualisation of a verbal and spatial ability distinction. To date the literature concerning these domains demonstrates the inconsistent presence of differences in these areas between the sexes and those few differences that are consistently present are very specific sub-areas of the verbal and spatial domains. Consequently, the use of verbal and spatial abilities as an over-arching classifier of sex differentiated performance may be overly generalising. Empathising and systemising were found to exhibit a more consistent and coherent pattern of sex-differentiated performance than the traditional verbal and spatial ability distinction. Indeed the ‘brain types’ based on relative proportions of empathising and systemising specified by Baron-Cohen’s theory exhibited the same pattern of distribution here as they have in previous studies using questionnaire measures of empathising and systemising. Using structural equation modeling it was also found that although significant relationships were found between sex and both empathising and systemising, these relationships were not mediated by differences in the 2D:4D. Empathising and systemising were also found to be strongly related to verbal and spatial abilities respectively, reinforcing the need for empathising and systemising measures that do not primarily rely on verbal or spatial-like stimuli to properly discern the distinction between these domains. Baron-Cohen’s empathising and systemising dimensions were found to be a more consistent and coherent typology of sex differences in psychological functions in this typically-developing population however no influence of prenatal testosterone, as indicated by the 2D:4D, was found in these differences. The implications of these findings and the possibility of 2D:4D being too proximal a marker of prenatal testosterone to relate to differences in empathising and systemising are discussed as is the need for greater discrimination between the empathising, systemising verbal and spatial domains and the iii necessity for empathising and systemising measures that are minimally influenced by verbal and spatial abilities. iv Acknowledgments The work in this thesis was supported by an Australian Postgraduate Award, awarded by the University of Western Australia and funds from the School of Psychology. I would like to thank the following staff and students in the School of Psychology at the University of Western Australia: My supervisor, Mike Anderson for his guidance, wisdom and unfailing ability to bring me back to earth in a single conversation when my anxieties had me flying too high. I hope I have made the most of all the opportunities you have provided for me. Cat Campbell and Aoibheann O’Brien for their supreme and skilful management of Project K.I.D.S. The data in this thesis could never have been collected without your obsessive levels of organisation, list-making and tub-packing. More importantly, your friendship through these years has always been cherished. Mark Boyes and Nic Badcock for their unwavering optimism, generosity and merriment. I have looked up to both of you as examples of who I want to be when I grow up. Murray Maybery for the honours year supervision that piqued my interest in further studies and a final reading of this thesis. All the Project K.I.D.ers over the years who have been a pleasure to learn and work with, develop caffeine addictions with on those very early mornings in July and who have made data collection a surprisingly joyful experience. A special little shout-out to Miss Lily Anderson too who always makes me smile. v Jeff Nelson and Corinne Reid , I have learned much from just being able to observe and listen to you both. And of course, my office mates, Alex Nicol and Gareth Roberts , for laughing both at me and with me during this stressful last year. One day you will BOW DOWN to me. Probably not. On a personal note I would like to thank and acknowledge: Mark, Rachel and Vanessa and the rest of the lunchtime crew for giving me a place of respite and refuge and the opportunity to talk complete garbage for one hour a day. Andrea Loftus for her no-nonsense advice, stick-it-to-them attitude and the ever-ready glass bottle case of champagne. My family for their ongoing support, both moral and fiscal, throughout all my many years of study. Mum , now you can tell people I’m a doctor. Aoife, Brigid and Mandy , my Irish girls, for inexplicably
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