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Nationalism's Discontents: Postcolonial Contestations in the Writings of Mariama Ba, Assia Djebar, Henri Lopes, and Ousmane Sembene

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Nationalism's Discontents: Postcolonial Contestations in the Writings of Mariama Ba, Assia Djebar, Henri Lopes, and Ousmane Sembene NATIONALISM'S DISCONTENTS: POSTCOLONIAL CONTESTATIONS IN THE WRITINGS OF MARIAMA BA, ASSIA DJEBAR, HENRI LOPES, AND OUSMANE SEMBENE DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for The Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Julia Marie Praud, M.A. ***** The Ohio State University 2005 Dissertation Committee: Approved by Professor John Conteh-Morgan, Advisor Professor Danielle Marx-Scouras Advisor Professor Karlis Racevskis Graduate Program in French and Italian -- -- - - -- - - Copyright by Julia Marie Praud 2005 ABSTRACT From its beginnings in the 1920s, literature in French from Africa has been set against a backdrop of struggle and indelibly marked by conflict. Indeed, over the course of these last 80 years, whether striving for the creation of new independent nations or participating in nation building, francophone writers from Africa have been catalysts for both social and political change through their contributions to this body of literature. The first half of its history, including the decade immediately following independence, through 1970, is a period described by scholars as both nationalist, and celebratory. Nationalist, because primarily influenced by a desire for independence from colonial rule; and celebratory, because of the concerted effort among writers and other intellectuals to ignite a sense of pride in all things African: culture, history and race. With the fall of European colonial empires and the creation of new, independent states in the 1950s and 1960s, this body of literature underwent a major period of transformation consisting in a dramatic change not only in the tone, focus, and themes chosen by its authors, but also in their social and political preoccupations. Scholars acknowledge this shift by characterizing the post-independence literary production in francophone Africa as belonging to the post-nationalist, critical phase. The focus of my dissertation concerns ii the ways in which writers of the second-generation use a new écriture to contest anti- colonial nationalism as it is embodied in the writings of the previous generation. Second generation writers have been particularly critical of the first generation’s celebration of tradition as pure, harmonious and infallible, and recognize the power of some traditions to repress certain members of society: members of particular castes and women for example. Issues concerning politics, gender roles in society, the reality of racial and cultural hybridity and class locations were now too obvious to ignore. Social justice, freedom of speech, women’s rights, equality of chances, an end to corruption, a centralizing and authoritarian post-colonial state, are all themes, which began to appear in the writings of this new generation. iii To Mikaël, Anabelle, and Maximilien To my Mom and Dad iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to begin by thanking my advisor, John Conteh-Morgan, for generously lending valuable insight and direction with both patience and sensitivity throughout this entire project. His steady encouragement was so important. I also wish to acknowledge the Department of French and Italian for giving me the opportunity to grow both as a teacher and as a researcher, and would particularly like to thank Diane Birckbichler, Danielle Marx-Scouras, Karlis Racevskis, Eugene Holland, and Jennifer Willging for their guidance. I would also like to extend heartfelt thanks to Marlyn Price and Jodi Obert for their warmth, sincerity, laughter, and friendship. To the Department of Romance Languages at Bowling Green State University, I wish to express my appreciation for the wonderful experience and preparation they gave me during my Masters. I owe a dept of gratitude to Opportune Zongo for introducing me to African and Caribbean literature, for her help arranging a visit to Burkina Faso, and for her encouraging words of advice about pursuing a Ph.D. In addition, I would like to thank the Department of Foreign Languages at the University of Toledo, particularly Guessler Normand and Ruth Hottell, for helping me to find this path. I am also grateful for the love and support of my husband and my entire family, especially my parents whose encouragement was unending. Finally, I thank Abby Braun for taking such good care of Anabelle and Maximilien while I worked. v VITA April 6, 1973……………………………………….. Born – Columbus, Ohio 1995……………………...……………………….....B.A. French, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio 1998….……………………………………………...M.A. French, Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, Ohio September 1998 – August 2004……………………. Graduate Teaching Associate Department of French and Italian The Ohio State University PUBLICATIONS Review of Beyond Nations and Nationalism: Postnational Arguments in the Fiction of Nuruddin Farah and B. Kojo Laing, by Francis Ngaboh-Smart. Research in African Literatures 36.1 (2005): 130-131. FIELDS OF STUDY Major Field: French and Italian vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………ii Dedication………………………………………………………………………………...iv Acknowledgements………………………………………………......................................v Vita………………………………………………………………………………………..vi Introduction…………………………………………………………………………....…..1 Chapters: 1. History and Theory of Nationalism in Francophone Africa……………………..17 Theories of Nationalism……………...…………………………………………..18 The Theoretical Case for Anti-Colonial Nationalism……...…………………….26 L’Enfant noir…………………………………………………...………………...37 The Theoretical Case Against Anti-Colonial Nationalism………...…………….62 2. Questioning Tradition: A Look Toward Modernity…………………………….76 Une si longue lettre……………………………………………………...……….80 Le Dernier de l’empire……………………………………………………...…..101 3. La Créolité and Post-Colonial Identity………………………………………....131 Le Chercheur d’Afriques……………………………………………………….134 Les Nuits de Strasbourg……………………………………………………...…155 Conclusion……………………………………………………………………………...183 Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………188 vii INTRODUCTION From its beginnings in the 1920s, literature in French from Africa has been set against a backdrop of struggle and indelibly marked by conflict. Indeed, over the course of these last 80 years, whether striving for the creation of new independent nations or participating in nation building, francophone writers from Africa have been catalysts for both social and political change through their contributions to this body of literature. The first half of its history, including the decade immediately following independence, through 1970, is a period described by scholars as both nationalist, and celebratory. Nationalist, because primarily influenced by a desire for independence from colonial rule; and celebratory, because of the concerted effort among writers and other intellectuals to ignite a sense of pride in all things African: culture, history, and race. Indeed, as Christopher Miller explained in his work, Nationalists and Nomads: Essays on Francophone African Literature and Culture (1998), nationalism in Africa during the pre- independence period “refers not to affiliation with a particular state, but simply to any form of resistance to colonialism” (120). This was essential, because the colonial system, driven by greed and justified by self-proclaimed European superiority, had been systematically eroding the identities of colonized peoples since its inception. Albert Memmi (1985) and Franz Fanon (1952) both discuss the negative effects of the colonial 1 system and its racism on the self-image of colonized peoples, consequences which anti- colonial nationalism countered. Aimé Césaire and Léopold Senghor saw literature and literary production, particularly poetry and theatre, as a means of encouraging Africans around the globe to embrace their blackness and to begin reclaiming their identities, an essential step in the decolonization process and the political struggle for freedom. They called this celebration of African identity, Negritude. Aimé Césaire first used the term “negritude” in his work Cahier d’un retour au pays natal (1939). Finally realizing that “l’Europe nous a pendant des siècles gavés de mensonges”, Césaire came to believe “[qu’] aucune race ne possède le monopole de la beauté, de l’intelligence, de la force” (29). He affirmed his blackness by saying, “ma négritude n’est ni une tour ni une cathédrale, elle plonge dans la chair rouge du sol”(23). Through this poem, Césaire put the colonial system on trial, testified, with indignation, to the physical and moral degradation of his people, and found it guilty, along with all of its accomplices: racism, the police, and schools. Cahier d’un retour au pays natal celebrates the possibility of a spiritual return to Africa that would permit the people of the Antilles to own a past and an identity that preceded slavery and the demoralizing reality of their daily lives. Similarly, D.T. Niane and Bernard Dadié celebrated Africa’s rich oral tradition by adapting short stories, fables, and epic tales into written form. Under colonial rule, griots, guardians of history, and traditional values, charged with passing these stories from generation to generation, became increasingly rare and Africans, especially those in urban centers, were beginning to forget. As Niane explained, “L’Occident nous a malheureusement appris à mépriser les sources orales en 2 matière d’Histoire; tout ce qui n’est pas écrit en noir sur blanc étant considéré sans fondement” (Niane 6). He also criticized Africans who discounted the validity of African oral tradition by saying, “Aussi même parmi
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