The Bushmeat Market in Kisangani, Democratic Republic of Congo: Implications for Conservation and Food Security

The bushmeat market in Kisangani, Democratic Republic of Congo: implications for conservation and food security

N ATHALIE VAN V LIET,CASIMIR N EBESSE,SYLVESTRE G AMBALEMOKE,DUDU A KAIBE and R OBERT N ASI

Abstract Given the important contribution of urban protein in Central African countries (Wilkie et al., 2005; consumption in bushmeat trade, information on bushmeat Bennett & Robinson, 2000) and a crucial component of food sales in urban markets can provide valuable insights for security in the region (Fa et al., 2003). In rural communities understanding the dynamics of this trade and its impli- bushmeat is often the most easily tradable item, both in cations for conservation and food security. We monitored terms of value-to-weight ratio and transportability (Fa & bushmeat traded in the market of Kisangani (the provincial Brown, 2009). Bushmeat is consumed regularly in urban capital of the Province Orientale in the Democratic Republic areas and constitutes a significant source of revenue for a of Congo) and compared data collected in surveys in 2002 large informal sector (Milner-Gulland et al., 2003). Many and 2008–2009. In both periods more than two-thirds of sustainability assessments focusing on tropical forest the carcasses sold were of rodents and ungulates. From wildlife in the region have warned about the increasing 2002 to 2008–2009 the number of carcasses increased by unsustainability of hunting and associated ecological 44% but the equivalent biomass by only 16% because of impacts (Fa & Brown, 2009). Although humans have been a significant decrease in medium-sized species (10–50 kg) hunting in the forests of Central Africa for millennia there and an increase in small species (, 10 kg). The number of are several reasons why hunting is not sustainable in all carcasses of large species increased between the two periods places and for all species. Civil conflict or insecurity, poor and those of diurnal monkeys increased fourfold. In both governance and inadequate law enforcement are some of periods smoked bushmeat was one of the cheapest sources the drivers of non-sustainability. The growth of extractive of protein available year-round, together with caterpillars, industries, such as logging and mining, indirectly facilitate which were only available during the rainy season, and pork. hunting in remote areas by building roads and camps, thus Prices of other domestic meat were significantly higher. This providing or facilitating transportation for hunters and study identified an increase in the market of highly market trade and increasing local demand (Thibault & threatened species such as okapi Okapia johnstoni and Blaney, 2003; Poulsen et al., 2009). The loss of both small diurnal monkeys and the continued presence of traditional hunting territories and methods (e.g. hunting protected species, and also highlights the food security role zone rotations) allows open access to the resource and that bushmeat plays for poor urban people who cannot concentration of hunting, with negative implications for the afford alternative sources of protein. sustainability of hunting (Poulsen et al., 2009; Kumpel et al., 2010). Increasing consumer demand from growing human Keywords Bushmeat trade, Democratic Republic of Congo, populations and a lack of acceptable alternative sources DRC, food security, urban market data, wildlife conservation of protein are widely assumed to be the primary drivers of the increasing levels of bushmeat offtake in Central Africa (Juste et al., 1995; Davies, 2002). Although per capita Introduction consumption of bushmeat is low in urban areas, aggregate urban consumption is higher than aggregate rural con- ildlife meat derived from the forest or the bush, sumption because of the high population density in urban termed bushmeat, is a significant source of animal W areas (Starkey, 2004). Given the important contribution of urban consumption in the bushmeat trade, urban markets have been widely used NATHALIE VAN VLIET (Corresponding author) Department of Geography and Geology, University of Copenhagen, Oster Voldgade 10, 1350 Copenhagen K, to estimate the state of hunted faunal assemblages and infer Denmark. E-mail [email protected] the sustainability of hunting (Juste et al., 1995; Brashares et al., CASIMIR NEBESSE,SYLVESTRE GAMBALEMOKE and DUDU AKAIBE Laboratoire 2004; Albrechtsen et al., 2005; Cowlishaw et al., 2005; ’ d Ecologie et de Gestion des Ressources Animales, Université de Kisangani, Crookes et al., 2005; Wilkie et al., 2005; de Merode & Kisangani, Democratic Republic of Congo 2006 2006 — Cowlishaw, ; Fa et al., ; Brugiere & Magassouba, ROBERT NASI CIRAD Campus International de Baillarguet, Montpellier, 2009 France ). Bushmeat markets are found in almost every town and Received 26 November 2010. Revision requested 19 January 2011. village in Central Africa and are important concentration Accepted 25 January 2011. First published online 8 March 2012. points of wildlife harvests from surrounding hunting

© 2012 Fauna & Flora International, Oryx, 46(2), 196–203 doi:10.1017/S0030605311000202 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 170.106.33.22, on 30 Sep 2021 at 14:03:20, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605311000202 Bushmeat, conservation and food security 197

catchments (Juste et al., 1995; Fa et al., 2000; Fa & Yuste, largest city in DRC. Kisangani lies along the Congo River, in 2001). Collecting bushmeat data at the market level is more the district of Tshopo (Fig. 1). The city suffered from efficient than conducting interviews with hunters when data political unrest from the 1990s until 2002 during the fighting at the level of the hunting catchment are needed. Several between Ugandan and Rwandan forces. Since 2002 peace market-based indicators have been proposed for assessing and conflict have alternated, with numerous militia and the sustainability of the bushmeat trade. The indicators are armed groups still active in the east of DRC. Kisangani is generally based on the hypotheses that in overharvested areas connected by river to Yangambi and by road to the main rare and threatened species decline first, larger sized species towns of Opala, Lubutu and Ubundu to the south, Buta to become rarer, the proportion of small, fast-reproducing the north, and Mambassa (Ituri) to the east. Several species increases, hunting catchment areas increase and the important protected areas lie , 400 km from Kisangani proportion of smoked meat and prices increase. (Maiko National Park to the south-east, Okapi Wildlife However the effectiveness of market data to provide Reserve to the east, Rubi-Tele hunting reserve to the north information about offtake and the sustainability of hunting and Yangambi Biosphere Reserve , 50 km to the west along has been criticized (Crookes et al., 2005), with evidence that the Congo River). overall extraction of bushmeat may be far greater than the visible market trade (Bakarr et al., 2001; Fa et al., 2002; 2002 Rose, ). Data collected in established markets provide Methods information about only one part of the market chain. As much bushmeat may pass through informal channels, such We monitored bushmeat traded in the main market of as from rural hunters directly to urban consumers, formal Kisangani during January–December 2002 and from July bushmeat markets represent an unknown proportion of 2008 to June 2009, with a focus on mammal species (the total urban consumption (Starkey, 2004). Crookes et al. animal group most traded in the market). With prior (2005) identified two main problems with using market permission from market authorities and the agreement data to infer sustainability. Firstly, most urban markets of the traders (all of whom are women), the market was sell bushmeat from a large and variable catchment area; visited every 3 days. We visited on 124 days in 2002 and 131 in sustainability may then be incorrectly inferred from 2008–2009. Although the market is open all day, bushmeat apparent market stability when the meat is simply coming arrives early in the morning and is sold before noon, when from a previously untapped source. Secondly, offtake bushmeat traders depart, and thus our visits were in the calculated from animals sold in markets underestimates morning. On each visit all traders agreed to provide data on the real harvest rate because only part of hunting offtake is species, number, piece (entire animal, in pieces), origin and sold in markets (van Vliet & Nasi, 2008). Moreover, price of the carcasses sold that day. Whole animals were also bushmeat markets are highly dynamic systems, with the weighed to convert prices per carcass to prices per kg. volume of items for sale and their species composition In 2008–2009 additional information on hunting technique varying over both daily and seasonal timescales. used (gun, traps, nets) and state (smoked, fresh) was also Here we use bushmeat market data not as a way to provide collected. Only carcasses that arrived at the market on the an absolute measure of sustainability but rather to provide day of the visit were taken into account (stocks were not information about trends, describe the relative contribution considered as they were observed only rarely). Small diurnal of traded species and highlight implications for conservation monkeys were not always identified to species and were thus and food security. We compare bushmeat traded in the main combined into one category. We also collected prices and market of Kisangani in the Democratic Republic of Congo weights for the other major sources of protein available: (DRC) for 2002 and 2008–2009, with a particular focus fresh fish, chicken, pork, beef, goat and smoked caterpillars. on the following indicators: (1) change in the percentage of We analysed the data collected for species richness, carcasses from the most hunted species, (2) change in species composition and biomass for the two periods. We biomass versus change in number of carcasses, (3) change in compared the proportion of small-sized (, 10 kg), medium- the percentage of small-, medium- and large-sized species, sized (10–50 kg) and large-sized species (. 50 kg) and the (4) change in the proportion of protected, partially protected proportion of protected, partially protected and unprotected and non-protected species, (5) change in hunting catchment species. Because the traders have agreements with specific area, and (6) prices of the most common bushmeat species hunters and transporters they have a good knowledge of compared to prices of the most common protein alternatives. the trading routes but not always about the particular village from where the meat is brought. As a result it was Study area not possible to assess the size of the hunting catchment. However, we assessed the number and the species com- Our study site is the main market of Kisangani, the position of carcasses originating from different trade routes provincial capital of the Province Orientale and the third in both years.

© 2012 Fauna & Flora International, Oryx, 46(2), 196–203 Downloaded from https://www.cambridge.org/core. IP address: 170.106.33.22, on 30 Sep 2021 at 14:03:20, subject to the Cambridge Core terms of use, available at https://www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0030605311000202 198 N. van Vliet et al.

FIG. 1 The location of Kisangani and neighbouring towns, the river and road connections between them, and nearby protected areas. The rectangle on the inset indicates the location of the main map in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC).

We calculated prices per kg for the two periods based carcass. Therefore, the price of 1 kg of smoked carcass equals on prices and carcass weights measured on 30 carcasses of 6/5 times the price of 1 kg of fresh meat. To facilitate the each of the four most abundant taxa sold as an entire comparison of fresh alternative sources of protein with piece (brush-tailed porcupine Atherurus africanus, blue smoked bushmeat we multiplied the price per kg of smoked duiker Cephalophus monticola, small diurnal monkeys, and carcass by 5/6 to obtain the price per kg of the equivalent Emin’s pouched rat Cricetomys emini). As the inflation rate weight of fresh meat. We computed an analysis of variance was correlated with the exchange rate between 2002 and (ANOVA) and pairwise post hoc analysis with the 2008 (Menga, 2010), prices in CDF recorded in 2002 and Bonferroni correction to test the difference in prices per 2008–2009 were made comparable by converting to USD kg among bushmeat species and alternatives for the two using the daily local exchange rates in 2002 (1 USD 5 240 periods. CDF) and 2008–2009 (1 USD 5 840 CDF). We compared prices of the four most commonly sold bushmeat species and of the other alternative sources of protein available in Results the market between 2002 and 2008–2009 using pair-wise Mann–Whitney tests. In 2008–2009 87% of the carcasses were smoked and only We then compared prices of bushmeat species with 3% were sold fresh (boiled, alive or brazed). Eighteen sources of alternative protein available in the Kisangani mammal species were recorded in 2002 and 22 in 2008– market (fresh chicken, pork, beef and fish, and smoked 2009. One Endangered species (bonobo Pan paniscus), two caterpillars). Prices per kg were not comparable because Near Threatened species (okapi Okapia johnstoni, leopard bushmeat was sold smoked, whereas other sources of Panthera pardus) and the common warthog Phacochoerus protein were sold fresh (except caterpillars). According to africanus were found in the market in 2008–2009 but not in Dieval (2000) and C. Fargeot (pers. comm.) 6 kg of fresh 2002. The abundance of all species was greater in 2008–2009 meat (including bones) would render c. 5 kg of smoked than in 2002 except for the sitatunga Tragelophus spekei,

TABLE 1 Number of carcasses of the mammal species recorded in the Kisangani market in 2002 and 2008–2009, with protection Other species status of each species according to the Forest Law 2006 of the Water chevrotain 2002 2008–2009 Democratic Republic of Congo and status on the IUCN Red List. Bush pig 2008– Protection Red List Fruit bats Species 2002 2009 status status* Emin’s pouched rat Brush-tailed porcupine 1,182 3,571 None LC Small diurnal monkeys Atherurus africanus Yellow- backed duiker Bay duiker Cephalophus 3,256 1,236 Partial LC dorsalis Black- fronted duiker Blue duiker Cephalophus 2,788 4,650 Partial LC Blue duiker monticola Black-fronted duiker 693 1,053 None LC Bay duiker Cephalophus nigrifrons Brush-tailed procupine Yellow-backed duiker 93 196 Partial LC Cephalophus sylvicultor 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 Small diurnal monkeys 2,221 8,228 Partial % of carcasses Cercopithecus spp.; FIG. 2 Species composition (percentage number of carcasses) Cercocebus spp. 2002 ’ of bushmeat traded in the market of Kisangani in and Emin s pouched rat 5,716 6,457 None LC 2008–2009 Cricetomys emini . Fruit bats Eidolon helvum 1,647 292 None LC Bush pig Potamochoerus 671 423 Partial LC porcus 18,000 Water chevrotain Hyemoschus 195 409 Partial LC 16,000 14,000 aquaticus 2002 (n = 18,785) Forest elephant Loxodonta 16 28 Total VU 12,000 2008–2009 (n = 27,021) africana cyclotis 10,000 Giant pangolin Manis 7 49 Total NT 8,000 gigantea 6,000 Arboreal pangolin Manis 1 1 None LC 4,000 Number of carcasses tricuspis 2,000 Orycterope Orycteropus afer 12 16 Partial LC 0 Chimpanzee Pan troglodytes 97 103 Total EN Ituri (E) Baboon Papio anubis 7 139 Partial LC Buta (N) Unknown Lubutu (SE)Ubundu (S) Opala (SW) Forest buffalo Syncerus caffer 48 70 Partial LC Yangambi (W) Sitatunga Tragelaphus spekei 135 72 Partial LC Trade routes Okapi Okapia johnstoni 0 3 Total NT FIG. 3 Number of carcasses entering the bushmeat market of Leopard Panthera pardus 0 5 Total NT Kisangani from seven trade routes (Fig. 1; with their compass Bonobo Pan paniscus 0 17 Total EN direction from Kisangani in parentheses) in 2002 and 2008– Common warthog 0 3 Partial LC 2009. Phacochoerus africanus Total 18,785 27,021 2008–2009 54 *EN, Endangered; VU, Vulnerable; NT, Near Threatened; LC, Least In , % of the animals were hunted using traps Concern (IUCN, 2011) and 46% using guns. The number of carcasses was 44% greater in 2008–2009 bush pig Potamochoerus porcus, fruit bat Eidolon helvum (Table 1) but biomass increased by only 16%(234 tonnes in and bay duiker Cephalophus dorsalis (Table 1). The 2002 and 271 tonnes in 2008–2009). The number and abundance of small diurnal monkeys increased fourfold percentage of medium-sized species was greater in 2002 from 2002 to 2008–2009 and that of the brush-tailed (4,066, 22%) than in 2008–2009 (2,496, 9%), that of small- porcupine tripled. The species composition changed sized species was higher in 2008–2009 (13,554, 86%) than in between the two periods (Fig. 2). In 2002 Emin’s pouched 2002 (23,198, 72%), and that of large-sized species was rat Cricetomys emini represented 30% of the carcasses, the approximately the same in the two periods (2002: 1,166, 6%; bay duiker 17%, the blue duiker Cephalophus monticola 2008–2009: 1,349, 5%). Totally protected species comprised 15%, the small diurnal monkeys 12% and the brush-tailed 1% of the carcasses in 2002 and 2008–2009 and partially porcupine 6%. In 2008–2009 five species accounted for protected species 50%in2002 and 66%in2008–2009. 89% of the carcasses sold: small diurnal monkeys (30%), The relative contribution of the various trade routes Emin’s pouched rats (24%), blue duikers (17%), brush- supplying bushmeat to Kisangani shifted from the south- tailed porcupines (13%) and bay duikers (5%). Rodents and east in 2002 to the north-east in 2008–2009 (Fig. 3). In 2002, ungulates represented 78% and 68% of the carcasses sold 55% of the carcasses originated from Lubutu, 12% from in the market in 2002 and 2008–2009, respectively. Ubundu and 30% from Ituri. In 2008–2009, 63% of the

TABLE 2 Prices of bushmeat carcasses and alternative sources of In 2008–2009 the most expensive source of protein was protein in the market of Kisangani in 2002 and 2008–2009, with beef, followed by fish and goat. Of the mammal bushmeat – probability of pairwise Mann Whitney tests between the two species, small diurnal monkeys were the most expensive but periods. there were no significant differences among species. The Mean price ± SD Mean price ± SD cheapest sources of protein were caterpillars and pork. All in 2002 in 2008–2009 P bushmeat species were significantly more expensive than Wild species, smoked (with equivalent value for fresh meat caterpillars and pork but significantly cheaper than beef, in parentheses) fish, goat and chicken. Brush-tailed 3.6 ± 0.7 (2.98) 2.9 ± 0.5 (2.44) 0.001 porcupine (n 5 30) Discussion ± ± Blue duiker 3.2 1.3 (2.66) 3.2 1.1 (2.68) 0.90 78 68 5 Rodents and ungulates combined represented % and % (n 30) 2002 Small diurnal 2.7 ± 1.0 (2.26) 3.3 ± 0.7 (2.77) 0.01 of the carcasses sold in the market of Kisangani in 2008–2009 monkeys and , comparable to other markets in West (n 5 30) and Central Africa: 78% in Republic of Guinea (Brugiere Emin’s 3.7 ± 1.0 (3.09) 3.2 ± 0.5 (2.70) 0.01 & Magassouba, 2009), . 67% in Ghana (Ntiamoa-Baidu, pouched rat 1997), 79% in Nigeria (Fa et al., 2006) and 71% in Cameroon 5 (n 30) (Fa & Brown, 2009). Cowlishaw et al. (2005) showed that Caterpillars 1.8 ± 0.2 (1) 0.3 ± 0.3 (0.26) , 0.0001 vulnerable taxa (large-bodied, slow-reproducing species) (n 5 30) Alternative protein, fresh are often depleted in hunted areas whereas robust taxa, such 2010 Goat (n 5 30) 15.8 ± 0.2 4.5 ± 0.1 , 0.0001 as rodents and small antelopes (Kumpel et al., ), persist Chicken 10.2 ± 0.2 3.5 ± 0.2 , 0.0001 sustainably even in agricultural landscapes around cities, (n 5 30) where there is high hunting pressure. The abundance of Pork (n 5 30) 3.3 ± 0.2 1.1 ± 0.2 , 0.0001 rodents in the Kisangani market could also be explained 5 ± ± , Beef (n 30) 13.9 0.2 6.1 0.2 0.0001 by the high number of people who are farmer-hunters 5 ± ± Fish (n 30) 5.1 0.3 4.9 0.4 0.193 (trapping mainly agricultural pests around their fields). In Kisangani 87% of the carcasses were sold smoked in 2008–2009. The proportion of smoked meat is often cited as carcasses came from Ituri, 34% from Lubutu and 3% from an indication of the size of the hunting catchment area. Ubundu. The increased relative contribution of Ituri However, the high proportion of smoked meat in the market compared to Lubutu in 2008–2009 is not because of the could also indicate poor transport conditions or lack of small reduction of the absolute abundance of carcasses facilities to conserve meat (few people can afford refriger- coming from Lubutu but rather because of an increase in ators and there is only one cold room in Kisangani). In the number of carcasses from Ituri. In both periods the Gabon, where . 90% of the meat is sold fresh (Starkey, percentage of totally protected species coming from Ituri 2004; Okouyi, 2006), the meat arrives fresh to the market and Lubutu was equal (3%). but is then conserved frozen and defrosted before sale The mean prices of beef, chicken, goat and pork were (N. van Vliet, pers. obs.). significantly lower in 2008–2009 than 2002 while the price The lower percentage of bay duikers in the Kisangani of caterpillars increased significantly and the price of fish market in 2008–2009 compared to 2002 and the similarity was approximately the same (Table 2). The prices of small of the percentage of blue duikers between the two periods is diurnal monkeys and Emin’s pouched rat were significantly similar to the evidence obtained in Makokou, north-east higher and the price of brush-tailed porcupine significantly Gabon (van Vliet et al., 2007), where bay duikers appeared lower in 2008–2009 compared to 2002, whereas the price of to be more vulnerable to the effect of hunting than blue blue duiker was approximately the same (Table 2). duikers. The lower abundance of fruit bats in the market In 2002 the cheapest source of protein was caterpillars in 2008–2009, the presence of the common warthog and (only available during the rainy season of April–October). the increased abundance of small diurnal monkeys are The most expensive source of protein was goat, followed unexpected. The lower abundance of fruit bats could be by beef and chicken. Of mammal bushmeat species Emin’s because of high hunting pressure. Fruit bats are known pouched rat (the most readily available species and an to be much appreciated for their meat and because of their agricultural pest) was the most expensive but prices low reproductive rate they are severely affected by hunting were not significantly different among bushmeat species (Mickleburgh et al., 2009). The common warthog is a (Table 3). None of the bushmeat species was significantly savannah species present in neighbouring countries on more expensive than pork and caterpillars but all were the eastern border of DRC and not around Kisangani, significantly less expensive than goat, beef, chicken and fish. suggesting that some carcasses may come from other

countries. Small diurnal monkeys comprised 12%of carcasses in 2002 and 30%in2008–2009, whereas in 0001 . 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0 Nigeria and Cameroon small diurnal monkeys comprised , , , , , , , , , 10 and 16.9% of carcasses, respectively (Fa et al., 2006). Small diurnal monkeys could be increasingly hunted if a shift from trapping to hunting with guns has occurred. In 2008–2009 46 0001 hunting with guns was responsible for % of the carcasses . 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0 , , , , , , , , , sold in the market. Although our data do not allow a comparison of hunting techniques between the two periods, Hart (2000) showed that hunting with guns was extremely rare and only nets, traps and bows were used in the Ituri 0001 . 0.021 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0 region in the late 1970s, suggesting a shift to hunting with ), of prices (all converted to the equivalent , , , , , , , , guns. In north-east Gabon van Vliet & Nasi (2008) found 001 .

0 that the proportion of small diurnal monkeys in hunting

5 oﬀtake increased because of a change from trapping to α hunting with guns. In Equatorial Guinea the increase in 0001 . hunting with guns was responsible for the decrease in the 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0 , , , , , , , , , abundance of small diurnal monkeys and the local depletion of the black colobus Colobus satanas (Kumpel et al., 2008). The high percentage of small diurnal monkeys observed in

0001 Kisangani market warrants special attention. An investi- . 0.051 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0 erence with a corrected (above diagonal). gation of the abundance of this group in the Ituri forest could , , , , , , , , ﬀ complement our results and help understand the impacts of 2009

– trade on the sustainability of small monkey populations. cant di ﬁ The changes in species composition and number of 2008 0001 . 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0 carcasses between 2002 and 2008–2009 could also be , , , , , , , , , explained by a shift in hunting catchment areas. The improvement of the road from Kisangani to Ituri and the s ’ relative political stability has made it possible for hunters and traders in villages along the road to become involved in pouched rat Fish Pork Caterpillars Goat Chicken Beef Emin 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 commercial hunting. That most bushmeat was coming from , , , , (below diagonal) and Lubutu in 2002 does not mean that hunting pressure in the Ituri forest was low. The forest was actually heavily hunted 2002 in an open-access system that was exploited by a large Small diurnal monkeys 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 number of low-ranking soldiers (de Merode & Cowlishaw, , , , , 2006) who relied on bushmeat for subsistence. Our results show that the increased relative contribution of Ituri as a hunting catchment area for Kisangani is because of an absolute increase in the number of animals traded along the Brush- tailed porcupine 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 Ituri road and not because of a decrease in the number of , , , , carcasses coming from Lubutu. The presence of okapi meat in the market in 2008–2009 (the species was not recorded in 2002) could be attributed to higher hunting pressure around erence, with the Bonferroni correction (bold values indicate a signi ﬀ and within the Okapi Wildlife Reserve, accessible by the road that leads to Ituri. 0.208 0.025 0.645 0.318 0.023 0.068 Blue duiker 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 0.0001 The increase in the number of carcasses from small- , , , , sized animals and decrease of medium-sized species has also been observed in the Takoradi market in Ghana (Cowlishaw et al., 2005), where rodents and other small, fast-reproducing species have gained in importance in long-established markets because slow-reproducing and large species have been depleted (Cowlishaw et al., 2005). 3 Pairwise post hoc tests of di s pouched rat 0.186 0.727 0.011 ’ In Kisangani, however, the percentage of large-sized species ABLE monkeys porcupine Beef Chicken Goat Caterpillars 0.189 0.029 0.835 0.015

Pork 0.095 0.423 0.006 0.631 2002 2008–2009 Fish Emin Small diurnal T Brush-tailed Blue duiker 0.086 0.568 0.912 of fresh meat) of bushmeat species and alternative sources of protein in was approximately the same in and ,

suggesting that hunting of slow-reproducing species (often proteins (beef, chicken, fish and goat meat) were more protected and threatened species) is still profitable in this expensive and therefore probably not considered as region. Profitability can be dependent on prey availability, substitutes. However, bushmeat prices increased between travel costs, demand and law enforcement. Armed conflicts the two periods whereas prices of domestic meat decreased, facilitate trade in protected species (de Merode & suggesting that domestic meat and bushmeat could reach Cowlishaw, 2006) because the trade is in the hands of competitive prices in the future. The need to support uncontrolled military troupes moving in remote forests domestic meat production has been included in the independently of the laws and limits of protected areas. National Bushmeat Strategy for DRC (ICCN, 2009) and Our results also show that prices of bushmeat are not the technical expertise is available nationally but a clear necessarily linked to availability but can also reflect policy through credits and access to inputs is needed to preferences (such as for Emin’s pouched rat and small upscale the existing small scale pilot projects, taking into diurnal monkeys). A cultural preference for specific account national and local cultural and taste preferences for bushmeat species may encourage consumers to pay high protein alternatives. prices for bushmeat. In Nigeria, using a combination of taste Market data such as those presented in this study can tests and questionnaires, Emin’s pouched rat was rated the provide valuable information to policy makers and highest by consumers but was consumed less than mutton managers by raising the alarm when rapid changes are and beef because of constraints of cost and availability observed, indicating the capacity of particular sources of (Ladele et al., 1996). protein to become substitutes for bushmeat, describing the In Kisangani bushmeat is not a luxury product, as it is role of prices in consumer choices and analysing the effects elsewhere (Bowen-Jones, 2003; Cowlishaw et al., 2005), and of policy and management decisions on food security and smoked bushmeat is one of the cheapest sources of protein conservation. However, as concluded by Crookes et al. year-round. Other sources of protein, except pork and (2005), indicators measured at the market level should be caterpillars, are significantly more expensive. In contrast, in supplemented with information about other processes, Ghana, bushmeat was more expensive than domestic meat including stock depletion, economic behaviour by con- or fish and prices reflected differences in supply: bushmeat sumers, traders and hunters, and gear selectivity, to infer production was low in volume and occurred at considerable conclusions about the sustainability of the trade. When distances from urban centres, whereas domestic meat combined with longitudinal information from along the production was high in volume and occurred in close supply chain (wildlife populations, hunters, traders and proximity to city markets (Cowlishaw et al., 2005). In urban consumers) and with information about the political, social, Nigeria and Gabon bushmeat is also a luxury item for which economic and ecological context, market data are a key individuals are willing to pay a premium over other sources element to inform decision making. of animal protein. For example, in urban Nigeria bushmeat is more costly than all other meats except premium 1996 imported steak (Ladele et al., ). In Libreville bushmeat Acknowledgements is 1.5 times more expensive than the most costly beef (Starkey, 2004). The analysis of the role of wealth in We thank the local market authorities of Kisangani and the bushmeat consumption needs to distinguish between rural female traders (mamans), without whose trust and patience and urban settings. In rural towns of Gabon and around this work would not have been possible. Garamba National Park (DRC), bushmeat consumption was higher in wealthier households (de Merode et al., 2004; 2005 Wilkie et al., ) because the poorest households in the References village could not afford hunting tools or somebody able to hunt. In urban settings such as in Kisangani where ALBRECHTSEN, L., FA, J.E., BARRY,B.&MACDONALD, D.W. (2005) households no longer have access to free natural resources Contrasts in availability and consumption of animal protein in the poorest seek the cheapest source of protein available in Bioko Island, West Africa: the role of bushmeat. Environmental 32 340–348 the market. Given the higher cost of production of domestic Conservation, , . fl BAKARR, M.I., DA FONSECA, G.A.B., MITTERMEIER, R.A., RYLANDS, A.B. & meat and the disruption of supply during the armed con ict PAINEMILLA, K.W. (eds) (2001) Hunting and Bushmeat Utilization in (de Merode & Cowlishaw, 2006), bushmeat remains one of the African Rainforest: Perspectives Toward a Blueprint for the cheapest sources of protein. As bushmeat is sold in small Conservation Action. Advances in Applied Biodiversity Science 2. piles costing , USD 0.10 each, whereas domestic meat is Center for Applied Biodiversity Science, Conservation 500 1 International, Washington, DC, USA. sold on piles ranging from gto kg, the former is more 2000 ff BENNETT, E.L. & ROBINSON, J.G. ( ) Hunting for sustainability: a ordable to the poor who manage on small daily budgets. the start of a synthesis. In Hunting for Sustainability in Tropical In 2008–2009, while caterpillars (only during the rainy Forests (eds J.G. Robinson & E.L. Bennett), pp. 499–519. Columbia season) and pork were cheaper than bushmeat, other University Press, New York, USA.

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