Coffee plant: a basic knowledge

Coffee plant botanical overview The genus Cofea belongs to the family Rubiaceae. This family comprises many genera including Gardenia, lxora, Cinchona (quinine) and Rubia. The latter includes Rubia tinctoria (the Turkey Red), from which the name of the family Rubiaceae was derived. The genus Coflea covers approximately 70 species.

In Lynnaeaus classification there is a subdivision in kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species. For Coffee (classification on 1737) is: • kingdom: Plantae, • phylum: Anthophyta (means plants with flowers), • class: Magnolopsides, • order: Rubiales, • family: Rubiacae, • genus: , • species: , Coffea canephora, Coffea eugenioides, …

The two main species of coffee tree cultivated on a worldwide scale are Coflea Arabica and C. Canephora var. Robusta. Minor cultivated species include C. Liberica and C. Excelsa, which are mainly restricted to West Africa and Asia, and account for only 1-2% of global production. The centre of origin of C. Arabica is in Ethiopia in high plateaux areas at altitudes between 1300 and 2000 m. On the other hand, the origins of C. Canephora are more widely dispersed in tropical Africa at altitudes below 1000 m. The species C. Liberica originates from lowland habitats in West Africa, often coastal. The original identification of this species was made in Liberia, hence its name. A further species, C. Excelsa, closely related to C. Liberica, is also a native of lowland forest habitats in West and Central Africa. The coffee plant takes approximately 3 years to develop from seed germination to first flowering and fruit production. The fruit of the coffee tree is known as a cherry, and the beans which develop inside the cherry are used as the basic element for producing roast and ground coffee, soluble coffee powders, and coffee liquor. A well-managed coffee tree can be productive for up to 80 years or more, but the economic lifespan of a coffee plantation is rarely more than 30 years. The seed consists of a horny endosperm containing an embryo, which is wrapped in two husks: the outer parchment and the silverskin (or integument) just underneath.The embryo, about 3-4 mm long, is composed of the hypocotyl (embryoaxis) and two cotyledons.

Coffee seed The different varieties of coffee show differences in the size and shape of the coffee bean (seed) but, on average, beans are approximately 10 mm long and 6 mm wide. The weight of a parchment seed at 18% moisture content is 0,45-0,50 g for Arabica and 0,37-0,40 g for Robusta. The average weight of hulled beans of both species at 12-13% moisture content (MC) varies from 0,17 to 0,40 g. Coffee seeds do not require a period of dormancy. Consequently seeds should be sown as soon as possible after ripening, when their moisture content is over 50%. At this stage their germination rate is over 90,5%. Viability decreases rapidly after 2 months (for Robusta) and 6 months (for Arabica) when stored at ambient temperature. If seeds have to be stored, they should be stored as parchment seeds which have to be dried slowly at a low temperature (not above 40°C) down to 12-13 % MC. The dried parchment seed stored at 10°C will maintain a high germination capacity for several months. Indeed, it has been demonstrated that Arabica seeds with 10-11% MC stored at 15°C can be maintained for approximately 2 years.

Coffee flower The coffee flower consists of a white fivelobed corolla, a calyx, five stamens and the pistil. The ovary is at the base of the corolla and contains two ovules that, if duly fertilized, produce two coffee beans.

From flower to fruit

In the upper photo you can see a coffee flower: brownish parts are anthers, wich contains pollen and ouput it when they are ripe. Two curls in center of flower represent the stigma that is the female sexual mouth, while on (below) right photo you can observe a complete female apparatus: stigma, style, ovary (the green part wich resemble to a little ball).

When a pollen grain arrives on the stigma, outputs a little thread, containg ½ chromosomes, who penetrates into the style and reaches the ovary, where will couple with an egg-cell (wich contains ½ chromosomes too). So that we’ll see a new cell with whole chromosomes that will develope up to an embryo. Around this embryo will develope a couple of leaflets that become fat because of high cointent of starch, but not only: many other molecules will be present, including caffeine.

Flowers open in the early morning and remain open throughout the day. In the afternoon of the same day, once fertilization has taken place, the anthers turn brown. Two days later the white corolla withers and the floral parts fall away leaving the ovary to develop. If fertilization has failed, the stigmas and the corolla remain bound to the ovary. The stigmas of the Robusta flowers remain receptive up to 6 days after flowering. Coffee pollen is light in weight and is easily carried by the wind. Wind pollination may be of prime importance. However the sweet-smelling flowers also attract and it would seem very likely that insects also contribute to the pollination process. In C. Arabica 90-95% of the fertilization is carried out by the pollen of the flowers from the same tree (self-pollination). In C. Canephora fertilization can only be carried out by the pollen of another tree (cross-pollination). In both cases, successful fertilization mainly depends on meteorological conditions. Strong rains or violent winds hinder pollination and lead to a greater proportion of non-fertilized flowers. In Arabica, pollen grains drop by gravity on to the lower layers of the coffee branches but at higher levels the flowers are pollinated by pollen carried on the wind and, to a lesser extent, by insects (5-10% only). The quantity of pollen produced by an adult coffee plant is impressive, approximately 2,5 million grains per tree. Such a quantity is more than enough to fertilize the 20- 30000 flowers of the plant. Pollen can be wind-borne over a distance of approximately 100m. Fertilization occurs when a pollen grain falls on the stigma and a pollen tube that grows down the style and fuses with the ovary. Under favorable conditions pollen germination is fast and fusion takes place 1-2 h after the pollen grain has settled on the stigma.

The time taken from flowering until the maturation of the coffee berries varies according to the variety, climatic conditions, agricultural practices and various other factors. As a general rule: • C. Arabica takes 6-9 months • C. Canephora takes 9-11 months • C. Excelsa takes 11-12 months • C. Liberica takes 12-14 months

Maturation is slower at higher altitudes since the air temperature drops by 1°C per 180 m of elevation.

Coffee selection Documents dating back to the 10th century reveal that coffee, served as a beverage, originated in the Arab world, but the true origins of coffee consumption are lost in the mists of unwritten history and have only been transmitted by word of mouth as, for instance, the legend of the Ethiopian shepherd, Kaldi. On the other hand, Abyssinia has been officially recognized as the cradle of Coffea Arabica since coffee surveys carried out in the 20th century revealed specimens growing wild in the highland forests of south-west Ethiopia. The history of the coffee tree and of coffee as a beverage is closely linked to the growth of great empires and trade, first under the influence of the Arabs at the end of the first millennium, then the Turks in the 15th century and, finally, the European colonizers since the 18th century. Currently, commercial green coffee production relies on two main coffee species: C. Arabica and C. Canephora. In actual fact, however, botanists regard all tropical plants of the Rubiaceae family which produce coffee beans as coffee trees. Hence, since the 16th century over 100 spontaneous coffee species have been described. The taxonomic classification of the genus Coffea has become increasingly complex due to the many new species discovered during the 20th century in West Africa, Central Africa, Madagascar and East Africa. Before Linnaeus’publication (1753) on the binomial species C. Arabica, the coffee type from Arabia was the only one known and described by a short sentence (Jussieu, 1713 “Arab jasmine, with laurel type leaves, the beans of which we call coffee”. Other wild coffee species, listed below, were discovered during scientific surveys carried out since the 18th century in tropical regions of Africa and on the route to the East Indies. Initially these surveys were made on the islands (Bourbon, Zanzibar) and the more easily accessible coastal areas (Gold Coast, Mozambique). Later, as exploration developed, they were extended to the more central regions of Africa. The C. Mauritiana species, on the Bourbon island (La Rkunion), described by Lamarck (1783). The C. Racemosa species collected in Mozambique by de Loureiro (1790). The C. Liberica species found in Sierra Leone in 1792 and in Liberia in 1841. The Rio Nunez

coffee type (C. stenophylla) and C. Liberica found in Guinea Conakry in 1840. The Robusta coffee type and C. Congensis, found in the basin of the Congo river between 1880 and 1900.

Generally speaking, coffee species are diploid with 2n = 22 chromosomes, C. Arabica which is an allotetraploid with 2n = 4x = 44 chromosomes being the exception. The C. Arabica species is generally adapted to the tropical highlands (1000-1500 m above sea level), whereas C. Canephora is adapted to tropical lowlands (0-800 m above sea level). Arabica coffee is milder, more aromatic and contains less caffeine than Robusta coffee. Due to its autogamous nature, diversity within lines or within varieties of C. Arabica is often limited. However, considerable diversity can be observed between C. Arabica varieties, such as differences in adaptation capacity, plant height and shape, leaf size and shape, internode length, fruit color or shape, disease resistance, and yielding capacity. This diversity naturally represents factors of significant economic importance. C. Canephora is, genetically, a highly diverse species. In nature it is widely distributed in the wet lowland areas of West and Central Africa. This factor has favored differences in adaptation capacity and diversification of the species. Due to its strict allogamous nature (only outcrossing occurs), each plant can be considered as a unique genotype. After the epidemic of orange leaf rust in the C. Arabica plantations of Ceylon and of Java in the second part of 19th century, other coffee species showing higher tolerance to the disease were introduced. These introductions led to the appearance of natural interspecific hybrids between local cultivars of C. Arabica and imported diploid coffee species growing together in the same botanical garden or plantation.

The most famous examples were Hybrids between C. Canephora and C. Arabica named Arla in Indonesia, Devamachy in India and Hibrido de Timor (HdT) in Timor. HdT that has shown resistance to all known races of H. vastatrix began to replace the local Arabica in Timor island in the 1950s. Crosses between C. Arabica var. Caturra and HdT generated a population called Catimor. These hybrids were first created by CIFC (Oeiras, Portugal) and selected in different American countries (, , Costa Rica, etc.) as well as in Kenya and in India.

To obtain high yields of good-quality coffee, the choice of variety is of fundamental im- portance. Coffee breeding, i.e. the creation and development of new varieties, has already provided farmers with high-yielding cultivars which are adapted to different cultivation systems and show increased resistance to the major diseases - Coffee Leaf Rust (CLR) and Coffee Berry Disease (CBD). Further progress can be expected within the next 10-15 years by increasing resistance to different nematode species and to insects (particularly Coffee Leaf Miner and Coffee Berry Borer) by exploiting the vigor of hybrid varieties of C. Arabica and C. Canephora, and by improving bean characteristics which influence liquor quality (especially for C. Canephora).

Species – summary Species is the ensemble of all living organisms that can reproduce and obtain fertile descendants. A classic example is that of Horse and Donkey. Horses reproduce themselves and donkeys too, but is possible to obtain an hybrid (Mule) but it is not fertile. Among genus Coffea aronud 100 species are known, most part of them originates from Ethiopian Hilands or from other african areas. The most used ones are Coffea Arabica and Coffea Canephora (so called variety Arabica and variety Robusta). Less known C. Liberica e C. Excelsa, at today they are above all source of new characters for new variaties (resistance to diseases, better habitus of plants and so on). So please remind that these two different plants are two different species! That means that there are a lot of differences from an agronomical point of view and in a technical concept (different tastes for example, different content of caffeine, different resistance to pests and diseases). C. Arabica is autofertile that means that is possible germination of pollen on the stygma of flowers of the same cultivated variety; this apect is known as “autogamy”. For this reason, in order to production, C. Arabica is able to ensure good harvests. This species has 44 chromosomes, that is double of all other species within genus Coffea, and is, maybe, the scientific matter that give reason of her being unique. Coffea Canephora is auto sterile that means that you need plants of different varieties to obtain fruits an seeds, beacuse pollen is not able to germinate on stygma of flowers of same variety. This is called “allogamy”. Coffea Canephora is provided of 22 chromosomes, as in all species within genus Coffea. A real phenomenon is the Hybrido de Timor, wich is thaught as an hybrid between Coffea Canephora and Coffea Arabica. But Hybrido de Timor is fertile, so on today is classified as a proper species or as an Arabica variety. Anyway it is progenitor of some coffee varieties that are rust resistant (for example Catimor, Castillo), so that coffee farmers all over the world know it well, because rust is a real devasting disease of coffeee. Among a certain species taxonomysts recognize some “botanical variety” or simply “variety” wich are selected by nature; in alternative they speak about “population” that means a variety selected by a particolar environement. An example is Bourbon, obtained

by man, who introduce caffe plant in one isle and in that environment coffe differenciated typical plants that compose that variety. Cultivar (cultivated variety): cultivated varieties was introduced in coffee farms after second world war; they are usually obtained by crossing of well-known cultivars and selection of progeny.

Coffee trees anatomy and physiology Everyone can recognize in one coffee plant roots, stem with several branches and leaves. Roots: are responsible of stability of plant and above all they suck water and salts from soil and push them through stem to the leaves. In Coffee plants taproot. During plant growth new roots go down in the soli deeper than taproot, ensuring a good stability. Internal structure of root is shown in the following photo: cross section of a salix root in wich is possible to observe some little pipes that all toghether are called “xilema”; they conduct water from soil to the stem. Within this water salts are separated in ions (hydrolisis) and are absordbed by roots, so that through xilema, they can reach leaves. In coffee plant roots are organized in one main root (taproot) that is very important during first stages of growth; than some coaxial roots grow till becoming longer than taproot and are responsible for the stability of the plant and to find out and search deep water in dry periods.

Stem: it sustains all plant as a “bearing structure” and let water+salts (so called raw sap) flow up to leaves. The inner part of stem is very similar to the imagine furnished by previous photo: in center part you can recognize the so called xilema: it let raw sap flow from bottom to top of plant. On the external part of stem exist a group of cells connected one another (so called phloem) that are able to push another sap, containing sugars and amynoacids, down to roots, so that every part of plant can receive sugars and amynoacids made by leaves (see below). Phloem is localized between wood and cork.

Leaf: any leaf is able to produce transpiration, photosynthesis and aminoacid synthesis.

Transpiration It is a continuous flow of water that goes from roots, through stem and branches to any leaf and then arrive in atmosphere. This flow is, in some way, the basic life process of a plant, without transpiration, any other biochemical process should be impossibile; photosynthesis is related to tranpiration. In hot and sunny conditions transpiration is at maximum level, also windy and dry conditions increase it. Humidity, shading, no-wind are weather conditions let maintain traspiration in a middle activity, good environment for coffee.

Watching at the cross section of a leaf (please see at left), you can recognize a vein (n) wich carries water, some spaces (i) in wich water spread as steam and can output trough little mouth (st) so called stoma (in ancient greek means mouth).

Photosynthesis If you carefully watch picture, in the upper part of the leaf you can see a lot of narrow cells wich contains a lot of black points; these points are actually green and are able to carry on photosynthesis. The narrow cells togheteher are called “fence tissue” and are organized to acquire light better. Photosynthesis is a process used by plants and other organisms to convert light energy into chemical energy that can later be released to fuel the organisms activities (energy transformation). This chemical energy is stored in carbohydrate molecules, such as sugars, which are synthesized from carbon dioxide and water. In most cases, oxygen is also released as a waste product.

Photosyntesis: 6CO2 + 6H20 à(Light)à C6 H12 06 + 6O2

Photosynthesis is a complex biochemical process that occurs only in plants because are the only living organisms wich have chloroplasts. Chloroplasts are organelles, specialized subunits, in plant and algal cells. Chloroplasts main role is to conduct photosynthesis, where the photosynthetic pigment chlorophyll captures the energy from sunlight and converts it and stores it in the energy-storage molecules ATP (Adenosine triphosphate) and NADPH (Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate) while freeing oxygen from water. They then use the ATP and NADPH to make organic molecules from CO2 in a process known as the Calvin cycle. Chloroplasts carry out a number of other functions, including fatty acid synthesis, much amino acid synthesis, and the immune response in plants. The number of chloroplasts per cell varies from one, in unicellular algae, up to 100 in plants like Arabidopsis and wheat.

Global result of Photosinthesis is production of one molecule of sugar, starting from 6 molecules of carbon dioxyde plus 6 molecules of water (CO2 arrives to leaves from atmosphere, water arrives from traspiration flow).

Photosyntesis in coffee During photosyntesis various biochemical transformations take place, but in the second part (Calvin cycle) we can observe differences between C3 and C4 plants: C3 ones shows the best photosyntetical efficiency at 20°C, instead the C4 ones increase photosyntetical efficiency with higher temperatures (for example Zea mays corn plant). Coffee is a typical C3 plant (both C. Arabica and C. Canephora) and shows his best photosyntetical efficiency at 20-25°C; with higher temperatures only respiration intensity increases, for this reason we’ll found less sugars and less aromatic compounds (it depends on different cultivars too). The only difference is that C. Arabica find best conditions at 20°C while C. Canephora at 25-27 °C.

Wild coffee trees grow naturally under subdued lighting in the lower levels of the forests. This explains why, originally, coffee trees were planted under shade trees. The practice of planting under shade trees became more popular after it had been proven than on a single leaf, photosynthesis (respiration and carbonic nutrition) was more intense under reduced luminosity (10-60%) than under full sunshine. However, later studies demonstrated that only the peripheral leaves of the coffee tree are exposed to full sunshine - most of the foliage is protected by the peripheral leaves. It was, therefore, concluded that artificial shading is superfluous and even harmful to productivity, especially in equatorial and sub-equatorial areas with fewer hours of sunshine. Nevertheless, it is important to realize that non-shaded coffee trees, with relatively higher rates of photosynthesis and a higher productive capacity, require more nutrients and care (intensive management). If they are not carefully husbanded, coffee trees with insufficient shade protection are rapidly exhausted and their production drops significantly. Extreme temperature changes bring about leaf burn, frost damage, etc., and chlorosis (yellowing of the leaf) occurs when temperatures drop below 10°C, which kills the chloroplasts.The reduction in active chlorophyll levels results in lowered levels of photosynthesis. Other benefits of planting of shade trees in coffee include the following: • Reduction of topsoil erosion on steeper slopes • The production of organic matter (litterfall) which greatly improves the physical characteristics of the topsoil and generates nutrients • The reduction in weed growth which avoids competition between weeds and the coffee crop for moisture and nutrients • The curbing of the biennial bearing pattern and last, but not least, an improvement in the bean size • The formation of alkaloids and aromatic compounds in the beans; these volatile substances contribute to the production of a good quality coffee and are particularly important in Arabica coffee.

Respiration is another biochemical process, wich occurs in mithocondria, wich are inside any cell (in plants, , humans).

Thanks to these reactions it is possible to obtain Energy (stocked in molecules of ATP) as result of a global process that destroys one molecule of sugar and 6 molecules of oxygen and produces 6 molecule of carbon dioxyde and 6 molecules of water.

Cell respiration: C6 H12 06 + 6O2 à 6CO2 + 6H20 + ATP (Energy) Photosynthesis and respiration contain the same chemical compounds but have opposite meaning: during photosynthesis an input of energy comes from sun in form of light, while during respiration an output of energy occure as ATP. In plants both occurs at the same time, but during day photosynthesis produce sugars more than those wich respiration destroys. During night photosyntesis is not possible, but global balance is for a production of sugars, that are joined in long chain called starch. Starch is the most abundant compound in seeds, as a reserve of energy for the embryon, and then for the little plant.

Aminoacid synthesis is possible in plants because they contain many “biochemical tools” that assembly a sugar with an acid group COOH and an amminic group NH2 to create an aminoacid; more aminoacids compose a proteine. The input of nitrogen (N) occurs in NO3 form and thanks to nitrato reduttase is transformed in NH2.

In coffee plant assimilation of nitrogen and consequential aminoacid synthesis produce caffeine: you can recognize 4 nitrogen atoms in it.

Agricultural tecnique

From one seed to a new plant As seed is a “sleeping” embryo (dormancy), germination is a complex biochemical process that let the embryo starts again an active life. To break dormancy some conditions are requested: a minimum level of temperature, wet conditions, oxygen and removal of inhibitors. So that you have to choose a balanced mix of substrates wich contains a lot of pores to ensure penetration of air (not only water). In some environment a pre-soaking of 1-2 days is recomended to remove inhibitors, in other situations they think it as useless because with a good porous substrate you have to water often, so that you wash away any not-wanted compound. Embryo is surrounded by transformed leaves (cotyledons), wich are a nutritional store, so that during germination a trasformation of bio-compunds will take place, above all sturch will hydrolized in sugars.

During germination of coffee seed, first visible trasformation is output of taproot, after two months cotyledons appear, after two weeks more first two true leaves. Taproot is unstoppable during first part of plant life and growers have to control, during transplant its quality: only plantlets with a perfect root will be considered as suitable, instead plantlets with twisted or bouble taprot will be wasted.

Grafting: in some areas temperature and soil conditions may give good environment for nematodes, wich can become injurious and cause loss of production, so a way to solve problems i sto graft C. Arabica on C. Canephora so that farmer obtains one nematodes resistant plant (picture on right). Through grafting no hybridation occurs: the upper part of plant will mantein the Arabica character and the lower parts will mantein the canephora ones.

Light (above photo): a right level of light is needed to develop the young plants; in this picture the coffee nursery has more or less a 70% of shading, that is the right condition to grow plants before planting in open field. When plants become adult they need low shading, it depends on other environment conditions (altitude, temperature, cultivar….).

Planting and Pruning In nature Coffee plants can grow up to 5-10 meters, depending on cultivar and environment, so that first purpose of pruning is maintainance of right height of plants and right shape.

In left photo (shooted in ) plants are 1,60-1,70 meters height, because they do manual pruning and manual harvest (picking). Distance is more or less 2,5 meters through rows and 2 meters on the row. Please note that shading is poor indeed, because they cut down every year more shading trees. Please note perfect conditions of leaves, without lack or excess of nutrients, typical of one-owner coffee plantation, carefully grown. They don’t irrigate because in that region rain is enough to ensure good water providing year-round.

Another basic for pruning is cutting of useless or diseased branches; in a practical approach is simple to observe that coffee produces flowers on one year branch, so that first year you’ll expect new shoots, and on same shoots, flowers on next year. On same areas farmers use to make a low cut to obtain a renewal of old plants (full stamping) but is not so spread on today.

In this photo (shooted in Brasil) height of plants is around 2,20 meters but with foliage reach 2,5 meters and distance is 3,5 meters between rows and 0,60 on the row. This shape is suitable for mechanical pruning and mechanical harvest too. Shading doesn’t exist, but they have a drip irrigation system that ensure watering in dry periods too. Irrigation is necessary because in that region rains only 1500 mm per year (to poor for coffee plant) but on the other hand because of irrigation they can avoid shading. All these choices are typical of an “industrial cultivation” in wich an intensive cultivation achieve high yeald results.

This picture shows a unique and very clever agronomical management of a little field. Usually in first periods of coffee cultivation some farmers plant other plants among rows and this practice is called “intercropping”. In this farm they are realizing an original “coffe as intecropping on coffee”, because they prune plants every year on alterne rows. They prune with the aim of little gardener machines.

Plant nutrition and fertilization Nutrients are recycled within the environment. A 'closed' environment such as a rainforest, recycles its own nutrients and is more or less self-sufficient. However, where plants are grown in a commercial plantation, it is necessary to replenish the nutrients that are removed from the system. Without additional nutrients in form of fertiliser, coffee yields will remain very low as nutrients are removed with the coffee beans. Unshaded plants of dwarf, high-yielding varieties such as Catimor, will quickly develop dieback and die if adequate nutrients and water are not added to the soil. Plants with mild to moderate dieback will recover with timely good fertilising, watering and weed management. In India, it was found that for every 6,000 kg of ripe coffee cherry (1 tonne of green bean) removed from the plants, approximately 40 kg nitrogen (N), 2.2 kg phosphorus (P) and 53 kg potassium (K) must be replaced yearly. There are 16 natural elements (nutrients), that are essential for plant growth (see table below). Three elements (carbon, hydrogen and oxygen) make up 94% of the plant tissues and are obtained from air and water. The other 13 elements are obtained from the soil and are divided into two broad categories - 'macro' and 'micro'. These terms do not refer to the importance of the elements; macronutrients are required in greater amounts than micronutrients for normal plant growth.

Mineral/ Chemical Main requirement/use by the plant Element symbol Macronutrients

Nitrogen N Plant growth; proteins; enzymes; hormones; photosynthesis

Sulphur S Amino acids and proteins; chlorophyll; disease resistance; seed production Phosphorus P Energy compounds; root development; flowering; ripening Potassium K Fruit quality; water balance; disease resistance Calcium Ca Cell walls; root and leaf development; fruit ripening and quality Magnesium Mg Chlorophyll (green colour); seed germination

Micronutrients

Copper Cu Chlorophyll; protein formation Zinc Zn Hormones/enzymes; plant height Manganese Mn Photosynthesis; enzymes Iron Fe Photosynthesis Boron B Development/growth of new shoots and roots; flowering, fruit set and development Molybdenum Mo Nitrogen metabolism Chloride Cl Photosynthesis; gas exchange; water balance

Please take note: usually you can find written uptake of N,P,K. But on fertilizers bags you read usually content in N, P2O5, K2O because laboratoty assay produce results in P2O5 and K2O (ratio is respectively 2,4 and 1,2) Before fertilizing, in order to give the right quantity of nutrients, a chemical analysis is suggested, both for leaves and for soil.

Below a table of middle content of nutrients in healthy coffee plants.

Optimum leaf nutrient levels

Nutrient Optimum range N (Nitrogen) 2.5 - 3.0% P (Phosphorus) 0.15 - 0.2% K (Potassium) 2.1 - 2.6% S (Sulphur) 0.12 - 0.30% Ca (Calcium) 0.75 - 1.5% Mg (Magnesium) 0.25 - 0.40% Na (Sodium) < 0.05% Cu (Copper) 16 - 20 mg/kg Zn (Zinc) 15 - 30 mg/kg Mn (Manganese) 50 - 100 mg/kg Fe (Iron) 70 - 200 mg/kg B (Boron) 40 - 100 mg/kg

Organic matter In order to mantain good coffee plantation farmers are used to give not only salts as fertilizers, but organic matter too. Soil organic matter consists of plant, and microbial residues at various stages of decay. In many coffee regions soil sorganic matter is average to low, ranging from 2 to 3%. Soil organic matter has several benefits for the soil: • Increases aeration and infiltration • Reduces soil erosion • Increases water holding capacity • Increases soil CEC • Supplies nutrients to the plants, including N, P and S. • Buffers the soil against rapid changes in pH

Generally speaking organic matter can contain maximally 5% of N on a dry weight basis and generally less, so it serves as a buffer for the plant. However N is not freely available to the plant but tied up in organic matter. As organic matter decomposes (compare fresh coffee pulp, with pulp that has been lying for a year) this N becomes slowly available. Organic matter also contains mineral elements such as Mg, P, Ca and S, these are mineralized (released from their original compounds and turned into cations) and become available to the plant overtime. So, although a soil may have a high organic matter content, additional fertilizer may be needed to ensure a supply of readily available N for the plant. This is especially the case in intensive cropping systems with high yields. Decomposing takes place by micro-organisms in the soil. To break down organic matter micro-organisms need N to feed themselves (they use N to make

proteins). If a type of organic matter contains a high rate of carbon (its main component) in relation to the amount of N the micro-organisms will consume much of the available N to decompose the material. Because the N is initially tied up in the bodies of micro-organisms it will only become available to the plant after such micro-organisms die. Examples of materials with a high C/N ratio are: un-composted coffee husk, ricestraw and dried grass.

Harvest

During harvest season (3-4 months) the cherries are picked as follow: 1) chhosing one by one only ripe fruits so at the ne donly ripe cherris will be processed; this method is known as picking; 2) to collect by hand all fruits (stripping) so workers have to harvest any plant only one time; 3) Mechanical harvest with machines that are able to shake the trees and collect the ripe and over ripe fruits.

PESTS and DISEASES

In bad conditions plants are injuried by animal parasites (pests) or by fungal or bacterial ones, that cause diseases.

Black Twig Borer ( compactus Eichhoff) The black twig borer is native to Asia where it is a serious pest of Robusta coffee, but has spread to coffee growing regions throughout the world where it attacks Arabica coffee as well. Females bore into branches, twigs, and suckers, leaving a pin-hole sized entry. The plant is destroyed through tunneling as well as pathogens introduced by the borer. The black twig borer thrives in humid conditions since humidity facilitates the ambrosia fungus upon which the borer feeds in its younger stages. Infestations can be controlled by pruning (specifically removing unwanted suckers) and shade reduction (Wintgens, 2009). For a biological control farmers can use beneficial nematodes.

Coffee Borer ( hampei) - ”Brocha” in Spanish

The coffee borer beetle is a small black beetle that bores into the lower portion of the coffee fruit and lays eggs in the seed endosperm. The coffee borer beetle thrives in humid conditions and dense crop spacing. Seeds results in defected goods beacuase of holes (see foto above). The best means to limit infestations are through proper plant pruning and ensuring that all coffee is harvested and no coffee fruit is left in the fields between harvest. Biological control is possible through beneficial nematodes.

Coffee Leaf Miner (Leucoptera coffeela) - ”Bicho mineiro” in Portuguese The coffee leaf miner is a silvery white moth whose larvae penetrate the leaves of coffee plants and feed on the tissues between the epidermis, leaving a hollow area that dries out and results in brown spots. The larvae are around 5 mm long. If not controlled, the coffee leaf miner may cause intense defoliation and loss of production. Infestations are usually greater during hotter and drier periods of the year. Biological control can be assured by bio-pesticides containing Bacillus thuringiensis Berl. wich is a bacterium. Another effective means is a special biotecnological molecule called “Spinosad” wich is obtained by vitro cultivation of Saccharoplyspora spinosa (micro-organism). Other useful items: beneficial nematodes.

Coffee Red Mite (Oligonychus coffeae) and Southern Red Mite (Oligonychus ilicis McGregor) The coffee red mite and the southern red mite are both spider mites, around 0,5mm in length and colored a reddish- orange with dark spots. Attacks, which are generally isolated, occur on the upper surface of mature coffee leaves. The leaves lose their shine and turn a brown, yellow, or bronze color. In dry and hot periods, the foliar damage can lead to premature defoliation of the plant. Chemical control is hard indeed, so that is useful approach biological control through beneficial red mites.

Coffee White Stem Borer (Xylotrechus quadripes Chevrolat)

The larvae of the coffee white stem borer mine into the stem of coffee plants causing fragility in the plant. Younger plants usually usually die within one season of the infestation while older plants can survive for several seasons, however, with decreased yields and greater susceptbillity to disease. The coffee white stem borer is found in Asia, where it is considered one of the most devastating pests to Arabica coffee production.

Green Scale (Coccus viridis Green) Green Scale, also called Coffee Green Scales, is a pale green color with several black spots on its back. Each female lays 50- 600 eggs which then hatch within hours (Wintgens, 2009). Like mealybugs, the scale secretes a honeydew that creates a film on the plant leaves. This attracts and other insects, and can lead to the growth of a sooty mold that decreases photosynthesis and depreciates the value of the coffee. Control measures are similar to those for mealybugs.

Red Flat Mite (Brevipalpus phoenicis Geijskes) The red flat mite is a tiny mite (275 microns) and is reddish-orange in color. It is generally found in branches and fruits near the center of the plant. It can be found throughout the year, with populations peaking during dry periods. It does not directly harm the plant, but rather transmits viruses to the plant, including the coffee ringspot virus (CoRSV), which in turn causes premature fruit and leaf drop. It is possible to control with bio-pesticdes containing (beneficial fungus).

Mealybugs (Planococcus spp.) e.g. Coffee Mealybug (Planococcus lilacinus Cockerell) and Citrus Mealybug (Planococcus citri Risso)

Mealybugs attack Arabica and Robusta coffee plants, among others. They are typical of sub-tropical environments (i.e. citrus crops in southern Europe) They can attack coffee plant at any location, including branches, nodes, leaves, roots, and flower clusters. The mealybugs secrete a sticky honeydew that both attracts ants and leads to the formation of a black sooty mold which covers the leaves and may affect photosynthesis. Infestations are sporadic; however, they are more common in plantations with non- uniform or limited shade (Wintgens, 2009). The coffee mealybug has been found in Africa, Australia, Asia, and Central and South America. Mealybugs can be controlled by maintaing shade at 30% for arabica and 20-25% for Robusta (Wintgens, 2009), controlling population, the introduction of parasitic wasps, or Cryptolaemus montruzeri (raptor) and the use of proper (both neuro toxic and Growth Regulators). In the right photo you can appreciate the difference between a Planococcus (right hand) a nd a Cryptolamus larvae (left hand).

Soldier Fly (Stratiomyiid Fly) (Chiromyza vittata Wiedemann) The Stratiomyiid Fly is found in the Sul de Minas (Southern Minas) coffee region, especially in colder parts of the region (Moraes et al., 2004). The larvae attack the root system during the coffee plant’s initial development, thereby reducing production. These attacks also allow the entry of pathogenic fungi such as Fusarium (Waller et al., 2007). The Stratiomyiid Fly is aptly called the mosca-de-raiz, or root fly, in Portuguese. Chemical control is not so simple, more effective biolocical control through beneficial nematodes.

Nematodes (Meloidogyne incognita, M. javanica, M. caffeicola, M. arenaria, M. hapla, M. exigua)

Nematodes are worm-like organisms that are 0.1-2mm in length. They attack the root system of plants, feeding on the sap. They can form knots in the roots that inhibit the plant from properly feeding. Symptoms of a nematode infestation are galls, splits, scales and decreased mass in the root system, and chlorosis and defoliation in the upper plant. C. Canephora is more resistant to nematode infestations, and thus using seedlings engrafted in C. Canephora rootstock is a means of limiting outbreaks. If any control should be requested is possible to give bio-pesticides wich contains beneficial fugus who destroy nematodes. Chemical is rather heavy because of toxic pesticides that are applied many times per year. Prevention is possible growing canephora varieties or grafting arabica onto canephora.

Coffee Rust (Hemileia vastatrix)

Coffee rust is fungus that attacks coffee plants. Its color can range from yellow to orange. First documented in Kenya in 1861, it is now known to be in nearly every coffee-producing region in the world. Spores set in on the underside of leaves and can cause severe defoliation, impaired photosynthesis, and a decrease in crop production. Copper-based chemicals have been somewhat effective in combating coffee rust, as have fungicides such as Triadimefon, Cyproconazole and Hexaconazole. Due to the historical significance of its destruction, much research has been conducted in genetic resistance to coffee leaf rust resulting in the development of such varieties as Catimor, Colombia, Ruiru 11, and Icatu. Biological control through spray of bacterial solutions wich contains Bacillus spp. (B.subtilis, B. quisqualis, B. amyloliquefaciens)

Coffee Berry Disease – CBD (Colletotrichum kahawae Waller and Bridge)

Coffee berry disease (CBD) is caused by the fungus Colletotrichum kahawae. CBD was first documented in 1922 in Kenya. It attacks coffee berries at any point in their maturation; however, only symptoms detected on young berries can be clearly diagnosed (Wintgens, 2009). The disease can appear in “active” form and “scab” form. In the “active” form, dark-colored indented spots appear on the coffee bean and are followed by a pale pink crust as the spores develop. The berry is destroyed in a matter of days and reduced to an empty, blackened and dried out pouch. The “scab” form is a much milder attack where several small concave spots form on the berry.

Brown Eyespot & Berry Blotch (Cercospora coffeicola)

The cercospora coffeicola fungus may attack both the leaves and the coffee berry. The infected leaves show tan spots with grayish- white centers. On green berries, the lesions are sunken and are brown in color with an ashy center. They are sometimes encircled by a purple “halo,” or tissue that has ripened prematurely due to the infection. In red coffee fruit, the lesions are larger, black in color, and can sometimes penetrate all the way to the seed, causing the pulp to adhere to the parchment (Nelson, 2008). Cercospora causes defoliation as well as damage to the coffee fruit.

Phoma (Phoma costaricensis Echandi)

Phoma is a soil fungus that can attack the coffee leaves and fruit. Coffee leaves attacked by the fungus will develop black or brown spots; coffee fruit will develop black spots while still green/unripe. Climates that are cold, humid, and windy favor phoma attacks, which generally occur after blooming and before fruit ripening. Effects can be mitigated through the use of wind-breaks in areas susceptible to phoma.

Bacterial Blight (Pseudomonas syringae pv garcae)

Bacterial Blight, also called Elgon Die-back, was first identified in Garca, Sao Paulo, Brazil, thus its name “garcae.” It normally occurs in seedling nurseries and affects plant leaves and tissue. Leaves initially appear to be water-soaked, followed by the appearance of necrotic brown lesions surrounded by yellow rings. The leaves eventually dry, curl up, blacken and die; however, they do not fall from the tree (Wintgens, 2009).

Post Harvest

Climatic conditions at the wet mill will impact on which processes are possible and how this is carried out. Beyond these environmental factors the range of products and associated value and flavour profile are determined largely by the initial quality of harvested cherry. The level of ripeness leads to big differences in moisture content, anatomy, and chemical composition. Identifying coffee into different homogenous categories and processing accordingly improves overall efficiency. Coffee processing transforms fresh coffee cherries into clean, green bean of 12% moisture ready for export or for roasting. This process involves harvesting, pulping, fermenting, washing, drying, hulling, cleaning, grading, sorting, storing and transporting green beans. The process can be broadly divided into two main components - Wet Processing (cherry to dry parchment) and Dry Processing (dry parchment to exportable green bean). It is important to understand that each of these steps has an influence on the final quality of coffee produced. Processing is a chain of activities aimed at achieving a coffee of high quality. If any link in the chain is broken (such as over-fermentation, mould contamination, taints or odours or physical damage to the bean) then that loss in quality can never be regained.

Coffee processing methods

There are two main primary processing methods: the unwashed or dry process, which produces naturals, and the washed or wet process, which produces washed . In the dry process the ripe cherries are dried in their entirety after which they are mechanically decorticated to produce the green bean. In the washed or wet process the ripe cherries are pulped and fermented to remove the sticky sugary coating called mucilage that adheres to the beans (this can also be done mechanically), and the beans are then washed and dried. There is a third process in which the ripe cherry is pulped and dried ‘as is’ with the mucilage still adhering to the parchment skin. Originally called semi-washed in Africa, this process is gaining considerable importance in Brazil where it occupies a place in- between the dry and wet processes and is simply called ‘pulped natural’. In other countries, for example in the Great Lakes region of Central Africa, semi- washed coffee has been laboriously produced for many decades using small hand pulpers. In all procedures the parchment skin is later removed mechanically after drying.

Green coffee certifications

The basic rationale behind certification for coffee growing is that consumers are willing to pay more (a premium) for coffee that is of a higher quality standard or is farmed using practices that are more sustainable. The use of the term ‘sustainability’ here captures three main elements: • Social: improving the quality of life of farm employees and those that they support. • Environmental: uses production methods that have a reduced impact on biodiversity and environmental degradation. • Economic: farmers have improved market access and receive a fair price for their coffee. The voluntary process of accreditation should be pursued if farmers stand to make a commercial gain from it. Therefore each individual farm/ farmer group (depending on the standard) must consider independently whether the benefits achieved from certification outweigh the costs involved with implementing the desired standards.

Certifications based on the production and processing standards employed along the supply chain are monitored and communicated to consumers through the use of “marks”/ “seals” which can be used on product packaging/ advertising. Certification can sometimes be an expensive and lengthy process as producers must sometimes pay fees for the assessments as well as bearing the costs associated with compliance. Therefore many producers find it difficult to afford being accredited with more than one scheme. Knowing which certifications to prioritise because they are most applicable and will bring the most benefit is therefore of vital importance.

The table below highlights the focus areas of the most prominent standards.

Organic “Create a verified sustainable agriculture system that produces harmony with nature, supports biodiversity and enhances soil health.”

Organic products have come a long way since small groups of consumers started buying organic food directly from farms or from small health food shops, where quality was secondary as long as the products were organic. But then in the early 1990s supermarket chains started paying systematic attention to organic food. Year after year they have taken over market share from the specialized shops, to the point where they drive most of the growth in the market share of organic food today. It is estimated that almost 10 million hectares of land in Europe is cultivated organically. Austria is leading with as much as 20% of the total farm area under organic cultivation. The market share for organic products in Western countries ranges between 0.5% and 8% for food generally, but varies widely for different product groups. The United States remains the largest single market for organic products, followed by Germany. Consumption growth rates have been slowing since 2008 in some countries, especially in the organic sector in the United Kingdom. However, the United States is continuing to grow (almost 10% to US$ 27 billion in 2010, which is about 4% of all food and beverage sales in that market). Requirements for organically produced foods differ from those for other agricultural products. The production procedures, and not just the product by itself, are an intrinsic part of the identification and labelling of, and status claims for, such products. See the FAO/WHO Codex Alimentarius Commission Guidelines for the Production, Processing, Labelling and Marketing of Organically Produced Foods (1999) at www.codexalimentarius.net. Advocates of organic agriculture believe that conventional agriculture, with its use of chemical inputs, will not be sustainable in the long run as it leads to soil degradation and pollution of the environment, and poses health risks for both consumers and producers. Therefore, organic agriculture replaces manufactured inputs (fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, etc.) by natural compost and vermiculture, biological pest controls and the growing of legumes and shade trees. (Vermiculture is the raising of earthworms to aerate soil and/or produce vermicast: the nutrient-rich by- product of earthworms, used as a soil conditioner.) The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM; founded 1972) has formulated basic standards for organic products. See www.ifoam.org for the full text. These standards are at the base of the legislation that has been introduced in the European Union (1992), the United States (2000), Japan (2001), and a number of other countries (including Argentina, Bolivia (Plurinational State of), India and ) that have created national legislation to regulate the market for organic products. Growing any organic product, including organic coffee, is more than just leaving out fertilizers and other agro- chemicals. Coffee produced in this way should instead be called ‘natural’ coffee and, to the surprise of many, the industry looks upon this as non- sustainable production. This is because in the long run the soil will be depleted by natural production, which is often referred to also as ‘passive cultivation’ or ‘organic by

default’. To achieve sustainable production it is necessary to make active use of various organic agriculture techniques, including the composting of organic material, mulching of the soil under the trees with organic material, use of biological pest control, and investing in shade regulation. The principle of sustainable agriculture is that a value corresponding to that harvested should be returned to the soil. All possible methods have to be used to enhance the fertility of the soil. This is why passive production of coffee, even when no chemicals are used, is viewed as non-sustainable and not as organic. Usually, a producer may simultaneously grow both conventional and organic coffee, although this is not recommended. There must be a clear separation between the two types and adequate barriers to prevent contamination with agro-chemicals from neighbouring fields. Coffee may normally be sold as organic only once organic cultivation has been practised for at least three years before the first marketable harvest. This also means three years of inspection. These years are called the conversion period. In specific cases, depending on previous agricultural practices, this conversion period may be reduced, but only after approval of the certifying organization, which in turn has to report such a decision to the authority granting the required import permit. For a producer who can prove that no agro- chemicals have been used in the past, it is important to try to reduce the conversion period. If a producer can document that no agro-chemicals have recently been used, it is certainly worthwhile discussing the possibility with the certifier.

Certification www.usda.gov/wps/portal/usda/usdahome?navid=organic-agriculture The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) provides a standard (the IFOAM Standard) that is considered a good baseline for organic producers. Areas of the IFOAM standard that are relevant to coffee production include good ecosystem management, soil and water conservation, appropriate choice of crops and technologies, pest/disease management, processing and packaging/ labelling. Information about the standard’s specifications, applications and the fees scheme can be accessed through their website. The IFOAM “Family of standards” are organic standards that have been officially endorsed by the Organic Movement as part of the IFOAM Organic Guarantee System. These are mapped out in the below figure. Information on how these standards compare can be discovered through the IFOAM website. Considering that there is a multitude of different standards offered worldwide it may be prudent for producers to choose a certification that is specific to their target market. For example, if all of the coffee grown from a farm is sold into the US then being certified under USA Organic Regulation (otherwise known as the USDA National Organic Program) would be of considerable benefit. Organic operators certified in accordance with any of the standards in the family can apply for use of the mark on their products and therefore use the mark identifiable to a specific region or the more general IFOAM mark.

Fairtrade Labelling Organisation (FLO) “The FAIRTRADE Mark gives assurance to retailers and consumers that Fairtrade producers in the developing world are getting a fair deal for their work. Fairtrade certification also ensures adherence to strict social standards that foster healthy working conditions and prohibit child labour. Their environmental standards ensure that natural ecosystems are not degraded and cultivated land is used sustainably.”

Certification - www.fairtrade.net Flo-cert is an international certification company owned by Fairtrade International but independently operational. It is responsible for the inspection of producers against FT standards on an annual basis. The standards specific to coffee can be accessed online.

Rainforest Alliance “By promoting sustainable land-use practices, the Rainforest Alliance helps protect the environment and ensure the well-being of workers and their communities.”

Certification - www.rainforest-alliance.org The Rainforest Alliance certification is granted based upon compliance with standards compiled by the Sustainable Agriculture Network. They capture human workers’ rights, community relations, protection of biodiversity / wildlife, conservation of natural resources, integration of crop / waste management and prohibition of hazardous chemicals. Full information on the standards can be sourced through the website. Businesses that source products grown on certified farms and farms that meet the Sustainable Agriculture Network (SAN) standard may apply to use the Rainforest Alliance Certified seal. RA-Cert is the Rainforest Alliance's auditing division which provides independent and transparent verification, validation and certification services based on the standards. The percentage of certified content used in a product determines how the seal may be used on the final product.

UTZ Certified “UTZ Certified stands for sustainable farming and better opportunities for farmers, their families and our planet. The UTZ program enables farmers to learn better farming methods, improve working conditions and take better care of their children and the environment.”

Certification - www.utz.org www.youtube.com/user/utzcertified The certification represents the UTZ Codes of Conduct. Up until the 1st June 2014 there were three product specific standards under the certification for coffee, cocoa, tea

however these have now been amalgamated under one Core Code. The standards offer a good baseline across environmental, social and economic criteria. A full list of requirements are detailed on the website including information about the changes that have been made to the new standard. An approved certification body undertakes the auditing and the central UTZ team give the final stamp of approval and authorise the company/group to trade as UTZ certified.

4C Association The 4C Association is a global platform for stakeholders in the coffee sector to come together and collectively work to improve the economic, social and environmental conditions of those working in the industry. The Code of Conduct has four main pillars: rules of participation for trade and industry, support mechanisms for farmers, a verification system and participatory governance structure.

Certification 4C www.4c-coffeeassociation.org www.globalcoffeeplatform.org/ The Code encompasses 10 Unacceptable Practices and a 4C Code Matrix presenting 28 principles for guidance on good sustainability practices. A traffic-light system acts as the indicator for how effectively the organisation aligns itself with the 28 principles. To achieve certification the producer (or “unit”) must have reached an “average yellow” level on the traffic light system as well as having excluded the 10 Unacceptable Practices. “Average yellow” means that within each dimension (economic, social, environmental) there may be some “red” practices so long as there is equal number of “green” to balance them out. The full details of these criteria can be found online. The certification system starts with a self-assessment and mapping exercise of all the business partners/ organisational structure. Then an independent verification is completed by a third party.