Selected Entries on Demography and Its Bearing on Population Education in Seven Asian Countries

DOCUMENT RESUME

ED 282 792 SO 017 911

TITLE Selected Entries on Demography and Its Bearing on Population Education in Seven Asian Countries. Abstract-Bibliography, Series 7. INSTITUTION United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization, Bangkok (Thailand), Regional Office for Education in Asia and the Pacific. PUB DATE 86 NOTE 189p. PUB TYPE Reference Materials - Bibliographies (131) EDRS PRICE MF01 Plus Postage. PC Not Available from EDRS. DESCRIPTORS Annotated Bibliographies; *Curriculum Development; *Demography; Educational Planning; *Educational Resources; Elementary Secondary Education; Environmental Education; Foreign Countries; *Global Approach; *International Education; *Population Education; Population Trends; Resource Materials; Teacher Education IDENTIFIERS Asia; India; Nepal; Pakistan; Philippines; Sri Lanka; Thailand ABSTRACT Focusing on the use of demographic information in the teaching of population education, this volume presents issues and problems encountered in planning and implementing such a program. Designed to provide basic reference sources for population education administrators, teachers, and curriculum developers, this book contains an up-to-date listing and critical survey of demographic studies in selected countries. There are 186 publication abstracts spanning the period 1975-1985. The book is organized into 10 sections: (1) General; (2) Population Size and Growth; (3) Age and Sex Composition; (4) Fertility; (5) Mortality; (6) Morbidity; (7) Nuptiality; (8) Migration; (9) Urbanization and Distribution; and (10) Impact of Population Growth on Socio-Economic and Education Variables. A geographical index and a subject index are included. (KWL)

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Population Education Programme Service UNESCO REGIONAL OFFICE FOR EDUCATIONIN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC HMO Bangkok, 1996 Material appearing in the publicationmay be translated, adapted and reproduced. The credit line should read"Reprinted (or adapted) from (specify title ofpublication) of the Unesco Regional Office for Education inAsia and the Pacific specifying the date of issue". Three voucher/microfiche copiesshould be sent to the Assistant Director-General, Unesco Reaional Offin for Education in Asia and the Pacific,P.O. Box 1425, General Post Office, Bangkok 10500, Thailand. Reprints of signed articles materials must bear theauthor's name.

Unesco. Regional Office for Education in Asia and the Pacific. Selected entries on demography and its bearingon population education in seven Asian countries. Bangkok, 1986. 198 P. (Population Education Programme Service. Abstract-bibliography, series 7)

1. POPULATION EDUCATION- BIBLIOGRAPHY - ASIA. 2. DEMOGRAPHY - BIBLIOGRAPHY- ASIA. 3. DEMOGRAPHY- ABSTRACTS - ASIA. I. Title. II. Series.

P016

3 Selected Entrieson Demography and Its Bearingon Population Education in Seven Asian Countries

Abstract-Bibliography Series 7

Population Education Programme Service UNESCO REGIONAL OFFICE FOR EDUCATION IN ASIA AND THE PACIFIC 0 Bangkok, 1986

4 t! 0 Unesco 1986

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5 BKP/84/OPE/718-2000 TABLEOFCONTENTS

Introduction i

Section One General 1 acction Two : Population Size and Growth 19

Section Three : Age and Sex Composition 41

Section Four : Fertility 61

Section Five Mortality 97

Section Six Morbidity 115

Section Seven Nuptiality ... 127

Section Eight Migration 139

Section Nine Urbanization and Distribution 161

Section Ten Impact of Population Growth on Socio- Economic and Education Variables ...040 175

Geographical Index 195

Subject Index 197 INTRODUCTION

Demography and Its Bearingon Population Education

This issue is the seventh in a series of abstract-bibliographies dealing with concrete issues and problems raisedby population education workers in the course of undertakinga population education programme. This seventhvolume focuses on the use of demographic information in the teaching of population education.

Demography, unlike sex educationor family planning,is a content area which is more universally accepted in populationeducation programmes. It always forms part of any population educationcourse in the secondary and tertiary levels. Demography is the scientific study of human populations, including theirsi: -mposition, distribution, density,growth and the causes and consequeu,es of changesin these factors. The kind of information one is looking for indemography can be categorized intothree: population size and distribution, which means the number of people and the degree of concentration inspecific places;population processes, which involve fertility, mortality and migration, and populationstructureandcharacteristicswhich refer to the population composition and other characteristicslike sex, age, educational attainment, status of employment, ethnicorigin, family income and marital status.

Many of the concepts of demographyare very useful in population education. Population education, as defined, is to help learnersunder- stand the interrelationships between populationfactors and human welfare and to encourage them to act ina way to improve the quality of life of the individual, the family, the nation andthe world. Rapidly growing population, high age-dependency ratio, high birthand fertility rates, high morbidity incidence rate, increasing migrations of populations to the cities and congested areas, high population densityand rapidly increasing urbanization affect the production andconsumption of food, provision of education,environmental sanitation, provision of health services, employment,housing and other aspects of quality oflife, all of which are the concerns of populationeducation.

An examination of curriculum materials will showthat population composition and growth can easily be usedas contents in geography, mathematics, science and social studies. In social studies, for example, a lesson about community and population change, wore specifically,population in school and various settlements is aimedat developing under- standingaboutthesize, composition, group, sex, age, distribution and characteristics of various types ofpopulation in the community. Topics such as mortality, fecundity and fertilityare taken up in health

7 Demography and its bearing on population education education in relation to man's health and well-being. Rapid population growth is also discussed in terms of its impact on food shortage and malnutrition,overcrowding andenvironmental sanitation problem. At the tertiary level, demography can serve as one of the units in general and rural sociology course. In sociology, .demography is taken up in relation toits social and economic implications. For example, the results of population pressure include the g rowing number of dependents who must be supported by the working population, the mounting difficult- ies of educating the r1_,11)4ying youth, preventing dietary insufficien- cies and the increasing izriuployment and underemployment. With a rapidly growing population, a conniderable portion of funds available for investments must be absorbed in thelifrastructure and the expansion of capital resources is required merely to maintain the present level of productivity per worker.

A cursory examination of bibliographies in the field of demography has shown that numerous bibliographies have been prepared on demography in general and other variables of demography, but none relates them to population education. This series attempts to abstract publications on demography that can be used in curriculum development and teaching of population education. An introductory section shows how demographic data can be used for these purposes.

This abstract-bibliography provides a basic reference tool for the use of population education administrators, teachers and curriculum developers in showing how demographic concepts can be used in planning, curriculum development, training and teaching of population education. It also presents an up-to-date listing and critical survey of demographic studies in selected countries. More importantly, it provides an analytical review of how materials, concepts and research results in demography can be used to enrich population education programmes.

There are 186 publications abstracted in this series, spanning the period 1975-1985. They are grouped according to the eight basic demographic variables and two subject groupings entitled General and Consequences of Population Growth on Socio -Economic, Cultural and Edu- cational Variables. These 10 subject groupings include the following:

Section One General Section Two Population Size and Growth Section Three Age and Sex Composition Section Four Fertility Section Five Mortality Section Six Morbidity Section Seven Nuptiality Section Eight Migration Section Nine Urbanization and Distribution Section Ten Consequences of Population Growth on Socio- Economic Cultural and Educational Variables.

ii8 This publication is a spin-off ofthree contracts which were awarded to Mr.G.R.M. Karunaratne ofthe Marga Institute ofthe Sri Lanka Centre for Development Studies,Mrs. Socorro Camacho-Reyes of the Population Center Foundation ofthe Philippinesand Dr. Kanikar Sookasame of the Thailand National Institute of Development Administra- tion to prepare abstract-bibliographies on demography and its bearing on population education. Their publications cover demographic materials about Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka for South Asiaand the Philippines and Thailand for South East Asia. The readers should take note that this series covers only seven countries in Asia. It is planned that a supplementary series will be prepared tocover other countries not includedin thisseries when funds become available. The entries in the three documents were compiled and consolidatedby UNESCO, resulting in an analytical review which concretizes howdemogra- phic contents can be used for programmes of population education.

Under each of the section, the entries are arranged alphabetic- ally by author, institution or other main entries within each classification. An entry consists of the bibliographic citation,an informative abstract, source and descriptors. The descriptors are derived from the UNESCO,International Bureau of Education and the Carolina Popu- lation Center Thesauri and the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development Macrothesaurus. Before each section, an analyticalre- view is presented showing how demographic data can be used in population education. The publications abstracted include censuses,statistical compendiums, research studies, surveys,handbooks, textbooks, country demographic profiles, population reports, government documents, period- icalarticles, meeting/workshop reports,state-of-the -art, literature reviews and case studies.

iii9 SECTION 1: GENERAL

1 0 General

General

This section has been given the heading "general" since theen- tries do not focus on any one theme as in Sections Two to Ten, but by and large, encompass all the variables or components of demography which are taken up one by one in the other sections respectively. There are 16 selections in this section. It includes materials which deal with the definition, concepts and methodologies of demography and the description of various demographic variables.

The majority of the abstracts deal with the entire gamut of topics which fall under demography while some focuson aspects ofit. For example, about five selections deal with the definition of demography, discussesthe various demographic components such as births,deaths, and migration and explain some basic demographic processes suchas fertility, mortality and migration. Likewise, population growth, age- sex composition, geographic distribution and other vital processes are also described. On the other hand, four entries go beyond these basic information on demography by including an explanation of how demographic data are gathered and from what sources; how they are measured andcom- puted. Six selections try to analyse demography from a wider perspective by showing how rapid population growth can affect development, socio- economic, political and other aspects of the quality of life of acoun- try. Discussedin this perspective are also socio-cultural factors that influence population conditions as well as those that result from demographic conditions. Examples of these are the five ESCAP country monographs which show how population growth can affectemployment, education, economy, social aspect, health needs, food supplies and nutrition, families, households, and housing needs, laws and status ofwomen. About three entries which include discussion of the abovesaw the importance ofalso explaining what countries are doing in response to rapid population growth through an exposition of their population policies, family planning programmes,contraceptive useand responsible parenthood.

Six of the selections bear diructly or focus onlyon specific aspects of demography. For example, three of these six selections are instructional materials and modules on population education which provide bothteachersandstudentscomprehensiveinformation ondemography, demographicvariablesandpopulation dynamics from which population education heavily draws upon for its contents. The other two selections deal with sources and quality of population data including basic demographic tools and techniques. One selection discusses four major sources of demographic data, namely, the population census, the samplesurveys, the civ41 registration system, and the dual record system. The nature and regularity ofthese sources of demographic data are dealt with. One of these three selections point out the most common source of errors and appraises the accuracy of population census and civil registration data. - 3 11 Demography and its bearing on population education

Population education derives the bulk of its contents from demography. Demography is essentially a social science. However, in some respects, it borders on disciplines as biology, mathematic's, and ethics. Formal demography deals with gathering, collating, statistical analysis and technical presentation of population data. In this respect, formal demography demands mathematical skills. Population analysis,on the other hand, is the systematic study of population trends and phenomena in relation to their social setting. The birth and death of an individual are biological events, but they take place in a social setting. Population processes are the consequences of natural laws and social conditions. Population analysis is,therefore, tied to the data and concepts of sociology, economics, geography, ecology and anthropology. Atthe lower levels ofthe educational system,demographic contents are part and parcel of social studies, health education, civics, mathematics, home economics, geography and others which all show how quantita- tive changes of human populations affect quality of life. Population education in many countries is introduced into these subjects. Sections Two to Ten of this Abstract-Bibliography Series will more concretely analyse how these various demographic components, processes and measures can be used in teaching population education. General

01. Desai, Prasannavadam, B. Social Appendix B gives a cross-class- science research on popu- ification ofliterature on population and development in lation according to subject matter Middle South Asia. Mexico and treatment by country. The City, International Review study focuses attention on the Group of Social Science need for action research to over- Research onPopulation and come the population problems of Development, 1978. 132 p., South Asia. appendices. Descriptors: Population Composi- The book begins with an tion and Dynamics; overview of thesocial,economic Popu7,ation Research; and demographic situation in South Asia Middle South Asia. Thegeneral economic conditions in these coun- Source: International Review tries retain most of the charac- Group of Social teristic features of economic Science Research backwardness. The situation is on Population aggravated by inequalities of and Development income distribution. With the El Colegio de Mexico, exception of Sri Lanka, education- Apartado Postal al development is quite unsatisfac- 20-671 tory in most of thesecountries. Mexico City 20, A significant feature of the demo- D.F. graphic structure of all these Mexico countries, exceptNepal, is the disproportion in the sex ratio. 02. Economic and Social Commission The process of rapid urbanization for Asiaand the Pacific. has not solved any of the problems Population of Bangladesh. of population growth. Rural pov- Bangkok,1981. 275 p.(Coun- erty has been changedinto urban try monograph series no. misery. Chapter Two discusses 8). population policies in each of these countries - Bangladesh, The eighth in a series of Nepal, India, Pakistan and Sri country monographs on the popula- Lanka. Chapter Three reviews tion situation of interested coun- the literature on population, tries inAsiaand the Pacific, paying specialattention to the this monograph provides an under- writings of the most recent years standing of existing population in which there has been a growing problems, as well as with a scien- emphasis on theneed for applied tific basis for decision-making, or policy-oriented research. policy formulation and determina- Chapter Five entitled "Knowledge tion of development goals and and Gaps" discusses the demographic targets. An immediate objective data, population growth, fertility, ofthe monograph is to encourage internal migration, population the analysis and maximum utiliza- structureand composition .of the tion in planning of the data col- countries of South Asia and the lected through censuses, vital limitations in the knowledge base. registration system and sample Appendix A givesstatisticalta- surv,eys. The first few sections bles, current social, economic dec.a with a description and analy- and demographic indicators and sis of the various demographic

5 13 Demography and its bearing on population education

targets, Animmediate objective 03. Economic and Social Commission ofthe monograph isto encourage forAsiaand thePacific. the analysis and maximum utiliza- Population of India. Bang- tion in planning of the data col- kok, 1982. 414 jp. (Coun- lected through censuses, vital try monograph series no. registration system and sample 10) surveys. The first few sections deal with a description and analy- Thetenth ina series of sis of the various demographic country monographs on the popula- characteristics of the country. tion situation of interested These include size, growth and countries in Asia and the Pacific, distribution of population, urbani- this monograph provides an under- zation, sexand age composition standing of existingpopulation of the population, trends and problems, as well as with a scien- differentials in mortality, trends tificbasisfor decision-making, and patterns of fertility, nuptial- policy formulation and determina- ity, population projections and tion of development goals and population policy and programmes. targets. An immediate objective The last sections each presents of the mbnograph is to encourage the linkagesor relationship be- the analysis and maximum utiliza- tween population growth vis-a- tiGa in planning of the data vis employment, education, economy, collected through censuses, vital social aspect, health needs, food registration system and sample supplies, families, households surveys. The first few sections and housing needs, nutrition, deal with a description and analy- law and status of women. It also sis of the various demographic includes annexes on the various characteristics of the country. sources of demographic data and These include size, growth and the evaluation findings .of the distribution of population, urban- quality of demographic data used. ization, sex and age composition of the population, trends and Descriptors: Population Composi- patterns of fertility, nuptiality, tion and Dynamics; population projections and popu- Population Pressure; lation policy and programmes. Socio-cultural Fac- The last sections each presents tors; Data Collec- the linkages or relationship tion; Bangladesh between population growth vis- a-vis employment, education, Source: Clearinghouse and economy, social aspect, health Information Section needs, food supplies, families, ESCAP Population households and housing needs, Division nutrition, law and status of Rajdamnern Avenue women. It also includes annexes Bangkok 10200 on the various sources of demogra- Thailand phic data and the evaluation findings of the quality of demographic data used.

Descriptors: Population Composi- tion and Dynamics; Population Pressure; Socio-cultural Fac- tors; Data Collec- - 6 - tion; India 14 General

Source: Clearinghouse and tiality, population projections Information Sec- and population policy and pro- tion grammes. The last sections each ESCAP Population presents the linkages or relation- Division ship between population growth Rajdamnern Avenue vis-a-vis employment, education, Bangkok 10200 economy, social aspects health Thailand needs, food supplies, families, households and housing needs, nutrition, law and status of women. It also includes annexes on the various sources of demographic data and the evaluation findings of the quality of'demographic data used.

Descriptors: PopulationComposi- tionandDynamics; Population Pressure; 04. Economic and Social Commission Socio-cultural Fac- for Asia and the Pacific. tors; DataCollec- Population of NepaZ. Bang- tion ; Nepal kok,1980. 219 p. (Coun- try monograph series no. Source: Clearinghouse and 6) In2ormation Sec- tion Thesixthin a series of ESCAP Population country monographs on thepopu- DiviGion lation situation of interested Rajdamnern Avenue countries in Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok 10200 this monograph provides an under- Thailand standing of existing population problems, as well as with a scientific basis for decision-making policy formulation and determination of development goals and targets. An immediate objective of the monograph is to encourage the analysis and maximum utilization inplanning of the data collected through censuses, vital registration system and sample surveys. The first few sections 05. Economic and Social Commission deal with a description and analy- for Asiaand thePacific. sis of the various demographic Population of Sri Lanka. characteristics of the country. Bangkok, 1976. 397 p. These include size, growthand (Country monograph series distribution of population, urban- no. 4) ization,sex and age composition of the population, trends and The fourth in a series differentials in mortality, trends of country monographs on the and patternsof fertility,nup- population situation of interested

7 15 Demography and its bearing on population education countries in Asia and the Pacific, Source: Clearinghouse and this monograph provides an under- Information Sec- standing of existing population ESCAP Population problems, as well as with a scien- Division tific basis for decision-making, Rajdamnern Avenue polfcy formulation and determina- Bangkok 10200 tion of development goals and Thailand targets. An immediate objective of the monograph is to encourage the analysis and maximum utilization in planning of the data collected through censuses, vital registration system and sample surveys. The first few sections deal with a description and analysis of the variousdemographic characteristics of the country. These inolude size, growthand distribution of population, urban- 06. Economic and Social Commission ization,sex and age composition forAsia and the Pacific. of the population, trends and Population of Thailand. differentials in mortality, trends Bangkok, 1976. 220 p. (Coun- and pr' -ns of fertility, nup- try monograph series no. tialitt population projections 3) and populationpolicy and programmes. The last sections each The third in a series of presents the linkages or relation- country monographs on the popu- ship between population growth lation situation of interested vis-a-vis employment, education, countries in Asia and the Pacific, economy, social aspect, health this monograph provides an under- needs food supplies, families, standing of existing population households and housing needs, problems, as well as with a scien- nutrition, law and status of tific basis fordecision-making, women. It also includes annexes policy formulation and determina- on the various sources of demogra- tion of development goals and phic data and the evaluation targets. An immediate objective findings of the quality of demo- of the monograph is to encourage graphic data used. the analysis and maximum utilization in planning of the data col- Descriptors: PopulationComposi- lected through censuses, vital tionandDynamics; registration system and sample Population Pressure; surveys. The first few sections Socio-culturalFac- deal with a description and analy- tors; DataCollec- sis of the various demographic tion; Sri Lanka characteristics of the country. These include size, growth and distribution of population, urbanization, sex and age composition of the population, trends and differentials in mortality, trends and patterns of fertility, nuptiality, population projections

- 8 - 16 General

and population policy and pro- problems,as well as with .scien- grammes. The last sections each tific basis for decision-making, presents the linkages or relation- policy formulation and determina- ship between population growth tion of development goals and vis-a-vis employment, education, targets. An immediate objective economy, social aspects, families, of the monograph is to encourage households and housing needs, the analysis and maximum utiliza- nutrition, law and status of tion in planning of the data col- women. It also includes annexes lected through censuses, vital on the various sources of demogra- registration system and sample phic data and the evaluation surveys. The first few sections findings of the quality of demo- deal with a description and analy- graphic data used. sis of the various demographic characteristics of the country. Descriptors: Population Composi- Theseinclude, size, growth and tionandDynamics; distribution of population urban- Population FY,essure; ization,sex andage composition Socio -cultural Fac- of the population, trends and tors; Data Collec- differentials in mortality, trends tion; Thailand and patterns of fertility, nuptiality, population projections Source: Clearinghouse and and population policy and pro- Information Sec- grammes. The last sections each tion presents the linkages or relation- ESCAP Population ship between population growth Division vis-a-vis employment, education, Rajdamnern Avenue economy, social aspect, health Bangkok 10200 needs, food supplies, families, Thailand households and housing needs, nutrition,law and statA of women. It also includes annexes on the various sources of demographic data and the evaluation findings of the quality of demographic data used.

Descriptors: Population Composi- tion and Dynamics; Population Pressure; 07. Economic and Social Commission Socio-cultural Fac- for Asia andthe Pacific. tors; Data Collec- Population of the Philip- tion; Philippines pines. Bangkok, 1978. 349 p. (Countrymonograph Source: Clearinghouse and series no. 5) Information Sec- tion Thefifth in a series of ESCAP Population country monographson thepopu- Division lation situation of interested Rajdamnern Avenue countries in Asia and the Pacific, Bangkok 10200 this monograph provides an under- Thailand standing of existingpopulation

- 9 .17 Demography and ,its bearing on population education

08. Engracia, Luisa T. "Population from 33.7 to 27.0. For the same projection," in: Mercedes period, under the assumption of B. Concepcion, ed. Popula- moderate fertility decline (Series tion of the Philippines: 2 and5) andslow fertility de- current perspectives and fu- cline (Series 3 and 6), crude ture prospects. Manila, birth rate is estimated to decline National Economic and Devel- by only about 4 and 2.5 per thou- opment Authority, 1983, sand respectively. The author p. 168-198. considers optimistic the fertility reduction under the 'assumption An overview ofthe Philip- of rapid fertility decline (Series pine population in the 50-year 1 and 4),given the rate of fer- period 1980-2030, is given in tility decline in the past. this paper, whichpresents the results of six alternative series The variations of the crude of projections. The projections death rate among the different werebasedondemographic para- projection series are quite small. meters in1980, through the use The author observes that a pattern ofthe cohort-components method. of change in this demographic The six sets of projections, index appearscommon to all the featuring a three-alternative series. Increase inlife span course of fertility and a two- has the initial effect of reducing alternative course of mortality, the crude death rateuntilthe are as follows: beginning of the 20thcentury. Thereafter,the crude death rate Series 1 - rapid fertility would increase mainly because decline with moder- of the changes in age structure. ate mortality de- An increase in the number of the cline. adult population may mean a higher Series 2 - moderate fertility crude death rate. decline with moderate mortality de- All the six series of pro- cline. jectionsimply that the Philip- Series 3 slow fertility pines population would continue decline with moder- to grow evenbytheyear 2030 ate mortality de- with themost optimistic series cline. predictingan annual growth rate Series 4 rapid fertility of 0.6 per cent. The possibility decline withrapid is very likely that around 2030, mortality decline. the population would double if Series 5 moderate fertility fertility declines rapidly and decline with rapid mortality moderately; the popu- mortality decline. lation may double about 20 years Series 6 - slow fertility earlier if the slow fertility decline with rapid decline with rapid mortality de- mortality decline. cline projection prevails.

Under the assumption of By the year 2000, population rapid fertility decline (Series growth rate is estimated at 1.23 1 and 4), crude birth rate between under the assumption of rapid 1980 and 1990 is estimated to fertility decline withmoderate decline by almost 7 per thousand, mortality decline, and 1.32 under

- 10 18 General the assumption of rapid fertility Thisarticlediscusses the decline with rapid mortality nature of demographic data and decline. By 2030, the population the regularity of official data is estimated to grow at the rate generation in the Philippines. of.60 under Series 1,.78 under Four major sources of demographic Series 2, and .90 underSeries data areidentified:the popula- 3 projections. tion census, thesample surveys, the civil registration system, All the projections were and the dual record system. prepared under the assumption that international migration Census data provide a wide willhaveno significant effect range of information on the geo- on the total populationduring graphical, personal, educational, theperiodcoveredbythepro- cultural, social, and economic jections. characteristics of the population. Some improvements have been made Descriptors: Population Projec- through the years in the way cen- tions; Population sus data are enumerated, tabula- Dynamics; Philip- ted, processed, and published. pines The civil registration sys- Source: Population/Develop- tem provides detailed information ment Planning on births, deaths, and marriages. and Research Information relating to these Projects demographicdatawas first pub- National Economic lished in1941 by the Bureau of and Development Census and Statistics in its year- Authority (NEDA) book of Philippine Statistics. Pasig, Metro Manila, Since 1956, consolidated reports Philippines following the United Nations rec- commended tabulations have been published yearly in the vital statistics reports ofthe Bureau of Census and Statistics.

The Statistical Survey of Households provides up-to-date information on the composition and distribution of the population as well as on the principal characteristics of the labour 09. Mijares, Tito A. and Francisco force. Thissurvey was conducted V. Nazareno. "Sources twice a year (in May and October) of demographic data," in: since the first one inOctober Economic and Social Commis- 1955 until its frequency was sion for Asia and the Paci- changed to quarterly in 1971. fic. Population of the nnce then,the survey hasbeen Philippines. Bangkok, 1978. conducted on a quarterlybasis. (Country monograph series The results are published in the no. 5), p.322-337. National Sample Survey on House- hold Bulletin(Labour Force) Se- ries.

19 Demography and its bearing on population education

The National Demographic 10. Peralta, Ana Maria R. and survey provides information on Marlene C. Ligan. Philip- the relationship to household pine population: implica- head and family head,age, sex, tions, program and poZi- civil status, religion, and other cies. Manila, University aspects such as fertility and of the EastPress, 1975, social mobility. The first Na- 148 p. tional Demographic Survey was conducted in 1968, the second This textbook aims tohelp in 1973. college students gain a better understanding of the population The Dual Record System problem through a discussion and aims to arrive at reliable esti- analysis of related concepts, matesof birthanddeath rates theories and issues. in the country at both the national and regional levels. It also The first part of the book, aims to provide estimates to whichconsists of sixchapters, migration patterns and other discusses population concepts demographic characteristics of and theories, then proceeds to the population. This system analyse Philippines population has adopted a scheme whereby in terms of size, composition, vital events, such as births territorial distribution, and and deaths, are recorded for other factors. It also examines two separate and independent the alarming implications of rapid reporting schemes, namely, the population growth, and how the continuous sample registration country is trying to solve the system and the periodic household problem. enumeration, usually conducted once ortwice a year. Events The second part discusses recorded in one scheme are paired fertility, human sexuality, the against those reported in the process of human reproduction, other. Onthe basis of such and the different methods of con- matching the total number of traception. Also represented events, either birthsor deaths are socio-cultural factors that during a specified period of influence the population's accept- time, is determined. Since its ance of family planning. inception in 1971, the dual record system has gathered personal Descriptors: PopulationComposi- data, 'pregnancy history, information and Dynamics; tion on migration, birth data, Population Pressure; and death data. Philippines

Descriptors: VitaZ Registration Source: University of the System; Philippines East Press University of the Source: Clearinghouse and East Information Sec- Manila tion Philippines ESCAP Population Division Rajdamnern Avenue Bangkok 10200 Thailand 12 - 20 GeneraZ

11. Philippines. Ministry of Descriptors: Demography; Popu- Education, Culture and lation Education; Sports. Population Edu- Instructional Mate- cation Program. Demogra- rials; Teacher Edu- phy: components, processes cation; Philippines and measures. Module no. 2 of "A module in population Source: Population Education education for elementary Program and secondary school teach- Ministry of Edu- ers". Second Edition. cation, Culture Manila, 1984. 30 p. and Sports Palacio del Governa- This is one in a set of dor, Intramuros twelve modules developed bythe Manila Population Education Program Philippines of the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports (MECS-PEP) to train elementary and secondary school teachers in population education. Consisting of four lessons, this module aims to provide userswith a knowledge of demographic concepts for teaching at the elementary level.

Lesson I deals with the definition of demography as a 12. Philippines. Ministry of field of study. It also discusses Education, Culture and the relationship of demography Sports. Population Educa- to other disciplines. Lessen tion Program. Determinants II briefly explains the three of population change. demographic components, namely: Module no.6 of "A module birth, death, and migration; in population education demographic processes such as for elementary and second- fertility, mortalityand migra- ary school teachers." tion; andsome demographic mea- Second edition. Manila, sures. Examples are provided 1984. 31 p. to illustrate the relationships ofthe concepts to one another. This module aims to provide Lesson III focuses on the sources elementary and secondary school and uses of population data. teachers with an understanding Lesson IV illustrateshow some of the factors that determine demographic measures can be com- population change. The module puted. consists of three lessons: fertility, mortality and migration. At the end of each lesson, self-exercises are provided to Lesson 1 deals with the assess the user's understanding concepts and factorsrelatedto of the concepts introduced. fertility. It examines fertility The modulealsohas a glossary trends in the Philippines by ana- of demographic terms. lysing three sets of information, namely: crude birth rates, gen-

- 13 21 Demography and its bearing on population education eral fertilityrates, and age- 13. Philippines. Ministry of Edu- specificfertility rates. Also cation, Culture and Sports. discussed are the factors that Population Education Pro- affect fertility and the factors gram. Population and demo- that contribute to fertility graphy., module no. 1. Manila, differentials. Lessons 2 examines Ministry of Education,Cul- mortalitytrends inthe Philip- ture and Sports, and Con- pines. It discusses the factors temporary Filipino Family that affect mortality and the Life and Population Edu- factorsthatinfluence mortality cation Project, De La Salle differentials. The social effects University. n.d. 81 p. of mortality are described. Lesson 3 focuses on the different Specifically designed for aspects of migration. It ident- college students in all levels ifies and discusses the two types and courses, this module seeks of migration. It also discusses to provide users with a comprehen- the factors that influence migra- sive knowledge of the elements tion of the population,and analy- and issues in population and demo- ses the socio-economic impact graphy. It consists of ten com- ofmigration on boththe area ponents. Eachcomponenthas a of origin and area of destination. statement of objectives and a theoretical background which pre- After each lesson, a set sents the major concepts and iss- of exercises is given to test ues related to populationand demo- the progress ofthe users. The graphy. Each component includes: answers to the exercises are (1) a self-test and a correspond- given in the appendix. ing answer key to assess the user's understanding ofthe con- Descriptors: Population Dynamics; cepts and issues; (2) questions Population Educa- fox possible extensive discuss- tion; Instruc- ions; and (3) some suggested tional Materials; learning activities to supplement Teacher Education; the basic conceptual learning. Philippines. The components of the module Source: Population Education include the following: (1) Module Program Component 1 presents an overview Ministry of Edu- of the patterns of population cation, Culture growth in major parts of ehe wor- and Sports ld; (2) Module Component2 deals Palacio del Governa- with the facts and figures of dor population growth; (3) Module Intramuros, Manila Component 3 focuses on the popu- Philippines. lation growth rate of developing countries; (4) Module Component 4 analyses the present demographic situation in the Philippines; (5) ModuleComponent 5 examines the value system influencing population control in the Philippines; (6) Module Component 6 discusses

- 14 - 22 General the rationale and purposes of 14. Philippines. Ministry of family planning. It also presents Education, Culture and the different methods of contra- Sports. Population Edu- ception, their effectiveness cation Program. Resource and acceptability; (7) Module book in population edu- Component7 discusses the nature cation for teacher edu- and philosophy of the Philippine cation.Trial edition. Population Education Program. Manila, 1975. 332 p. It alsopresentsthe population programmes and policies of other Intended for college in- countries; (8) ModuleComponent structors and students of teacher 8 presents the different population education, this resource book policies promulgated in the Phil- contains substantial background ippines; (9) Module Component information about population study 9 analyses issuesin population and population education. and development. It pays particular attention to the social and Somechapters of thebook economic conditions of developing deal with population dynamics. countries; and (10) Module Com- These consider allthe principal ponent10 discusses thesocial, aspects of demography, including economic, and political conse- the number and geographic distri- quences of rapid population grow- bution inhabitants, vital process- th. es, migration andthe growth of population, andthe implications Descriptors; Demugraphy; Popula- of rapid population growth. Dis- tion Dynamics; cussed are some of the socio- Population Educa- cultural factors that influence tion; Instruc- population conditions, as well tional Materials; as those that result from demogra- Higher Education; phic conditions. Philippines. This volume spells out the Source: Population Educa- philosophy, objectives, princi- tion Program ples, approaches, content, and Ministry of Educa- instructional methods of popu- tion, Culture lation education. Also discussed and Sports are the instructional materials Palacio del Governa- and some methodologies and tech- dor, Intramuros niquesthat may be used inthe Manila, teaching of population education. Philippines Likewise, the importance of evalu- ationandsamples of evaluative tools are presented.

An overview of population programmes and population policies in the Philippines and the world is presented in the last two chapters. The policies of other nations and how they ini'luence the demographic situations and conditions are also dealt with.

- 15 - 23 Demography and its bearing on population education

The developmentand the impact desh, Pakistan, Nepal and Sri of family planning in the Philip- Lanka. Their plans are analysed pines is described. for their use of demographic data, recognition of population problems Each chapter ends with and proposals for population poli- a list of relevant publications. cies. Chapter One ofthe study gives the findings of this analy- Descriptors: PopulationComposi- sis. Chapter Two consists of tion andDynamics; planprofiles for eachcountry, Population Policy; giving demographic data and quot- InstructionalMate- ing sections from the plans con- rials; Teacher cerning relevant problems and Education; Philip- policies. The study focuses main- pines. ly on medium-range plans, most of which are five-year plans. Source: Population Education Chapter Four consists of a concise Program overview ofthe general findings Ministry of Educa- of this study including a compari- tion, Culture son of the policies of the devel- and Sports opment plans with the official Palacio del Goberna- government position. dor, Intramuros Manila Descriptors:Population Policy; Philippines Development Planning.

Source: The Population Coun- cil 1 Dag Hammarskjold Plaza New York, N.Y. 10017 U.S.A.

15. Stamper, B. Maxwell. Popula- tion and planning in developing nations. A review ofsixty development plans for the1970s. New York, Population Council, 1976. 265 p. 16. University ofColombo.Demo- The aim of thisbook is graphic Research and Train- to determine the attention and ing Unit. Demographic atlas importance given to population of Sri Lanka.Colombo,1980. growth in the overall strategy 91 p. of developing planning. The national development plans of Thiswork, covering mainly 60 Third World countries provide growth and distribution of the the basis 'for this study. Among population, its fertility and these countries are India, Bangla- mortality, rests largely on mate-

16 - 24 General rial from the 1971 census of Descriptors: PopulationComposi- Sri Lanka and oncomplementary tionandDynamics; data from vital registration. Socio-economic De- There are 31 maps in this collec- velopment; Sri tion with explanatory tables. Lanka. The maps cover all the important aspects of demography. Sex rat- Source: Demographic and ios, urban, rural and estate Training Unit populations, age pyramids, family University of Colom- planning methods, user rates, bo school enrolment andemployment P.O. Box 1490 by industry and district. Final- Colombo 3 ly, the immigration and emigration Sri Lanka rates are represented through maps and tables. This atlas is a "must" for everystudent of demography of Sri Lanka. SECTION TWO: POPULATION SIZE AND GROWTH

26 Population size and growth

Population Size and Growth

Twenty-five selections are abstracted in this section. They deal with natural increase in population, the rate of natural increase, growth rate, doubling time and the demographic transition theory.

Majority ofthe publications provide statistical information on population size and growth,specifically,growth rate of natural increase, birth rate, death rate and migration rate. They explain that births,deaths and migration are the three components of population change. Natural increase is the surplus (or deiicit) of births over deaths in a population in a given period of time while the rate of natural increase is the rate at which a population is increasing or decreasing in a given year, due to a surplus (or deficit) of births over deaths. This is expressed as a percentage of the base population. The growth rate isthe rate at which apopulation is increasing (or decreasing) in a given year due to natural increase and net migration, expressed as a percentage of the base population. To make this more concrete, one publication summarizes the growth rate in population in South Asia. The rest present tables and graphs of the natural increase, rate of natural increase and growth rate of the countries covered in this abstract- bibliography one by one. About 10 entries discuss other vital components which play important role in p ulation change. These include fertility, mortality, nuptiality rates and trend-.

While the majority ofthe entries present the statistical and demographic data through tables and charts,a few concentrate on the theoreticil analysis of how population grows. These publications analyse the factors that'3Iltribute to natural increase and population growth and identify five types or patterns of population growth. These include high birth and death rate, high birth and declining death rate, high birth rate and fairly low death rate, declining birth rate and fairly low death rat and fluctuating low birth rate and a stable low death rate. Four entries also present in detail the principle contained in the theory of detographic transition which holds that population passes through different stages of growth. Specifically,they state that a population's fertility and mortality will both decline from high to low level.s as a result of economic and social development. The decline in mor: lity usually precedes the decline in fertility, resulting in high population growth during the transition period.

About six of the selections go beyond describing the trends and levels of popu: tion growth by showing their effects or consequences on various aspects of quality of life. The entries analyse the impact of rapid population growth on the environment, socio-economic situation, political situation and agricultural changes. One of these selections which explores thepolitical consequences of rising population growth

- 21 - 27 Demography and its bearing on population education states that rapid population growth strains the capacity of social, economic and political institutions and heighten the potential for political unrest and turbulence. In terms of agriculture, another entry points out that increased investmentin agriculture does produce changes in population in the form of migration and changes in the approach to land. Finally, about four selections show how some countries have attempted to solve this problem by formulating policies in family planning, indicating what family planning services have been made available and the resulting rate of contraceptive prevalence.

In population education, the topic of population growth, size and changes are suitable contents for enriching various content areas in mathematics, science, geography and social studies. In mathematics, relations and graphs can be used in showing birch rates and death rates. For example, taking the years from 1960 to 1968, the years may be located on the X-axis and the birth and death rates on the Y-axis. The study of sets and subsets can be applied to members of the family and its size. Simple addition and subtraction can be used to show how school population size changes. In science, population growth is described through plant, animal and human reproduction. Science shows how organisms multiply and point out the factors that cause'this multiplication. In geography, population growth is related to the physical basis of geographical distribution. Population growth can be tackled in social studies at various levels or types of population groups. First, it deals with increase in family size with the objectives of showing the composition of families and how births and deaths contribute to the change in family size. Then it goes on to population change in school and community aimed at developing one's understanding about the size, composition, groups, sex, age, distributin and characteristics of various types of population in the community. Population size and growth

17. Ali, S.M. "Pakistan sets 18. Arnold, Fred and others. The new targets, beyond 2000, demographic situation in stateofthe world popu- Thailand. Hawaii, East- lation", Populi 8(2):26-28, WestCenter, 1977. 35 p. 1981. The paper is one of the In this article, the author series of reports on the demo- sketches the revival of the popu- graphic situation in selected lation planning programme in Asian countries. Its purpose Pakistan. The late Premier, is to provide a summary of current Ali Bhutto, had virtually shelved demographic conditions in Thailand the programoe in a bid to please and recentevents in the compo- theorthodc7, .religiousfactions. nents of population change. The Populaion Division has been re-activated within the The paper reviews basics the Ministry of Planning and aspects of Thailand's demogra- Development and the Government phic situation from the first hasset a targetfor reduction census in 1911 tothe present. of the country' s population growth. The growthratehas been high "It is our duty as rational being throughoutmostof thiscentury toconsLder the adverseeffects and has accelerated, particularly on food resources when our popu- since World War II,as mortality lation will have doubled", says has fallen rapidly to low levels. General Zia-Ul-Huq. The Popu- Recently, fertility has begun lation Division is working towards to drop substantially, too, owing reducing the grawth rate from mainly to R tall in marital ferti- an estimated 2.9 per cent(July lity. Age at marriage is already 1980) to 2.7 per cent at the quite high by Asian standards end of three years. The Adminis- and has changed little in recent trative then Head of the Progra- decades. The fall inmarital mme, Dr.(Mrs.) Inayatullah, be- fertility has been paralleled lieves that theprogrammewill by rapid expansion of family plan- have a substantial impact on ning services. Fertility is lower population growth in Pakistan inurban thaninrural areas, over a longer period of 10 years with age at marriage generally between 1980 and 1990. higher and contraceptive use more pervasive in theformer than in Descriptors: Population Policy; the latter. For reasons not en- Pakistan tirely clear, the decline of fertility seems especially rapid Source: United Nations in the Northern region of the Fund for POpula- country. tion Activities 220 East 42nd Street The urban population of Thai- New York, N.Y. land is overwhelmingly concentra- 10017 tedin the Bangkok Metropolitan U.S.A. Area. Despite the rapid growth of Bangkok, however, the distribution of population among regions has changed little since 1947, and in fact the proportion in the Central Region, which contains

- 23 29 Demography and its bearing on population education

Bangkok, has declined slightly. the differences in the levels Presumably, this change has occur- of birth and death rates. Table red because migration from other 5 shows the net effects of ferti- regions has been more than offset lity and mortalityon the age by lower fertility in the Central composition of the population. Region. South Asia will continue to have a largerproportionof children Population projectionsshow than East Asia. Among 13 coun- that Thailand will have to plan tries which considered their rates for a population by the year of growth of population too high, 2000 that is at least half again only Nepal and 3ri Lanka had popu- as large asits1970 population lations below 15 million in 1980. of somewhat over 36 million, Atthebeginning ofthe1960's, even if birth rates drop precipi- only two countries in Asia - India tously. Constant fertility would and Pakistan had population imply a population of 100 million policiesgeared towardslowering by the end of the century. population growth. Nowfamily planning services are offered Descriptors: PopulationComposi- in most Asian countries, but the tionandDynamics; erratic quality of the services Thailand preventstheir full utilization. In many of the countries of South Source: East-West Center Asia, five-year and 10-year plans Honolulu, Hawaii have been formulated for reducing 96848 mortalityandmorbidity. There U.S.A. has also been increasing emphasis on Primary Health Care. Twenty- five Asian governments directly support family planning programmes and a number of countries have beenable tolowertheir birth rates. The dramatic decline of fertility in Sri Lanka has occurred against a backdrop of high literacy and an intensively structured health programme. There are substantive differences in 19. Concepcion, Mercedes. "Asia the perceptions and policies of diverse and populous", Asian governments with respect Populi 8(3): 18-35, 1981. to population growth. Infact, the governments attach importance The population of South to demographic variables in their Asia was 1422 million in1980. analysis of developmentprogram- By 2000A.D., it is expected mes. to rise to 2205 million. Of the countries of South Asia, In 1974-1975, the Cholera Bangladesh, India and Pakistan Research Laboratory noted unusual had thehighest densities with demographicfluctuations probably 532, 188 and 87 persons per square as a consequence ofseverefood kilometre respectively in 1975. shortages in 1974. Normal crude The growth ofthe Asian popu- birth rates averaging about 45 lation is governed mainly by per 1000 declined to 40 per 1000

- 24-

30 Population size and growth

and the baseline crude death goals ofa replacement level of rate of about 15 per ;000 increase fertility by the year 2000. to 20 per 1000 (1/274-1975). However, the performace of .the Several indicators suggest National Family Planning Pro- this, among them the following: gramme improved substantially the higher than expected popu- in 1975 over 1974. Some popula- lation growth rate, i.e. 2.68 tion projects under non-Health per cent, revealed by the 1980 Ministries also began field acti- census; the unchanging child- vities in 1975. Support for woman ratiobetween the period the National Family Planning 1975 and 1980; the relatively Scheme camefrom Bangladesh re- high total potential of growth sources as well as through foreign arising from the country's young assistance. Governments invested population (the 1980censusre- large sums on family planning portsthat 42 per centof the as a means of reducing the rapidly population is below age 15). increasing population. If necessary measures are implemented, however, the country might Descriptors: Population Change; just be able to catch up. DemographicStatis- tics; Demographic These observations are con- Analysis; Asia tainedin a paper which discuss trends in fertility, mortality Source: Populi and migration, including the prob- UNFPA lems and prospects facing the 220 East 42nd Street National Population Programme. New York, N.Y. Data are presented for both nat- 10017 ional andregional levels. The U.S.A. followingsummarytouches mostly on the national level:

1. For 1975, thecountry's birth and death rates were estimated at 34.8 and 9.3 per 1000 population downfrom 46 births and 13.7 deaths per 1000 population in1960. The decline in the death rate can be expected to conti- 20. Concepcion, Mercedes B. nue, thereby partially The Philippine population: offsetting future declines trends, prospects, prob- inthebirthrate. Of lems. A paper presented the three processes at the 6th National Popu- fertility, mortality and lationWelfare Congress, migration - international Philippine International migration remained a negli- Convention Center, 17 gible factor in the Philip- November 1983. 40 p. pines' total population change. It is unlikely that the Philippines will achieve its 2. According to the 1980 -25 - 31 Demography and its bearing on population education

census, the country's the strongest attraction age composition isstruc- for migrants. Meanwhile, tured as follows: 42 notableshifts were noted per cent ofthe population for tworegions in 1980; is below15 years; 54.6 Central Luzon changed per cent isbetween ages status from in- to out- 15 and 64; and 3.4 per migration area while Cen- cent is aged 65 and over. tral Mindanao, which used The median age of the to be an out-migration Philippine population area, became an in-migra- is 18.6. Amongthe re- tion area. gions, Central Mindanao (Region 12) has the young- 6. The drop in the total est median age, 16.6 years, fertility rate from 6.5 and Metro Manila the oldest birthsper woman in 1960 at 21.6 years. to 5.2 in 1975 reflects wide-spread delayin age 3. The sex ratio conforms at marriageintheearly to the global patern where 1960s ns well as changing men outnumber the women. reproductive behaviour The national sex ratio within marriage. The for 1980 stands at 101. latter trendissupported Except for Metro Manila, by the decline in marital the Ilocos and Central total fertility ratefrom Luzon, the rest of the 9.7 births per married regions had more males women in 1965 to 8.7 in than females. In all 1975, or a decline of of the country's censuses, 11 per cent. it was only in 1970 when the national sex ratio 7. Among the regions, ferti- (99) was in favour of lity in Metro Manila has the female population. been falling since 1960s. In general, the regions 4. The percentage of urban closest to the capital dwellers rose by more and those exposed to mod- than10 percentage points ernization showed lower between 1948 and 1980, fertility. i.e. from 27 per cent. 8. Mortality decline has 5. Between 1970 and 1975, been continuous since two persons out of 100 the beginning of the 20th moved from one region century. The decline to the other; between was not uniform, though. 1975 and 1980, three per- The increase noted in sons out of 100 did. life expectancy at birth During the1970-1980 dec- occurred in stages: between ade, Metro Manila, Southern thetwo world wars (1908 Tagalog and Northern and and 1938), the increase Southern Mindanao were averaged 0.42 year; a consistently in-migration rapid increasewas noted area. Metro Manila, parti- for the period 1948-1968 cularly, appears to have with the annualaddition

- 26 - 32 Population size and growth

of 0.71 to 0.82 year; Descriptors: PopulationComposi- and the years 1968 to tionand Dynamics; 1980 showed again slow Population Policy; yearly gains of about Philippines 0.24 years. Source: National Economic 9. The availability of family and Development planning services in- Authority creased from a handful Amber Avenue, Pasig of family planning clinics Metro Manila in the mid-1960s to about Philippines 3,800 by the end of 1982. Similarly, the number of acceptors rose from 2,2E3 acceptors (as reported by family planning clinics) to 432,260 in 1982.

10. Contraceptiveprevalence rate was placed at 46 per cent by the 1980 Community Outreach Survey 21. Economic and Social Commission (COS). Twosurveys in forAsia and thePacific. 1978, thefirst COS and Comparativestudy of popu- the Republic of the Phi- lation growth and agricul- lippines Fertility Survey, turalchange - casestudy estimated contraceptive of Sri Lanka. Bangkok, 1975. prevalencetobe48 per 112 p. cent and 38 per cent, respectively. The dif- This study was undertaken ference in these res as partial compliance with a re- may be due to the larger questmade to the Secretary of prevalence for withdrawal ECAFEtoexplore the effects of reported in the 1978 population pressure in delaying COS. It must be kept the achievement of development in mind that the COS goals. It was designed to assist was limixed to the rural in clarifying the relation between areas and may be subject poulation pressure and agricul- to the effects of the tural change through time series Outreach Project. analysis. The study begins with an introduction to Sri Lanka, The author concludes that covering its geography, climate, the integration of population history, people, administrative objectives into development poli- units and the economy. The prob- cies, plansand programmes will lems of population change includ- not only usher in further ferti- ing internalmigrationare then lity declines but will also bring discussed and the relationship about sustained fertility. between agriculture and population change is examined. The findings reveal that the increased investmentin agriculturedidproduce

- 27 - 33 Demography and its bearing on population education

changes in population in the cies of each country are also form of migration. The increase discussed. For example, the popu- in populationin the wet zone lation policy forIndia declares brought about changes in the its current goal as "to reduce approach to land. However, these the crude birthrate to 30by two variables are part of a com- the end of the FiveYear Plan plex which includes resources, 1974-1979 and attain an annual values, ideology, levels of inte- growth rate of 104per cent by gration, and reciprocal services. 1986".

Descriptors: POpulation Change; Descriptors: DemographicStatis- AgriculturalDevel- tics; Bangladesh; opment; Sri Lanka India;NepaZ; Paki- stan; Sri Lanka Source: ESCAP Clearinghouse and Information Source: ESCAP Clearinghouse Section and Information PopulationDivision Section U.N. Building Population Division Rajdamnern Avenue U.N. Building Bangkok 10200 Rajdamnern Avenue Thailand Bangkok 10200 Thailand

22. Economic and Social Commission for Asia and Pacific. 23. Economic and Social Commision Demographic trends and for Asia and the Pacific. policies.in ESCAP countries. Population of India. Bangkok, Bangkok,1979.75 p. (Demo- 1982. 413 p. (Country graphic estimate series monograph series No. 10) no. 1) The purpose of the monograph This publication tarries is the same as described earlier demographic data regarding India, in "POPULATION OF BANGLADESH". Pakistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka and The introduction outlines the Bangladesh. Social indicators geographical features of India, for 1970 are given for each coun- its political system, transport try together with intervening and communications and economic data and 1978 estimates. The development. Then changes in indicators are also shown for size and growth of population the following countries Bangla- are presented vis-a-vis the theory desh, India, Nepal, Pakistan, of demographic transition. The Sri Lanka. The population poli- distribution and growth of popu- -28 - 34 Population size and growth lation is given by administrative 24. Economic and Social Commission divisions, zones and population forAsia and the Pacific. denominations. The subject of Population of NepaZ. Bangkok, urbanization is dealt with in 1980. 219 p. (Country the context of development. monograph series no. 6) Sex composition, age structure and marital status are also given. The monograph begins with Trends and differentials in fer- a short introduction to the moun- tility, nuptiality trends and tainous independent kingdom in differentials and then population the valley of the Himalayas. policy and the programme of work The authors then proceed to des- are given in details. Population cribe population growth anddis- projections are presented up tribution ofpopulation,age and to 2001 A.D. The socio-economic sex composition, ethnicity and impact of populationgrowth is religion, marital status, mortal- examined from Chapter 10 onwards ity, fertility, health, lawand under the captions "Population education. However, a systematic andEmployment", "Social Aspects analysis of population trends of Population", "Population Growth in Nepal is handicapped bythe and Food Supplies", "Land and lack of adequate and reliable Population" and "StudyofWomen data. In Nepal, there is no in India". Lastly, the demogra- specific legal provision which phic data are presented and their permits sterilization to be per- quality evaluated. There are formed therefore, family plann- a number of tablesand figures ing in Nepal ismore difficult to supplement the information than in other South Asian regions. in this comprehensive publication. The surveys undertaken before this monograph was written indi- Descriptors: Population Change; cate that migration has been Socio-economic De- an important demographic phenom- velopment; Popula- enon in Nepal. According to tion Pressure; the demographic sample surveys, India life expectancy in Nepal is low - 46 years formales and 42.5 Source: ESCAP Clearing- years for females. Although house and Informa- Nepal has conducted seven censuses tion Section in the 20th century,it has not PopulationDivision been possible to obtain accurate U.N. Building data. This publication gives Rajdamnern Avenue an analysis of the population Bangkok 10200 of Nepal,takinginto consider- Thailand ation the paucity of data.

Descriptors: Population Change; Socio-economic De- velopment; Nepal Demography and its bearing on population education

Source: ESCAP Clearinghouse housing,nutrition andfood sup- and Information ply, law and population dynamics, Section thestatusof women,sources of Population Division demographic data and evaluation U.N. Building ofdata. The ESCAP Secretariat Rajdamnern Avenue gives details of age and sex com- Bangkok 10200 position, ethnicityandreligion Thailand and provides statistical tables. Annex II provides an insight into the accuracyand reliability of data.

Descriptors: Population Composi- tionandDynamics; Socio-economic De- velopment; Sri Lanka

Source: ESCAPClearinghouse and Information 25. Economic and Social Commission Section for Asia and thePacific. PopulationDivision Population of Sri Lanka. U.N. Building Bangkok, 1976. 397 p.(Coun- Rajdamnern Avenue try monograph series no. Bangkok 10200 4) Thailand

This book begins with a description of Sri Lanka in respect of location and area, physical features, climate and rainfall, historical sketch, people, the administrative system, mineral resources,transport and communications and the economy. The size and growth of the total population and thegeographical dis- tributionof population are app- 26. Gunatilleke, Godfrey and raised by theESCAP Secretariat. Suranjith P.F.Senaratne. Throughout the 100 yearperiod "Some demographic aspects (1871-1971), 58 per cent lived of integrated rural devel- in the wet zone areas but there opment," Marga 4(1): L.5- was a gradual increase in the 82, 1977. proportion of people living in the dry zone through a deliberate The article opens with a policy of migration. Subjects discussion of patterns of demogra- dealt with by Sri Lankan authors phic change - contrasting. between are internal migration, marital developed and developing coun- status, mortality, fertility, tries. These demographic situa- family planning, population growth tions are next analysedwithin andeducationdevelopment, popu- themacro-demographic framework. lation growth and health needs, Variationsin the agestructure economic activity, families and of the population, agriculture

- 30 - . 36 Population size and growth

and demographic change,the mass 27. Immerwaher, George. How many market and the rural economy, people in Sri Lanka? Colom- the rural-urban balance, the bo, Colombo Apothecaries, impactof socio-economic changes 1979. 58 p., appendices. on demographic trends and demographic responses at the micro level The book begins with an as- areotherthemesthat aredis- sessment of the growth of the cussed. The authors conclude population of Sri Lanka from 1871 that demographicmodels derived to 1971. The authorthen goes from industrialized societies on to compare this growth with have little relevance for develop- demographic transition in Third ing countries. In regard to World and developed countries. population growth, demographic The question of birth control situations call for different and the methods used are also Combinations of policies and discussedas well asthe extent strategies. There is mass youth to which the different races in unemployment. As the population Sri Lanka practise birth control. trendsin therural sectorare The fear of the majority that the main determinants of the Tamils and Moors will seek higher ,overall population trend, demogra- birth rates to overtake the Sinha- phic objectives and policies lese and the effects of this fear form a criticalelement in an on thefamily planning programme integrated rural development are. also discussed. The problems strategy. The critical focus of poverty and population ::rowth is not population change, but and reduction of population througt, the relationbetweenpopulation international migration areana- and resources. lysed. It is found that delayed marriage, more than contraception, Descriptors: Population Change; has been responsible for the de- Population pressure; cline inthebirth rate. Only Natural Resources; about one-fourth of Sri Lankan Sri Lanka women use effective birth control methods. The appendices give Source: The Marga Institute highlights of the World Fertility 61 Isipathana Mawa- Survey Data for Sri Lanka. tha Colombo 5 Descriptors: Population Change; Sri Lanka Fertility Decline; Sri Lanka

Source: The Colombo Apothe- caries Ltd. Colombo 1,Sri Lanka Demography and its bearing on population education

28. "India: populationgrowth 29. Jawalak Rachapaetayakom."Popu- in the 1970s", Population lation projection and their and Development Review use for National Development 7(2): 325-334, June1981. Planning in Thailand," in: Robinson, W.C., ed. Studies The author begins by drawing in Thai demographic-economic attention to the fact that India's pZanning. Bangkok, National population exceeds 15 per cent Economic and Social Develop- of the world's total, but it ment Board, 1980, p.7-34. lives on less than 2.5 per cent of the globe's total land area. To improve the quality of Average levels of income place life is to reduce population grow- the country among the poorest th rate through education and nations. The1981 Census indi- employment; and to establish mea- catesanincreaseof 24.75per sures for anoptimumpopulation cent in the ten-year period since distribution pattern, which en- the 1971 census. The outstanding tails government re-settlement feature of India's population of large population blocs. The dynamics is not so much the high document records basic population level of the rate of growth but projections, based onhigh, me- the size of the population to dium, andlow fertility andin- which growth accrues. Table creased life expectancy, and pub- 2 showspopulation size, growtL lishes tables of projected crude and density in the status and birth rates and crude death rates Union territories 1971-1978. (rangingfrom 34.98 - 24.34 and Where growth rates have declined, 7.11 - 7.07, respectively) and fertility declines provide the population projected by age, prime explanation for the change. and sex . Future population The article ends on a warning trendsare summarizedtabularly, note - "the still accelerating and it appears that the Thai popu- ratesinlarge segments ofthe lation will continueto increase Indian population should caution rapidly from 36.4 million in 1970 against too confident predictions to 63.5 million in 1990 if ferti- of an impendingdeclinein the lity remains high, andto 60.3 tempo of population growth". and 56.7 million,for medium and low fertility estimatesrespect- Descriptors: Population Change; ively. The three sets of popu- India lation projections generally indicate a further increase in both Source: The Population the absolute and relative excess Council of males over females in the fu- 1 Dag Hammarskjold turepopulation. Thenumberof Plaza childrenunder 15 years of age New York, N.Y. will grow rapidly. The total 10017 number of population withinthe U.S.A. working ages will double by 1990. And theolder population isexpected to increase by 1.8 million by 1990. The level of urbanization ofThailand asa wholeis 19.3 per cent (1972), and the proportion is expected to increase

32 - 38 Population size and growth

only slightly from 20.5 in 1077 quantum ofbasic human needs is to 21.2 in 1981. Also included increasing. Population growth in this study are trends in school -;..11 this process by ensur- enrollments and other educational Jug coat man merely replaces him- trendsand labourforce projec- self and ceases to multiply at tions which tie population growth the rate he does now. Fundamental to economic development. movesmust bemade to conserve the environment and its resources Descriptors: Population Projec- by limitingthe growth ofpopu- tions; Socio-eco- lation. Attention has to be given nomic DeveZopment; to the problems of forest thinn- Thailand ing, reduction of underground water resources, reduction of Source: Population and grazing grounds, decimation of Manpower Division livestock and manure. National Economic and Social Devel- Descriptors: Population Change; opment Board Population PresPurc; 962 Krung Kasem NaturaZ Resources; Road Sri Lanka Bangkok 10100 Thailand Source: Wild Life and Nature Protection Society of Ceylon Chaitiya Road, Marine Drive Fort, Colombo Sri Lanka

30. Kannangara,Nimali. "Popu- lation growth," Loris XIV (2): 106-107, December 1976.

The main theme of this arti- 31. Khan, Akhter Hasan. "Our cle is that in pursuit of man's demographic profile", needshehas utilized resources Pakistan and Gulf Economist fromthe environment that will 10-16 December 1983, p.8- soon be exhausted. Everything 15. is increasingly in short supply. The world's land extent is finite. The author bases this article Notall of it is arable. In on the 1981 censusin Pakistan. less than 35 years the population He says that a comparison of the ofSri Lanka will double ifthe demographic features of South present rate of natural increases tsian countries reveals that Paki- continues and other factors remain stan and Bangladesh have the high- equal. Our onlychance is to est ratesanda higher rate of reduce the rate at which the population growth than !ndia,

- 33 39 Demography and its bearing on population education

Sri Lanka, Indonesia Malay- 32. Philippines. Ministry of sia. A table of the article Education, Culture and gives population projections Sports. Population Edu- up to 2001. Pakistan is cation Program.Demographic the ninth most populous coun- transition. Module no. try in the world (Pakistan's 4 of "A modulein popu- populatioll has had a higher lation educationfor ele- growth rate than Bangladesh, mentary and secondary althoughBangladesh has greater school teachers". Second density). Pakistan is a male- edition. Manila, 1984. dominated country as the average 18 p. ratio of males per 100is 110. This may be due to better This module focuses onthe care for sons. Age and sex compo- theory of demographic transition. sition is given in detail. Paki- It presents in detail the princi- stan's low labour force participa- ple contained in the theory, and tion rates stem from low female analyses the relevance of the participation. The combined theory to the Philippinesitua- annual growth rate of urban popu- tion. lation during1972-1981 was 4.2 percent compared with 4.8per The theory of demographic cent in the two preceding decades. transition holdsthatpopulation Itis surprising thatIndia has passes through different stages a smallerratio ofurban popu- of growth. Thefirst stage is lation. The author concludes characterized by high birth rates his article with a plea fcr pro- and high fluctuating death rates, vision of basic needs for the leading to a stationarypopula- entire population and for a reduction. In the second stage, there tion of the population. is an imbalance between births and deaths due to declining death Descriptors: Population Composi- rates and continued high birth tionand Dynamics; rates. The decline in the death Pakistan rate is brought about by improved nutrition, health, and living Source: Mrs. K. Sajjad's standards. The third and final Publications stage is characterized by both Shafi Court fertility and mortality at low Marewetter Road levels. Death rates are low, P.O. Box 10499 and birth rates are normally low Karachi 4 to moderate. Pakistan With regard to the demographic experience in the Philip- pines, the module points out that rapid population growth experienced in this country has been due torapid declinein death rates without a corresponding decline in birth rates.

The decline in death rate, moreover, has not been accompanied

- 34 - 4 0 Population size and growth by any major economic development. Themodule points out that Thus, it remains to be seen whe- population grawth depends largely ther industrialization or economic on the number of births and deaths. development will cause adecline Migration mayalsoaffect popu- in the birth rate of this country, lation sizebut only for short as it has in developed countries. periods of time. The module also presents five types of population Descriptors: DemographicTransi- growth and identifiesthe coun- tion; Population triesthatexhibit each type of Education; Instruc- growth. tional Materials; Teacher Education; The first type is character- Philippines ized by high birth and death rates resulting in slow population grow- Source: Population Education th. Today, the only area with Program thispattern is CentralAfrica, Ministry of Edu- although data for this region cation, Culture are not reliable. A high birth and Sports rate and a highbut declining Palacio del Gover- death rate are the characteristics nador of the second type. Examples Intrammros, Manila are countriesin Northern Africa Philippines and most of Asia, with the exception ofJapan. The thirdtype is characterized by a high birth rate and a fairly low death rate resulting in a population that is growing more rapidly than any- where else in the world. South Africa, Latin America and most ofthe developing countries,including the Philippines belong to this type.

33. Philippines. Ministry of The fourth type is character- Education, Culture and izedby a declining birth rate Sports. Population Edu- and a fairly low death rate. cation Program. The growth South America,the Balkan Penin- of population: world sula, and the Soviet Union repre- and Philippines. Module no. sent this type of growth. A fluc- 3 of "A module in popu- tuating low birth rate and a sta- lation education for ele- ble population,characterizethe mentary and secondary fifth type. This is represented school teachers". Second by Japan, Australia, New Zealand, edition. Manila, 1984. and most countries in Europe. 28 p. The module also describes Themain objectiveof this two frameworks for analysing the module is to provide users with causes of world population growth. a clear understanding of the The trends and patterns of growth concepts of population and growth in the developed andless devel- and trends. oped regions of the world are

- 35 - 41 Demorraphy and its 2,earing on population education c-re Six sets of exercises The usefulness of the year- are , :orporatedin themodille. book's section on demography lies inits presentation of the Descriptors: Poput.ltion Change; latest available population facts Popu-Lation Eau- and figures. It also describes cationi Instruc- the growth of the country's popu- tional Materials; lation fromthe earlytimes to Teacher Education; the present and gives a possible Philippines direction of future population growth through a detailed set Source: Population Education of population projections. Program Ministry of Edu- Descriptors: Population Composi- cation, Culture tion and Dynamics; and Sports Population Projec- Palacio del Gover- tions; Philippines nador Intramuros, Manila Source: National Census Philippines and Statistics Office Ramon Magsaysay Blvd. St. Mesa Manila 34. Philippines. National Census Philippines and Statistics Office. "Demography," in: The Phi- lippine yearbook. Manila, 1983, p. 93-173.

The Philippine yearbook compilessocio-economic informa- tionabout thecountry,tracing its d:mographic, social, cultural and eonomic progress. Itcon- 35. Population Information Centre. tains a section on Demography Population statistics of which presents facts and figures Sri Lanka. Colombo, 1982. on the growth of the population, 12 p. its distribution and its demographic and social characteristics. Thepamphlet providesstat- The vital components of popu- tistics up to 1981of population lation change, namely; fertility, inSriLanka. Thetablesshow mortality, nuptiality, and migra- population according to census tion are also dealt with. Data years and density, rates of birth presented are primarily based and death, migration, sex composi- on the 1975 and1980 population tion and population according to censuses. Other sources of data districts and age groups (0-14), are the vital registration system, (15-16) and(65 and over), ethnic the 1960 and 1970 population groups, religiousgroups, depen- censusesand population projec- dency rates and literacy rate tions prepared by the Philippine for 1981. Marriages in Sri Lanka National Census and Statistics from 1970, infant and maternal Office. mortality rates and population -36 - 4 2 Population size and growth according to urban, rural and lion more than in 1965. The birth the estate sector are also shown. rate (1975) is 43 per 1000 popu- Finally, life expectancy at birth lation and the death rate 20 per is represented from 1946-1971. 1000 population. Nepal would Some important statistics are have twice its present population - Crudebirth rate (per 1000) in 30 years. Nepal's most urgent 27.6 (1980); crude death rate social problem is keeping its 6.1 (1980) (per 1000); national population from expandingfaster increase 21.8 (1970-1975); infant than the development of its agri- mortality [(per 1000 live births) culture and industry. Although 42.0 (1980); life expectancy only about 30 per centof Nepal 69.0 years (1980) and density is cultivable, most of the labour of population per square kilometre force is engaged in agriculture. persons (1981)]. The Population Even at present, the standard Information Centre feels tills of living is generally low. Per publication will be useful to capitaincome is only about 90 research workers, students, popu- a year. The literacyrate is lation projects' personnel and estimated at 13 per cent and life even journalists. expectancy is 44 years.

Descriptors: Demographic Stat- The Governmentof Nepal has istics; Population given increasing budgetary support Pojections; Sri to family planning through the Lanka pastdecade. Yet transport is difficult through the rugged ter- Source: Population Informa- rain, high illiteracy rates hamper tion Centre getting the messageto potential No. 231 De Saram acceptors and there is a scarcity Place of doctors and trained personnel. Colombo 10 USAID is the major donor to Ne- Sri Lanka pal's familyplanning programme. IPPFand FPANare also inthe fieldsupporting the government. Nepal has had good initial success in introducing male sterilization and pillsfor females and itis hoped that the family planning programme will contribute in a more real sense to stem the tide of increasing population.

Descriptors:Population Change; 36. Population Reference Bureau. NepaZ World population growth and response 1965-1975 Source: PopulationReference - a decade of global ac- Bureau tion. Washington, D.C., 777 Fourteenth St., 1976, p. 89-91 (Nepal). Suite 800 Wash7ton, D.C. Nepal, a small sub-Himalayan 200J5 kingdom, had a population of U.S.A. 12.6 million in 1975 or 2.5 mil-

37 43 Demography and its bearing on population education

37. Qureshi, S.A. and M.L. Qure- Descriptors:Population Change; shi. "Population," in: Pakistan Brief introduction to Paki- Source: Pakistan Institute stan. Islamabad, Pakistan of Development Institute of Development Economics Economics, 1980, p. 16- P.I.D.E. Post Box 20. 1091 Islamabad Pakistan's estimated popu- Pakistan lationon 1st January1979 was 77.9 million compared with33.7 million in 1951, showing an increase of 131 per cent. The main reasons for the increase were (0 a programme reduction in the death rate; and (ii) con- tinuance of a high birth rate. The trend of population increases at the various censuses is shown in tables. The current rate of population growth in Pakistan 38. Roberts, G.W.Note on a popu- is one of the highest in the lationprojection for Sri world. Theprovisionalbreak- Lanka to 2006 A.D. Colombo, up of populationbased on the University of Colombo, 1981. 1972 census and the population 17 p. (Workingpaperno. by rural-urban areas are also 1) discussed. In 1979, the rural population was56.2 million (72 Thisworking paper contains per cenaand the urban population population projections from 1971- 21.7 million (28 per cent). 2006, presented according to age The proportion of the population and sex. Birth rates, death rates living in rural areas is continu- and rates of natural increase ally on the decline mainly owing 1971-1976 and 2001-2006 according to rural-urbanmigration. The to falling fertility, constant population of urban areas has mortality and some emigratir- increasedat anaverageof 2.7 are also given. Population pr per cent. The density of popu- jections for developing countrie:. lationinthe country according have several advantages. "First, to the 1972 census was 82 persons the future estimates of population per square kilometer. There have been taken into consideration are wide variations inthe den- in setting various development sities inthe provinces between targets and secondly, a consider- thecensuses of 1961 and 1971. ation of the size of the future Thenet additionto thelabour population has led to formulation force is estimated at 3.84 million of policies for modelling the during the current FifthFive- population growth" (ESCAP). These Year Plan. projections indicate that dramatic alterations in growth prospects areunlikely in the next generation, although naturalincrease will bedown toabout halfof its 1971-1976 level.

- 38 - 4 4 Population size and growth

Descriptors: Population Plvjec- such that therewas resistance tions; Sri Lanka to birth control. However, post- ponement of the age of marriage Source: University of Colom- helped Sri Lanka to reach the bo third stage of a relatively slow P.O. Box 1490 population growth. Since several Colombo 3 of the socio-economic variables Sri Lanka identified as having a bearing on fertility are likely to continue their influence, the decline infertility is likely to continue. Owing to this, there could be an expectation of achieving lowpopulation levels from the third quarter of this century.

Descriptors: Demographic Transi- tion; Sri Lanka

39. Sanderatna, Nimal. "Socio- Source: Bank of Ceylon economic variables in Colombo 1 Sri Lanka's demographic Sri Lanka transition; an analysis of recent trends,"Central Bank of Ceylon staff studies 5(1): 157-189, April 1975.

This article highlights the fact that the first stage of Sri Lanka's demographic development isthe common experience of pre-modern societies, high birth and deathrates in the 40. Sri Lanka. Department of 19th century. Thesecond stage Census and Statistics. illustrates what Davis has called Census of population and "The amazing decline of mortality housing, Sri Lanka 1981. in under-developed areas". Health Population tables based policies and the success of the on a 10 percentsample. D.D.T. sprayingagainst malaria, Colombo, 1982. 56 p. (Pre- building of roads and hospitals, liminary release no. 2) contributedto this improvement. The increase in the young popu- This publication contains lation intensified the problem tables on age distribution, mari- of finding jobs for school leav- tal status, literacy,school at- ers. By 1971, the sodio-economic tendance, education and place impact of the population explosion of birth. Section (1) contains was of an order which threatened tables giving some basic data the entiresocial system. The fordistrictswhile Section (2) deterioration of economic con- contains more detailed tables ditions was particularly rapid for thewhole island. A brief but socio-cultural factorswere analysis ofthe main results of - 39 - 4 5 Demography and its bearing on population education

the census indicating significant This fact book provides stat- changessince 1971 is also in- istical information on the Philip- cluded. Thenumbers shown in pine population, specifically the tableare inflated figures population growth trends from which provide estimates ofwhat 1951-1980, age structure, popu- the actual numbers would have lation density, level of urbaniza- been if the tableswere based tion, volume of inter-regional on the full or 100 per cent data. migration and estimated rates Significant features of this ofbirth, death and naturalin- census are a slight excess of creasefrom1903to 1980. The males (104 males to every 100 first chapter puts the Philippines females). The highpopulation in perspective by providing com- of young persons has declined parative data on other developing from 30.0 in 1971 to 35.3 in and developed countries. The 1981. This can be attributed second chapter focuses on the to the decline in the birth rate Philippines while the third pre- recorded. A higher average age ients the demographic profiles at marriage for females (now of thedifferentregions ofthe 24.4 years), an increase in the country. Information onfamily number of currently married males planning in the country andthe and a great increase in literacy demographic prospects up to the are other significant features year 2000 are given. of the census data. Data presented revealsthat Descriptors: Demographic Stat- the Philippine population in 19801 istics; Population exceeded 48 million, with the Census; Housing 1975-80 intercensal increase amoun- Census; Sri Lanka ting to 6 million, from 42 million in 1975. High but slowly declin- Source: Department of Census ing birth rates interacting with and Statistics steadily increasing mortality No.6, Albert Cres- rates have resulted in increasing cent numbersof Filipinos every year. Colombo 7 Every minute, on the average, Sri Lanka three Filipinos are born while one person dies. The net result is two Filipinosadded inthat same minute. Adding up a day's incrementresults in3,570 more Filipinos daily and nearly 100,000 more monthly.

Descriptors: Demographic Stat-

. istics; Population Dynamics; Philippines

41. University of the Philippines. Source: Population Institute Population Institute. The University of the Philippines: profiles, Philippines problems, prospects on Padre Faura, Manila population and family pZan- Philippines ning. Manila, 1984. 72 p.

- 40 -

4 6 SECTION TOEE: f"-',E AND SEX COMPOSITION Age and sex composition

Age and Sex Composition

This section deals with the most basic characteristic of a population - its age and sex composition. The age and sex composition of a population, which refers to the number or proportion of males and females in each group, comprises one of the basic inputs in development planning activities. Population composition determines a number of planning concerns, particularly those dealing with the population in school ages, the working ages or the ,stages in life when households are formed. Population structure by sex influences fertility, mortality and migration which tend to occur with considerable frequency at particular ages. In turn, these demographic processes affect the population growth rate.

Seventeen selections dealing with four major sub-topics are abstracted in this section. Seven of the17 entries deal with age-sex structure in general. Four focus on the description of the profile of the youth and children population. Two entries deal with the aged or elderly membersof the population and four selections on the profile of women as part of the sex composition of a population.

The seven entries which deal with age-sex structure present vital statistics about the population by age groups, median ages of the population, age-sex pyramid, dependency ratios and age distribution by location. The analysis by some of the selections regarding the effects of age composition on the school-going population,the working or dependent population and those entering family formation make these vital statistics meaningful. Sex ratio is also seen to affect fertility, migration rate, mortality and labour force. Two of the seven entries concentrate on a discussion of the relationship between age and sex structure with labour participationand schoolpopulationprojectionsrespectively. According to these two entries, there has been an increase in the size of the female labour participation in Asia and an increase in school- age composition.

The four entries which deal with the profile of the youth and children as part ofthe age composition approach its discussion from various demographic perspectives. The selections show the size, growth and composition of the youth population in terms of age-sex composition, projections, fertility behaviour, urban-rural distribution and migratory behaviour. Data suggest that most Asian countries have a young population which accounts for a sizeable proportion of the dependency ratio. The youth is also described in terms of geographical locations, literacy, education and employment. In addition to the vital statistics,four entries discuss the situation, problems and the welfare of the youth in terms of education, health and nutrition, economy, labour and social aspect.

- 43 - 48 Demography and its bearing on population education

The rwo entries which discuss the situation of the elderly members of the population focus on the problems and existing policies, programmes and social services for the aged. While the aged generally comprises a small percentage of the population, in some countries like Sri Lanka the number of old people increased in 1981. These entries conclude that policies,programmes and social services for the aging population are not organized and extensive and in some developing countries, practically non-existent.

Finally, thefour entries on women include both a description and analysis oftheir demographic profile and their participation in education, health, literacy, legislation and labour force. Of the six entries,four analyse female .labour participation revealing how they are subjected to discrimination and poor working conditions. The rest present the demographic profile of the women by age groups, marital status, ethnic groups, crude death rates, fertility and female infant mortality, enrollment in school, drop-outs participation rate in education, etc.

Data on age-sex projections will be very useful in determining the size of population to be educated. For example, an increase in fertility will mean an increase in school-going population, data which can be used in population education programmes to show the effects of rapidly growing school-going population on the facilities available in schools and the number of teachers vis-a-vis number of students. Information on the relationship between age-sex structure and labour force can enrich population education contents by showing how a larger ratio of youth and dependents exert a heavy burden on the employed sector.With regard to the situation of the elderly population, such information can serve as a potential topic for inclusion in the population education contents as a response to an emerging needs. A discussion of the prospects and problems of the elderly will make the in-school and out-of-school youth and adults aware of the growing number of the elderly as a result of the increasing life expectancy and thus enable them to cope with this reality in their home and community. Age and sex composition

42. Abaya, Adel G. "The elderly services are expensive and scarce, in the Philippine popu- investment in the aged is not lation," Unitas 55(182):293- attractive because it does not 301, March-June 1982. yield results which will contribute to socio-economic pro- A general description of gress. the situation of the elderly inthePhilippines is presented Descriptors:Aged; Social Welfare; in this report. The Philippines Philippines is characterized by a young population. In 1975, peopleaged Source: University of Santo 65 years and over comprised about Tomas 2.9 per cent of the total popu- Espana, Manila lation, while those 15-64 and Philippines 0-14 years made up 53.2 per cent and 43.9 per cent, respectively. Projections for the year 2000 show a further aging of the population. By then, the Philippine population shall have reached 83 million, of which four per centwill be 65 years old and over.

Thereportpoints out that the situation of an old person 43. Anwar,Mohamed. "Social in the Philippines depends largely structure of Pakistan, on his socio-economic status. some observations," Paki- His health and social conditions stan Administration XIX(1): are tiedto his or hishouse- 76-91, June 1982. hold's economic status. For a few, this status depends on Social structure in this family fortunes or accumulated paperhas been discussed asthe savings during the period before form and the degree of differen- retirement. For some, this status tiationin society. Sex, age, rests on the amountof benefits literacy and income were con- or pensions they receive upon sidered as the parameters for retiring: For many yho donot the delineation ofsocial struc- have fortunesor pensions,this ture of Pakistan. Of allthe status rests on the support given parameters, sex is by far the by their children and relatives. most important one in creating differences between men and women Policies, programmes, and at birth andthereby determining social services for the aging theirstatus role vis-a-vis each population are not organized other. As prescribed by the and extensive. There are two socio-cultural norm women have reasons for this. First, the traditionally been given lower elderlyis an integralpart of status than men in varied spheres the family, and his needs are of human life. Although they provided for by his family. do all kinds of production work, Second, in a developing country the women ofPakistan have been like the Philippines where social declared "dependent". Table 1

- 45 5 0 Demography and its bearing on population education gives population by age and sex 44. Chadda, May. "The Indian 1972. Table 2 gives literacy woman, today and tomorrow," by age and sex, urban/rural. Populi 7(4): 11-16, 1980. The age structure of the people of Pakistan shows that about Since the mid-seventies sup- one-third of themare children port for affirmative action policy under 9 years. About 13 per for women has gained momentum cent of the total population in India. The recent experience of Pakistan was in the category of family planning has reinforced 10-14years. There is a very the feeling that direct government small proportion ofold people, action in this matter is impera- implying low longevity of the tive. In Kerala high levels of Pakistan population. However, education and literacy among women old persons have a special states are the most important causes in the family, in the neighbour- ofthe sharp decline of infant hood, the village and in places mortality. There is the view of public interaction. The upper that positions mustbe reserved class not only gets a "head start" exclusively for women in village in many walks oflife butalso Panchayz s, so as to maintain enjoys power in decision-making. the sex:atio at the highest The fact that large numbers levels i , villagn. However of the rural population live this may ,elp poorwomen. below the poverty line is itself Thebenefitz ofeconomic growth anindication of the income in India have not been evenly inequalities in society. distributed. The rural poor have beenexcludedfrom thebenefits Descriptors: Social Organization; of induscrialization. The Green Pakistan Revolution, too, benefited the more prosprous strata in the Source: Mrs. K. Sajjad's rural areas. Economic development Publications has really widened the gap between Shafi Court, Mere- "the haves" and "have-nots". wetter Road Thepoor constitute 40per cent P.O. Box 10499 of the nation and have grown in Karachi 4 absolute numbers. Accordingto Pakistan the Committee on the"Status of Women", modernization and development have by-passed the poor rural womencompletely. Most of the women who have risen in the pro- fessions and the women legislators are college-educated. Therefore, reservation of quotasfor women will not benefit the rural poor, it is the educated women who will makethe grade. Greater health and educational opportunities should be given to all women. In particular, women should be enabled to acquire skills that will get them jobs in the non- traditional sector of the economy.

-46 - 51 Age and sex composition

It is only this typeofpolicy census, which counted a total which will enable women to par- population of 42.5 million,re- ticipate fully in the development vealed a young age structure with process. a median age of 17.6 years of both sexes. With a population Descriptors: Women; Women's of 48 million in 1980, more than Status; India half were children and youth aged 20 years old. In terms of geogra- Source: UNFPA phical location, the youth seemed 220 East 42nd Street to concentrate in the more popu- New York, N.Y. lated areas ofthe country. Of 10017 the population aged 15-20, the U.S.A. National Capital Region has 13.04 per cent and Region 4,12.70 per cent.

Labour statistics indicate that about 44 per cent of the young aged 15-19 and 64.2 per cent of those 20-24 years of age were in the labour force in 1976. Collectively, youth aged 15-24 madeupalmost a third (29per cent) of the total labour force. 45. Economic and Social Commission Unemployment and underemployment for Asia andthe Pacific. were found to be higher among Country monograph on the youth workers (7.4 to 12.7per profile ofyouth of the cent during 1971-1978). In edu- Philippines. Bangkok, 1983. cation, the proportion of the 142 p. literate population among youth aged 10-24 was about 90 per cent This is one of a series in 1970. Urban youth, having of monographs aimed at providing better acc.lIss to education had the countries oftheAsian and a higher literacy rate than their Pacific region with an understand- rural counterparts. A declining ing of the existing youth situa- trend in the proportion of youth tion as well as a scientific in school,however, has been ob- basis for decision-making, policy served. This implies, among other formulation and determination things a decreasing opportunity of development goals and targets. for youth to continue into secondary and higher education. Chapters 1 to 10 of the monographprovides an extensive The health situation of youth review of the socio-economic is not clear-cut due tolack of situation and howthis affects health data specific to youth. the youth in the Philippines. In general, their health problems A review of existing consti- include malnutrition, dental dis- tutional, statutory and legal eases and disorders, communicable provisions as well as national diseases, internal parasitism, policies and programmes for youth drug abuse and addiction and to development and mobilization som extent, accidents. Mortality is presented. The 1975 Philippine is much lower in this age group.

- 47 - 52 Demography and its bearing on population education

Of more immediate concern are 46. Feranil, Imelda Z. "The the social problems of youth. changing age and sex struc- Juvenile delinquency and drug ture," in: Mercedes B. abuse exist and these were found Concepcion, ed. Population to be associated with socio- of the Philippines: current economic status, poor education perspectives and future of parents and children, absence prospects.Manila, National of either or both parents. Econmnic and Development Authority, 1983, p. 23- The Filipino youth are among 41. the most religious in the world. They havealsobeenfound to Changes inage-sex composi- be socially aware. Anumber tion of the Philippine population of them have organized themselves took place over the period 1948- on a nationwidescale andhave 1980. Thispaper describes and become actively involved in pl.:li- interprets those changes. ning and implementation of development and social service pro- The highlights are: grammes. 1. The sex ratios for the A national youth policy 1948-1980 period consistently is stated explicitly and im- showed that males had an edge plicitly in the Philippine devel- over females, except in 1970 when opment plan. Various sectoral females outnumbered males. In objectives,strategies andpoli- 1948 and 1980, there were nearly cies were drawn up, with particu- equal numbers of males and females lar attentionfor the youthin in contrast toa more pronounced education, health, nutrition excess of males in 1975. and development. This makes the Philippinesone of the few 2. In 1980, overall sex developing countries with a con- ratiosby administrative regions crete national youth policy. indicated that malesoutnumbered The monograph ends with the rec- females in all regions, except ommendation that a national youth in Ilocos, Central Visayas, and plan be drawn up, to complement MetroManila. Sex ratiosover the national development plan. 100 for those 0-14 years old were The youth plan could serve, among observed in all regions, except other things, as an effective inMetro Manila. MetroManila tool for the coordination of and other more urban areas like the various programmesandser- Central Luzon, Gentral and Western vices for the youth. Visayas had a greater number of females than males 15 yearsold Descriptors: Adolescents;Philip- and over. pines 3. There were no substantial Source: Clearinghouse and changes in the age structurein Information Sec- the period1948-1980. The dis- tion tributionpattern was character- ESCAP Population ized by diminishing numbers and Division proportions with increasingage. Rajdamnern Avenue Age distribution of the population Bangkok 10200 in 1970 and 1980 by administrofAve Thailand regions showed that theregions -48 '5 3 Age and sex composition

have generally young populations. 47. Gunasekera, H.R. "An evalua- There were large proportions tion of age data of 1981 in the youngest age groups while population census," Progress proportions at succeeding older 3(2): 49-57, June 1983. ages gradually diminished. The young age structure of the Philip- Age structure is one of the pines implies an enormous poten- most fundamental of population tial for further growth. characteristics. Age data are the basic inputs for making popu- 4. The 1948-1980 period lation projections. This article was characterized by a decline analyses the accuracy of age data in the proportion of working collectedin 1981, basedonan ages while the population in advance 10 per cent sample tabu- the youngestage group madeup lation. Myers Index was used a considerable and increasing by the author to evaluate the proportion. This may be due quality of age data. The study to high fertility accompanied demonstrated that the age data by declining infant and child collected in the 1981 census were mortality. The young population reasonably accurate. The inac- accounted for a sizeable pro- curacies were mostly confined portion of the dependencyratio. to ages beyond 30. There was a remarkableimprovement in ac- Descriptors: Age Distribution; curacy between the two censuses Sex Distribution; of1971 and 1981. This improve- Philippines ment could probably be attributed to issue of national identity Source: Population/Develop- cards, improvements in data col- ment Planning lection methiO)logiesand socio- and Research lconomic develeAlment in the coun- Projects ,ry. There av,, number of tables National Economic taken from population census DevelopmentAuth- which are --:s t,ld in these arti- ority cles, e.g. kr, .stion Distribution Amber Avenue, Pasig, by Single Year of Age and Sex Metro Manila 1971 and 1981, Philippines Descriptors: Age Distribution; Data Collection

Source: Ministry of Plan Implementation Central Bank Build- ing Colombo 1 Sri Lanka Demography and its bearing on population education

48. Kannangara, Nimali. Atlas of 49. Lee, Eduardo F.and Yun Kim. the child. [Colombo] Min- School population projec- istry of PlanImplementa- tione by age, sex and leve' tion, 1982. 32 p. of education for the Philip- pines, 1970-2000. Manila, This atlas gives in a very National Census and Stat- simple form, demographic data istics Office, 1979. 78 of Sri Lanka in relation to chil- p. (Monograph no. 16) dren. There are sketches, tables, maps and diagrams in colour which This study presents Philip- presentthedata. Some of the pine school population projec- tables are children0-4 years tions by single years of age and (1971 and 1981), population under sex for the period 1970-2000. 16 years, life expectancy of The study alsoincludesprojec- children at birth per administra- tions of the school population tive districL, live births (1978) by grade, for elementary, second- per S.B.S. area, infant and child ary and tertiarylevel schools. mortality, pregnant women with These projections are based on nutritional anaemia, school drop- school attendance data obtained outs by structure of family, from the fiscal tabulation of the pre-school child and paedia- the 1970 Census,and the revised tricians per S.H.S. area, immuniz- population projections prepared ation coverage per administrative by the National Census and Stat- district, mental retardation istics Office (NCSO), usingthe and physical handicaps among enrollment-ratio method of projec- children, number of children ting school population. Three born to mothersoin custody, popu- sets of projections - high, medium lation of certified schools and and low - are prepared. finally a charter of rights for the child. The booklet ends The methodology used was with a diagram conveying a message the enrollment-ratio approach. in favour of the 2-child family. The publications is well-illus- Here are the hig%lights of trated because it is a production the study: of the AudioVisual Data Bank of the Family Planning Association 1. According to the high of Sri Lanka. projection, the school age population willincrease from about Descriptors: Children; Demogra- 18 million in 1970 toabout 45 phic Stat7;stics; million in the year 2000. Under Sri Lanka the medium projection, the'school- age population is expected to Source: Audio Visual Data increase from 18 million in 1970 Bank to 36 million in the year 2000. Family Planning Forthe low projection,school- Association of age population is estimated at Sri Lanka 18 million in 1970 and 27 million 95, Wijerama Mawatha by the year 2000. Colombo 7 Sri Lanka 2. Estimates of the future school population were prepared by applying the projected

- 50 - 55 Age and sex composition participation ratestothe pro- ingtrend for theold age-group jected school-age population is indicative of the selective by single years of age and males characteristic of the future high and females separately. For educational system. the high projection,the school populationwill increzze from Descriptors: School-Age Popu- 9 million in 1970to about30 lation; Population million in the year 2000. Under Projections; Philip- the low projection, itis esti- pines mated to increase from some 9 million in 1970 to about 18 mil- Source: National Census lion in the year 2000. and Statistics Office 3. Throughout the projection Ramon Magsaysay period and for all series of Blvd., Sta. Mesa projections, it is indicated Manila that the elementary school popu- Philippines lation formed a substantial proportion of the total school population, contributing an average of 72 per cent. On the other hand, the averageshare of the high school and college populations wereonlyabout 20per cent and 8 per cent, respectively.

4. The secondary levelof education is estimated to have a relatively faster rate of growth 50. Morada, Hector B. and Yun than the elementary and collegiate Kim. Labour force par- levels. This situation iscon- ticipation by age and sex sidered encouraging because of for the Philippines,1970- the fact that it is in this level 2000. Manila, National of education that the basic skills Census and Statistics Of- required for employment are given fice,1977. 61 p. (Mono- emphasis. graph no. 6)

5. All series of projections Philippine labour force pro- indicated thatthe out-of-school jections by five-yearagegroup youth inthe younger age-groups and sex for the period 1970-2000 will decrease considerably in are presented in this study which the future. On the other hand, aims: (a) tostudythe trends the out-of-school youth in the in the Philippine labour force older age group will exhibit participation ratesby age and an increasing trend. The dimin- sex from1960 to 1970; (b) to ishing trend in the proportion prepare three sets of labour force of out-of-school youth in the projections - high, medium and younger age group implies an low for the Philippines for increasing holding power of the the years 1975,1980,1985, 1990, educational systea, that will 1995and2000, by five-year age presumably lead to a better edu- group and aex,and corresponding cated labour force. The increas- to each of thethree series of - 51 - 5 6 .j Sc Demography and its bearing on population education population projections as prepared over the1970 male labourforce by the National Census and Stat- numberof about 8.6 million ac- istics Office; (c) to discuss cording to the high,medium and future implications of the projec- low projection series, respect- tions. ively.

Following are the significant 3. The high, medium and low findings: series of projections are consis- tentin indicatingcertain pat- 1. During the 1960-1970 terns of changes in the composi- period, there was a decrease tion of the projected labour in the sizes of the marginal force. There will be a shrinking groups of workers (refers to in the relative size of the mar- the lessthan 20 years andthe ginalagegroups (10-19and 55 60 years andover working age andover) among the male labour groups) among the male labour force and the relativeexpansion force. During the same period, of the middle working age groups there was a significant increase (20-54yearsold) forthetotal in the size of female labour population. Also, there will force. It is also noted that be a decline in the economic de- the double peaksin thefemale pendency ratio of the population. labour force participation rates' are more pronounced in 1970 than 4. Throughoutthe projection in 1960. These peaks also shifted period, the labour force isex- from 15-19 and 50-54 working pected to grow faster than the age groups in 1960 to 20-24 and total population. The main source 40-44 working age groups in 1970. of gain will be the female popu- This situation implies the occur- lation which requires different rences of changes in the age pat- sets of jobs than the male labour tern of fertility among the fe- force. males. The authors recommend further 2. During the projection studies that wouldprovide more period 1970-2000, the labour detailed labour force projections force is expected to increase for the differentindustrial and from the 1970 size of13 million occupational categories, andre- to 36.7 million (high projection), gional and provincial labour force 34.7 million (medium projection) projections. and 32.8 million (low projection) by .the year 2000. The size of Descriptors: Popt-Tation Projec- thefemale labourforce is ex- tions; Labour Force; pected to experience tremendous Philippines growth - 210 per cent (high projection), 191 per cent (medium Source: National Census and projection) and 172 per cent Statistics Office (low projection) - over the 1970 Ramon Magsaysay size of 4.4 million. On the Blvd., Sta. Mesa other hand, the size of the male Manila labour force is expected to grow Philippines ata much lower pace during the projection period - 167 p2r cent, 154 per cent and 141 percent

52-5 7 Age and sex composition

51. Pandumanabha, P. "A note 52. Philippines. Ministry of on the provisional results Education, Culture and .of the 1981 census of Sports. Population Edu- India," Yojana XXV(9): 4-9, cation Program. Population 16-30 May 1981. composition: age-sex structure. Module no. 5 of The population of the coun- "A module in population ry has steadily increased froth education for elementary 1901 except for a slight fall and secondary school teach- in the tot&population in the ers." Second edition. decade 1911-1921. The sex ratio Manila, 1984. 23 p. 1901-1981 has been adverse to females, but for the first time, Two of the most important in 1981 it did not deteriorate. characteristics of the population Projections on the expectation --age and sex structure are of life at birth of females have discussed in this module. been improvingover the years. Probably maternal and child care Sex isoneofthe most im- programmes are yielding divi- portant characteristics for these dends. Kerala is the only state re&oolv:. -,,-. composition directly where the sex ratio is in favour affsz'(: incidence of birth, of females. A table on progress deat, migration; sex ratio of female literacy from 1901- influences the migration rate, 1981 is of special significance, thelabourforce, and the occu- as female litexacy is of particu- pational structure; and sex is lar importance in programmes the basis of distinction in almost of policy planning and health every aspect of social structure. care. Till 1920 female literacy The module presents tables showing was considerably below male lit- the sex ratio ofthe population eracywith a ratio of nearly by age group, forthe1903-1975 1:10 in favour of males. While period;sex ratio by regions and there is general improvement by broad age group in 1970;1975 in the literacy in the country, sexratio of thepopulation by large number of males and females region and 1970 sex ratio by re- are still illiterate. Since gional divisions and by residence. time is the scarcest resource An analysis of data presented in the context of India's popu- on the tables reveals these infor- lation, it is essential that mation: (a) The male and female a component relating to reduction populations have been steadily in fertility is bvilt into almost increasing; (b) The greatest gains every programme of the Govern- were recorded between 1916 and ment, so that there couldbe 1939 with the male population a much wider spread with better gaining by 36 percentandthe utilization of agencies. female,35 per cent; and (e) Ex- cept for 1903 and 1970, the males Descriptors: Population Composi- outnumbered the females, tion; Women; India Age structure is as important SouTce: Yojana Bhavan assex structure. Many demogra- Parliament Street phic variables tend to vary with New Delhi 110001 age: Themodulepresentsfive India types of age distributionsthat - 53 - 58 Demography and its bearing on population education characterize nations. These Descriptors: Age Distribuon; include the following: (a) Type Population Charac- I is characterized by very high teristics; Popu- birth and death rates; (b) Type Zation Education; II is characterized by high birth Instructional Mate- rates and recently reduced death Teacher rate. This is represented by Educaon; F-7Zip- countries that have 40-50 per pines cent f)f their populations in the 0-14 age groups; (c) Type Source: Population Education III representspopulations that Program have low birth and death rates; Ministry of Edu- (d) Type IV represents populations cation, Culture with low birth and death rates, and Sports followed by relatively high fer- Palacio del Gober- tility; and (e) Type V represents nador a population that at one time Intramuros, Manila had been growing veryrapidly, Philippines with high birth rates and lowered death rates, but later experienced a powerful and continued reduction in the birth rates.

The module presents a table showing the percentage distribution of the Philippine population by age groups for the1903-1975 period. An analysis of the data on the table reveals the following: (3,' The proportion of the 3. Sirinivasan, K., Saxena, P.C. 0-14 age group rose from 19 per and Kanitkar, Tara.Demogra- cent in 1903 toabout 46 per phic and socio-economic cent in 1970;(b) The percentage aspecto of the child in of the age group65 years and India. n.p. Himalaya over declined from 3.3 per cent Putiishing House, December in 1903 to 2..8 per cent in 1970, 1979. 652 p. and then it increased slightly in1975; (c) The percentageof Thio volume is in two rts. the ages belonging to the economi- Part One contains the revised cally productive ages of 15- version of the full-length papers 64fellfrom 57.2per centin presented at the All-India Seminar 1903to51.7 per cent in 1970, on "Demographic and Socio-Economic andwent up to 53.1 per cent Aspects of the ChildinIndia", in 1975; (d) The Philippine which was held in Bombay from population is young and is getting 26th to 28th February 1979. Part younger; and (e) The median of Two gives the notes, reviews and the population dropped from 20.2 summaries of other papers pre- years in1903 to 17.9 years in sented. The papers in Part One 1970. are broadly classified underthe

-54- 59 Age and sex composition following sectionsnamely: (1) (3) Health and Nutrition; (4) Demographicand Economic Aspects Education;(5) Housing and Social of the Child;(2) Social Aspects Sciences. of the Child. From the perspective of population,education, Someof the important tables the most valuable sections are in Section One deal with infant "Size, Growth and Basic Composi- and child mortality, population tion of the Child Population, under 15 years by age andsex, Factors Influencing Infant Mortal- infant, neo-natal and maternal ity" and "Child Migrants and deaths and death rates 1965-1975 Child Migrant Labour". With and mortality at each year oC regardto Infant Mortality, the age under 5 years 1965-1975. authorssay although infant and Under the heading "economy and child mortality has recorded labour", tabie 31 shows average a decline over the years, its household and food expenditure level is still high in the coun- and table 39 shows employed popu- try. lation by major occupational groups and sex. These tables Descriptors: Children; Socio- are of special significance as Economic Factors; they are not found in mOst publi- India cations giving socio-economic indicators of SriLanka. With Source: International Insti- regard to health, education, hous- tute of Population ing and social services, there Studies are a number of tables giving Bombay 400033 government programmes,the number India of beneficiaries and personnel engaged in these services. All these statistics highlight the pcsition of children in the social structure and the advantages and disadvantages of the prevailing child care services.

Descriptors: Demographic Stat- istics; Children; Sri Lanka

54. Sri Lanka. Department of Source: Dept. of Census Census and Statistics. & Statistics Statistical profile of No.16/7, Albert children. A publication Crescent for the International P.O. Box 503 Year oT the Child 1977. Colombo Colombo, 1978. 85 p. Sri Lanka

Asthename of the publication suggests, it contains statistical information on children under the following heiAings: (1) Population and Vital Stat- istics; (2) Economy andLabour; -55 - 60 Demography and its bearing on population education

55. United Nations. .,ent Despite the attractions of city of Economic and lifeand other factorsthere is Affairs. The aging in some return migration, especially slums and uncontrolled amongthe elderly. A studyin settlements. New York, Bombayconcludedthat thereex- 1977. 48 p. istedappreciablereverse migration of individuals over the age The aging in this publication of25 and this was higher among are defined as "individuals sixty males than females. Governments years of age or older". The should mobilizeand utilize the objective of this publication potential contribution of the is to indicate the existing poli- aging themselves, theirfamilies cies relating to theaging in and community in solving their slums and squatter settlements problems, associal policies for and to identify the extent to the aged are practically non- which thought is being given existent in many developing coun- by governments and non-govern- tries. mental organizations to the needs of this section of the population. Descriptors: Aged; Slums; Social The opening chapter gives an Conditions overview of the structure of the urban population in general Source: Department of Econ- and the characteristics of slums omic and Social and uncontrolled settlements Affairs in particular. The composition United Nations of the aging population in these New York, N.Y. centres is thenanalysed. In 10017 the highlyindustrializedworld U.S.A. the aging lived apart from their children and some have been act- ually forgotten by their families.

In . New York City approximately 30,000 olderpersons were true isolates. A study in the city of Madras, India,revealed that 75per centof the aging lived with theirchildren. Only 2.7 per cent lived alone. However, health problems increased with age and most of the aging in 56. Univercity of Colombo. Status slums were liVing in poor housing of women. Colombo, 1979. conditions where overcrowding 673 p. and dampness gave rise to rheuma- tism, T.B., pneumonia and colds. Tlie University of Colombo With regard to social i.ptegration sponsoredthisstudy aspart of of the elderly, studies have its rsearch programme to meet shown that the elderly in the narud, nevis. The article which slums were more sickly than their is of greatest relevance to Popu- peers in better locations and lation Editc.a.,ttna is'The Demogra- participated less inactivities phl,c Ilak;kvote by Chandra Jaya- and had lower morale than older Ther ar a number of people in better surroundings. tab143 ,:r) the demographic

- 56 - Age and sex compositton background viz, sex ratio by and society,they have the poss- districts, female population ibility of changing attitudes by five-year groups, female popu- and practices and making society lation by ethnic groups, married accept new ideas, the implementa- population, crude death rates tion of which would lead to bysex andspecial death rate. greater material benefits and The table on female infant mortal- betterhealth and nutrition for ity by districts shows a high the nation. infant mortality fortheestate sector (NuwaraEliya)and low Descriptors: Female Employment; infant mortality for the Southwest Women's Status; (e.g. Kalutara). Chandra Jaya- Sri Lanka suriya analyses the tables in relation to the status of women Source: University of in Sri Lanka. Swarna Jayaseera's Colombo articles on "Women and Education" Thurstan Road and"WomenintheEconomy"are Colombo 3 also of particular significance Sri Lanka in assessing trends in growth of population engaged in education. There are a number of tables presented sex-wisewhich are invaluable in their context, as few publications in Sri Lanka differentiate population by sex. Some of these tables are enrolment in schools, drop-outs, University admissions, participation rate in education, literacy, population by education level, unemployed 57. Voice of Women.Womenworkers population, University graduates in the free trade zone. by employment. The articles Colombo, 1983. 101 p. on Health by PriyaniSoysa and (Voice of Women publication Law by Nirmala Chandrahasan give series no. 1) demographic trends and data related tothesespecializedfields In 1978 Sri Lanka entered which are significant in assessing the network ofThird World Free the status of women in Sri Lanka. Trade Zones, This study aims Nirmala Chandrahasan says that at elzamining only the various a survey of the general and per- aspects and elements of the con- sonal laws reveal certain areas ditionsof women workers inthe inwhich women are subject to Sri Lanka Free Trade Zone, their disabilitiesunder the law and social profile, their conditions do not exercise the same rights of work,the social and cultural as men. DroPriyani Soya's ar- aspects of female labouron the ticle highlights theTact that area, the villagesand families the most vulnerable groups in from which the labour is har- the country requiring health nessed, the logic of using female and nutrition are mothers and labour. The methodology used children, who comprise 75 per wasby in-depth interviews with cent ofthe community. Because a sample of women workers in the of their position in the family F.T.Z. of the 24 factories, 17

57 62 Demography and its bearing on population education weregarment factories, 7 were Descriptors: FemaZe Employment; fishing gear manufacturies, elec- Sri Lanka tric and leather appliance manufacturies, cashew processing, Source: Voice of Women rubber-based industries, gem- 18-9, Chitra Lane cutting and tea bag manufacture. Colombo 3 The findings revealed that 72 Sri Lanka per cent of the women were below 25 years of age. FTZ factories do not retain any worker who is not in good health and factory workers view their jobs as phase job. Thirty eight per cent said the management discouragedmar- riage. The system eliminates the sick, aging or married. The ethno-religious background of the women is Sinhala Buddhist or Sinhala Catholic. Fifty- 58. Women's Bureau of Sri Lanka. three per cent had a working Women and night work, by class background. The peasantry Ranjith Cabraal and others. accounted for 11 per cent and Colombo, 1981. 32 p. the lower middle class 17 per cent. The social class of the Present legislation does balance is unidentified. Nearly not permit women to work in night 70 per cent ofthe FTZ workers shiftsexcept in some specified had completed secondary education. categories of employment. The With regard to promotions, those ILO Convention, No. 89prohibits who are docile x:e given prefer- the employment of women workers ence. Sexual favoursinfluence in factories between 10 p.m.and speed of movement to higher cate- 5 a.m. Any country can renounce gories. In the large factories, these regulations after10 years. or recruitment, a worker is paid The Ministry of Labour feels Rs. 17.30 and on being made perma- that all legislative provisions nent Rs. 20/-per day. The which operate against equality smallerfactories paid only Rs. of opportunityforwomen should 15/- on recruitment. There were be eliminated. This publication small incentives for good attend- contains the proceedings and find- ance. There were no rest rooms ings ofa survey on "Night work but toiletfacilities were ade- for women" carried out among women quate. Occupational hazards workers by the Women's Bureau. were minimal but there was evi- Of the sample 53.51 per cent dence of occupational disease said theywere not willing to and a high incidence of V.D. work at night; 34.25 per cent The villagers from the neighbour- said they would be willing, while ing village feltthe women were the rest were uncertain. Addi- leading a permissive sex life. tional financial remuneration The bookletendson a note of was the most powerful factor that oppression by the management would inducethem to be engaged and a plea to Parliament on behalf in nightwork. However, 81.69 of the workers. of the total sample said that

- 58 - 63 household is household peace could beensured expenses when the A large number notengaging in night left to servants. by their engage in There were also difficul- were not willing to work. night work because of SriLankan tics in transport at night. and cultural traditions. The sample said there should social Bureau was of the be toilet and medicalfacilities, TheWomen's opinion that the introduction less work-loads and equal pay of night work, subject tocontrol, and promotional prospects in should greatly enhanceemployment workplaces. Of the total sample opportunities for women. 45.7 percent saidtrade union tofemaleemployment opposition Employment; night had been an important Descriptors: Female at EMployment Oppor- their decision not factor in tunities, Sri Lanka to engagein night employment, but 49.6 per cent did notconsider Ministry of Plan thisas having muchimpact on Source: Other hindrances Implementation their decision. Barnes Place work were children, 124, to night Colombo 7 especially infants, being ne- Sri Lanka glected and the rise in home SECTION FOUR: FERTILITY

65 F?rtility

Fertility

This section consistsofabstracts which deal with fertility. Fertility refers to the reproductive performance of males, femalesor couples in a population. It also refers to the incidence of birth in a population and is related to the number of marriages, the age at marriage, the -age-sex structure and socio-economic, psychological and cultural factors. Some topics under fertility are: birth rate, general andage-spec*Ific fertility rate,completed andtotal fertility rate, gross reproduction rate,net reproduction rate, and replacement level fertility.

There are 43 entries in this section, by far the largestamong the sections. There are basically two types of materials abstracted in this section. The first type involves 'national surveys of fertility trends and differentials undertaken by the reports of the World Fertility Survey which were carried out in many countries all over the world under the auspices of thF -,-..ernational Union for the Scientific Study of Popu- lation. The suz.,':,-'7ere undertaken in each country to provide basic measureo of the le.,11' Ind trends of fertility, to study fertility differentials, to colle6;r,ata on knowledge and use of contraception and to develop national capabilities for conducting demographic surveys. The results of these surveys show national fertility rates, family size preferences,knowledge and use of contraception, nuptiality and exposure to childbearing, preferences concerning the sex of children and contraceptive demand and supply. These reports also show that fertility differentials result from many factors or variables such as age atfil:st marriage, educational level,occupation, ethnicity, religion, duration of marriage,location,socio-economic background, birth control practices, etc.

The other type of materials include comparative studies of fertility trends and differentials as they are subjected to varyingcon- ditions. For example, research studies compare the fertility levels of women in rural agricultural areas against those in rural industrial or those who participate in women development projects vis-a-vis those who do not. Other dependent variables or experiential conditions include the impact of the follawing on fertility: land settlement project, multiple cropping, agriculturallandreform, man-madelakedevelopment, modern agricultural technology practices, rural electrification, industrialized sector, cottage industr Y, and agricultural cooperatives. While these are all development-oriented projects,other types of vari.ales or factors were also studied to determine their influence on the fertility levels of various respondents. Those also examined are: decision- making power between husband and wife, extra-familial activities, breast- feeding, women's labour force participation,incentives and disincentives, socio-economic and demographic factors, ethnicity,exposure to 66 Demography and its bearing on poputation education mass media, income and wealth, age at first marriage, educational level, duration of marriage, husband's occupation, etc.

About eigh:. entries departed a little from this trend of discussion by focusing on an analysis of research findings concerning profile of adolescent fertility, knowledge, attitudes and practices on human sexuality and reproduction, surveys on value of children and an assessment of the knowledge, attitude and practices with regard to family planning. It should be noted that a discussion of fertility levels and differentials is always followed by an exposition of family planning knowledge, acceptability and practices and family planning policies and programmes undertaken to bring down high fertility rates.

Topics about fertility are rich sources of content areas for population education especially when it is integrated into health, home economics and mathematics. In health, lessons on biological determinants offertility, social and psychological determinants offertility and sterility are taken up to develop knowledge and understanding of the determinants offertility and how these affectfertility behaviours. More specifically, it shows how high fertility rate can affect the health of the mother, children and the whole family. In social studies, the unit on values and social norms include a discussion of how beliefs and practices of society can influence fertility. Even in mathematics, in- terpretation of fertility patterns is taken up to enable the student

' know that human fertility patterns can change and that such changes be voluntarily controlled. In home economics, age at marriage is up to show how it can affect the number of children or fertility of h man. Fertility

59. Abeyasekera, A.W.D.G. Socio- 60. Assessment of nationaZ and economic and cultural dif- regionaZcrudebirth rates ftrentials with possible (CBRs), age-specqic ferti- bearing on human reproduc- lity rates (ASFRs) and totaZ tion in Sri Lanka. Colombo, ftrtility rates (TFRs). FamilyPlanning Communica- Manila, Population Institute, tion Strategy Project, University of the Philip- Department of Information, pines. n.d. 30 p. (Area 1975. 33p. (Paperno. Fertility survey Special 3) report no. 52.;

This book examines the socio- This report assesses all economic and cultural determinants the available national and re- of fertility and communication gionalestimates of crudebirth motivation for family planning. rates (CBRs) to obtain thebest It also investigates the relation- estimates of fertility levels ship between ethnicity and ferti- and trends for the Philippines lity behaviour and recommends and its regions. These measures an emphasis on traditional methods are presented according to the which do not conflict with exist- following periods: 1894-1950, ing cultural values. This could 1950-59, 1960-64, 1965-69, 1970- be done through educational pro- 74, 1975 and 1977. grammes such as sex education in schools. Communication regard- Following are highlights ing family planning should be of the report: directed to the slums and lower socio-economic classes. Legisla- 1. The assessment of various tive manipulation should make estimates of the national CBR the large family a liability remained fairly constant at a rather than an asset. There levelabove 50 from1984 up to are a number of tables related about the 1950s, hovered well to demography which should be above 44 until the 1960s, dropped of value to students and re- below 40 in the early 1970s and searchers in this field. dropped further to somewhere above 30 in the late seventies. Descriptors: Fertility Determi- nants; Socio-econ- 2. In general, the more re- omic Factors; Ethni- fined fertility measures, ASFRs city; Sri Lanka and TFRs,lend support to fertility declines suggested by CBRs. Source: Family Planning Assessment of indirect estimates Communication suggests that the mostreliable Strategy Project rates are those yielded by birth Department of Infor- history analysis. mation Colombo 3. Dueto the unreliability Sri Lanka of CBRs for the regions, regional fertility estimates from the period 1960 down are based on ASFRs and TFRs. TFRs indicate that exceptfor Metro Manila, Ilocos, Centrzl. Luzon, Southern Tagalog -65 - 6 8 Demography and its bearing on population education

and Central Visages, all the programme. National data on fer- rest still display fertility tilityand mortalitylevels and levels well above the national their determinants were lacking average. both in quality and coverage in BangleJesh andthis survey pro- To achieve the goal ofre- vides a wealth of data. The ob- placement fertilityin theyear j,...,:tives ofthe survey were the 2000, itis essential that the ftllowing: (1) to provide basic amount of force which brought measures of the level of fer- down fertility in the seventies tility; (2) to collect and analyse be maintained or increased. data;(3) to study fertility dif- In particular, regions where erentials;(4) to make fertility fertility is still well above data widely available; (5) to average need a greater amount attempt to institutionalize scien- of forceto hasten thedecline tifically sound procedures of that has started. data collection; and (6) to train national staff at all levels for Descriptors: Fertility Surveys; demographic surveys. In the first Birth Rate; Tertiary chapter of the book, the histori- Rate; Philippines calbackground of Bangladeshis sketched. Chapter 2 deals with Source: Population Institute the NationalPopulation Policies University of the and Programmes. The mean age Philippines at marriage was only 14.3 in 1974 Padre Faura but age at first marriage was P.O. Box 479 rising which is 15 years in 1976. Manila The mean number of children born Philippines to ever married women was 4.0. The infant mortality rate was 150per 1000live births (1973- 1975). Knowledgeofcontracep- tives was widespread for women ofallages, but only 13.6per cent used any method.

Descriptors: Fertility Surveys; Bangladesh

Source: International Stat- 61. Bangladesh. Ministry of istical Institute Health and Population World Fertility Control. Bangladeshfer- Survey tility survey 2975-1976, 428 Princess Bea- first report. The Hague, trixlaan International Statistical Voorburg Institute, 1978. 414 1717$?. Hague p glppendices. Veherlands

The report pretented here is the outcome of a national fertility survey carried out in Bangladesh within the W.F.S. -66 - 69 Fertility

62. Bulatao, Rodolfd A. The value tochildren. Three econOmic of children, vol.2 - Phi- benefits derived from children lippiness a cross national were identified as salient; study. Honolulu, East- namely, asistance in old age, West Population Institute, help inhousework, and con- 1975. 222 p. tribution to family income.

This study investigates b) Love between parent and child, the values and disvalues attached theincentive to work harder to children by Filipino parents, when one has children to pro- as well as the characteristics vide for, the desire tt. of parents which are related with children and j.A:arn to particlar values and dis- about life throW values. It also examines how children,and having .iiLldren thse values and disvalues relate asan expression of parental to the desired number of children. roles emerged as the most important central values. The value of children is meant to include both the satis- c) The financial burden associa- factions parents receive from ted with raising children children and the costs,or dis- appears to be the most impor- values, they incur in having tant disvalue in both salience children. An attempt was made and centrality. to untangle the different specifi- cations and orderings of values d) Rural respondents attached through a. schemein which each importance to positive values value is assumed tohave three like economic health and fami- characteristics: salience, or ly continuity while urban frequency of reference to the respondents tend to mention value; centrality, or closeness happAss, family harmony, to a person's basic concerns; and ,2ther psychological re- anddifferentialeffect, or the wards. prominence a certain value has ithighlighting particular con- e) Respondents married longer trasts, oh as boys versus girls were more practicaland con- or the fi'vst childversus the crete in their expectations fifth child. from children than recently married respondents. Data were obta1v,.0 from a sample of 389 youn64Arried f) When effect on family size couples from Greater ManiLaand preferences is considered, Bulacan interviewed between Decem- values derived from social ber 1972 and January 1973. The interaction appear o be pri- sample represented three groups: mary among the pesitive values the urban middle class, the urban attached to children. In zural class and the rfiral resi- general, thereinforcing ef- dents. Following are the major fectsof childrenon social findings: relationships, and the reward- ing aspects of interaction a) ECOAOthic benefits were found with children themselves, to be prominent among the appear to be the values close- values and disvalues attached ly related with number of - 67 70 Demography and its bearing on population education

preferences. (b) to determine the magnitude of varintions in fertility asso- g) The disvalues affecting family ciated with given changes in edu- size preferences are mainly cational attainment; (c) to inves- economic. tigate differences in fertility along education classes between Descriptors: VaZue of Children; urban and rural are:4-_, (d) to Philippines seek an explanation for any observed relation between education Source: East-West Population and fertility in terms of ontra- Institute ception practice; and (e) to for- East-West Center mulatea set- of recommendations Honolulu, Hawaii with policy implications based 96848 on the findings. U.S.A. Data source WAS the 1977 round of the.Seven Provinces ;3urvey (SPS) which covered Capiz, Laguna, Misamis Oriental, Negros Oriental, Nueva Ecija, Pangasin31. and South- ern Leyte. The SPS was a joint undertaking of three university- based research institutions designed to study fertility trends and family planning behaviour of women. 63. Del Fierra, Alfonso C., Jr. "Education and ferti- The target population was lity in the Philippines," defined as all married women be- Journalof Educationand tween the ages of 15 and 54 years. Social Research 1(1): 1-12. The sample included 14,000 house- 1983. holds for all the seven provinces. Major variables of the study were Studies examining the re):-. fertility, information onwhich tionship between education and was gathered through the Pregnancy fertility have generally found History Approach and measured an association between increasing in terms of crude birth rates years of fr7fa1 schooling and and famVy planning, which in- declines in a:tility. The study volved f2actors as knowledge, onwhich this reportisbased attitudes arA practices of contra- seeks to find out the extent ception, to which education produces changes in fertility among various Other variables obtained geographical areas and social were rural-urban residence, age categories in their production. ofwomen, occupatien, education, socio-economic status, and mar- The five objectivesof the riage duration. The study showed study are: (a) to examine the a pronouncedand consistent in- influence of education on the verse relationship between edu- fertility behaviour of currently cation and fertility. Fertility married wenen in Misamis Oriental reductions for women enrolled and Southern Leyte Provinces; at the terminal years of any of

- 68 - 71. Fertility the three school levels were 64. Hodge, Kohart, W. and Nashies comparatively greater than for Ogarus. Fertilityand mar- those enrolled in the initial riage in Sri Lanka; some years. insights frour path analysiA. Tokyo, Nithon Univ.,rsIty An importantvariable con- Population Research Insti- sidered is place of residence. tute,1981. 29 p. (NUPRI Urban living has been associated Research paper series with low fertility. This differ- no. 6) ential has been attributed to different valuP orientations. By drawing upon data in the These findings indicate that SriLankaFertilitySurvey con- relatively large investments ducted in 1975, this study in education are neededbefore attempts to clarify through path there can be any noticeable drop analysis how age at first marriage in fertility. As such, edu- and otherfactors affect ferti- cation's effect can only be felt lity. The casual model developed in the long run. in this study includes birth nomi- nal and interval variability as Too, regardless of education, well as unmeasured variable. family planning practice relates Although the authors have imposed positively to urban residence. in the model the external assump- And, independently of residence, tionthat no net socio-economic education is positively associated differentials were present in with family planning practice. Sri Lanka, the model performs Thus, education can be a potent quite satisfactorily. Despite force in fertility, reduction, the fact that it is a simplifica- as an adjunct but not a substitute tionof reality toassume that for family planning. the entire causal impact of socio- economic factors upon fertility Descriptors: Fertility Deter- is channelled through age at first minants; Educational marriage, there are undoubtedly Status; Philippines majorvehicles through which socio-economic forces affect fertility in Sri Lanka. Source: Eldrep Publication Reid .Lducational Descriptors: FertilityAnalysis; Foundation Fertility Determi- 4000 Albe, Matley nants; Age at WI-- St., N.W. riage; Sri Lanka Washington, D.C. 20016 Source: Nithon University U.S.A. Population Re- search Institute 31 - Masakiecho -1-Chone, Chiyoda Tokyo 101 Japan

-69 - 72 Vemography and its bearing on population education

65. International Statistical Descriptors: Fertility Analysis; Institute. The Bangladesh Fertility Surveys; fertility survey, 1975: Fertility Detcrmi- a summary of findings. nants; Bangladesh The Hague, International StatisticalInstitute/Lon- Source: International Stat- don t World Fertility istical Institute Survey, 1979. 12 p. World Fertility (World Fertility Survey Survey no. /S) 428 Princess Bea- trixlaan This summary is one of a Voorburg, The Hague series containing the salient Netherlands findings. ofthe country reports of the WFS programme. The Bangla- desh fertility survey 'was undertaken "to provide basic measures, of the level and trend of fertility, to study fertility differentials, to collect data on knowledge and use of contraception and to develop national capabilities for conducting demographic surveys". The survey findings suggest that fertility in Bangla- 66. International Statistical desh continues at a highlevel Institute. The Nepal though a fall in the 1970s might fertility survey, 1975: have been precipitated by national a summary of findings. disasters. However, knowledge The Hague, International of contraception is widespread Statistical Institute/Lon- and family size preferences of don, World Fertility Sur- many women appear lower than vey, 1978. 11 P. (World their actual fertility. Age Fertility Survey no. 5) at marriage is increasing and inmany other Asiancountries, There is a dearth of reliable this phenomenon has been the national data on demographic pro- precursor of a fall in fertility. cesses in Nepal and the World An interesting section is"Nup- Fertility Survey was the first tiality and Exposure to Child conducted on scientific lines Bearing". As child betrothal in this mountainous landlocked is traditional in Bangladesh, country. This summar Y Presents married women were asked not the findings in a manner intelli- only when their marriages had gible to the average reader. been contracted but also the The findings are reported under interval between marriage and four headings: (1) Nuptiality consummation. Itis clear that and exposure to child-bearing; marriages were registered at (2) Fertility; (3) Family size a veryearlyage; 16 per cent preference; and (4) Knowledge reported age at marriage at below and use of contraception. 10 years.

- 70 - 73 Fertility

Survey findings confirm The pamphlet gives in summary thatNepalese marriagesare ex- form the main findings of the tremely stable. An overwhelming World Fertility Survey. The sur- majority of women said they would veyrevealed that the incidence prefer a boy when questioned of pre-marital sex is not signifi- regarding their preferences for cant and reproduction is confined children. Only four per cent to married couples. Only a small of the total sample reported proportion of marriages are dis- that they had ever practised solved by divorce even though any method ofcontraception and bothdivorce andseparation are it seems unlikely that contra- permitted by Islam. The high ception has any influence on fertility of Pakistaniwomenis the overall level of fertility partially counter-balanced by in Nepal. No substantial differ- thehigh mortality of children. entials in breast-feeding were Seventy per cent of the women discussed, though prolonged lacta- wanting another child preferred tion appears to be slightly more a boy, but the sex composition common in the hills than in other' of living children seemed to have regions and less common among an effecton the preferredsex educated couples than uneducated. ofthe nextchild. In Pakistan radio provided a good channel Descriptors: FertilityAnalysis; for dissemination of family plan- Marriages; Desired ning. Seventy five per cent of Family Size; Nepal the total sample tested knew at least one method of family plan- Source: International Stat- ning but only eight per cent of istical Institute all respondents had ever used 428 Princess Bea- contraception. Increased emphasis trixlaan is being placed on better coordi- Voorburg, The Hague nation, cooperation and collabora- Netherlands tion of population planning activities with rural development, health and other programmes. It is hoped that as a result of this multi-sectoral approach, fer- tilitywill show a considerable decline.

Descriptors: FertilityAnalysis; Fertility Surveys; Fertility Determi- nants; Pakistan 67. International Statistical Institute. The Pakistan Source: International Stat- fertility survey, 1975: istical Institute a summary of findings. 428 Princess Bea- The Hague, International trixlaan Statistical Institute/Lon- Voorburg, The Hague don,World Fertility Sur- Netherlands vey, 1977. 11 p. (World Fertility Survey no. 3)

- 71 - 7 4 Demography and its bearing on population education

68. Kanikar Sookasame. Desired ;a- 69. Kanikar Sookasame.Factors af- mily size in rural Thailand. fecting fertility of rural Paper presented at the Thai women. Bangkok, 1983. First Seminar on Applied 31 p. Statistics, Bangkok, 13- 14 May 1981. 36 p. Using the data from the Mi- cro-economic Analysis: ARural Using survey datafrom two Perspective of Thailand,a survey villages in rural Thailand,this sponsored by International Devel- study attempts to assess a causal opment Research Center, Canada model of desired family size (IDRC), this paper attempts to preierences. The model contains study the effects of socio-econ- community location, socio-economic omic and demographicfactors on atus, and demographic background fertility. Method of analysis as exogeneous variables, and include crosstabulation and re- extra-familial activities, ex- gression. For the regression pe.Aed sup!")rt from children, analysis,the dependent variable, sex preference, educational aspi- fertility, is operationalized ration for children, and attitude as the expected number of children towards the use of birth control (number of living children + num- as intermediate variables. Re- beradditionalchildren wanted). sults indicate that community Four sets of independent variables location, women's age, extra- are included: socio-economic familial activities and family background, demographic back- expenditure, in the order, exert ground, knowledge, attitude and significant direct effects on practice offamily planning,and desired family size whereas most regional difference. All the of the indirect effects are negli- independent variables together gible. The findings imply that account for 41% of the total va- (1) to lower future fertility riation of expected fertility. in rural Thailand, extra-familial Age is found to be the sole vari- activities which often serve ableofhigh significance reflec- as the media or urban-rural diffu- ting the recent decline in ferti- sion process should be encouraged; lity among the younger generations (2) rural women of younger cohorts in rural Thailand. may beconsideredas the high- priority target population and DesCriptors: Fertility Determi- may be employed as an innovative nants; Socio-econ- core group to diffuse and expand omic Factors; the new fertility norms at the Rural Women; Thai- village level. land

Descriptors: Desired Family Source: National Institute Size; Socio-economic of Development Factors; Thailand Administration Klong Chan, Bangkapi Source: National Institute Bangkok 10240 of Development Thailand Administration Klong Chan, Bangkapi Bangkok 10240 Thailand

72 Fertility

70. Kanikar Sookasame. The impact Source: School of Applied of agricultural irrigation Statistics projects on fertility in National Institute northeastern Thailand. of Development Bangkok, National Institute Administration of DevelopmentAdministra- Klong Chan, Bangkapi tion, 1984. 65 p. Ingkok 10240 Thailand The main objective of this paper is to study the impact of development of agricultural irrigation systems on the fertility behaviour of the rural North- eastern Thai at the household and the village levels, taking into account of the impact of other development projects on fertility.

The results of the study 71. Kent, Mary. Mederios. Breast- for the village level found that feeding in the developing development had a negative impact world(current patterns and on fertility and the longer the implications for future period of development, the trends). Washington, D.C., stronger the impact of develop- Population Reference Bureau, ment, and that agricultural irri- 1981. gation systems play a major role in fertility reduction at the In this report the author village level particularly in uses data to examine the initia- combination with other development tion and duration of breast-feed- inputs such as health and electri- ing in 19 developing countries. fication. Further analysis at InAsia, thehighest percentage the household levelalsoshows of breast-feeding is in Nepal that the development of agricul- and Bangladesh (about 98 per tural irrigation directly affects cent). Generally, the initiation changes in the social and economic and_ duration of breast-feeding determinant of the intermediate in a country varies inversely variables which, in turn, directly with its level of economic devel- affect fertility at the household opment. Breast-feeding is not level. In otherwords at the only beneficial for infant nutr1,- household level,the development tion but also operates as a child- of agricultural irrigation systems spacingmechanism as nursing does not have a direct effect mothersare less likelytocon- onfertility but its effectis ceive. Using World Fertility indirect and can be more clearly Survey data for Pakistan, the seen ata higher aggregated com- author found that higher edu- munity level. cational levels of the wife and husband are associated with Descriptors: Fertility Determi- shorter duration ofbreast-feed- nants; Agricultural ing. A similar link wasfound Innovation; Thailand in studies using WFS data for

73 - 7 6 Demography and its bearing on population education

Sri Lanka and Bangladesh. If tant barriers to contraception. contraceptive use increases to Using multivariant analysis, the high levels, lactation will cease author has attempted toidentify to be important to child spacing. the key variables which affect However,for mostofSouth East fertility and acceptance of fa- Asia, patterns of breast-feeding mily planning among Muslims. will be a contributory factor The studyhas beenstrengthened in thelevels of fertility, at by evidencefrom the Holy Quran least in the future. to show that Islam does not forbid theuse of family planning Descriptors: Fertility Determi- methods. Chapter seven, the last nants; Breast Feed- chapter, integrates all the finding; Asia ings of the previous chaptlrs and presents the conclusionsof Source: Population Reference the study. One of the most impor- Bureau tantfactors causing high ferti- 777 Fourteenth lity was high child mortality St., N.W. andthe other was the perceived Suite 800 benefits of having children. Washington, D.C. Education could be used to control 20005 fertility. A strongpreference U.S.A. for malechildren was observed. The majority of respondents lacked knowledge of family planning.

Descriptors: Fertility Determi- nants;IsLam; India

Source: Family Planning Foundation 198 Golf Links New Delhi - 110003 India 72. Khan, M.E. Family pZanning among Muslims in India. n.p., Manchar Publications, 1979. 195 p.

According to this bookthe population explosion in India can be checked only by understanding the dynamics of human fertility. Muslims are thelargest minority in India constituting about 11.2 per cent of the Indian 73. Little, Roderick J.A. and, . population,and this book gives Soma Perera. Illustrative valuable insights into the ferti- analysis - differentials lity behaviour of Indian Muslims. in cumulative fertility It gives detailed information in SriLanka; amarriage about the levels of family plan- cohort approach.The Hague, ning practice among theMuslims International Statistical and points to some of the impor- Institute, 1980.

- 74 - 77 Fertility

This illustrative analysis 74. Mataragnon, Rita. :Sex and isconceived with thestudyof the Filipino adolescent: socio-economic differentials a review," Philippine Stud- in cumulative fertility. Marriage ies 30:311-334, 1982. cohorts rather than birth cohorts are compared in the present study, Filipino adolescents today based on the 1975 Sri Lanka Fer- have more liberal attitudes tility Survey. Theconclusions towards sex. This growing open- found in this study are as fol- ness towards sex-relatedissues, lows: (1) Age at marriage has however, does not mean that Fili- an important irfluence on the pino adolescents are moving marital fertility of the cohorts towards a new morality or per- in thestudy; (2) Differentials missiveness. in fertility in the first ten yearsof marriageare statisti- In a review of studies con- cally insignificant; (3) Bythe ducted on the Filipino adolescent, second decade of marriage, con- the author pictures Filipino siderable differentials in ferti- adolescent as being caught lity emerge; (4) Differentials pino adolescents as being caught are largely attributable to dif- in a period of transition. For ferences in the age at marriage, example, on the question of vir- racial composition, urbanity ginity, several studies have shown and socio-economic facters; (5) that while it is generally valued, Important ethnic differentials it is no long:.: regardedin an are also evidentin thesecond absolute way as it was a genera- decade of marriage; (6) Urban- tion ago. Itappears, however, rural differentials are small that female virginity is still and in the expected direction; more highly valued than male vir- (7) An intriguing pattern of ginity, suggesting the endurance differentials by the respondents' of the double standard. Stat- urban status emerges from the istics on the percentage of ado- analysis;(8) Large differentials lescents who accept premarital in fertility by education of sex vary, ranging from 25 per husband or wife emerge in the cent (DeLaSalle Survey) to a second decade ofmarriage; (9) height of 64 per cent (Metro Mani- Large variations in fertility la Adolescent Profile). Those by husband's occupation are evi- who acceptpremarital sex do so dent; and (10)There is a need as long as it is done for love's for a wicer knowledge of fertility sake. On the question of marriage regulation. or living-in, most adolescents still prefer marriage. Descriptors: FertilityAnalysis; Fertility Determi- Following are some of the nants; Sri Lanka findings in the review: (1) Fili- pino adolescents are familiar Source: International Stat- withthebasic anatomysex but istical Institute lack knowledge of such technical 428 Princess Bea- and medical aspects of ovulation, trixlaan menstruation and fertilization; P.O. Box 950 (2) Their knowledge of family Voorburg, The Hague planning islimited to awareness Netherlands of methods. They were vague about 75- 78 Demography and its bearing on populationeducation the manner of usage and the hide thefactthat thousandsof methods' effects; (3) Personal Filipino adolescents need help. sources of informationon sex- related topics, especially best Descriptors Adolescents; Sexual friends, are preferred;(4) They Behaviour; Philip- have open attitudes towards family pines planning, masturbation, homo- sexuality and abortion;(5) Ado- Source: Ateneo de Manila lescent crushes are very common. University Press Males tend to choose teachers P.O. Box 154 and classmates while females Manila 2801 more oftenchoosesafe, distant Philippines targets such as basketball and movie stars; (6) About halfof all adolescents had current sweet- hearts. The same proportion had gone dating, with more males than females doing so frequently; (7) Masturbation seems more common amongmales. One studycites that about78 per cent of young men masturbate compared to only 5.4 per centamong young women. (Young women may have under- 75. Migsarn Santikarn and Thongse- reported the practice);(8) There lai Chusuwan. IndustriaZ- is inconsistent data on forms ization and fertility. Bang- ofintimacy Filipino adolescents kok, National Institute engage in. Theproportion of of Development Administra- adolescents who have engaged tion, 1983. 112 p. Kn in premarital sex ranges from Thai. 14 per cent to 33 per cent; (9) Among the problems adolescents This research examines the are faced with are: accidental impact of industrialization on pregnancy, inadequate sex edu- the fertility of rural Thai women. cation, boy-girl emotional prob- It is hypothesized that actual lem, social and physical develop- ferti3t07, intended fertility, ment, and anxieties over kissing and perception of benefits of and petting, homosexual and les- children is lower among women bian relationships, live-in se- participating in the industrial crets and affairs withmarried sector than among those partici- men. pating in the agricultural sector. Analysis of data collected through The author observes that structured interviews with 300 studies on the Filipino adolescent women in Chiang Mai Province shows were mostly descriptive rather that fertility level, as measured than multivariate. There is by number of pregnancies and num- also lack of consistent data ber of children ever born is lower regarding actual sex-related among industrial workers than practices. (Most of the studies farmers. The difference in the included in the review were con- averagenumber of children ever ducted in Metro Manila.) These born, in particular remains after limitions, however, do not controlling for edrcational level

76 - 79 Fertility birth control practice, and Chee Tuan,a sub-district without age at first marriage. In addi- electrification. Both sub-dis- tion, itis also found that in- tricts are comparable in terms dustrial workers want fewer addi- of basic physical infrastructure, tional children than farmers. distance fromhighways, district Although the findings do not centres and provincial towns. support the hypotheses onideal family size and perception of Analysis of data shows no the benefits of children, they significantdifference insocial lead tothe conclusion that wo- and economic conditions in the man's participation in industrial two areas, and that electrifi- occupations tendsto reduce the cation is primarily used for con- fertility level further. sumption rather than production purposes. However, a greater Descriptors: DiThrential Ferti- percentage of HuaDorn villagers lity; Socio-econ- practice family planning than omic Development; their Chee Tuan counterparts. Thailand The former also shows an average lower fertility than the latter. Source: National Institute The results of multiple classifi- of Development cationanalysis andanalysis of Administration variance conclusively show that Klong Chan, Bangkapi rural electrification is the most Bangkok 10240 significant factor related to Thailand fertility, whether fertility is measured by the number of live births or children ever-born during the past four years. The di;ference exists even between womenin the two areaswho do not practice family planning. The study concludes that rural electrification is a major development input that has asignifi- cant, though unintended, effect on fertility reduct.ioL. 76. Montri Pekanan. Impact of village electrification Descriptors: Fertility Determi- in northeastern Thailand nants; Socio-econ- on fertility. Bangkok, Nat- omic Development; ional Institute of Develop- ThaiXand ment Administration. n.d. 60 p. In Thai. Source: National Institute of Developme.-t This research aims at study- Administration ing impact of rural electrifica- Klong Chan, Bangkapi tion on fertility. A total sample Bangkok 10240 of 609 householdswith ma:rried Thailand women aged between 15-44years were randomly selected from two sub-districts, Hua Dorn, a sub- district with electricity, and - 77 80 Donography and its bearing on population educati,

77. Morada, Hector B. and Marietta delSur, and Zwati:oa:16.:, did Sur. P. Alegre. Fertility dif- Sampled were 20,300 women (10,544 ferentials between Christian Christians and 9,876 Muslims), and Muslim Filipino women. 15 yearsoldand over who were Manila, National Census either heads of households or and Statistics Office, spouses of heads of the house- 1984. 36 p. holds, were currently married and living with their husbands There is a general fertility andwhere the couples are both pattern among Muslim women that Christians or both Muslims. is contrary to the traditional belief that Muslim fertility Descriptorst: Diffrential Ferti- is generally higher than that lity; Islam; Chris- of any other group in the country. tianity; Fertility The age-standardized mean number Behaviour; Women; of children-ever-born (CR5) for Philippines Muslim groups is generally lower thanthat for the corresponding Source: National Census Christian group. It is observed, and Statistics however, that younger ages Office Muslims exhibit higher fertility Ramon Magsaysay levels, but at older ages, Chris- Blvd., Sta. Mesa tian continue to bear more chil- Manila dren so that ultimately the mean Philippiner completed family size ofChris- tians is higher than that of Muslims.

Only the Muslimgroups of women with at least a high school education andthose engagedin gainful activities appear to havehigherlevelsoffertility than their Christian counterparts. These findings emerged from this study, which compares the ferti- 78. Nawarat Plainoi, et. al. The lity of Muslim women in Mindanao impact of agricultural land to that of Christians in the reform on fertility. Bangkok, sameareain terms of selected National Institute of Devel- demographic, socio-economic and opment Administration, 1983. cultural variables found to affect 121 p. In Thai. the fertility levels of women in most societies. This research assesses the impact of the AgriculturalLand Data source forthe study ReformProject as well as the was the 1970 Census of Population impactof other development pro- and Housing conducted in May jects on fertility. It is hypo- 1970. Specifically, the study thesised that after controlling involved the five per cent special for other development projects, enumeration of households in the Agricultural Land Reform pro- the four provincesofMindanao, ject and otherdevelopmentpro- namely: Cotabato, Sulu, Lanao jects affect the fertility level

- 78 - 81 Fertility of families in villages Source: National Institute under the project. The data of Development were collected by means of struc- Administration tured interviewswithheads of Rlong Chan, Bangkapi agricultural families living Bangkok 10240 in villages as well as those Thailand outside the Agricultural Land Reform project in two communities in the Northeastern region. Al- together, 667 families were inter- vieiyed.

Thefindingsfromthisre- search indicate that families living inthe selected Agricul- tural Land Reform areas donot significantly differfromthose living outside the areas in terms 79. Niphon Debavalya.Female em- ofknowledgeaboutfamily plan- ployment and fertility: ning, opinionsontheroleand al..,sssectional and longi- economicvalue ofchildren, and tudinal relationship fom actual fertility or preferred a national sample of married (or desired) family size. How- Thai women. Bangkok, Insti- ever, the former as compared tute of Population Studies, to the latter groupshow more 1978. 88 p. (IPS paper positive attitudes towards family no. 24) planning and more practice of family planning. They also are Thisanalysisutilizesdata significantly better off in terms collected during the first and of various socio-economic chazac- second rural and urban rounds teristics which are usually found of the Longitudinal Study of So- as negative determinants of ferti- cial, Economic and Demographic lity level. These findings there- Change to examine the relation fore lead to the conclusion that between female labour force par- familieslivingin theselected ticipation and fertility in Thai- Agricultural Land Reform areas land. Economic characteristics show a positive tendency in lower- including husband's occupation, ing their fertility level. Othez occupn'ton of woman, woman's work development projects, namely, experxv,Ic before and after mar- roads and water supply, statisti- riage, andthe interrelationship cally have only a slight impact between duration of work after on fertility. marriage and number of years married E,re explored for correlation Descriptors: DifferentiaZFerti- with cumulative fertility dif- lity; Agricultural ferentials. The impact of chil- Development; Thai- dren on woman's labour force be- land haviour and the effect of labour Demography and its bearing on population education force behaviour on fertility 80. Niwat Klinngam and ochts. are analysed using data from The impact of women devel.- the second round of the Longitudi- opmentproject .on family nal-Study. Results of the analy- planning and f!trtility, sis indicate that there is little 1984. 77 p. In nal. "pure" relationship between cumulative fertility and current The purpose of the researa) work status, and that several report was to investige th causal relationships are at work. impact of the Women DevAopment Women in the modern labour force Project in Thailand on Yowledge tend to have lower fertility, of family planning,durable con- presumably because the opportunity traceptive use, desired family cost of children is high. Work size,and recent fertility (chil- for wagesor salary before and dren aged 0-4 years) of the rural aftermarriage appears to have Thai women, in Petchburi F-:ovince, a stronger negative association south of Bangkok. Three E-:oups with cumulative fertility than of randomized married women aged woman s current Labour force 45 years and less wera status especially in urban areas. viewed. These three grcups.are Implications of the study are women who participate in t'w:'.k)men that under-developed countries Development Project, women who should encourage and provide do not participate in the 1:,:ject, opportunities for women of child- and women who are in the vir.age bearing ageto work outside the without Women Development Project. homeandshouldencourage women toremaininthe labour force Using the technique of m4lti- throughout their childbearing variable analysis, it was found years. that the Woman Development Project had positive impact on knowledge Descriptors: Fertility Analysis; of family planning and durable Female Employment; contraceptive use of the women Longitudinal Stud- andhadnegative impacts on de- ies; Differential sired family size. It had no Fertility; Socio- significant impacts on fertility. economic Factors; Theresultfrom thisstudy con- Thailand firms that the project is valuable and should be promoted ar:1 spread Source: Institute of Popu- out to other areaa for tho whole lation Studies nation in order to alleviate high Chulalongkorn Uni- fertility, especially in the rural versity areas. Phya Thai Road Bangkok 10500 Descriptors: Differential Ferti- Thailand lity; Family Plan- ning; Socio-economic Development; Women; Desired Family Size; Knowledgeof Family Planning; Thailand

-- 80 Fertility

81. Peerasith Kamnurli'lilpa. Socio- 82. Philippines. Ministry of economic and demographic Education, Culture and anal- of female Labour Sports.Human sexuality forc -Leipaton. Singa- and reproduction. Module pore, APRAP, 1978. 53 no. 9 of "A module in popu- p. (SEAPRAP research report lationeducation for ele- no. 25) mentary and secondary school teachers." Second The data for this study edition. Manila, 1984. came from 1970 Population Census. 26 p. The paper presented thecharac- teristics of Thai women in the An understanding of the na- labour force and the relationship tureof human sexuality and the of women participation in labour physiologyof human reproduction force to fertility. First of is an essential component of popu- all, it examined the socio-econ- lation awareness. This under- omic and demographic aspects standing can help develop a heal- offemale labourforce partici- thy attitude toward sex and lead pation by region, occupation, to desirable sexual behaviour, marital status, age, religion, factors which are important in education, material possession the acceptance and practice of score, family structure, and fertility control. migration. The resultsof the study showed that there was almost This module focuses on human no difference in fertility by sexuality and reproduction. The working status. Employed women module defines "sexuality as a on the average have 4.4children, quality of malesness or femaleness compared with 4.5 for housewives. thatdetermines the anatomy, be- The relationship becomes stronger haviour, characteristics and per- when education is controlled. sonality of the individual through Limitationsof the research in- whichhe is able to procreate cludereliance solely on cross- or have children, and which deter- sectional data and use of children mines his relationship with other ever born to ever married women individual and groups." The mod- as a measure of fertility.Policy ulepresentsfactual information implications and recommendations on sex education, dealing with for further research are included. the physical and emotional changes that ....eke placeduringpuberty. Descriptors: Female Employent; The discvssion on human reproduc- DifftrentialFerti- tion deals with the male and fe- lity; Socio-economic male reproductive process, and Factors; Thailand the process of fertilization. It distinguishes the different organs needed for reproduction and explains how fertilization takes place. Illustrations show- 1)g the vital reproductive parts ci the body areprovided.

- 81 _ Demography and its bearing on population education

Descriptors: Sexuality; Repro- The results of analysis show duction; Sex Edu- that women who are engaged in cation; Instruc- differentoccupationalactivities tional Materials; differ intheirlevel offerti- Philippines lity, evsnthough the societies in whichthey live are at the Source: Population Education same stage of development. Women Program in agriculturehave higher fer- Ministry of Edu- tility than those in rural indus- cation, Culture tries. factors affecting and Sports their fertility also differ. Palacio del Gober- Among the rural-agriculturalwo- pAor men, exposure to "outside" in- Ilif..amuros, Manila fluences (which includesmember- Philippines ship in a social organization, exposure to mass media, travellirkg experiences to urban areas (Chiang Mai City), knowledge of birth control and frequency of receiving birth control information is the predominant set of factors affecting their fertility. Among the ruralindust.1:ial women attitudes toward marriage, which include age at marriage, having children, optimum number of chil- 83. Prapant Svetanant and othe':s. dren, birth control and birth A comparative study of intervals, aresignificantly re- fertility differentials latedto fertility. Inbrief, betweenruralagricultural the rural-industrial women's fer- and rural industrial popu- tilitybehaviouris affectedby lations in northern Thai- psycho-social factors, whereas land. Bangkok, National their rural-agriculturalcounter- Institute of Development partsare affected by empirical Administration, 1983. experience in modern ways of life 106 p. In Thai. or exposure to outside influences.

The aim of this research Descriptors: DWerential Fer- isto studyfertility differen- tility; Fertility tials between rural-agricultural Determinants; Agri- and the rural-industrial people cultural Development; in two districts of Chiangmai, Socio-economic Devel- namely, Sansai and Sankampaeng. opment; Thailand Data show the two districts are similarin a number of social Source: National Institute and economic characteristics of Development but differ significantly in their Administration occupation activities. People Klong Chan, Bangkapi in Sansai are mostly engaged Bangkok 10240 in agriculture and those in San- Thailand kampaeng in traditional rural industries.

- 82 85 Fertility

84. Prapant Svetanant and Phaisal Descriptors:. Differential Fer- Lekuthai. "Fertility- tility; Agricultural development interaction: Cooperatives; Thai- a case study of agricultural land cooperatives in Thailand," in: SuchartPrasith-rath- Source: Prof. Dr. Suchart sint, ed. POpulation and Prasith-rathsint development interaction National Institute in Thailand. Bangkok, Pap- of Development pim Press, 1983. 23 p. Administration Klong Chan, Bangkapi The study attempts to inves- Bangkok 10240 tigate the relationshipbetween Thailand being a member of an agricultural cooperative andfertility behaviour in the Northeast. A sample of 873 households were drawn from three groups of agricultural cooperative villages--very successful, moderately successful and unsucessful cooperative villages. The major findings which confirm the hypotheses are: when cumulative fertility, namely, the number of children ever born 85. Prasert tiyuichit-aroon. The is used, the fertility level impact of the government among members is higher than refor,7station programme that of non-members. The results on :levtility. Bangkok, Nat- confirm the hypothesis that having ional Institute of Develop- many children causes economic ment: Administration, 1985. problems; hence, a personwith !. p. In Thai. many children will be apt to become member of agricultural This research studies the cooperative with the intension impact of the government refores- of obtaining some low-interest tation programme on fertility. credit to ease his financial A sample of 364 households with problems. When recent fertility married couples under 49 years or the numberof children ever of age was drawn from two groups born in the past three years of population, organized refores- is issued, the fertility of mem- tation villages and unorganized bers is lower than that of non- ones. Statistical techniques members. This also confirms include analysisof variance and the hypothesis that after a person multiple classification analysis. becomes a cooperative member, his activities in the organization The major dependent variables should gradually change his atti- are live births and ideal family tudc and lead to an eventual size. The major independent vari- fertility decline. ablesare type of villages,experience in pregnancy wastage (induced abortion and still births), family planning practices, problems of current number -83 813 Demography and its bearing on population education of children. The ccvariates M. Rapeepun Jaisaard and Lencha- in the multiple clatfication van Tongsiri.The allocation analysis include years of the of mother'stimeto house- reforestation programme, number hold and economic activities of childrenearningan ;c.ucome, and its effects on fer- migration experience,and cAdr.j..ag tility. Bangkok, National agricultural plots in other areas. Inst_tute of Development Each of the dependentvariable Administration, 1983. 146 is subject to multiple classifi- p. In Thai. cation analysis with the same sets of independent variables This research concentrates and covariates. The results on how women in rural households are all consistent. allocate their time and what the impact of time allocation on fer- Data clearly show that living tility is. A sample of 120 house- in an organized reforestation holds from two villages - Chomton village, pregnancy wastage, family andHangDong inChiangMai planning practices, andprobl.Als Province was selected. Time is andbenefits ofhavingchildren classifiedinto fourcategories: are all positively related to child care time, homemaking time, fertility. The findings, some income-earnings, and leisure. of whichare unexpected, imply in both villages, women spend that the villagers practise family a high proportion of tteir time planning after they have a large engaged in economic number of children. The villagers and their income is a major pro- feel children are ',rden only portion of the family income. when there are m3., . pregnancy wastage is also a key factor In the tLme allocation model, responsible for high rural fer- the wife's wage rate is very pow- tility. Family planning services erful J.n determining the time are lacking in the reforestation she allocates to economic activi- programme. Thestudy concludes ties. The number of children that a development project by under six is the major e::.terminant itself may not be sufficient of childcare time. When the ana- to lower fertility; people also lysisis by agricuitural period, need family planning services. the effect of thewife's rage It recommends that family planning rate on her time allocation vLries services should be made available by period. The effect is positive to the reforestation villagers. intheplanting and harvesting periods and negative in the land- Descriptors: Differential Fer- preparation and crop-care period. tility; Socio- The differences in the effect economic Develop- may be due to the sex-oriented ment; Reforestation; agriculturaltasks in thesepe- Thailand riods and also to thelack of sufficient job opportunities. Source: National Institute of Development In the fertility model, the Administration opportunityccst of the women's Klong Chan, Bangkapi timeusedin childcareisthe Bangkok 10240 mostpowerful variable, followed Thailand by the time allocated to economic -84- 87 Fertility activities. These variables sex among young adults. have a negative effect on the level of fertility. Therefore, Majordata source for this improving employment opportunities studywas the 1982 YoungAdult bothon the farmand innon- Fertility Survey (YAFS). YAFS farm sectors should induce a involved a national probability fertility decline among rural sampleof 5,402 married and un- people. married female respondents aged 15-24 years. The findings cover Descriptors: DifferentiaZ Fer- the following information: socio- tility; Time Fac- economic anddemographic profile tors; Women; Thai- of the adult; knowledge and atti- Zand tudes about populationeducation and familyplanning, sources of Source: National Institute family planning information, atti- of Development tudes towardvirg nityandpre- Administration marital sex, attitudes toward Klong Chan, Bangkapi marriage and family formation Bangkok 10240 and premarital sex. Thailand Basedon the findings, the following recommendations ctve been suggested:

1. Adolescent fertility issues that merits att,-, Inasmuch as pie- premarital sexual ac.v is not possible in ',oreseeable future, cm tasks should be 87. Raymundo, Corazon M. Young undei.vell to reduce the adult in the harmfuleifects of youthful first report. sexual activities. Manila, lopulation Insti- tute, University of the 2. Reduction ofharmfulconse- Philippines, 1984. 76 quences can be done by(a) in- p. creasing awarerv7srs and en- lightenment j.1.1 -exual mat- This study provides some ters; (b) providing them directionfor policies and pro- with wider and wore meaning- grammes to address the issue fulsex education in school of adolescent fertility. More and worl,.; (c) providing in- specifically, it provides a pro- dividual counselling at more file of the young Filipino women opportune times;(d) provid- of today; identifies the mau4tude ingservices which will not and natureofpremaritalsexual exclude providing contra- activity among young adults, ,.,eption if necessary; (e) discuss their fertility and fer- campaigning to make adult tility-related attitudes and Members ofthe society more identifies some factors that open and understanding of might have triggered premarital the plight of the adolescent. -85 - 88 Demography and its bearing on population education

Descriptors: Adolescents; Differ- women's position in society. ential Fertility; In the city, family planning pro- Fertility Determi- grammes are largely influenced nants; Philippines by theattitude of husbands, whereas rural wives make their Source: Population Institute decisions more freely. The author University of the feels family planning efforts Philippines should be concentrated in the PadreFaure Street rural areas. Manila Philippines Descriptors: Differential Fer- tility; Socio- economic Develop- ment; Women's Status; Sri Lanka

Source: University Micro- films Inter- national 300, N. Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 8e. Samarakkody, Amara. Woman's U.S.A. status and fertility in Sri Lanka. Dissertation of State University of New York at Buffalo. Ann Arbor, University MicrQfilms Inter- national, n.d. 136 p.

This dissertation examines the following questions: (1) Does industrialization and emanci- pation of w=en from traditional roles necessarily elevate women's 89. Saranya Bunnag. The impact positionin thefamily andso- of the self-help settlement ciety?; (2) Canfamily planning on fertility: a case study programmes work if women were of the Taepa self-help set- toenjoy good positions without tlement community, Songkla industrialization? Data necessary PPoVince. Bangkok, National o enammine women's position Institute of Development in rural and urban ar:i!as are Administration, 1983. In examined and urban-rural fertility Thai. differentials are analysed and explained. The impact of col- The aim of this research onialism and westernization on is to measure the effect of land women in Sri Lanka is examined, settlement in Taepa on its popu- as well as the influence of family lation fertility. A comparison planning programmes on the status is made between(a) 325 members ofwomen. Theevidence demon- of the Taepa settlement community; strates the fact that industrial- and (b) 325 membc.rs living out- ization does not always raise side. -86 89 Fertility

The study shows that fer- purpose of this study is to fill tility as measured by the number this gap. The analysis is based of live-birthsis lower in the upon dataforthe Departmentof Taepa settlement than in the Census and Statistics for the non-settlementcommunity, taking years1963-1971. A table gives into consideration the following the urban-rural fertility differ- factors: period of residence, ences by districts. In all the occupation, age, and education, districts, except Nuwara Eliya, duration of mariage, family plan- which is a plantation district, ning, socio-economic status and and the Colombo district, the the ideal number of children rural areas have a higher fer- a family would like to have. tility rate than the urban areas. The study also shows a strong An interestingfacet this relationship betweensocio-econ- analysis is that religion and omic factors and fertility. ethnicity are determining factors of the variations of fertility Descriptors: Differential Fer- in distritts. The districts with tility; Fertility more 14...:slims and Tamilstend to Determinants; Socio- havea E%ilatively high fertility economic Factors; than the Sinhalese-dominated Thailand areas. Fertility is also affected by education and occupation. Source: National Institute of Development Descriptors: Differential Fer- Administration tility; Socio- Klong Chan, Bangkapi economic Factors, Bangkok 10240 Sri Lcnka Thailand Source: Australian National University G.P.O. Box 4 Canberra, A.C.T. 2601 Australia

90. Siddhiseno, Inter- district differences in .r.ortility in Sri Lanka, 63-1971. Canberra, Aus- tralian Nati-llai University, 1978. 32 p. 91. Sirisena, N.L. Fertility im- According to the author pact of development in Sri aost studies of fertility in Lanka. Colombo, Centre SriLankahavedealtonly with for Demographic and Socio- the entire country and have not economic Studies, 1984. analysed the patterns and determi- 213 p. nants by districts. The main - 87 - 9 0 Demography and its bearing on population education

This research project is mined fertility. The use of con- designed to assess the relation- traceptives is becoming a signifi- ship between selected development cant determinant of fertility. programmes, socio-economic fac- The study reveals that fertility tors, intermediate variables impacts ofdevelopment programmes and fertility at the community are both project and gender speci- and household levels in Sri Lanka. fic. Several important development programmes have been analysed Descriptors: Fertility Determi- such as land settlement, the nants. Socio-econ- guaranteed price scheme and rural omic Factors; Sri electrification. The author Lanka has evaluated quantitatively the relative aspect of different Source: Centre for Demogra- programmes. The study brings phic and Socio- out a series of important con- economic Studies clusions for future policy formu- Society Limited lation with special reference Colombo tothe size and welfareofthe Sri Lanka family. This should help the Government to concentrate its investment programme in areas which would bring abouta rapid decline in fertility and contribute toeconomic development. Themethodology of research of this study is new to Sri Lanka. It has identified development project areas through the official 92. Sri Lanka. Department of records on developmentprojects Census and Statistics. scrutinized by personal observa- Socio-economic development tion. The selection 3f the sample and fertility decline in was done throughamulti-stage Sri Lanka. Colombo, 1983. stratified sampling process. 161 p. The study substantiat s the hypothesis that development programmes Sri Lankawas selected for have a significant impact on a casestudy ofthe ExpertGroup fertility. In particular, devel- Meetingon Demographic Transition opment programmes determine the and Socio-Economic Develonment levelsof income andnature of at Istanbul in 1977. This back- employment. These twofactors, ground paper outlines the social along with a number of other background andeconomicdevelop- variables have influenced the ment strategies of the country fertility decision ofindividual and thefeat_Lres ofits demogra- households. Of the six develop- phic transition. The paper states mentprogrammes considered, four that Sri Lanka has entered the have conclusively contributed third phase of demographic trans- to a reduction of fertility. ition, the phase of declining Land settlements have the highest fertility; and this fertility fertility levels. Educational decline has cut across the various attainment ts the other important socio-economicstrata. The con- development input that has deter- clusions of this analysis of ;er- -88- 91 Fertility tility in Sri Lanka are as fol- findings of a survey conducted countries under lows: (1) Female employment in a numberof has little bearing on fertility; the sponsorship of the Westing- (2) The values and costs of chil- house Health Systems of the U.S.A. dren are diverse and are difficult It begins by sketching the back- toevaluatein relationtothe ground to the contraceptive pre- Sri decline in fertility; (3) An valence survev (C.P.S.) in explanation for the fertility Lankaand then givesan outline transition has been sought in of the methodologyusedinthe the ecological and historical survey. There is a comprehensive factors and the exposure to for- section on Fertility in Sri Lanka eigninfluencewhichhavemade which gives recent trends, current prefer- thepeople of SriLankamodern levels, and family size in outlook;(4) High aspirations ences. The question of contra- asa result ofa high level of ceptive knowledge and use in Sri together educationcould h. 're influenced Lanka isthenexamined of Family. the fertility decl.ole; (5) The withthe aviAlability determinants offertility appear Planning Services. Me main find- to be also related to ethnicity ings on Fertility could be summar- and religion. ized as follows: There were considerable differentials in ob- Descriptors: FertilityAnalysis; served completed fertility, re- Fertility Determi- gionally, culturally and socio- nants; Sri Lanka economIcally. Overall fertility had risen since 1974. There was for small Source: Department of Census a definitepreference and Statistics families. Contraceptive knowledge No.6, Albert Cres- was universal but specificmethods cent were not widely known. There Colombo 7 w-s an increased use of trad- Sri Lanka itional rather than modern methods. Thr most commonly practised method was female sterilization. Contra- ceptive use showed considerable variation across sub-classes of the population and there were indications of emerginginterest in spacing births. By far the largest source of supply was the government. The direction of furtherimprovement seems tobe towards increasing the services 93. Sri Lanka. Department of and acceptabtltty of efficient Census and Statistics. nol-technical niodern methods while Sri Lanka contraceptive maintaining the sterilization prevalence survey report programmes. 1982. Colombo, Department of Census and Statistics Descriptors: Family Planning; and Westinghouse Health Knowledge of Family Systems, 1983. 127 p. P7anning; Sri Lanka

This report carries the -.89- 92 Demography and its bearing on population education

Source: Department of Census means to influence fertility be- & Statistics haviour of each ethnic group. F.O. Box 363 The factors that have policy im- Colombo plications for fertility reduction Sri Lanka are wife's education, age at first marriage, ethnic fertility and child mortality.

The analysis of data shows that the use of effective contraception of allethnic groups is affected by their access to family planning services. The Thai and Chinese use nearby services while the Muslim prefer distant to nearby services. The use of effective 94. Suchart Prasith-rathsint. contraception by the Thais and Ethnicity and fertility theChinese is also affected by in Thailand. Bangkok, other social and economic factors National Institute of such as couple's income, perceived Development Administra- women'srole, gender balance and tion, 1983. 213 p. husband's occupation. It has also found thatethnicfertility Thisstudy is partof the approval, ethnic affiliation, five ASEAN countries on ethnicity religiosityand psychiccost of and fertility. It coversfour contraceftive al:e negativelyre- major ethnic groups living in lated to the use of effective all major regions of the country. contraception of the Thai Muslims The total sample consists of and the Southern Thai Muslims. 858 Thai,837 Chinese,838 Thai Muslim and 587 Southern Thai Descriptors: Ethnicity; Fertility Muslim couples. It is the first Determinants; Thog of its kind dealing empirically land with a wide range of social, economic and demographic charac- Source: National Institute teristics of the major ethnic of Development groups and their ethnic relations. Administration Klong Chan, Bangkapi The results of the study Bangkok 10240 shows thatethnicity is an un- questionably significant factor in the study of fertilityand family planning. Population policies and programmes must therefore be carefully formulated and designs!d for each ethnic group. Itwasfoundthat all other ethnicgroupshave higher fertility than theThais. The findings on factors affecting fertility of the four ethnic groupsfurther suggest ways and

90 Fertility

95. Suchart Prasith-rathsint the three above contraceptive and others. Contraceptive products inthe next five years. demand and supply survey in Thailand: 1'82-1986. Descriptors: Distribution of Bangkok, National Insti- Contraceptives; tute of Development Ad- Thailand ministration, 1983. 67 p. Source: National InAtute of Deve-opment This study attempts to make Administration an in-depth analytical study Kiong Chan, Bangkapi of Thailand's contraceptive demand Bangkok 10240 and supply, with the more recent Thailand demographic data, family planning service statistics and other relevant information. This study relies heavily on statistical analyses. The empirical or statistical procedures used in the study are projection of currently married women at reproductive age, projection ofnew acceptors by method,projection ofactive users by method, estimate of contraceptive requirements, and 96. SupatraPetchmuni. "Incen- analyses of capacity of local tives and factors affecting contraceptive production. desire for a 2-child family in urban and rural areas," It has been found that three in: Suchart Prasith-rath- type of contraceptives, namely, sint (ed.) Populationand oral contraceptives, injectable development interactions contraceptives, and condoms are in Thailand. Bangkok, Pap- produced locally. Two major pimPress, 1983. 40 p. local manufacturers of oral contraceptives have a totalannual This study deals with an production capacity of 3.3 million issue of fertility reduction pro- cycles, which could meet the posed in the Fifth National Econ- present demand in the commercial omicand Social Pavelopment Plan sector (outside National Family on incentives and disincentives Planning Programme). There are to induce the people to have only at least ten local manufacturers two children per family. The of injectable contraceptives study inter%dJ.ews 1,000currently with a local annual production married women rkged 15-45 who live caprcity of no less than 7.2 in rural and urban areas of Bang- million " 3 months doses". There kok and other provinces on their are two local manufacturers of attitudes tow,.,rds two-child fam- condoms, one of them has an annual ily, and 17.tntives and disincen- production capacity of 86.4 mil- tives toward it. It also studies lion pieces. Given enough lead vhether demographic, economic, time, mostmanufacturers inter- social characteristics of the viewed expressed confidence that respondents are related to actual theycould meet thedemand for and desired fertility. Using

- 91 9 4 Demography and its bearing on population education analysis of variance and discrimi- Lanka, the last country is the nant analysis,it was found that most modernized. In each country desire for a 2-childfamily is married women aged 15-50 were affectedbyageof spouse, age identified. The sample consisted at first marriage, sex of living ofwomen over30 years ofage. children, education, advantages In Sri Lanka as there is con- expected from having children, siderablecontraceptiveuse, the and opinions on possible rewards reduction offertility in grand- or incentives. mothers of child-bearing age cannot be attributed to abstinence Descriptors: Fertility Determi- of sexual relations. However, nants; Desired the "grandmother"custom in all Family Size; Socio- three countries results in a re- economic Factors; duction offertility. Moreover, Thailand this analysis shows that the grandmotherpractice has a sig- Source: National Institute nificant impact on both the level of Development and age patterns of marital fer- Administration tility in the countries surveyed. Klong Chan, Bangkapi Bangkok 10240 Descriptors Fertility Behaviour; Thailand Marital Fertility; Bangladesh; Nepal; Sri Lanka

Source: London School of Economics Houghton Street London WC2A ZHE England

97. Tan, Jee-Peng. "Marital fertility at older ages inNepal, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka," Population Studies 37(3); 433-444, November 193.i.

This paper is based on the author's doctoral dissertation, 9 . Thailand. NationalStatisti- "A Comparative Study of the Mari- cal Office.The survey tal Fertility of Older Women offtrtility in Thailand: in Nepal, Bangladesh and Sri country report. Bangkok, Lanka". His hypothesis was that 1977. 2 vols. marital fertility was reduced when a womanbecame a mother- Findings from the 1975 survey in-law or a potential grandmother. of fertility in Thailand are sum- In Nepal and Bangladesh this marizt2d under several sections: involves sexual abstinence. (1) Fertility levels and trends; Of Nepal, Bangladesh and Sri (2) Nuptiality and exposure to

- 92 - 95 Fertility childbearing; (3) Preferences Source: National Statistics concerning the number and sex Office of children;(4) Husbands'atti- Lanluang Road tudes; (5) Knowledge and use Bangkok 10100 of contraception; (6) Differen- Thailand tials by background characteristics, and their economic stats, with a sample of 4,465 households. Marriage in Thailand is almost universal, with childbearing continuing at a substantial rate through later years of marriage. Husbands reported that the primary advantages of a large family were economic benefits and security. Over96%of ever-married womenreportedhaving heard of 99. UnitedNations. Department at least one modernmethod of of International Economic contraception. The percentages and Social Affairs. Fer- who had heard of specific methods tility ZeveZs and trends were: pill (92%), IUD (86%), as assessed from twenty femalesterilization(87%), male worZd fertility mArveys. sterfaization (70%), injection New York, 1980. 299 p. (70%), condom (45%), and other female methods (22%). About This study, undertaken by 40% of ever-married women had the Population Division of the used at least one modern contra- Department ofInternational Econ- ceptive method, with the pattern omic and SocialAffairsof the of use by abe and number of living United Secretariat, is one in children similar to that in other a series dealing with findings developing countries. The percen- from the World Fertility Survey. tages who had ever used specific Itis par:-of a programme of in- modern methods were:pill(26%), ternational comparative analysis IUD (9%), female sterilization of data from the World Fertility (6%), male sterilization (2%), Survey. WFS birth history data injection (5%), condom (4%), provide evidence for most coun- and other female methods (1%). tries of fertilitylevelswhich It isclear from the data that are as high or higher than pre- there has been a substantial vious estimates. Unfortunately, increase in contraceptive practice for some of the most populous in Thailand during the pastfew countries, including Bangladesh, years,withthe highest propor- Indonesia and Pakistan, the qual- tions protected by contraception ity of fertility levels and trends found in the intermediate age wasrated as weak. The South and family size groups. Asian countries that figure in the studyareBangladesh, Indo- Descriptors: Fertility Surveys; nesia, Malaysia, Nepal, Pakistan, Fertility Determi- Thailandand Sri Lanka. Nearly nants; Family Plan- all the countriesrecordedevi- ning; Thailand dence of fertility control except

- 93 96 Demography and its bearing on population education

Nepal whereonly two percent from 2.26 to 1.74 per cent annu- of currently married women were ally andthe prospectsarethat using contraceptives. In Sri it will continue to drop. India's Lanka declining birth rates were growth rate stayed constant at noted, particularly in the under- 2.22 per cent. Kerala is reported 10 age group. WFS datashow to be one of the most successful higher fertility from 15-19 year- states of India in family planning olds in the past and lower fer- practice. The fertility rate tility in the 20-24 year-old declined not only among the rich group in the recent period. but also among the tlliterate. Estimated total fertility rates After examining the situation, show a wide range in the different the author feels the following countries of South Asia from conclusions could be arived at 8.3 to 3.8. fromthe case of Kerala: (1) A govermnent-sponsored family Descriptors: FertilityAnalysis; plarning programme can make a Comparative Analy- dent on fertility; (2) The princi- sis; Asia pal socio-economic determinants of fertility have been mortality Source: PopulationDivision decline and educationalimprove- Department of Inter- ments; (3) Land reforms and other nationalEconomic redistributive policies help to and Social Affairs spread small-family norms; (4) United Nations An increaseinage at marriage New York, N.Y. played a major role in fertility 10017 decline. The authorfeelsthe U.S.A. determinants of fertility decline in Kerala could be relevant to other Indian States.

Descriptors: Fertility Decline; Fertility Determi- nants; Socio-economic Factors; India

Source: Populi UNFPA 220 East 42nd St. 100. Zechariah, K.C. "Kerala New York, N.Y. solution or happen- 10017 stance?," Populi 10(4): 3- U.S.A. 15, 1983.

The populationgrowthrate of Kerala, a small Indian State, dropped dramatically while the rest of India's population grew. The author examines this phenomenon. Is there a lesson to be learned or is it an accident? During the 1971-1981 decade Kerala's growth rate dropped

- 94 - 97 101. Yongyuth Chalermwong. "De- The results of regression velopment of cottage indus- analysis show that female labour tries, women's labour force participation has a negative force participation, and effect on number of children ever- fertilityinruralThai- born, implying that efforts aiming land,"in: Suchart Pra- at increasing regular hours in sith-rathsint, ed. Popu- productive work among married Lation and development women in rural areas would reduce interaction in Thailand. unemployment andseasonalmigra-

Bangkok, Pappim Press, . tion, which,in turn, would lead 1983. 40 p. to fertility reduction. Family income is found to be negatively This survey research studies related to fertility. These find- the interrelationship of develop- ings support current national ment of cottage industry, woman's policies on poverty alleviation labour force participation and forthe rural population through fertility in rural Thailand. the provision of social and econ- Promotion of small-scale industry omic opportunities to allow people in rural areas has been specified to improve their income and living in the FifthNational Economic standards. and Social Development Plan as one bf the strategies used to Descriptors: Fertility Determi- alleviate rural poverty. Informa- nants; Economic tion onall types of economic Factors; FemaZe activities was collected each Employment; Thailand week for a period of12 months (from March 1980 to February Source: National Institute 1981) from 380 households in of Development 22 villages inthree provinces, Administration Khon Kaen, Roi Et, andChiang Klong Chan, Bangkapi Mai. Bangkok 10240 Thailand SECTION FIVE: MORTALITY

99 Mortality

Mortality

This section includes17 selections. They deal with mortality which refers to the incidence of death in a given population and is a major component of population change. Specifically, they describe mortality levels and trends and differentials and the factors which affect mortality. The mortality incidence can reveal much about a population's standards of living and health care.

Majority of the entries present the vital statistics such as number and rate of total deaths, infant and maternal deaths, life expectancy rate, causes of deaths and factors affecting mortality levels. Most studies have shown that there has been a decline in mortality in Asia as shown by the decrease in the values of the crude death rate and the increases in values of life expectancy at birth. One entry sums up the mortality level in Asia as it states that although socio-economic and health care interventions have reduced the death rate in South and East Asia, the mortality levels and their rate of improvement have been highly uneven between as well as within countries. Causes of deaths are also identified and, by and large, the following major causes are found common in Asia: pneumonia, diseases of the heart and tuberculosis. A discussion of mortality is also most often accompanied by an analysis of factors affecting mortality levels. The selections explain that deaths depend on various factors such as age, sex, socio-economic and political factors, rural-urban environment, environment in general and availability and accessibility of health and medical services. One study, for example, reveals that professional and white-collar workers have longer life expectancy than blue collar workers or farmers. Deaths were found higher for the non-married than the married. Also, in general it was shown that developmental factors were more important than medical factors in explaining the variance in mortality. While one study shows a negative correlation to mortality, another study shows a strong positive relationship between life expectancy and education. One study in Thailand shows that social and economic development have made a significant contribution to mortality decline, far greater than the improvement in the ratio of medical personnel to population. This also holds true with the improvement in educational systems, increasing employment in non-agricultural occupation and the process of urbanization.

About five selections focus on infant mortality. One states that infant mortality rate is considered a sensitive indicator of the socio- economic and health conditions of the community. Generally, most countries in Asia have high infant mortality rate. Studies have shown that parental ability, mother's education, availabi.lity of medical facilities andlocal community developmentlevels continued to havesignificant independent effects upon infant survival. Mother's age, parity and birth interval, length of gestation have also significant independent effects upon infant mortality. One selection also examines whether or not

- 99 - 100 Demography and its bearing on population education availability and accessibility of health services contribute to the reduction of infant mortality.

Information on mctality is mostly used and appropriately so in enriching population education contents in health education. Lessons on mortality lead to a discussion of health programmes being undertaken to reduce mortality. Before this is dealt with, however, the following mortality topics are taken up first: trends in mortality,causes of high mortality, causes of mortality decline, relation on mortality to population growth, and measures of mortality. The main entry point in health education is the unit on prevention and control of diseases where- in students are asked to gather information about the health programmes in the community, describe the health programmes aimed at reducing mortality and give opinions on how health programmes can help reduce mortality.

In mathematics, population education lessons focusing on mortality can easily be introduced in lessons that take up demographic processes and meauures through the use ofgraphical representation, operations and properties of real numbers, equation and inequalities. For example, a lesson may aim at developing the skills of the students in computing number of births and deaths per one hundred persons through births pei- total population and through deaths per total population respectively.

-1001-01 Mortality

102. Abeywickrema, K.M. "A mor- 103. Ambannavar, Jaipal, P. Popu- tality analysis of a devel- lation. Delhi, Macmillan, oping country in the demo- 1975. 122 p. (Second graphic transition, Sri Indian series). Lanka after the eradication of malaria," jouVral of This study wascommissioned the National Science Coun- by the FordFoundation. It is cil of Sri Lanka 10(2): divided into four chapters. Chap- 257-308, 14th December ter Oneand Two deal with mor- 1982. tality. The first chapteren- titled "Trends inFertilityand The author says that the Mortality in India since Indepen- demographic transitian in Sri dence" makes estimates of the Lanka was brought about quite trends in the vital rates of the dramatically through drastic population since Independence reductions in mortality caused and establishes theirlevels for by malaria. Life table methods the base year 1971, so that these are used to analyse mortality can be used for population projec- inthe ,dst ofthistransition tions later. The second chapter and to pare mortality patterns usesa component method of popu- with t of a populationused lation projection and makes esti- as a ard, the population mates of the most probable long- of the d States of America. term trends in the size and com- In this article the major causes position of India's population of death are examined to determine until such time as India's popu- which causes of mortality, if lation grows to twice itssize reduced, would raise the life in the 1971 census, that is until expectancy to that of the standard the time of the second India. population. It is concluded This section entitled"Long-term that by cutting down childhood Prospects of Population Growth" mortality alone,the male popu- has an important section of "Mor- lation could achieve a life ex- ality"entitled "Assumptionsre- pectation comparable with that garding the courseof mortality". of the U.S. The author's final It was high and fluctuating during comment is that judging from 1881-1921; it declined slowly mortality, life expectation and during 1921-51 and rapidly there- life tables, the population of after. This later decline in Sri Lanka seems to have quite mortality was achieved largely a good state of health for a through the control of famine developing country. and epidemics. After Independence therewasoverallsocio-economic Descriptors: MortalityAnalysiu; improvement and the rapid growth Demographic Tran- of public health and medical ser- sition; Causes vizes, including an extensive of Death; Sri Lanka programme for malaria eradication. Though mortality is considerably Source: National Science lower now than in the early dec- Council ades, thetougher struggle still Colombo 7 remains against nutritional de- Sri Lanka ficiency and the vulnerability to disease caused by, for example the lack of protected water. The - 101 - 102 Demography and its bearing on population education spread of mortalitydecline in constitutes cause for serious the future would depend upon and urgent concern. The mortality the prospects for improvements rates for women and children are in food production and distri- distressingly high, almost one- bution, provision of safe drinking third of the total deaths occur water in rural areas and growth among children below the age of and functioning of primary health 5 years, infant mortality is centres. around 129per thousand live births and theextent of malnu- Descriptors: Mortality Analysis; trition is so high that it often Vital Statistics; leads to mortality. India Descriptors: Mortality Analysis; Source: The Macmillan Co. Vital Statistics; of India Limited Health Services; 4 Community Centre India Naraina Industrial Area, Phase 1 Source: Centre of Social New Delhi 110028 Medicine Com- India munity Healt... School of Social Sciences Jawaharlal Nehru University New Delhi India

104. Bernerji, Debabar. Health services development in India. New Delhi, Centre of Social Medicine and Community Health, 1984. 105. Dutta, M. and P.N. Kapin. 3 p. "Trends anddifferentials in infant mortality in The mortality rate per thou- India, 1950-1978," in: sand population has been reduced Mortality in South and from 27.4 to14.8 and thelife EastAsia; review of expectancy at birth has increased changing trendsand pat- from 32.7 to over 52. A fairly terns 1950-1975. Report extensive network of dispensaries, andselected paperspre- hospitals and Institutions provid- sented at the Joint ing specialized curative care WHO/ESCAP meeting held has been developed and a large in Manila,1-5th December stock of medical and health per- 1980,n.p.,1982,p. 215- sonnel of various levels has 232. become available. In spite of such impressive progress the The infant mortality rate health picture of the country is considered a sensitiveindi-

- 102 - 103 Mortality

cator ofthesocio-economic and monitoring progress towards a health conditions of the com- betterlifefor all, and so is munity. In 1964 the annual report valuable inits context. of the Sanitary Commissioner of India showed the annual infant Descriptors:Mortality AnaZysis; mortality to beas high ae400 Infant Mortality; per thousand live births. In Causes of Death; 1978 it was 125 per thousand India live births. This is still high. Differences in the rates in the constituent states do not suggest Source: World HealthOrgan- any regional geographical pattern. ization The educational status of women, 1211 Geneva 27 and availability of water supply, Switzerland medical facilities and social amenities have an influence on the mortality of infants. The contribution of neo-natal mortality to total infant mortality has increased only marginally during the past two decades. Theleading causes of death in 106. Engracia, Luisa T. Infant the rural areas have been prema- mortality and healthser- turity, pneumonia , typhoid, vices in ruraZ Philippines. malaria,tetanusand bowel dis- A paperpresented at the eases. In the urban areas pre- 6th National Population maturity followed by infective Welfare Congress, Philip- and parasitic diseasesand dis- pineInternationalConven- eases ofthe respiratory system tion Center, Manila, Novem- constitute the main causes of ber 17, 1983. 19 p. infant mortality. The mortality rate was found to be higher for Thisstudyexamines whether both the young and relatively ornot the availability and ac- older mothers as comparedwith cessibility of health services those of the middle of the repro- contribute to the reduction of ductive age span.Women marrying infant mortality. below the age of 18 had an infant mortality rate of70 while those According to the 1978 Repub- marrying at the age of 21 or licof the Philippines Fertility over had a rate of 46. Thus Survey (EPFS), the country has there appeared to be distinct an iniant mortality rate (defined advantages in raising the age asdeaths during thefirst year at marriage,as infant mortality of life per 1000 live births) is reduced to some extent. The 51.7 and is characterized by ur- rates of urban areas were lower ban-rural differentials. Infant than rural areas. This could mortality rate in the urban areas beattributedtobetter medical is 44.9; in ruralareas it is facilities, socio-economic con- substantially higher at 65.8. ditions and animproved supply Much of this difference is due of drinking water. This article to large differences in post- deals with mortality analysis neonatal mortality (deathsafter which is a key component in the first but before the 12th - 103 - 104 Demography and its bearing on population education month of life); in urban areas 2. Among the types of health the postneonatalmortalityrate facilities' available, the is only 23.1 comparedto41.4 availability and accessibility in rural areas. In terms of of a midwife or nurse, hospi- neo-natal mortality (deaths during tal and primary care centers first month of life),the rates were found significant in in the two areas are almost simi- reducingneonatal mortality. lar: 21.8 and 24.7 for the urban Midwives and primary care and rural areas, respectively. centers are generally most Betwen neonatal and postneonatal involved in the care ofin- mortality, theformeris caused fants, andthis may explain by endogenous factors (birth their influence in determining injuries, congenital malformation) the survival of the newborn. whilethe latter ismainly due The presence of hospitals to exogenous or environmental may have led mothers to avail factors (e.g. sanitation) and of theirservices forchild are therefore sensitive to medi- delivery and even forpost- cal, nutritionalandchildcare partum maternal and child factors. care.

Usingdata mainly fromthe 3. For postneonatal mortality, 1978 RPFS, the study examines only the services of a health the possible effects of the avail- worker and a hospital proved ability and accessibility of to have an impact on the health services and several socio- rate of neonatal deaths. economic variables on infant mortality. The socio-economic The findings indicate the variables considered are: mother's importance of the availability education and father's acceptance and accessibility ofhealth ser- at the individual level, and vices in reducing infant mortality presence/availability of elec- rate. Sincemajority of rural tricity and an indoor toilet residents still live in areas at the household level. The analy- that lack health facilities or sis is limited to rural barangays. are farfrom them,much remains to be done before the country Here are the findings: can realize its objective of providing health for each Filipino. 1. None of the socio-economic variables showed significant Descriptors: Infant Mortality; effects on neonatal mortality Health Services; while with respect to post- Philippines neonatal mortality, education proved to have a dominant effect.

1. Refers to doctor, midwife/ nurse, traditional birth attendant, health worker, hospital,primary care centre and dispensaryordrugstore. - 104 - 105 Mortality

Source: Commission onPopu- 9 to a low of9.6per thousand lation in Region 3 and 4. SWADCAPP Building Off Villamor Inter- Life expectancy at birth change alsovariedacross the regions. Makati, Metro Manila In Regions 3 and 4,life expect- Philippines ancy at birth was 62 years while in Mindanao, lifeexpectancy at birth was less than 50 years for males and around 50 for females. Variations in mortality can also be noted at the provincial level. High mortality prevailed in many 107. Flieger, Wilhelm, and others. provinces of Northern Luzon, the On the road to longevity: Visayas, andMindanao. Low mor- 1970 national, regionaZ tality prevailed in the provinces and provincial mortality of Central and Southern Luzon. estimates for the Philip- pines. Cebu City, San Improvements inthePhilip- Carlos Publications, 1981. pine mortality situation have been rapid and significant over the Most available Philippine past years. Variations in re- mortality estimateswereunder- gional and provincial mortality taken based on the assumption indicate that the entire popu- that the mortality level is uni- lation has not been able to share form throughout the country. in these improvement. Thus, most estimates were prepared for the country as a whole, and Descriptors:DifferentiaZ Mor- few were donefor theregional tality; Mortality and provincial levels. The pre- Analysis; Philippines sent study departed from this common practice by presenting Source: San Carlos Publi-' mortality estimates for the Phi- cations lippines and for its geographical San Carlos Uni- sub-division (regions and pro- versity vinces). Cebu City Philippines Thecrude death rate estimated for 1970 is 11.5 for males, 10.2 for females and 10.8 for both sexes. A comparison of theseestimates with thosepre- pared for 1960 when they stood at 13.7 males and 11.8 for females would show an overall mortality decline of 15 per cent. The 1970 mortality estimates also indicate substantial regional differentials. The crude death rates varied from a high of 14.2 per thousand population in Region

- 105 - 106 Demography ahd its bearing on population education

108. Frenzen, P.D. and Demix Source: Population Associ- P. Hogan. "The impact ation of America of class education, and 806 15th St., N.W. health care on infant Washington, D.C. mortality in a developing 20005 society: the case of U.S.A. rural Thailand," Demogra- phy 19(3): 391-408, August 1982.

Demographic and socio-economicfactors affecting mortality in ruralNorthern Thailandare examined using lag-linear mod- ified multiple regression models and data drawn from a representa- 109. Govind, Ram Agrawal and tive sample of married couples Rajendra Prasad Shrestha. in Chiang Mai and Chiang Rai Health care system in provinces. It was found that Nepal. Kathmandu, Centre the same demographic factors for Economic Development that affect infant survival in and Administration, 1984, other populationG did so in this p. 1-6. population. Mother's age, parity and birth interval, length of The Introduction to this gestation, and experience of booklet and the section entitled pregnancy loss had significant "Health Care System in Nepal" independent effects uponinfant gives the picture of mortality mortality. An infant's year in the country. Although health of birth was also significantly facilitiesare low, the efforts related to infant mortality. made in the past two decades However an infant's sex did not have resulted in a decline of affect its chances of survival mortality. Life expectancy is in Northern Thailand. only 46 years, the crude death rate is 22.2 and the infant mor- Parental ability, measured tality rate is 133.6 per 1000 by father's social class, mother's life births. Female infant mor- health information, and local tality is muchhigherthanthe community development levels, male, which is indicative of bet- continued to have significant ter carefor sons in this small independent effects uponinfant mountainous country. Another survival. Parental willingness, reason for high mortality is that measured by parents beliefs about only a very small percentage of inter-generational wealth tran- the country's population is within sfers, no longer had a significant five miles distance of modern effect net on other social vari- health services. ables, but infant survivalwas still affected bywhether both Descriptors: Mortality Analysis; parents wanted a birth ornot. Health Services; Nepal Descriptors: Infant Mortality; Socio-economic Fac- tors; Thailand - 101-07 Mortality

Source: Centre for Economic tality differentials and very Development and substantial urban-rural mortality Administration differences in Thailand. They Tribhuvan Univer- also reveal substantial socio- sity, Kirtipur economic differentialsininfant Kathmandu and childmortalityand suggest Nepal that theoverall level would be considerably reducedif thesame health care were provided for the ruraland socio-economically disadvantaged populations as is apparently enjoyed by the numeri- cally small, advantaged groups in urban areas.

Descriptors: Infant Mortality; 110. Knodel, John and Apichat Child Mortality; Chamratrithirong. Infant Mortality Analysis; and child mortality in Thailand Thailand: level, trends, and differentials as Source: East-West Population derived through indirect Institute estimation techniques. East-West Center Honolulu,East-West Popu- Honolulu, Hawaii lation Institute, 1978. 96848 (EWPI paper no. 57) U.S.A.

The application of techniques designed to estimate indirectly the levels of infantand child mortality from survey and census data on the proportion dead among children ever bornpermits one to expand substantially one's knowledge of trends and differentialsininfant and child mor- 111. Mahmud, Siraj Ul Hag. Primary tality in Thailand. The registra- health care in Pakistan. tion data are seriously deficient. Islamabad, Planning and Although the indirect estimation Development Division, 1983, techniques may under-estimate p. 23-26. mortality to some extent, compari- sonswith independent estimates The health situation in Paki- derived from a dual record system stan is characterized bya high approach suggest that the discrep- birth rate, high infant mortality, ancies are generally quite mod- high child mortality and high erate. maternal mortality. The crude death rate which was 40/1000 in Results from the study con- the early sixties has now declined firm a trend toward lower infant tothepresent rateof 11/1000. and child mortality over the The main causes of death are in- recent past as well as the exist- fections and respirator! diseases, ence of moderateregionalmor- accidents, malignant Lumoursand

- 107 - 108 Demography and its bearing on population education tuberculosis. With regard to This monograph is written children about 10 percentdie for theWorld FertilitySurvey, before reaching the age of 5 an international research pro- years. Pakistan thus loses about gramme to assess the current state 700,000 children of this age of human fertility throughout group annually. This is an alarm- i:he world. It assesses the probing situation. The main causes lem of infant and child mortality, ofdeath ofchildren arediar- and traces mortality trends in rhoea, pneumonia, low birth weight the country. There is also a and inadequate care of children, search for causes and comments mainly owing to ignorance of on the rapid mortality decline mothers. Health education of in Sri Lanka in the immediate mothers should be an important post-war years. The factors af- priorityin the primaryhealth fecting mortality which are ana- care programme in Pakistan. lysed here are: (1) Demographic; (2) Economic andpolitical; (3) Descriptors: MortalityAnalysis; Environmental; (4) Medical and Causes of Death; health care; (5) Cultural; and Health Services; (6) Geographic. The evidence Pakistan points to malnutrition among mothers, lack of ante-natal care, Source: Planning and Devel- .lack of trained midwives and a opment Division low level of institutional births Government of Paki- as accounting for the high infant stan mortalityrates onthe estates. Islamabad It isalsofoundthatthere is Pakistan a high level of neo-natal deaths as compared with other countries.

Descriptors: Infdnt Mortality; Child Mortality; Causes of Death; Socio-cconomic Fac- tors; Sri Lanka

Source: The International Statistical In- stitute 428 Prinses Bea- trixlaan Voorbilrg, The Hague 112. Meegama, S.A.Socio-economic The Netherlands determinants of infdnt and child mortality in Sri Lanka: an analysis of post-war experience. The Hague, International Statistical Institute, 1980. 55 p. (Scientific reports no. 8)

- 108 - 109 Mortality

113. "Mortality in Asia," W.H.O. declines with increases in the Chronicle 35(5): 161- mothers' educational levels in 200, /981. Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka and Thailand. Paternal education Although socio-economic has also an important, though and health care interventions slightly smaller impact. The have reducedthe death rate in food crises recorded in Bangladesh South and East Asia, the mortality and Sri Lanka in the mid 'seven- levels and their rate of improve- ties were accompanied by about ment have been highly uneven 100 per cent increase in mortality between as well as vithin coun- mnonginfants, childrenand the tries. Life expectancy at birth aged. Infact, specific health varies from 50 years in Nepal policies will have to be con- to 70 years in Japan. In Sri sidered to alleviate the problems Lanka where there has been a of disadvantaged and high-risk multi-pronged attack on disease, groups. the decline in mortality continues unabated but in Bangladeshand Descriptors: Mortality Analysis; India mortality has decreased Infant Mortality; at a slower rate, while death Causes of Death; rates are high. The class struc- Health Services; ture of the poor peasants weighs Asia heavily against social changes and militates against the accept- Source: World HealthOrgan- ance of new medical technologies. ization Infant mortality, has similar 1211 Geneva 27 inter-country variations. A Switzerland map shows infant mortality in South and East Asia. The mortality rate varies from under 25 infantdeaths per 1000live births to over 100 infant deaths per 1000 live births. The major health problems remained by and large the same between the 1950s and the 1970s. The eradication of smallpox has been a positive step forward and the resurgence of malaria has been a retrogade 114. Osman, Haider Chowdhery. step. Malnutrition, diarrhoeal A country paperon primary diseases and communicable diseases heaZth care, sanitation, have been persistent. The rapid nutrition andenvironmen- growth of cancer, cardiovascular taZpollutionin Bangta- diseases and aecidents have been desh. Dhaka, Bangladesh alarming in the past decade. Institute of Development There are also drastic variations Studies, 1984. in age and sexgroupings with regard to mortality. In Bangla- Section IVin the book desh mortality among children "Health Conditions in Bangladesh" in the under 5-year age groun gives a picture of disease leading is very high among the poor. tomortality. Table 5 gives The level of child mortality "Generalideas of health in

- 109 - 110 Demography and its bearing on popultion education

Bangladesh". Infant mortality children fertility estimates by is 140 per 1000 live births, generatingandcomparingseveral child mortalityis 23per 1000 sets of own-children fertility live births and maternal mortality estimates from the 1970 Census is 30 per 1000 live births. of Thailand,based on three dif- Neo-natal mortality rate is80. ferent mortality assumptions: The crude deathrate is 16.75 (1) mortality was constant during and the crude birth rate is 43.25. the 15 years previous to the 1970 Life expectancy at birth is only Census at specifiedlevels; (2) 47years. Thegeneral feature mortalityconforms toa set of of the health situation are in- changing life tables, the esti- dicative of a verypoor level mates in these cases deriving of health by almost all indices from different calculations. - clinical,demographic and nu- Toillustratethe impact ofthe tritional. The crude death rate different mortality assumptions, is very high, although there own-children fertility estimates is a wide variation according are examined by region, rural- to age and income group. urban residence, and education. It was foundthatthe error in Descriptors: MortalityAnalysis; own-children fertility estimates Causes of Death; caused by using constant mortality Vital Statistics; is small, less than 2% for Thai- Bangladesh land. The error in regional fertility estimates is also2% or Source: Bangladesh Institute less, and the errors in residence- of Development specific and education-specific Studies fertilityestimates are also Adamjee Court, small,-less than 5 and 8%. Unfor- Motijheel C.A. tunately, the assumption of simi- Dhaka 2 lar mortality across geographic Bangladesh .sub-divisions and socio-economic characteristics results in errors of own childrenfertilityesti- mates for these factors that are not directional. Given the positive association between mortality and fertility levels,the result shows that fertilitylevels are usually underestimated. Although absolute errors in estimates fertility differentials are small, 115. Ratherford, R. and others. relative errors are frequently "The impact of alternative large. mortality assumptions on own-children estimates Descriptors:Mortality Analysis; of fertility for Thai- DifPrential Fer- land," Asia and Pacific tility; Thailand Census Forum 6(3): 5- 8, February 1980.

This paper attempts to assess the general magnitude of own-

110 - 1 1 1 Mortality

Source: East-West Population that with themanydefects in Institute the health care system, the popu- East-West Center lation is fortunate to have access Honolulu, Hawaii to services less than 8 miles 96822 from any home. One in every U.S.A. 200 Sri Lankans is engaged (full or part-time) in the health industry. There isa set of future manpower requirements for an optimumhealthprogramme. The study stresses the need for integration of the Western and Ayur- vedicsystemsso as to control morbidity and further lowermor- tality rates in the island.

Descriptors: Health Services; 116. Simeonov, L.A. Better health ProgrammeManpower; for Sri Lanka. New Delhi, Sri Lanka World Health Organization, 1975. 315 p. (Report Source: World Health Organ- on a health manpower ization, Regional study). Office for South East Asia The factual base for this Indraprastha Estate, book was provided by the National Ring Road Health Manpower Study. The study New Delhi 110001 begins with a short review of India the geo-physical characteristics of Sri Lanka, its history, population, ethnic groups, social system,education, labourforce, employment and the national economy. There is also a review of the existing health care services, which include the state and the private sectors and western and indigenous practices. The author then goes on to discuss the rapidgrowth of population 117. Suchart Prasith-rathsint, and the decrease in mortality and others. Socio- which has notbeen followed by economic correlates an adequate decrease in fertility. of mortality in Thailand. The major diseases are respiratory Singapore, Institute diseases, malaria, T.B., leprosy, of Southeast Asia filaria, V.D. andbowel infec- Studies, 1984. 40 p. tions. Anaemia and malnutrition also present major problems. In this study, data are A number of tables giving details derived from various sources of healthmanpower in relation such as the 1970 and 1980 Popu- to disease problems are presented. lationand Housing Censuses of The author comes to the conclusion the National Statistical Office,

- 111 - 4. 112 Demography and its bearing on population education

Reports of the Division of Regis- been argued thatthe improvement tration, Department of Local in medical service will become Administration, Ministry of Inte- a crucial factor affecting a de- rior, and reports of the Division clinain mortality only when it of Health Statistics, Ministry is of a sufficiently critical of Public Health. volume and has an adequate coverage to benefit the rural people. The analysis is divided At present,the ratio of medical into 3 parts. The firstpart personnel to population is too uses hierarchical regression low to reach thegreat majority of cross-sectional data with of theThaipeople wholive in time lag on some of the indepen- the rural areas and thus affect dent variables. The second part a significant decline in mor- employs hierarchical regression tality. Investment in public analysis of change in the values health yields more benefits than of the independent and dependent investment in medical field. variables. The final one uses path analysis of the causal order- Descriptors: Mortality Analysis; ing of all the variables involved. Socio-economic Fac- The independent variables were tors; Health Ser- grouped into six sets. These vices; Mortality are health,rural-urban environ- Decline; Thailand ment, educational, economic, household environment and demogra- Source: Instituteof South- phic variables. Thedependent east Asian Studies variablesare crude death rate, Heng MuiKeng Ter- and infant mortality Northand race, Pasir Pan- West Models. jang Singapore 0511 The results of data analysis Republic of Singapore showed that socialandeconomic development in recent years have made a significant contribution to mortality decline far graater than the improvement in the ratio of medical personnel to population. Improvement in the Thai educational system, increasing employment in non-agricultural occupations, and the process of urbanization with the concomi- tant provision of public utilities 118. Zablan, Zelda C. "Trends are major factors that affect and differentials in mor- mortality decline in the past tality," in: Mercedes decade. B. Concepcion, ed. Popu- lation of the Philippines: In addition it has been current perspectives and found that general improvement future prospects. Manila, in public health services contrib- National Economic and utes more to a recent mortality Development Authority, decline than the improvements 1983, p. 78-111. in medical field. It has also - 112 - 113 Mortality

Various measures of mortality education was found to be such as the crude deathrate, negatively related to mor- age-specific death rate, infant tality. Death rates were mortality rate and life expectancy found higher for the non- at birth are used in this study married than the married. toexamine mortality trends and Single, widowed, separated, differentials in the Philippines. and divorced males were found Data weredrawn from thevital more disadvantaged than their registration system, surveys, female counterparts. and censuses conducted at differ- rent time periods. 4. Analysis of the relative effects of medical and develop- The major findings are: mental factors on mortality showed that in general, devel- 1. There has been a decline opmental factors were more in mortality in thePhilip- important than medical factors pines as shown by: the decline in explaining the variance in the values of crude death in mortalityacrossregional rate, age-specific death sub-divisions of the country. rate, and infant mortality Among thedevelopmental fac- rate; and the increases in tors considered, only literacy values of life expectancy showed a statistically sig- at birth. Thecrude death nificant relationship with rate was put at 58.0 in 1913 life expectancy at birth. and 8.7 in 1975; five-year average infant mortality Dotriptors: Differential Mor- rates of 157.3 for every tality; VitalStat- 1000 live births from 1926 istics; Philippines to 1930 and 58.1 per 1000 live births in 1973-77. Soorce: National Economic Life expectancy at birth and Development was recorded at 56.5 in 1965 Authority and 61.6 in 1980. Amber Avenue, Pasig Metro Manila 2. The general increase in life Philippines expectancy at birth were not uniformly observed across geographic and soció-economic sub-groups of the country. Metro Manila, Ilocos, Mt. Province, and CentralLuzon maintained positions of ad- vantage relative to the average national life expectancy at birth over observation periods starting from 1965.

3. Professionals and white- collar workers have longer life expectancy than blue- collar workers or farmers. Of the variables studied, - 113 - 114 .: SECTION SIX: MORBIDITY

115 Morbidity

Morbidity

Eight selections are abstracted in this section. They deal with morbidity which refers to diseases and illness in a population. The materials specifically present morbidity trends and patterns, their determinants and consequences.

Six of the eight selections present statistics on morbidity incidence showing in some cases the top ten leading causes of morbidity. For example, in the Philippines, one selection identifies these to include influenza,gastroenteritis, colitis, tuberculosis, pneumonia, malaria, dysentery, measles, whooping cough, malignant neoplasm and infectious hepatitis. The causes of morbidity in all thc countries of South Asia are similar,although disease occurs at varying levels of intensity. Malnutrition, resurgence of malaria, diarrhoeal and respiratory diseases have dominated the health scenario from the 1970s, while cardiovascular diseases have emerged recently as a health problem. The profile or characteristics of those who get certain types of diseases are described in terms of age, occupation and socio-economic variables. One selection pinpoints what type of disease is most prevalent in certain areas of the country. Multivariate analysis has also been used by some studies to determine the factors that affect the morbidity rate or incidence. The findings show the following factors: age, environmental conditions such as quality of drainage and ventilation, pollution, traditional beliefs and health knowledge,demographicand socio-economic characteris,ics. Two abstracts look into the causes of morbidity in the context of health programme such as lack of health facilities and severe shortage of medical personnel. They also discuss how better primary health care can improve the morbidity situation. Among the health strategies that are recommended in some of these selections are: sanitation programmes, diarrhoeal diseases control programmes, more comprehensive primary health care,epidemiology,maternaland child health care, etc. Two entries also cover infant mortality and health problems and morbidity patterns of adolescents in urban communities.

Information on morbidity underscores the significant role that health education can play in reducing morbidity. In this context, the importance of including morbidity in the curriculum guide for health gains attention specially when students are made to realize the necessity for health and health measures through a discussion of morbidity and mortality vis-a-vis population. Morbidity data,a discussion of health situation in the country inc lack of required services, personnel and facilities can be related , discussion of family size at the micro level and overpopulation at the macro level. The entry point for these concepts in health education can be the unit on hygiene for the individual and the community. This unit can make the pupils understand the

- 117 - 116 Demography and its bearing on population education principles of personal hygiene and to inculcate in them the habit of maintaining personal hygiene;to understand the impact of personal hygiene on community hygiene and its role in the promotion of national health and prevention of diseases and morbidity. Morbidity

119. Cruz-Cailao, Regina M. was inversely related to the in- "The health problems terval between age at menarche and morbidity patterns and the girl's actual age. The of Filipino adolescents shorter the interval, the greater inanurbanpopulation the occurrence of irregular - the primary health menses. The study failed to de- care approach," Journal termine the pubertal changes among of Pediatrics 28(3): 100- the male respondents. 110, May-June 1979. The KAP survey yielded these sig- A primary health care facili- nificant findings: ty for adolescents in Metro Manila was set up. The core staff con- 1. Health status was regarded sists of a full-time physician- satisfactory by 64.4 per cent coordinator, three pediatricians, ofthe respondents;16.3 per a nurse-midwife, and a part- cent rated their health status time child psychiatrist. good; while 9.6 per cent said they have poor health status. A studywas made of 124 adolescents (43 males and 81 2. Fifty three per cent felt females)in the10-20 age group their weights were just right; who availed of theservices of 12 percent, overweight, and the unit within a 12-month period 37 per cent underweight. (January-December 1977). A com- plementary study of preliminary 3. Parents were most often sought data from the knowledge-attitude- by younger adolescents for practice survey was also conducted advice, while peers were most to determine the areas of concern often sought by late ado- that may not be detected in the lescents. clinic-based study. A. total of 124 normal adolescents (60 4. Some problems that caused per cent females and 40 per cent most anxiety among the respon- males) served as respondents. dents are those related to school work, family relation- The flaper reports on the ship, self-identity, am- findings of the clinic-based bitions, health, religion, study andthe KAPsurvey. The peer relationships, and money. clinic-basedstudyreveals that 28 per cent of the girls inter- Based on these findings, viewed had notexperienced men- the author recommends a practical arche, andall were within the approach to meet the needs of early adolescent age group; 72 adolescents. This approach would per cent of the girls hadhad "consist of utilizing existing menarche, the youngest being services and traditional means 10 years old and the oldest, of access to adolescent population 21. Around 25 per cent ofthe to deliver not only curative but girls experienced menarche at also preventive and rehabilitative age 12, and 17.3 per cent at measures." age 11. Menarche at adolescence was significantly low at 3.7 Descriptors: Health Services; per cent. The study found that KAP; Adolescents; regular menses of the respondents Ailippines

- 119 118 Demography and its bearing on population education

Source: Philippine Journal protein undernutrition. Infant of Pediatrics mortality hasgone down from Philippine Medical 72/1000 live birthsin 1977 to Association 60.4/1000 live births in 1982. North Avenue The five leading causes of mor- Quezon City tality in infants under one month Philippines of age were birth injuries, asphy- xia and infections of newborn, immaturity, pneumonia, congenital malformation and congenital de- bility.

Data also indicate an in- creasein life expectancy. An infant born in1977isexpected tolive an average of 61 years, while a childbornin 1982 is expectedto live anaverage of 120. Cuyugan-Belmonte, Carmelite. 63 years. The author considered "Child health in the Phi- breastfeeding and immunization lippines," Philippine as means through which infant Journal of Pediatrics mortality can be reduced. There 32(4): 141-170, October- is a prevalence of undernourish- December, 1983. ment among children. The combined number of moderately and severely Data on the status of child undernourished pre-school children health in the Philippines are dropped from 2.2 million in 1978 presented in this article. to 2 million in 1980, andthat of moderately and severely under- In 1960, therewere 15.76 nourished school children from million children (0-20 years) 2.7 million in 1978 to 2.1 million in the Philippines. Of these in 1980. Dataalso indicate a 15.76 million, 6.64 million were positive correlation between in the 0-6 age group, 5.92 million child's weight and family income, in the 7-14 age group and 3.38 and child's height and family million in the 15-20 age group. income. In 1980, child population stood at 26.40 million, 9.86 million Theauthorsets forthcon- of which were 0-6 years old, ditions which can help improve 9.85 million, 7-14 years, and the situation of the Filipino 6.69 million, 15-20 years old. children. Primary health care, coupled with socio-economic devel- Data revealed that the five opment and education can help leading causes of morbidity among reduce the critical problems of children for the 1980-82period health and nutrition among Filip- were pneumonia, bronchitis, tuber- ino children. culosis, and gastroenteritis. During the same period, the causes Descriptors: Child Health; Causes of hospitalization among children of Morbidity; Infant were identified as pneumonia, Mortality; Life gastroenteritis, neonatal sepsis, Expectancy; Philip- bronchitis, asthma and energy pines - 120- 119 Morbidity

Source: Philippine Journal eases seem to be ineffective and of Pediatrics parasitic diseases. There has Philippine Medical been a rise in hospital morbidity Association in 1978-1979 which has been mainly North Avenue due to the rise in complications Quezon City of pregnancy. Table 3 gives hos- Philippines pital morbidity patterns in different periods. The distribution of hospitals favours the urban areas while a large proportion ofthe population live in rural areas.

Descriptors:Health Services; Causes ofMorbidity; Nepal

Source: TribhuvanUniversity 121. Govind, Ram Agrawal and Kathmandu Rajendra Prasad Shrestha. Nepal Morbidity. Kathmandu,Tri- bhuvan University, 1984, p. 3-9.

The health status of the people is low. Safe wateris available only to a limited extent. In the rural areas only 5.2 per cent of the rural population had access to potable drinking water. The majority of people are deprived of health 122. Indian Council of Medical facilities. Thereis a severe Research. Health for shortage of medical personnel. all; an alternative strat- The doctor/population ratio in gy, New Delhi, Indian 1980 was 1:32267. There are Council of Medical Re- no hospital beds in 13 mountainous search and Indian Council and 9 hill districts. Women of Social Science Re- in Nepalare marriedearly and search, 1980, 156 p., becomepregnant inadolescence. appendices. There is great risk of complications in childbirth. Diphtheria, This report states that the tetanus, whooping cough, diar- objectives of the national health rhoea, malnutrition and other policy should be to provide health infactious diseases are widely for all bytheyear 2000. If prevalent and constitute the this goal istobe realized, a major causes of morbidity. Table major programme for the develop- 2 gives the incidence of communi- mentof health care services is cable diseases. Complications necesary, supported by a programme of pregnancy account for the innutritionandimprovement in major load of hospital morbidity. the environment and healthedu- The second largest group of dis- cation. Specific programmes -121 - 120 Demography and its bearing on population education

should be developed tor nutri- Descriptors: Health Policy ; tional disorders such as iron Health Services; deficiency, anaemia, vitamin India A and iodine deficiencies. Com- municable diseases still form Source: Indian Council of the largestcause of morbidity Social Services, and mortality in India,and the Research and Medi- fight against them should be cal Research continued with greater vigour New Delhi in the comingyears. By 2000 India AD the object should be to control the majordiseases: diarrhoeal diseases, tetanus, diphtheria, hydrophobia, poliomyelitis, tuberculosis, malaria, filariasis and leprosy. The priority areas in research should be primary health care, epidemiology, communicable disease with special emphasis on diarrhoea, indigenous medicine, health implications of industrial development and 123. Layo, Leda L. "Morbidity family planning. There has been and the Philippine welfare a steady decline in the death in the year 2000," in: rate from 27.4 in1941 to1951 Population, resources, to15.2 in 1971-1981. However, environment andthePhi- mortality rates among children lippine future; a final are still high. IMR is 120 per report. Volume IV-I thousand live births, which is DAP/UPSE/UPPI, p. 208- higher than in Sri Lanka, a small 381. island. Although small pox has been eradicated and cholera and The first section of this malaria are controlled, the over- report presents a conceptual all picture of morbidity has framework for the study and under- not changed much. In both mor- standing of morbidity issues that bidity and mortality there are arerelevant to the year 2000. variationsfrom state to state, This was done through a selective Kerala being a very lowinfant and intensive review of literature mortalityandothers very high. on the determinants of morbidity Theintegrated programmeofde- patterns. The findings of the velopment to be pursued within studies reviewed lend support the next 20 years should be basi- to the major proposition pre- cally aimed atreducing poverty sented: that morbity is a func- and inequality and improving tion of demographic, socio-econ- the status of women, children omic, cultural, environmental and deprived groups. The appen- and medical care factors. Morbity dices carry detailed information problems, therefore, should be of the health serv'ces ofIndia viewedwith this holistic per- and health statistics. spectives.

122 - 121 Morbidity

The secondsectJ.ou examines Data from the health survey existing Philippine data OA zor- reveal that diseases of the res- bidity and the morbidity p7oblems piratory system is the leading existing at the national, regional illness of the population, com- and provincial levels. The ten prising about 30 per cent of all leading causes of morbidity were acute illnesses. Of the chronic found to be influenza, gastro- illnesses, arthritis and rheuma- enteritis and colitis, tuber- tism were found to be most preva- culosis, pneumonia, malaria, lent. Blindness and deafness dysentry, measles, whooping cough, were found to be the most frequent malignant neoplasm and infectious physical disabilities present hepatitis. The author brings in the household. Data also in- out the need gor a national per- dicate thatof all morbidity spective plan for health. It cases, acute illness is ex- is just as important, however, perienced most by the households. tohave regional andprovincial This is followed by chronic ill- perspective health plans since ness, physical disability and there are special morbidity prob- accidents. lems which are not common to all. Healtheducation at the Following are the findings masslevelis also recommended. of the multivariate analyses: Health education, ifeffective, (1) Age isthe most significant can bea vital factor that can predictor of morbidity in house- raisethe health status of the holds. For total and acute ill- population. nesses, the most significant predictor is the number of children The third sectionprovides 0-5 years old; (2) For chronic a brief description of the health illnesses, the most significant survey that was conducted in predictor is the number of house- 1975. It discusses the distri- hold members over64 years old; bution and prevalence of morbidity (3) The second best predictors problems based on this survey of morbdity are the environmental and presents the results ofthe variables ofquality of drainage multivariate analyses that were and quality of ventillation; (4) doneinorder to determinethe Traditional health beliefs and predictors of morbidity. The health knowledge have a consistent health survey involved interviews positive although small effect of a randomly selected national on morbidity, particularly total sample of 3,000 households. and acute illnesses. Traditional The interviews investigated res- health beliefs and low health pondents' (a) morbidity experi- knowledge were found to be direct- ence, i.e., acute illness, chronic ly related to total illnesses illness and accidents, and physi- in the household; (5) Levels of cal disabilities; (b) use of educationhigher thanelementary and reactionstoward health per- education appears to have a slight sonnel and facilities;(c) health negative effect on total and chro- beliefs and knowledge and (d) nic illnesses. demographic, socio-economic and environmental characteristics Descriptors: Health Conditions; thatwerehypothesized to have Health Surveys; a significant impact on morbidity. Health Policy: Phi- pines

- 123 122 Demography and its bearing on population education

Source: University of the immunisation and assistance at Philippines childbirthby trainedbirth at- School ofEconomics tendants as well asan extension Diliman, Quezon programme calculated to combat City communicable diseases. Philippines Descriptors:Causes of Morbidity; HeaZth Policy.;Paki- stan

Source: Planning and Develnp- ment Division Ministry of Health Islamabad Pakistan

124. Mahmud, Siraj Ul Hag. Pri- mary health care in Paki- stan. Islamabad, Planning and Development Division, Ministry ofHealth, 1983.

A chapter of this book, "Current Situation of Health Status" gives details of morbidity. The disease pattern 125. Philtppines. Ministry of is characterised by high morbidity Healt'+. Disease Intelli- owing to infectious and communi- gence Center. 1978 Ph-tZip- cable diseases. The most common pine heaZth .:tatistics.Ma- illnesses among children are nila, 1982. measles,whooping cough, tetanus and diarrhoeal diseases. It The 1978 Philippine Health is estimated that 1.6 mil-ion Ftatistics contains data on noti- persons have radiologically active tLable diseases based on informa- T.B. and seven per cent of child- tion gathered by field health ren'ess than five years of age personneland submitted to pro- exhibit third degree malnutrition. vincial and city health officers. Other nutritional problems include The officers then submit these anaemia and goitre. Cardio- data to the Disease Intelligence vascular diseases have emerged Center where such data are edited, recently as a public health prob- classified, compiled, analysed, lem. Cancer is rapidly becoming and interpreted. a major cause of mo Mental disorders affect atleast The 1968-1978 period saw one per centof the popCation. a continuous decline in the inci- The major health proW. are denceof deaths from notifiable alsoanalysed. The Sixth Plan diseases, except all forms of for Pakistan provides promise tuberculosis, infectiousencepha- of an improved health strtus litis, malignant neoplasms, and as there is emphasis on the con- influenza. During the same trol of diarrhoeal diseases, period, the incidence of typhoid

- 124 - 123 Morbidity and paratyphoid fever, gonococcal 126. Wijesooriya, Nihal, G.Devel- infections, and infectious hepa- opment of primary heaZth titis increased. The incidence care in Sri Lanka. Colombo, of malaria, rabies, whooping MinistryofHealth, 1983, cough, and tetanus decreased. p. 55-60. Measles and influenza exhibited irregular trendsonaccount of Recent socio-economic, nu- out-breaks at almost yearly inter- tritional and health-related vals. Malignantneoplasms, on studies have brought out the prob- the other hand, consistently lems of a hard core of poor, esti- increase inincidence and mor- mated at about 10-15 per cent tality. of the population. This group of people benefits from the food Data on age distribution stampa scheme (income support) of thecases of notifiable dis- but are outside the reach of most eases show that the diseases of the routineservicesand fa- were associatedwithparticular cilitiesincludinghealth. The age groups. Somewere mostly levels of the health status, nu- confined to youngerage groups. trition and health services cover- Among these were diphtheria, age are worst amongst this group. measles, whooping cough, vari- With regard to nutrition there cella, poliomyelities, acute is a paradoxical situation; the infectious encepha/ites, gastro- high incidence of infant and enteritis, and H-fever. A few childhood malnutrition, side by of them, such as tuberculosis, side with low and decreasing in- leprosy and malignant neoplasms, fant andchild mortalityrates. were confined to older age groups. About 10 per cent of children six monthstofive years suffer Notifiable diseases :ere from acute malnutrition. This aluiost evenly distributed through- brings out the need to add further out the country, with a few excep- dimensions to nutrition-associated tions. For instance, schistoso- programmes. Although malaria miasis was highly endemic in has been controlled to some extent Health Regions 8, 9, 10, 11 and there has been a resurgence in 12. Filariasis was prevalent the seventies. With the translo- in Health Region 8,and malaria cation of people in the new agri- affected mostlyhinterlands and cultural schemes there is poten- newly opened settlement areas. tial for a seriousoutbreak of malaria. Acutediarrhoeal dis- Descriptors: Diseases, Philip- eases have continued to be an pines important group in relation to both morbidity and mortality. Source: Ministry of Health All the diseases in this group San Lazaro Compound are water-borne and it is essen- Rizal Avenue tial that potable water should Manila be supplied to the population. Philippines There have been intermittant epidemics of El Tor and Cholera with a considerable number ofdeaths. The perspectives for the future, however,are bright with the on- going supply and sanitation pro- - 125 - 124 Demography and its bearing on population education grammes. A diarrhoeal diseases Descriptors:Health Conditions; controlprogramme is also being Sri Lanka implemented with support from foreign agencies. This publica- Source: Ministry of He.alth tion gives a comprehensive report Colombo ofthe current healthsituation Sri Lanka in the country.

125

- 126 - SECTION SEVEN: NUPTIALITY

126 Nuptiality

Nuptiality

There are eight selections in this section. They include studies dealing with nuptiality which refers to the incidence, characteristics and dissolution ot marriages in population. Marriage is considered as one of the important factors affecting population growth. Marriage is regarded as appropriate for the bearing and rearing of children. Thus, the demographic significance of marriage lies to a considerable extent on its being a primary determinant of the poiential childbearing period, on its being one of the most significant factors responsible for changes in the fertility trend.

The selections here cover two basicissues aboutnuptiality: the vital statistics on marriage patterns and factors affecting nuptiality levels. Five selections which deal with the vital statistics on nuptiality includes a discussion on number and rate of marriage, mean age of marriage for male and female, availability of males and females at marriageable age, sex imbalance, incidence of widow and widower and divorce rate. Based on these data, marriage patterns have emerged. By and large, there is a discernible trend of rising age at marriage in Asia. Of the countries in South Asia, Sri Lanka does not follow the usual marriage patterns. Sri Lanka is characterized by a relatively late timing of marriage both for males and females and relatively high percentage of spinsterhood or celibacy. These publications also report that in other Asian countries, there is still relatively earlier marriage. One entry shows that in the Philippines, the marriage pattern is characterized by a rise in the proportion of singles, a decline in the proportion marrying in the younger ages and a decline in the proportion marrying during the late childbearing ages.

Three selections deal with the many factors that cause the variations in marriage patterns. These entries state that age at marriage was found to be influenced by the following factors: occupation, income, education, religion, place of residence, socio-economic factors, caste consideration and dowry in the case of South Asia. Variables which were observed to delay entry into marriage include education and women's work experience before marriage. Two selections confirm the finding that women in urban areas, with higher education and belonging to a household with higher socio-economic status prefer to postpone marriage. The husband's occupation and education also emerged as significant predictor of age at marriage of older women, one publication reports. Another entry also points out that women whose fathers were in clerical, professional and administrative occupations married later than other women.

- 129- 127 Demography and its bearing on population education

Information about nuptiality can provide useful input into programmes of population education. For example, the finding on education as promoting delayed marriage can be useful to programme administrators asa basisfor developing population education strategies which will further enhance the role of education in increasing the age at marriage. Education affects female marriage in several ways. To be able to continue higher level studies, women have to remain unmarried. Further, education creates an attitude change and opens new avenues for the youth to spend their teen-age and early adult years in more productive ways. As a result, age at marriage is delayed. Population education should support the policies aimed at increasing the participation of women in edw.:ation and economic endeavour as these have been found to delay entry into marriage. One strategy isto integrate population education in non-formal education programmes, particularly those on literacy and livelihood that are addressed to women. In the formal education sector, age at marriage as a topic in population education is usually taken up in home economics and social studies. In home economics, a lesson on this topic is aimed at showing how age and marriage affects the number of children a couple might have and to identify the advantages or disadvantages of early or late marriage. In social studies, this topic is approached through developing an understanding of the norms and practices with regard to marriage. Nuptiality

127. Bhat, M. and R. Kanbarji. 128. De Guzman, Eliseo A. "Trends "Estimating the incidence and differentialsin nup- of widow and widower tiality," in: Concepcion, remarriages in India Mercedes B. ed. Population from census data," Popu- of the Philippines: cur- Lation Studies 38(1): 89- rent perspectives and fu- 103, March 1984. ture prospects. Manila, NationalEconomic and De- In thispaper a methodis velopmentAuthority, 1983, evolved for estimating the inci- p. 145-167. dence of widow and widower remar- riagesfromthe current marital This paper discusses changes status data given in a census or in marriage pattern in the Philip- survey. The method is based pines at various levels of aggre- on reversal of the procedure gation. National differentials of estimating adult mortality in marriage are examined to delin- from information on widowhood eatedivergencies acrossvarious status. The methodis applied populationsub-groups, asinflu- to the all-Indiadata fromthe enced by social and economic census of1971. The conclusion change brought about:ay urbaniza- isthat aboutone-third ofthe tion, the expansion of education, ever-widowed women and slightly and changes and diversities. less than two-thirds of the ever- widowered men were currently Data came from the 1948, re-married in 1971. The effects 1960, 1970and1975 censuses and of widowhood and subsequent remar- from the 1978 Republic of the riage on the fertility of Indian PhilipiinesArea Fertility Survey. women has also been measured presentedina table. Finally Some of themajor findings it was concluded that in 18 per are: cent ofall surviving marriages in 1971, one of the partners 1. An increase in proportion had previously been widowed, of never-marrieds and a trend and in about12 per cent of all of rising age at marriage marriages and 10 per cent of for the Philippines as a whole first marriages, the successful and its geographical sub- suitor was a widower. divisions were seen during the 1948-1980 period. With Descriptors: Widow Remarriage; a slight decline in 1975, India the proportion of never- marrieds among women aged Source: London School of 15-19 reached a high level Economics of 89.2 per cent in 1970 from Houghton Street its levelof 85.1 percent London WC2A 2AE in 1948. Among women aged England 20-24, the rise in the proportion of never-marrieds reached a high level of 51.2 per cent in 1975 from 40.7 in 1948. Among males, the proportion of never-marrieds increased slightly, although for those. 131 - 129 Demography and its bearing on population education

aged 20-24, the proportion Source: Population/Develop- increasedbya little over ment and Planning 14 per cent. The singulate Research Project mean age at marriage for National Economic females was recorded at 22.1 and Development in 1948 and 23.2 in 1975. Authority For males, it was at 24.9 Amber Raod, Pasig in 1948 and 25 in 1975. Metro Manila The author notes that the Philippines delay in age at mariage cur- tails the amount of time spent by the average Filipina in her reproductive life.

2. There were variations in marriage patterns among different population sub-groups. However, no significant ethno- linguistic and religious differentials in age at marriage were drawn. Differences 129. Domingo, Lita J. Correlates in age at marriage by urban- of nuptiality: Central rural residence widened. Luzon and Metro Manila, There were also marked dif- AFS, 1980.Manila, Popu- ferences among educational lation Institute, Univer- sub-groups. sity of the Philippines, 1983. 18p. (Area Fer- 3. Pronounced differentials tilitySurveyspecial re- in theage at marriage by port no. 50) socio-economic also dominated within regions. The delaying effect of socio- These variables were also economic characteristics on the noticed in the national level timing of age at marriage of women analysis. The author notes is confirmed again in an analysis that the variables did not of correlates of nuptiality among quite explain the observed women in Central Luzon and Metro intra-regional variations Manila. in age at first marriage. He recommends further studies Drawing on data from the onthe bearingof cultural, 1980 AreaFertilitySurvey con- physical, and psychological ducted in thetwo regions, this factors on nuptiality. report looks into selected characteristics of both wives and hus- Descripcors: Marriage Differ- bands which may explain the timing ential; Age at ofmarriageamong women. Vari- Marriage; Philip- ables considered for analysis pines include women's education, husband's education, woman's work before marriage, woman'soccupa- tion, husband's occupation and residence. The method of analysis

132130 Nuptiality

used was Multiple Classification ommends the support of policies Analysis. aimed at increasing the participation of women in educational at- Here are the findings: tainment andeconomicendeavours as these have been found to delay 1. The mean ages at marriage entry into marriage. (in years) among respondents areas follows: in Central Descriptors: Age at Marriage; Luzon, 20.40 among women Socio-economic Fac- aged 25-44 and 22.36 among tors; Comparative women aged 45-54. Analysis; Philippines

2. Among the younger cohorts Source: Population Institute (women aged 25-44), it appears University of the that a woman'sown .charac- Philippines teristics, notably, her econ- Padre Faura, Manila omicactivity and education, Philippines were found to delay entry into marriage. In Central Luzon, for example, young women who are in non-agricultural occupations deviated by.82 years from the grand mean of 20.40; the same holds true for women who have had a higher level of education. InMetro Manila, thosewho worked before marriage at age 22.32, a deviation of 130. Gamage, Eric. "The marriage .80 years from the grand pattern of Sri Lanka," mean of 21.52. Economic Review 8(9): 24-26, December 1982. 3. Among the older cohorts (women aged 45-54) the husband's The marriage pattern in Sri characteristics seem to ex- Lanka is characterised by a rela- plain the timing of marriage. tively late timing of marriage The husband's occupation both for malesand females and and education emerged as a relatively high percentageof significant predictors of spinsterhood or celibacy. The age at marriage of older proportion getting married has women. declined among the younger age groups. The employment, education According to the author, and income, consideration of the differences in the predictors caste, ethnicity and religion between the younger and the older and dowry seem the major influ- women could be due to differences ences in theobserveddelayin in composition, level of achieve- the timing of marriages. "The ment and aspirations, orientation socio-economic andcultural con- or socialization between these ditions prevailing in the context cohorts. If theexperience of of Sri Lanka's relative ..zonomic the younger cohorts reflects under-development coz,ributes current trends, the author rec- towards thecreation ofcertain 133- 131 Demography and its bearing on population education attitudinal and behavioural con- population *classifiedby marital sequences as may be seen in the status and by five-year age group. case ofmarriage inSriLanka, Hajnal's and Leasure's methodology since the level of marriage dis- was adopted to compute the singu- solution prevalent here is low". latemean ageat marriage, age- These commentsaremade bythe specific fertility rate, total author, a lecturer in the Depart- fertility rate,and gross repro- ment of Sociology, University duction rate for the 1903-1970 of Peradeniya, on the changing period. marriagepatterns ir! SriLanka. This pattern is perceived as The first part discusses different from the patterns of the trend in marriage patterns most developing Asian countries. intermsof the changes inthe proportionof singlewomen, the Descriptors: Marriages; Socio- porportionof women marrying in economic Factors; the younger ages and in the late Culture; SriLanka childbearing ages, marriage rates, and singulatemean age at mar- Source: The People's Bank, riage. The second part discusses Research Depart- the impact of changingmarriage ment patterns on fertility. Sir Chittampalam A Gardiner Mawatha Analysis of data showed that Colombo 2 the Philippine's marriage pattern Sri Lanka is characterized by a rise in the proportion single, a decline in the proportionmarrying in the younger ages, and a declinein the proportion marrying during the late childbearing ages. The estimated singulate mean ages at marriage are 21.1, 21.8, 22.2, 22.3 and 22.8 years for the 1903, 1939, 1948, 1960, and1970 censuses, respectively. Findings alsosuggested that during 1903- 131. Gonzales, Myrna C. The im- 1970, fertility in the Philippines pact of changes in marriage tended to be high although it patterns on fertility was already experiencing a gradual in the Milippines. Manila, declinesincethe early partof National Censusand Stat- the 20th century. The estimated istics Office, 1978. totalfertility rates are 6.52, 28 p. (Ncso monograph 6.46, 6.30, 6.22 and 6.08 for no. 13) the 1903, 1939, 1948, 1960, and 1970 censuses, respectively. This study was done to deter- The gross reproduction rates are mine the impact of changing mar- 3.16, 3.13, 3.05, 3.01and2.94 riage patterns on fertilityin during 1903-1970. the Philippines during the period 1903-1970. The basic data used The gradual decline in fer- are the 1903, 1939, 1948, 1960 tility cannot be attributed to and 1970 statistics on female changes in marriage patterns.

- 134 - 132 Nuptiality

The study says thatthe decline portant predictions of the in- in fertility can be due to other creased relationships between factors such as increase in the age andmarriage and cumulative number of urvt workers,pursuit fertility. Raising the mean age for higher ,',1cation andknow- at marriage for Pakistanwomen ledge, use of contraceptives, from 16 to 19 would have ben- and improvedhealth conditions. eficial social as well as demographic effects. However, increastng Descriptors: Marriages; Fertility the legal age at marriagemust Analysis; Philip- be accompaniedby a fundamental pines change in women's roles. At present girls are not expected Source: National Census to be economically productive, and Statistics therefore parents desire them Office to marry early. Ramon Magsaysay Blvd., Sta. Mesa Descriptors: Age at Marriage; Manila Differential Fer- Philippines tility; Pakistan

Source: East-West Population Institute East-West Centre Honolulu, Hawaii 96842 U.S.A.

132. Karim, Mehtab S. Socio- economic and cultural aspects ofmarriage and fertilityinurbanPaki- stan. Honolulu, East- West Population Institute, 1979. 26 p. (EWPI paper no. 64) 133. Qadir, S.A. Development of human resources, population This paper examines the policiesand manpower and relationship between age and employment policies in marriage and fertility in a sample Bangladesh. Dhaka, Bangla- of 1,114 currently-married w3man desh Institute of Develop- 15-44 years of age who were living ment Studies, 1984. 8 in urbanareas at the timeof p. the survey. Cumulative fertility differentials were found among In recent times there has socio-economicand ethnicgroups been ashift in the age at mar- and residential groups who married riage from about14 to16 years at younger and older ages. Dura- with corresponding changes in tion of marriage and first preg- the proportion of married women nancy interval proved to be im- inthetImage groups.

- 135 - 133 Demography and its bearing on population education

There is also increased sub- Source: Human Resource Divi- fecundity of younger wives poss- sion ibly associated with poor nu- BangladeshInstitute tritional status. One of the of Development factorsassociated with thein- Stuates creasedage at marriage may be Dhaka the deteriorating nutritional Bangladech status of children and young womeninparticular, as a consequence oC which the age at marriage may be increasing. The age specific marital fertility ratesin Bangladesh reveal that child-bearing is delayed after marriage because of the adolescent subfecundity of the veryyoung brides. By the time a women isin her late thirties sheis likely to have a marriageable 134. Smith, PeterC. "Changing daughter and may even be a grand- patterns of nuptiality," mother. Socially, she is not in: Flieger, Wilhelm expected to bear childrenwhen and Peter C. Smith, ed. A her daughter or daughter-in- demographic path to mod- law may beexpectedto do so. ernity: patterns of ear- There is universality of marriage Zy-transition in the Phi- in Bangladesh. Thedifference lippines. Quezon City, in the ages of husband and wife University of the Philip- in Bangaldesh in 1974has been pines Press, 1975, p. on the average of 8.4 years, 41-81. the bridegroom being 24.9 years and the bride 16.5 years. A The factors underlying chang- girl under10 years ofage was ing patterns of nuptiality in sometimes married to a man 10 the Philippines and the implica- or more years older. Marriage tions of such changes for the dissolution may be broadly cat- future are examined in this paper. egorized as (1) widowhood, (2) The national nuptiality pattern divorce and separation. The is explored by considering vari- proportion in Bangladesh remaining ations in nuptiality across socio- widowed or divorced is relatively cultural groups and areal units. low for males because of remar- For this purpose, census data riage. In general there appeared for the 1903-1960 period was used to be a decline in widowhood todeterminenuptialitypatterns and an increase in divorce. at the provincial level. Data from the1968 National Demographic Descriptors:Age at Marriage; Survey was also analysed to deter- Marriage Dissol- mine nuptiality differentials. ution; Culture; Bangladesh The data show that in 1903, indigenous Malays, who constituted the bulkof the colonial population, had a mean age at marriage of just over 20 forfemales and

- 136 - 134 Nv,Lulity

almost 25 for males. The meztizo Thestudy notedthatthere or mixed group married somewhat were socio-economir frcr later, with urban meztizas marry- accounted for difi,; ...... , in ing 1.5 years earlier than their ageatmarriage. Forinstance, rurril counterparts. Early mar- women whose fathers were in cleri- riage formale urbanmeztizos, cal, professional, and adminis- hwever, was prevalent during trative occupations married later that: period. The mean ages at than other women. Also women marriage for urbanmeztizo and with fathers who were college rural meztizo were 26.5 and 27.0, graduates married about three respectively. Data on Negrito years later than other women. groups suggest early marriage Withrespect to literacy,women for females. who could read and write married more than one year later than At the provincial level, those who were illiterate. Re- data show a steady trend in the ligious differentials, however, mean age at marriage over the did.not appear to be very signifi- 1903-1960 period. Interprovincial cant. differences,however, were exhibited in the timing of marriage, Two implicationsforpolicy which became more pronounced arepresent. First thepossi- before 1939 but diminished in bilityof adoptingpoliciesde- the postwar period. Over the signedto delay age at marriage 1903-1939 period, 25 provinces is raised. Programmesdirected experienced rising ages at mar- toward generating female wage riage while the remaining 20 and salary employment seems to experienced declines. In the be an attractive prospect. Sec- postwarperiod, nearly all pro- ond, the impactof the national vinces experienceddelayedmar- family planning programme which riage. Of the 20 provinces that aims to reducefertility cannot showed a shift to earlier marriage be assessed adequately untilnup- during the pre-war period,many tiality effects onoverallfer- experienced either in-migration tility are determined. of males or out-migration of females. The 20provinces in- Descriptors: Age at Marriage; cluded most Mindanao, all of Marriages; Socio- the Bicol area, Samar and Leyte, economic Factors; a numberof island provinces Philippines in the Visayas. During the post- war period, the only provinces Source: University of the that ran contrary to the national Philippine Press trend of delayed marriagewere Diliman, Quezon the provinces of IlocosNorte, City Ilocos Sur and La Union. Philippines SECTION EIGHT: MIGRATION

136 Migration

Migration

This section consists of 19 entries analysed according to four major sub-topics, e.g., demographic perspective of migration, overseas labour migration, patterns of migration and migration and employment.

Under the sub-topic, demoglraphic perspective, seven entries discuss the volume of migrants, reasons for migrating, patterns or direction of migration and impact of migration inside a country. These entries refer to volume as the number of migrants arriving in a certain place cc a certain period. All of the abstracts characterize migrants in terms of age, sex, civil status, occupation, educational attainment and motivations, attitudes and patterns of behaviour. With regard to patterns of migration, several types have been identified: rural to urban, urban to rural, rural to rural and urban to urban. Other classifications are also discussed,such as seasonal migration,return migration, intra- regional or inter-regional migration. With regard to reasons for migrating,the abstracts brought out the following: (a) for employment and other economic reasons;(b) for recreational facilities and modern con- veniences; (c) marriage;(d) education; (e) rhain migration and (0 new colonization schemes or new settlement schemes. According to these studies, the impact of migration can either be positive or negative both in the place of origin and in the place of destination. A number of abstracts identified these as: (a) benefits derived from land ownership and a better livelihood; (b) in the place of destination, it has created a sluggish economy and weakened the capacity to absorb large numbers of educated youth joining the work force; (c)increase of population in the place of destination and decrease of population in the place of origin; (d) more economic success among migrants to smaller urban centres than the large metropolitan centres, etc. The abstracts also point out that migration both within countries and to foreign countries has been a significant feature in the countries of Asia. Whereas there is stall.- larity in the reason for emigrating to foreign countries (mainly for economic reasons), the reasons affecting internal migration are diver- gent. For example,a selection reports that in Nepal, the strain of life in the Himalayan mountain slopes influences people to migrate to the plains. In Sri Lanka, migration is influenced by the location of the development schemes.

The six entries on oierseas labour migration cover such issues as profile of the migrant workers, volume of immigrants abroad, reasons for migrating abroad, impact of labour migration on countries of origin, prospects and problems of overseas workers and policies on manpower export industry. According to a number of studies, the benefits of overseas migration result primarily from the dollar remittances of the migrant workers to their families. This money has raised the standards of living of the recipients, using the money for land purchases, house

- 141 VV7 Demography and its bearinp on population e&wation renovation, investmen, :.1dren education and purchase of durable goods. On the larger level, rLf selections report that overseas labour migration has had beneficidi impact on the unemployment situation of the countries of origin and has broken down socio-e!.:onomic barriers. On the debit side, important public services had been affected as a result of the loss of skilled manpower. A m:luber of studies also look into the problems being encountered by overseas workers,classifying them according to thos :,.connected before leaving the country of origin and during employment abroad.

Four abstracts describe the patterns of migration. In South Asia according to one study, the distribution of population is conditioned by the terraii of the countries. In Southeast Asia, population movement ranges from the seasonal short-term moves by rural people seeking sup- plemental income to permanent migration variation from country to country depending on the alternatives available. In the Philippines, one abstract points out that migration occurs from less developed areas to more develored ares and/or from the more developed areas to other developed areas.

Finally,three abstracts show the effects of migration on two variables, employment and fertility. These entries describe the effects of migration on employment and vice-versa. The abstracts show that the reason why'people move to a certain place is mainly because of the employment potential. They point out that most of the migrants were unemployed in their place of origin end found jobs after migration. On the other hand, one abstract portrayed how rural job creation programmes have affected migration. It concludes that the development of growth centres and rural job creation programmes did not stop people from migrating to urban areas. It also states that the rural job creation programme is positively related with out-migration. It is only able to impede temporavy migration among middle class short-term migrants.

Migration is partand parcel of population education contents and can be naturally taken up in many subject areas such as social studies,geography,home economics, mathematics, health, civics,etc. In geography, migration can be introduced into the unit on interdependence and spatial interaction. This lesson shows that one village or villages are dependent on others for goods and services and that a country depends for some of its needs on distant areas. Because the links that tie a country or village into "one world" is a very small part of a complex of network of flows and linkages, interdependence strengthens and migration occurs. In social studies, the entry point will be a unit on population change of which'migration is one of the important components of population change. A unit on this topic will include discussion on tyi:es of patterns of migration, causes or reasons for migration, effects of migration. In health education, the problem that migration poses on the health of population in shown. It is shown that many migrants who go to urban areas often lack skills useful to urban areas and thus are unable to earn an income sufficient to ensure either satisfactory living conditions or adequate diet. As a result, migrants remain malnourished and mon! susceptible to a range of infectious diseases. In

- 142 138 Migration some cases, the opposite happens. This migration may improve instead the health status of the migrants because of the availability of health services in the urban area. However, the increase in urban population due to migration also increases the need for health services and which makes existing and available health resources insufficient to meet the demands of the growing population. In mathematics,simple principle of addition and subtraction can be applied also on migration by showing that when a certain number of people from one place migrate to another place, we add that number to the population of the place of destination. We subtract the same number from the population of the place they had left.

- 143 - 139 Demography and its bearing on population education

135. Abeysekera, Dayalal Senerath. Source: University Microfilms Determinants and conse- International quences of internal mi- P.O. Box 1346 gration; the rural wet AnnArbor, Michigan zone to rural dry zone 48106 streamin Sri Lanka. U.S.A. Ph.D. dissertation, Brown University, U.S.A., Novem- ber 1979.

This study basically ad- dresses itself to three questions, viz: (1) whomigrated to the Dry Zone?;(2) why did they migrate?; (3) what streams of migrants to the Dry Zone have been sustained and maintained over the pastthree inter-censalpe- 136. Abeysekera, Dayalal Senerath. riods? ESCAP identifies three Regional patterns of inter- types of people who migrated censal and lifetithe mi- from the Wet Zone to the Dry ration in Sri Lanka. Zone: (1) people who were running Honolulu, East-West Popu- away from some blot on their lation Institute, 1981. name; (2) peoplewho had been 46 p. (EWPI paper no. reduced to landlessness; and 75) (3) peoplewhowere attempting to improve an adverse caste situ- This paper, according to ation. However, the results the author, draws on published of this analysis do not bear censusdata to examineregional out the last contention. Through- patterns of intercensal migration out the analysis, the basic theme in Sri Lanka between 1946 and that has emerged is that if the 1971 and on a10 per cent sample first generation of migrants for the 1971 census which examines and their native peers were con- patterns of life-timemigration. sidered, the migrants benefited Two important migration streams to agreat extent by migration, are observed one into the metro- mainly in terms of land and its polis of Colombo and the other potential for a better livelihood. to ruralareas. Thelatter is The native of the Wet Zone were a result of the Government invest- also capable of conserving their mentin peasant agriculture with communities and moderately improv- colonization schemes. Over half ing themselves, given the very of the life-time migrants have drastic limitations in terms moved into rural locations outside of advancement via land or extra- the Dry Zone. The pattern of agricultural employment oppor- migration must be placed within tunities. the context of the history and the political economy of the coun- Descriptors: InternalMigration; try. Thestudy ofpast patterns Intercensal Mi- of migration is invaluable for gration; SriLanka the policy values if they are to have some control over the long-term effect of the phenomenon

144 - 140 Migration

which has arisen as a result purposes of employment, and about of the implementation of national 26 per cent of women moved for policy. family reasons. Menmoved to find workas skilledandsemi- Descriptors: Intercensal Mi- skilled workers and women to work gration; Internal as servants or in the service Migration; Sri sector. Nearly half had pre- Lanka viously visited Bangkok, and about 57 per cent planned to stay only Source: East-West Population temporarily. The majority had Institute jobs waiting for them, especially 1777, East-West among women, and most found work Center within one month. About 40 per Honolulu, Hawaii cent considered their current 96848 jobs unstable. After 6 months, U.S.A. nearly half the migrants remained at the same address,12 per cent hzid moved within the city, and 22 per centof men and 31 per cent of womenhad returned to their original place of resi- dences. Return migration was greatest for women aged 15-24 and for men aged 20-24. Seasonal migration was significant among lower status agricultural workers. The majority of migrants reported 137. Apichat Chamratrithirong, improved living situations in and others. Recent Mi- the city,especially with regard grants in Bangkok Metro- to income and jobs. Women were polis: a follow-up found to assimilate to the urban study of migrants' ad- environment at a slower pace than justment assimilation men. Migrants were found to be and integration. Bangkok, substantially segregated from Institute for Population non-migrants in several respects. and Social Research, 1979. 176 p. Descriptors: Migrants; RUral- Urban Migration; In thisstudythe498 mi- Seasonal Migration; grants aged 15-44 identified Thaitand in the 1977 Migration Survey in Bangkok Metropolis were inter- Source: Institute for Popu- viewed, followed up by mail ques- lationand Social tionnaires, and reinterviewed Research after six months. The 300 -Ion- Mahidol University migrants were also interviewed 25/25 Puthamolthon and followed up by mail question- 4 naires for comparison. Recent Salaya 73170, Nakhon- migrants to Bangkok were found pathom to be young and predominantly Thailand single,80 per cent of men and 68 per centof women moved for

- 145 - 4 141 Demography and its bearing on populationeducation

138. Bernardo, Thelma S. "His- ferred to Manila's neighbour- torical analysis of inter- ing regions: CentralLuzon regional migration in (99,210 or 11 per cent)and the Philippines," CLSU Southern Tagalog (94,113 or Scientific Journal 3(2): 11 per cent). The three Min- 68-97, November 1982- danao regions (northern, April 1983. southern and western) had a share of over 23 per cent This study examines the (206,619) of the total mi- patterns of inter-regional migrants. gration inthe Philippines from 1970to 1975. Toanalysethe 4. Western Mindanao, Cagayan changes in population distribution Valley and Ilocos Region re- over time,the author considered ceived the least number of earlier patterns of population migrants. movement, specifically the1938- 1970 period. 5. Of the 35 million total population in 1975 aged five Years Following are the major and over, about one in 40 findings: were migrants who moved across regional. boundaries. There 1. Majority of the regions during was a slight predominance the 1939-1975 period did of females over males (52 not change status as in- per cent as against48 per migration and out-migration cent). areas. The general pattern ofmovementwas towardthe 6. In general, more than 80 per large cities, particularly cent of the migrants for all the greater metropolitan regionswere in age groups area, orthefrontierareas 5-14, 15-24, 25-34 and 35- of Mindanao. 44. The greatest concentration of migrants, however, 2. Estimates using the residence was found in theage group methodshowed thatfive out 15-24 for both sexes in all of 12 regions in the Philip- regions. pines were in-migratiu areas during the 1970-1975 period. 7. For all regions, the pro- Metro Manila, Northern Minda- portion of migrantsfor both nao, Central Luzon,Southern sexes decreases as age in- Tagalog, and Southern Mindanao creases. This conforms to (ranked according to net- the empirically proven hypo- migration rates) were the thesis that age selectivity regions that gained population of migrants is greater for through migration. the younger age group.

3. Almost one-third ofall re- Descriptors: Internal Migration; gional in-migrants (263,058 Migration Statistics; or 30 per cent) migrated Rural-Urban Mi- to the metropolitanregion. gration; Philippines Eight per cent of this figure moved to Manila. More than 23 per cent (196,088) trans-

146142 Migration

Source: Central Luzon State 1. The Bicol region isan out- University Scien- migration area. A greater tific Journal number of the out-migrants Central Luzon State belonged to the age group University 10-29. They also had higher Munoz, Nueva Ecija educational qualifications Philippines compared to in-migrants and stayers in the region.

2. The following factors, according to order of importance, were cited as reasons for migration: (1) employment; (2) marriage; (3) education; and (4) chain migration. On the whole, however,a migrant's motivations for moving are usuallylinkedwith his 139. CariVo, Benjamin V. and relationships with the family Lediviia V. Carino. andthe community. Certain Principal reasons for structuralfactors, community migration: atool for norms and, family expectations decision making (2 sum- influence the decision to mary). Paper prepared move. for the Seminar/Workshop on Migration, Nutrition 3. The impz of out-migration Center of the Philippines, on Bicol'd prospect for devel- November 19, 1976. opment may indeed be very serious. Following are the This study investigates adverse consequences for the the reasons for, and the factors region: (a) degradation of related to migration behaviour. the age structure of the re- The studywas carried out in gion's population; (b) de- two phases. The first phase teriorationof the skill was designed to: (1)determine structure of the region. the volume and direction of mi- Arelated consequencewould gration streams to and from the be the slowing down of the Bicol region; (2) identify the region's economicgrowthand main migration patterns (e.g., development. intra-regional, interregional); and (3) describe the types of At the individual level, persons contributingto the mi- the study examined the effects gration streams in terms of socio- of geographicmobility onone's demographic characteristics (e.g., sons, whether migrationenhances age, sex, civil status, edu- one's socio-economic status. cational attainment). The second It was found that: (a) Geographic phasewas intended to uncover mobility of fathers leads to geo- the interrelated factors and graphic mobility of children; phenomena that mayexplain mi- (b) Social mobility of parents gration behaviour. is related tochildren's propen- sity to migrate; (c) Geographic Significant findings are: mobility, however, does not

147 - 143 Demography and its beuving on population education

generally lead to social mobility. One of the main objectives of thestudyis to investigate the Descriptors: Internal Migration; demographic and economic impact Intrarejional Mi- of the 1981 rural jobcreation gration; Socio- programme (RJCP). Demographic economic Factors; and economicimpact includes mi- Philippines gration, employment, consumption, production and income.

From the 17 4,provinces in thenorth, three provinceswere sampled using samp141 pro- portional to the size of the RJCP budget. Three sub-diqtrir t were then sampled from thre çLnces and then 900 households w kt sampled, consisting of 751 houstplds with RJCP workers And 149 .house- 140. Chulasai Luechai, and others. holds ofnon-RJCP korkers. The "Migrationand rural job important conclusion drawn from creation programme: a the study are: (a) the 1981 RJCP study of northern Thai- recruited a higt,er proportion land," in: Suchart Prasith- of the economically less well- ratAisint, ed. Population off than the 1981 RJCP but those and development interac- better off still budget more than tions in Thailand. Bangkok, theprogramme; and (b) the 1981 Peppin Press, 1983. 27 RJCP could provide short-term p. employment and some extra cash income, but it could not dis- The study tried to investi- courage seasonal migration. gate the impact of 'rural job creationprogramme onmigration Descriptors: Rural Job Creation in northern Thailand. To reduce hvgramme; Internal the widening gap among various Migration; Socio- income groupsand among different economic Factors; regions of the country (caused Thailand by the past development strategy which emphasized economic ef- Source: Prof. Dr. Suchart ficiency and production at the Prasith-rathsint expense of equitable distribution National Institute of growth benefits) the government of Development expresses its intentionin the Administration Fifth Plan to crLate a more ba- Klong Chan,Bangkapi lanced growth oftheruraland Bangkok 10240 urban areas. To increase rural Thailand cash income and motivate rural people tostay on in the rural areas during the agricultural slack season, the government started a rural job creation programme to create labour intensive jobs inthe rural areas. - 148- 14 4 Migration

141. Economic and Social Com- 142. Elahi, K. Maudood, and mission for Asia and others, ed. Development the Pacific. Migration, and population redistri- urbanization and develop- bution in South Asia; ment in Sri Lanka. Bang- a symposium. n.p., 1980. kok, 1980. 143 p. (Com- 50 p. parative study on migration, urbanization The symposium leading to and development in the the publication ofthis brochure ESCAP region). was the thirdin the series of regional symposia organized by The objectiveof the study the I.G.U. Commission on Popu- is to describe population relation Geography,devoted tothe distribution ofSri Lanka. The subject of population redistri- introduction gives a short summary bution. Trends andpoliciesin of the physical environment, relation to development umre dis- the economy, ethnicgroups and cussedwith the focus on five the demographic background of countries Bangladesh, India, the Island. Thebook goeson Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka. to describe distribution and In Sri Lanka, the pattern of popu- redistribution of population, lation redistribution has changed urbanization trends, components since independence. The main and characteristics, patterns agents of change result from high of migration, national develop- rates of natural increase in the ment policies and programmes, DryZone and internalmigration and state of development in the to urban Colombo and Dry Zone rural and urban sectors. Annexes colonization districts. Another include selected tables from paper describes successive phases thespecial tabulations produced of Pakistan's population pro- from the 1971, distribution of gramme,its major components and populationby districts, region achievements,the population pol- and sector for selected years. icy andhow far thepolicy has The books ends on a warning note been successful. The paper "Re- that the desirable aspects of gional Development Policy and Sri Lanka's population distri- Redistribution of Tribal Popu- bution could be adversely affected lation in India" focuses attention by the social and economic changes onthe generalprocess and the in the country. social consequences of population redistribution witnessed insome Descriptors: Population Dis- of themajor tribalregions of tribution; Urbaniza- India in the wake of development tion; Sri Lanka after Independence. "Population Redistribution and Development Source: Clearinghouse and in Bangladesh" identifies the InfoTmation Sec- chief factors that have contrib- tion uted to the structural variation ESCAP Population of population by districts. Division "Trends of Redistribution of Popu- Rajdamnern Avenue lation in Nepal" gives the pecu- Bangkok 10200 liar feature of population distri- Thailand bution in Nepal. The distribution

- 149 145 Demography and its bearing on population education of population here is conditioned migrants to smaller urban centre, by terrain. However, major shifts especially the more experienced more of populaticn are takingplace migrants, are economically and proper efforts should be successfulthan migrants to the and made for the right allocation large metropolitan centres of lands for different uses. in some cases are more successful than urban natives. Descriptors: Population Distri- bution; Internal Descriptors: Internal Migration; Migration; South Migrants; Thailand Asia Source: Population Associ- Source: Commission onGeo- ation of America graphy and Inter- P.O. Box 14182 national Geo- Benjamin Franklin graphical Union Station U.S.A. Washington, D.C. 20044 U.S.A.

143. Fuller, Theodore D. "Mi- grant-native socio-economic differentials in 144. Goldstein, S. and A.Gold- Thailand," Demography stein. Diff'erentials in 18(1): 55-66, February repeat and return mi- 1981. gration in Thailand, 1965- 1970. Bangkok, Institute This research hassuggested of Population Studies, that the position of many urban Chulalongkorn University, migrants compares favourably 1980. 49 p. with that of urban natives. Understanding the process of The data for this study come migration and the structure of from a two-per centsample taken urban areas contributes to an from the 1970 Census. The popu- understanding of why, as is appar- lation were divided into five ently the case, upcountry migrants migration status categories to of the are more successful than are calculate the percentage migrants in Bangkok. This study population in each category. is refined by referring to three For the total population 81.9 key distinctions: migrants from percent ofthe males and84.6 rural versus urban origins, recent per cent of the females were cat- versus more experienced cityward egorized as non-migrants as their migrants, and type of urban desti- reported place of birth, 1965 nation. In the early 1970s, place of residence and 1970 place - 150- 146 Migration

of residence were identical. Source: Institute of Popu- It was found that11.6 per cent lation Studies ofthe males and10.2 per cent Chulalongkorn Univer- ofthefemales were classed as sity settledmigrants; 4.6 per cent Phya Thai Road ofthemales and 3.6 percent Bangkok 10500 of thefemales were classed as Thailand primarymigrants; 0.5 per cent of the malesand 0.6 percent ofthefemales were categorized as return migrants,and1.3 per cent of the malesand 1.0per cent of the females were classed as repeatmigrants. The vast majority of the population was non-migrants. Migration patterns were analysed by urban and rural place of residenceand byage, sex, and socio-economic status. 144.Herrin, Alejandro and L sa Almost half of the Bangkok popu- Engracia.Trends in fenle lation and more than one-fourth migration to cities of the population of other urban the changing 3tructu_ areas were migrants. In the of female employment in rural areas only about 12-14 the Philippinep. A paper percentof the population was presented at the Confer- composed of migrants. In the ence on Women in the Urban urban areas most of the primary and Industrial Workforce, had rural origins while the repeat Southeast and EastAsia, and return migrants tended to Manila, 15-19 Novembei have urban origins. The popu- 1982. lation of migrants in rural areas who were return andrepeatmi- Until the 1960's, migration grants was higher than in urban in the Philippines used to be areas. There were considerable frontierward and male-dominated. age and occupational differences But inrecentyears, the trend between migrants and non-migrants. has shifted, becoming mainly ur- Education was positively related banward (principally to Metro tomigration. Repeatmigrants Manila) and increasingly dominated in small urban centres had a by females. In the most recent disproportionally high number five-year period, 1975-1980, 60 ofgovernment workersand indi- per cent offemale migrantsand viduals with high education. 54per cent of male migrants trooped to urban centres. Descriptors: Return Migration; Socio-economic Fac- These trends were gleaned tors; Migration from an analysis of data from Statistics; Thailand the 1970, 1975 and 1980 censuses.

Following are some of the major findings:

151 - 147 Demography and its bearing on population education

1. Femalemigrants tend to be highest in labour force par- single and much younger than ticipation (52 per cent). either their non-migrant The higher participation rate or male migrant counterparts. of less educatedfemalemi- Educationwise, female migrants grants isdue mainly to the have about the same education former's concentration in as non-migrant females; when service and sports occu- compared with male migrants, pations. however, the latter have higher educational attainment. 5. In general, male migrants tend tobesuperiorto male 2. Morefemale migrantsto the non-migrants in almost all cities are engaged in gainful major occupations, and far occupations compared to non- much better occupationally migrant females (48 and 36 thanfemalemigrants. Male per cent, respectively). migrants tend tohold high- However, female migrants paying prestige jobs rather tend to be concentrated in than the servicetype occu- service and sports occupations that femalemigrants pations. About 90 per cent usually get. of those in the said category work as"housekeepers,cooks The occupational differen- and maids". tiation of male and female migrants (which is even greater 3. Single female migrants have than between female migrants and higherlaboar force partici- female non-migrants) may be traced pation than their non-migrant to the former's higher educational counterparts, reflecting attainment. Some factors, how- the former's willingness ever, can possibly come into play, to take on any availyble e.g., sexual discrimination in job. The labour force par- the hiring process, etc., and ticipation of married migrant this is one area which needs more women is about the same as study. that of non-migrant women. In general, single women, Descriptors:Female Migrants; regardless of migration Female Employment; status, have higher labour Philippines force participation. Source: Dr. Alejandro Herrin 4. Amongeducatedfemales,non- School of Economics migrants appear to have a University of the greater competitive edge Philippines overfemale migrants inob- Diliman, Quezon taining white-collar and City prestige occupations. Among Philippines femalemigrants, womenwith elementary schooling had the highest labour force participation (52 per cent) while among 2emale non- migrants, women with atleast some college educationrated

- 152 148 Migration

146.Khan, Akhtar Hasan and Mehtab 147. Korale, R.B.M.C. and I.M. S. Karim. "Migration Karunaratne. Migration of patterns in Pakistan during Sri Lankans for employment the 1970s evidence from abroad.Colombo, Employ- the 1981 data," Pakistan ment and Manpower Planning Administration 20(2): 45- Division, Ministry of 66, July-December 1983. Plan Implementation,1981. 52 p. This paper was prepared for the conference on "Recent This study was undertaken Population Trends in South Asia", to obtain information specifically New Delhi. The authors find for the limited purpose of assess- that on the basis of the limited ing and evaluating the effects data available from the 1981 of migration on employment and census there has beeninternal for manpower planning purposes. migration and emigration to a There are a numJer of tables which considerable extent. Thethree communicatethe findings of the large cities, Quetta, Peshwar survey. Table 10 shows skilled and Karachi had the major share workers and month of migration of netmigration. Thetypical (1979). Table 7 shows high-level migrant wasa malein his late manpower categories, table 8 mid- twenties, who had worked in agri- dle-level manpower and table 5 culture and had three to five unskilled workersbyoccupation. years ofeducation. About two- The migration component has become thirds of all male migrants were insome occupations aslargeas marriedandin mostcases were the total internal demand. It accompanied by their families. was felt that migration of Sri Emigration from Pakistan has Lankans to countries abroad should been primarily of workers. This be carefully monitored. The need began ona modest scale in the for reliable and high quality late 1950s and the United Kingdom information and data on migration was a populardestination. In has been highlighted. It is be- the 1970s, Pakistani workers lievedby the authors that the started emigrating to the Middle information in the report will East. Currently over thousand be particularly usefulto young workers areleavingthe country persons seeking a choice of career annually (1982). Eight tables and to research writers. give statistics regarding the policies of migrants and emi- Descriptors: Migration Statistics; grants, age and sex distribution, Emigration; Labour age specific distribution, current Migration; Sri Lanka residence and period of migration. Source: Employment and Man- Descriptors: Internal Migration; power Planning Emigration; Labour Division Migration; Pakistan Ministry of Plan Implementation Source: Pakistan Adminis- Colombo trative Staff Sri Lanka College Lahore Pakistan - 153 - 149 Demography and its bearing on population education

148. Laddawan Rodmanee and Sarunya amountof funds should be allo- Bunnag. "Ruraljob cre- catedtothe villages for these ation programme and mi- purposes. gration in southern Thai- land," in: Suchart Prasith- Descriptors: Rural Job Creation rathsint, ed. Population Programme; Internal and development interac- Migration; Socio- tions in Thailand. Bang- economic Factors; kok, Pappim Press, 1983. Thailand 30 p. Source: Prof. Dr. Suchart This research study looks Prasith-rathsint into the rural job creation pro- National Institute gramme and migration in Southern of Development Thailand. They conceptualize Administration that the rural job creation pro- Klong Chan, Bangkapi gramme directly affects changes Bangkok 10240 in social, economic and demogra- Thailand phic conditions of the people who live in the programme areas. It increases income, employment and participation in community activities. These changesare, in turn,expected 'to affect migration. The sample includes five Southern provinces listed as poor by the National Economic and Social Development Board. Altogether 818 household heads were interviewed. Based on mul- 149. Paganoni, Anthony.compiler. tiple classification analysis, Wgration from the Philip- they similarly conclude that pines. Quezon City,Scala- even though the RJCP succeeds brinians, 1984. in building elementary infrastructure in the villages and providing This volume compiles nine incomeandjobsto some ofthe papers on the following topics villagers, it cannot stop the related to international mi- flows of migration to urban gration: (1) an economic analysis places. Likewise, it cannot of the Philippines manpower export attract the rural people who industry; (2) the functions and

migrated to other places to return . activitiesof the Commission on tothe village of origin. In Filipinos Overseas in the Philip- factparticipation in therural pines Overseas Employment Adminis- job creation programmehas been tration; and (3) the prospects found to be positivelyrelated and problems of Filipino overseas with out-migration. Among the workers. recommendations are: (a) to be more meaningful, the jobs An Economic Analysis ofthe tobecreated bytheprogramme Philippine Manpower Export Indus- should be able to use labour try by Borra first gives a historical background on the growth . it employs throughout the dry season; and thus (b) a larger of the industry fromthe early

- 154 - 150 Migration

1970s to the present. It proceeds ground on government regulation to discuss the economic and labour and supervision of overseas em- conditions which served to push ployment. It proceeds to di,scuss Filipinosto work abroad. The the various forms of government growth of the manpower export regulation and supervision, policy industry is then discussed. issues in overseas employment Statistical dataare provided. and overseas employment prospects.

Commision on Filipinos De Guzman's Filipino Overseas Overseas (CFO): A Bridge Across ContractWorkers: Problems and the Seasby Millenalooks into Prospects focuses on the 'con- the CFO's structure, programmes ditions of and problems confront- and activities. The CFO was ing the Filipino overseas worker. created by Batas Pambansa No. 79 to protect the welfare of De los Reyes' Storms and Filipinos overseas and to provide Squalls in Homes Where the Sailors assistance to Filipinos who wish Are Not looks into the situation to migrate to other countries. of Filipino sailors and their As a specialagency under the families. Cases are cited to Office of the President, the illustrate thepersonalproblems CFO serves as the implementing experienced by sailors and their arm of thestatetofoster and wives. maintain close ties among Filipi- nos abroad. It is also supposed Juco's To theMiddle East_,_ to establish a data bank to aid with Hopereports on aresearch manpower policy formulation. study which analysed theeffects of internationalcontract labour An Evaluation of the Philip- on the sending communities and pine Overseas Employment Promotion families in the community, speci- Policz by Abrera-Mfangahas explores fically social, economic and demo- the implications of the country's graphic conditions. At the macro current employment strategy based level, the impact on the economy, on temporary labour migration. the migrants themselves and their The need to assess both the gains families was studied. Another and losses of this programme article by Juco entitled Since is crucial in the light of pro- You'veBeen Gone 1oo74s into the jections of larger worker outflows plightof migrant workers'wives in the future. Tentative results and how they cope with the long indicate that, onthe overall, absence of their husbands. thePhilippines doesenjoy benefits from the temporary outflow Descriptors: InternationaZ Mi- of workers. By itself, however, gration; Emigration; an overseas employment programme Labour Migration; cannot be considered as a shortcut Socio-economic Con- route toeconomicprogress, aor ditions; Migrants; should it form the basis of ;.4.ny Philippines long termstrategy innatlJnal employment planning. Source: Sca/abrinians 39, 7th St. Off Sto. Tomas' Overseas Employ- Gilmore Str.3at ment in,the Philippines: Policies New Manila, Quezon and Programs first gives a back- City ihilippines -155- 15 Demography and its bearing on population education

150. Peerathep Rungcheewin, and homesickness, climate, language, others. "Factors influ- social customs, and remittances encing Thai workers' of foreign earnings. decision to go to work in the Middle East coun- Descriptors: Labour Migraton; tries andrelated labour Socio-economic Fac- problems,"in: Suchart- tors; Emigration; rathsint, ed. Population Thailand anddevelopment interactions in Thailand. Bang- Source: Prof. Dr. Suchart kok,Pappim Press, 1983. Prasith-rathsint 33 p. National Institute of Development The paper deals with factors Administration influencing workers' decision Klong Chan,Bangkapi to go to work in the Middle East Bangkok 10240 countries and rIlated problems Thailand of job placement. A sample of 500 workerswho have worked in the Middle East and another 500 workers who haveneverbeen to the Middle East were interviewed. The main factor identified as affecting decision of Thai workers to go to the Middle East is the expenses which include opportunity cost and directexpenses. The opportunity cost is found to be more significant than the 151. Perez, Aurora E. "Internal direct cost. The expected income migration in the year is not a significantfactoras 2000," Philippine Labor all workers, regardless of over- Review 2(2): 57-73, second seas experience, are equally quarter, 1977. well-informed of the potential income. Level of education, Analysis of the trends and knowledge of foreign language patterns of internal migration and skill training are also fac- and investigation of the under- tors influencing the decision lying determinants of population to work in the Middle East. distribution are given in this. Theproblems of going to work article. Estimates of future in the Middle Ealv.t aredivided regional net migration for the into two categories: before period 1975-2000 are also pre- going to the Middle East and sented. duringemployment iithe Middle East. The first category of An evaluation of past mi- problems includes highexpenses gration experience among Filipinos for low-paying and unskilled presentsdatasupporting geogra- labour job due to oversupply phicmobility. In 1960, one of such labour, high brokerage Filipino ineightwasliving in fees and malpractices of private a region other than thatof his job placement' firms. The second or her place of birth. In 1970, category of problems includes thisproportion increased toone

156 152 Migration

person in seven. Data also indi- future population, estimates show cate long distance movements that femalesin the younger and involving either inter-provincial middle-aged groups would dominate or inter-regional movements. the scene. Rural-rural movements dominated 1975 migratory transfers before Descriptors:Internal Migration; 1965, while rural-urban migration Migration Statistics; has accelerated and become promi- Philippines nent since then. Males dominated rural-rwcal migration; and fe- Source: Philippine Labour males, urban-rural migration. Review Ministry of Labour The author notes that mi- Building sration's net effect for the Intramuros, Manila prosperous or more developed Philippines regionwill be an increase in population. The net effect of net-migration for the depressed regions with corresponding replacement is to lessen the region's population, especially its young adults and children. A policy of redirecting migration to a new destinationawayfrom the current popular destination is recommended. 152. "Special report on Middle Projected rates of in- East migration," Economic migration for the 1970-80 period Review 7(1):3-17, April show that Northern Mindanao, 1981 Southern Mindanao, and Metro Manila would experience a de- There is a series of articles crease, while other regions would in this issue relating to Middle have increases in their in-migrant East Migration. The lengthy ar- sector or populatLon. On the ticle onMiddle East migration other hand, a substantial increase carries a number of tables, viz: in out-migration rate forBicol, Middle East employment (1980), Central Visayas, and Metro Manila Passports issued in Sri Lanka is foreseen. (1980), Remittances to selected countries by migrant workers Estimates also show that (1978), Sri Lankans who obtained the flows to Metro Manila and/or employment in the Middle Eastern Mindanao regions will be the countries, 1978-1979, by occu- dominant streams. The most vol- pation andSri Lankan woman who uminousin-flow to MetroManila obtained employment in the Middle would be the stream from the Eastern countries. Thearticle Central 'Luzon, whereasmajority traces the outflow of workers, of in-migrants for Mindanao would and how beneficial this migration come from the Central Visayas is to Sri Lankans, and the economy region, as a whole. On the debitside important publ if. services are As for the traits of the affected as a result of the loss - 157 - 153 Demography and its bearing on population education of skilled manpower,e.g. trans- of 354 households withmembers port services have suffered from working overseas were interviewed. the dearthof drivers. But on The main findings are: after the credit side there is the the workers haveworked for a beneficial impact on the unemploy- period of time, they start remit- ment situation, foreignexchange ting home a considerable amount remittances made by migrants ofmoney. This enormouslyin- and experience gainea by migrants creased household income and ex- in working onlarge construction penditures and eventually the undertakings. The paper also standard ofliving of therural examined the impact of employment families. Remittances are spent in the Middle East in a village, on household consumption, edu- Kurunduwatte. It concluded that cation, amenitiesof life, land migration has helped to break andhousing. Some is saved or down socio-economic barriers. invested in agricultural and/or non-agricultural activities such Descriptors: Labour Migration; as trading. An increase in income Emigration; Socio- from overseasremittancescauses economic Factors; only aminimal withdrawal of la- Sri Lanka labour from economic

a slight reduction in t. .;..'nt of time spent on agt_,...1L1Le, and an increase in demand for hired labour,and labour saving machines. Withbettercommuni- cations andtransportation, villagers prefer going into town buy goodsand services, thus reducing the volume ofsales and theamount ofinvestment in the communities. 153. Sumalee Pitayanon. "The impact of short-term Descriptors: Migrant Workers; contract overseas employ- EconomicConditions; ment of Thai workers Rural Communities; on theeconomy ofrural Thailand households and communities: a casestudy of Source: Prof. Dr. Suchart northeastern villages," Prasith-rathsint in: Suchart Prasith- National Institute rathsint, ed. Population of Development anddevelopment interac- Administration tions in Thailand. Bang- Klong Chan, Bangkapi kok,Pappim Press, 1983. Bangkok 10240 37 p. Thailand

The study triesto investigate the impact of short-term contract overseas ,:mployment ofThai workerson theeconomy of rural households and communities in the Northeast. A sample - 158 - 154 Migration

154. World Bank. Labour migration effects on money supply and infla- from Bangladesh to the tion. Chapter Three gives an Middle East, by Ali Syed analysis of the impactof remit- Ashraf, and others. r.,ance money on household expendi- Washington, D.C., 1981. ture in Bangladesh. Chapter Four 395 p. (World Bank staff classifies the migrants into five working paper no 454). groups and estimates the cost of training migrants. Chapter This study was prompted Five assesses the impact of labour by the lack of knowledge regarding migration from Bangladesh on sel- the economic and social impli- ectedgroups of educated and cations of labour migration from skilled manpower inthe national Bangladesh. Some of the problems economy. Chapter Six gives pro- discussed are spending of migrant jections of manpower demand in families, the labour market, the Middle Eastby countryand training needs, implementation occupation. ChapterSeven pre- of development projects, domestic sents a social cost-benefit anal- savings and investment and income ysis of manpower export from Bang- distribution. The study has ladesh. Chapter Eight discusses seven chapters. Chapter One policy recommendations and impli- deals with the development of cations fur promoting manpower manpower export and gives a export from Bangladesh.This is profile of migrants from Bangla- a study which raisesbothpro- desh. This chapter also traces cedural and policy issues and the historical development of makes important recommendations the manpower export policy of with regard to manpower export the Government and the character- from Bangladesh. istics of the migrants from Bangladesh. Chapter Two gives Descriptors: Labour Migration; an analysis of the influence Manpower Planning; of home remittances by Bangladesh Migrants; BangZadesh nationals and focuses attention on the wageearnerscheme, the Source: The World Bank methods and channels of remit- 1818, H Street, tance, their levels and their N.W. Washington, D.C. 20433 U.S.A. SECTION NINE: URBANIZATION AND DISTRIBUTION Urbanization and distribution

Urbanization and Distribution

The 11 selections under this section deal with urbanization, which refers to the growth in the proportion of a population living in urban areas. The abstracts focus on three basic aspects of urbanization. First, the majority of the entries deal with urbanization from a demographic perspective covering processes, trends and level of urbanization. This includes tracing the historical processes of urbanization indicating which period effected an increase in the level of urbanization, statistics on urban growth rate, which,parts of the country have become most urbanized and which places are still predominantly rural. Also factors which have contributed to urbanization are discussed. Four selections go into an in-depth discussion of rural-urban migration as adeterminant of urbanization.

About five entries look beyond the statistical-analysis perspective of urbanization by dealing with the issue on a more holistic manner. Such materials place these statistics in a more meaningful context through an analytical discussion of the determinants and consequences of rapid urban growth and solutions to the problems brought about by urbanization. Theseselections enumeratethe followingdeterminants of population distribution and urbanizatio;L: (1) physical or natural factors; (2) cultural factors; (3)social attitudes and institutions; (4) stage of economic development and political factors; (5) demographic factors such as differential birth.and death rates and migration streams. A number of studies on the other hand have looked upon the consequences of urban growth as both positive and negative. One publication states that at higher levels of development, the impact of regional urban centres is beneficial. Otherwise most of the selections discuss the negative effects of high urban growth on the environment, human settlements, provision of social services, peace and order, employment, health, etc. Finally, four abstracts stress the need for a national plan for urban centres, specifically recommending thata national growth strategy and explicit urban development policy should beformulated and become an integral part ofthe economic development policy ofthe government. These include establishment of major growth poles and growth centres.

The third aspect dealt with by two entries focus on the effects of urbanization on houging and human settlement. One selection points out that the most critical problem that rapid urban growth hasbrougnt in its train in the Third World countries has to do with howt;in provision. The mushrooming of squatter areas and the problems thtv in the cities is the central theme of theseentries. Most cl.fds. iu Asia, according to reports, have grown up haphazardly and ar.'4.chatacter- ized by congestion, inadequate space for living, chaotic iand se terns and lack of urban amenities.

- 163 - Demography and its bearing on population education

Urbanization is most often taken up together with migration in population education. Migration is seen as the main cause of overpopulation in urban centres. To help discourage migration in the urban areas and prevent congestion in the cities, population education contents are integrated into subjects such as social studies, geography and health which include unitson population distribution and urbanization. In geography,a unit on spatial interaction discusses population movement and city problems, concentration of rural population in the cities, types of population concentration in cities, and phenomena of population concentration in the cities. The objectives ofa lesson on urbanization should include the development of a better understanding of the development of urbanization in developed and developing countries,identifi- cation ofthe problems that the process of urbanization brings about and the understanding of strategies and schemes for planning urban construction. With regard to health education, urbanization is taken up vis-a-vis its effects on man's health and well-being. One lesson can focus on the effect of overcrowding in the homes and communities on health,housing andenvironmental sanitation. Itcan also eml)hasize that overcrowding is a condition conductive to the spread of communicable diseases.

pt, 164 - Urbanization and distribution

155. Economic and Commission 156. Gaminiratne, K.H.W. Some as- for Asia and the Pacific. pects ofurbanization in Reportof theAdvisory Sri Lanka. [Colombo, Com- Committee on Migration munication Strategy Family and Urbanization on Planning, Ministry of In- its second session. formation and Broadcast- Bangkok, 1980. (Asian ing], 1976. 18 p. (CSFP population studies series occasional paper, 3). no. 48), p. 8-9. The objectiveofthis paper The ESCAP Secretariat de- accordingto the author are "to signed a research project on discuss the urbanization trends "The Relationships of Migration in Sri Lanka and identify the andUrbanization to Development factors that haveaffected this in 1977". At theThird Asian process. The paper isdivided and Pacific Populatiou Conference into three major parts. Part held in Colombo in 1982, migration I outlines the observed trends and urbanization were again ident- in urbanization. In Part II an ified as two of the topics of attempt is made to understand vital interest in the region. the process of urbanization, using The census analysis was assigned Colomboas a casestudy. Part to Malaysia, Pakistan, Thailand III deals with factors that have and the South Pacific Region determined urbanization trends with special reference to urban- in the country. In the final ization andmigration. It was analysis the author comes to the found thaturbanization had in- conclusion that the degree of creased rapidly in Pakistan after urbanizationinSri Lankais an partition in 1947 when the cities over-estimation to a large extent. absorbed Muslims displaced from Ke is ofthe view that a sound India. The tempo of urbanization and rational policy of limitation had declined in the 1960s. About of urban areas in the country 30per centof the total popu- is essential. Regarding mi- lation of Pakistan were life- gration, the author finds it dif- time migrants as defined by the ficult to generalize regarding Housing, Economic and Demographic futuretrends. As for the Survey of 1973 (HED). Migrants, national increase of the popu- in common with those of other lation,a marked increase in the countries, tended to be young crude death rate from the present adults. level cannotbe expected in the future, but there are factors Descriptors: Urbanization; Mi- leading to a possible decline gration; Migrants; in fertility, e.g. expansion of Pakistan the family planning programm and rise in the mean age at mar- Source: Clearinghouse and riage. The negligible difference Information Sec- between the rural and urban fer- tion tility rates emphasize the limited ESCAP Population nature of urbanization in Sri Division Lanka. Rajdamnern Avenue Bangkok 10200 Descriptors:Urbanization; Mi- Thailand gration; Demographic Factors; Sri Lanka - 165 - 159 Demography and its bearing on population education

Source: Communication Strat- the country's total population egyFamily Plan- during the 1975-1980 period. ning The total population increased Ministry of Infor- by 14.3 per cent between 1975 mation and Broad- and 1980. Theurban popu- cast:Ing lation increased by 27.7 per Colombo cent while the rural popu- Sri Lanka lation increased by 7.6 per cent.

.3. All 13 regions in the country experienced increases in levels of urbanization. The number of regions with an urban population of one million or more persons increased from 4 in 1975 to 6 in 1980. Metropolitan Manilahadthe highest population with 157. "The growth of urban popu- 5,925,884 persons, followed lation in the Philippines: by Region IV(Southern Taga- 1975-1980," Journal of log) with 2,257,735. Region Philippine Statistics 33 III (Central Luzon) ranks (3): 19-21, n.d. third with 2,009,259 persons.

This paper attempts to show 4. Interms of population size, the extent of growth'of the urban the firstten largest cities population in the Philippines in the country in1980 were for the period 1975 to 1980, Manila, Quezon, Davao, Cebu, using the final report of the Caloocan, Zamboanga, Pasay, 1980 census of population and Bacolod, Iloilo, andCagayan the special barangay schedules de Oro. Of these cities, sent to the municipalor city Davao, ZamboangaandCagayan census supervisors during the de Oro included populations 1980 census of population and which were not urban. Davao housing. City had 33.0 per cent of its total population classi- Following are the major fied as rural while Zamboanga findings: Cityhad 75.9 per cent and IloiloCity, 25.0 per cent. 1. A significant rise in the level of urbanization was Descriptors: Urban Growth; Urban observed during the 1975 Population; Philip- to 1980period. In 1975, pines a total of 14,046,527 of the total population of Source: Journal of Philippine 42,070,660 were living in Statistics urban areas. In 1980, National Census 17,940,733or 37.3 per cent and Statistics of the country's total popu- Office lation wereliving in urban Ramon Magsaysay area. Blvd., Sta. Mesa Manila 2. The urban sector absorbed Philippines a notably larger -share of 166I 6 0 Urbanization and distribution

158, Mendis, M.W.J. "An analysis Source: Department of Town of the intercensal growth and CountryPlan- of towns in Sri Lanka; ning its relevance in urban University of Mora- planning and development," tuwa Development Planning Review Sri Lanka 1(1& 2): 1-13, December 1982.

In this paper the intercensal growth rates of the towns of Sri Lanka are analysed so as to determine the pattern of growth rates to identify the towns which have high growth rates, to quan- tify the magnitude of the increase in population inthe towns,and analysethe potentials andcon- 159. "Metropolitan Development," straints of growth in various Economic Review 3(1): 3- towns in the promotion of their 15, April 1977. own development. The growth rates are indicated in Table Sri Lanka has only a single 1 and the town with the highest dominant metropolis in Colombo. growth rate has been Kilinochchi. The consequences of this central- Table 3 gives the population ization have been increases in growth rates as over 3.0 per the absolute numbers in the popu- annum, for SriLanka. Page 5 lation and the subsequent compe- has a map which shows the distri- tition for housing and land. bution of towns with high rates The problem of housing has assumed of population growth. In the alarming proportions in the metro- concluding section of the paper, politan area as a whole. The Professor Mendis discusses plan- slum and shanty dwellers form ning implications of thegrowth 40per cent of thepopulation. of towns and makes a number of The city is now a sprawling metro- recommendations: (1) A national polis of four million persons growth strategy should be formu- (1973). The urban-rural balance lated; (2) This should be an in Sri Lanka has not prevented integral part of the economic the disproportionate growth of development strategy of the the metropolitan area of Colombo. Government;(3) An explicit urban The most obvious direction for development policy should be a growth corridor are either formulated; (4) Urban-rural com- inland to Kandy, southwards to plementarities should be strength- Galle or north-central towards ened inthe context of regional Anuradhapura. Urbanization in plans; and (5) Further studies SriLanka is not as devastating should be done in the towns with a force as .inmany developing excessive and negative 'rates. countries. For action to follow metropolitan development, a con- Descriptors: Urban Growth; Urban ceplmal basis in planning must Flanning; Sri Lanka be :-esolved. Four alternative strategiessuggested by the U.N. Colombo Master Project are: (1)

- 167 161 Demography and its bearing on population education

Allow a continuing high concen- that despite a steadily rising tration of people in the Western level of urbanization, the Philip- Province and create infra-facili- pines remains a predominantly ties for industry;(2) Establish rural country. As of 1980, only one major growth pole; (3) Estab- about 36 percent of thetotal lish agencies of growth centres population live inurban areas. with population 75,000-150,000; A notable aspect of the country's and (4) Establish a central growth spatial and urban development, centre. however,has been the increasing concentration of economic activity Descriptors: Urban Development; inManila. This situationcan Urban Planning; be attributed to the concentration Sri Lanka of manufacturing activity in the area. Duringthe American col- Source: People's Bank onial period (1900-1939), agricul- ResearchDepartment tural rogions were the centre Sir Chittampalam because they maintainedagricul- A. Gardiner Mawa- tural productivity. tha Colombo 2 The influence of urbanization Sri Lanka on agricultural labour productivity is negative, or in the of a backwash effect, with ic 'oels 4.f regional develop- me4t. Cities tend to develop at -LI:a expense of the farms. At higher levels of development, however, the impact of regional urban centres is beneficial. Findings of the study point to the' needfor a nationalspatial development policy that would 160. Pernia, Ernesto M., and bring together all seemingly dis- others. The spatial paratepolicies, the macro-econ- and urban dimension of omics andtract policies in ad- development in the Philip- dition to a countryside dispersal pines. Manila, Philip- programme. pine Institute for Devel- ment Studies, 1983. Me second part of this book 345 p. has three objectives: to analyti- callydescribe the evolution of The first part of this book the urban and regional economy dealswith the historicalpro- from 1900to 1975; to determine cesses or urbanization and spatial the extent to which spatial devel- concentration of population, opment has been influenced by factors that influence manufactur- public policies in addition to ing concentration and population historical and socio-economic movements, and the effects of forces; and to identify the deter- urbanization on agricultural minants of the locational concen- productivity. tration of manufacturing activity. Changes in the spatial pattern An analysis of data reveals and the structural transformation 168- 162 Urbanization and distribution of the Philippines from an agri- 161. Philippines. Ministry of cultural to an industrializing Education, Culture and economy are responses to changing Sports. PopulationEdu- policy regions and market forces. cation Program. Population The early phase of economic devel- distribution and density. opment is characterized by the Module no.7 of "A module growth of agricultural regions in population education and agro-based population centres. for elementaryand second- The change in policies during ary school teachers." the past period resulted in the Second edition Manila, neglectof agricultural devetop- 1984. 18 p. ment. Manila thenemerged as the countl-'s urban-industrial This module discusses the centre, attracting both the popu- basic aspects of population dis- lation and economic resources tributionand density. It pro- of the other regions. By1975, vides factual information on the v.h.a concentration of manufacturing dispersal of population over cer- activity in Manilabecamemore tain areas as well as the concen- pronounced. Material orientation, tration of population per unit market orientation,labour force area. Informationonwhy some orientation and some policy as- parts of theworld are thickly pects explain the spatial concen- populated while others are not tration of manufacturing activity is also given. The dispersal in Manila. of people over certain areas are affected by geographical and cul- Descriptors: Populatir% Distri- tural factors. Duringthepre- bution; historic period, the dispersal ization; Ecunomie of populationinthe worldwas Factors; Urban determined by (1) the nature of Policy; Phi4ppines the physical environment; (2) the techniques and the tools de- Source: Philippine Institute veloped by people to make use for Development of resources found in their par- Studies ticular environment; and (3) their UEDA sa Makati social organization. Building Amorsolo Street Distribution of the popu- Makati, Metro Manila ltion in modern time, however, Philippines are affected by different factors. Among them are: (1) physical or natural factors, including climate, terrain, water, soil, mineral; (2) cultural factors, social attitudes and institutions, stage of economic development and political factors; and (3) demographic facpors such as dif- ferentialbirthand deathrates and the migration streams. Recent data on the distribution of the world'spopulation show that Africa has apopulation of 100 169- 163 Demography and its bearing on population education mdllion; Latin America, 12 mil- 162. Raymundo-Mejia, Corazon. lion; Asia (excluding U.S.S.R.) "Population growth and 327 millionand NorthAmerica, urbanization," in: Con- 100 million. cepcion, Mercedes B. ed. Population of the As to the distribution of Philippines: current the Philippine population, data perspectives and future show thatin 1981,the National prospects. Manila, Capital Region had a population National Economic and ofnearly 8 million; Region 3, Development Authority, 230.9thousand;Region 8, 226.5 1983, p. 65-77. thousand, and Region 2, 53.1 thousand. The most densely popu- This paper discussesurban- lated area is the National Capital ization trends at the national Regionor Metro Manila with and regional levels in the Philip- 7,814.5 persons per square kilo- pines. Emphasis is on post-war meter. Cagayan Valley or Region urbanization, beginning 1948 for II is the most sparsely populated. national levelanalysisand 1970 for regionalanalyses. Changes Migration is the major factor in urbanization levels and trends that accounts for the uneven are analysedin the context of distribution of Philippine popu- the link between development and lation. As of1975, data show urbanization. The rise of Manila that Southern Tagalog orRegion as a primate cityis a special 4 received the highest number feature of Philippine urban- of migrants followed by Southern ization. and Northern Mindanao. Onthe other hand, Region I or the Ilocos Thelack of material limits regionranks first as anout- the study of trends in urbanmigration area. ization during the pre-wal period. Available data, however, show Descriptors: Population Distri- that in 1903, about 13.1 per cent bution; Population of the total population enumerated Density; Migration; lived in urban areas. Since 1903, Philippines the general urbanization trend hasrisen, exceptforthe1903- Source: Population Education 1918 interval. Changes in levels Program of urbanization have been at- Ministry of Edu- tributed to: different policies cation, Culture of colonialism betweenSpaniards and Sports and Americans; shifts in socio- Palacio del Gober- economic development policies nador withinand betweenregimes; and Intramuros, Manila the peace-and-order situation. Philippines The link between socio-economic development and the dynamics of spatial distribution wasal- ready observedin the early part of the century. Post-war trends in urbanization are characteri2,ed by sudden increase as the new

- 170 16 4 UrbaniAation ani distribution

American colonial rule began Thispapertriesto illus- industrialization and Filipin- trate recent patterns in urban izatior efforts, a sudden decline and rural settlements in the coun- during the 12 years following try. This supports the view t:hat 1948, andan increaseagainin the population will distribute 1980. The growth of Manila as itself evenly among geographic the primate city shows the highly areas ifdevelopment is distri- polarized urbanization process. buted evenly among these geogra- Manila istheonly regionthat phic locations. Furthermore, completely changed from rural this distribution is also charac- to urban before 1970. Population teristic of socio-economic devel- growth has significantly contrib- opment. uted to urban growth. Unchecked rapid population growth can off- Here aresome findings: (1) set the impact of development Until 196G, most migrants were efforts on urbanization. drawntoward the less populated agricultural provinces; thus, Descriptors: Urbanization; Urban rural-to-urban movements; (2) Density; Urban Between 1960-1970 industrializ- Planning; Socio- ation was emphasized, encouraging economic Develop- more migrants to head for the ment; ,l'hilippines industrializing areas in urban enclaves; (3) Urban population Source: Population/Develop- growth isa result of rural-to- ment Planning urban migration, natural in- and Research creases, and reclass3.fication Project of previously rural areas as ur- National Economic ban; (4)Between 1965 and1970, and Development 30 percent of 2 million moves Authority by migrants 15yearsandolder Pasig, Metro Manila had Manila as area of destination; Philippines (5)Th:1 combined urban population oflessurbanized and rural regions around the ,intry are still smaller than Meir.n;Manila's total (wholly) urban pt-spulation; (6) UlAranization of more areas has affected all regionssince1975, as .policiesand programmeshave been evolved "to bring development to the country side and disperse industrialization"; and (7) Me development of rural barangays 163. Raymundo-Mejia, Corazon. seems to deter migration and en- "Recent development courage return mIgration. and the emerging pattern of human settlements," Descriptors;Urbanization; Mi- in: Perspectives for gration; Population populationanddevelop- Distribution; Philip- ment planning. Paper for pines the Sixth National Wel- fare CoYi3ress, November 1983. 2h p. - 171 - 65 Demographyand its bearing on population education

Source: Population/Develop- combinethe socialquestion and ment Planning thehousing question. Self-help and Resear.:h housing has made an important Project contribution towardsan improve- National Economic ment of the housing situation and Development but it is only an emergency mea- Authority sure, not a permanent 4olution Amber Avenue to the problem of housing the Pasig, Metro Manila urban poor. Philippines Descriptors: Urban Population; Slums. Urban Policy; Sri Lanka

Source: People's Bank Research Department Sir Chittampalam A Gardiner "Mawatha Colombo 2 Sri Lanka

164. Steinberg, Florian. "The urban housing question, Sri Lanka," Economic Re- view 7(9 & 10): 25- 26, December1981-January 1982.

This thesis deals with the

problem .,r+ slums and squatter settlem, shanties) in urban Sri Lanka, mainly in its capital, 165. "Urbanization in India," Colombo, where up to60 per cent in: Goldstein, Sidney of its inhabitants Uve in -F.Iums and David F. Sly. Pat- and shanties. Till receltt;W, te7;.ne of urbanization the housing policies in Sri Laiza - comparative country were mostly designed to serve studies. Li.age, Inter- the middle; classand the privi- national Union for the leged s,z!ctions of the working cientific Study of Popu- cla36 in the 'seventies, the. ltion, n.d., p. 298- Housing Authorities started to formulate a policy of slum and shanty rehabilitation but experi- This publication represents ece has shown thatthe "new" the culmination of a four-year lawsing reform policiesarenot programte ofactivitiesdesigned Vulfilli,ng the housing needs to advance research onurbaniz- the urban poor. The most ation by the Committee on Urbaniz- fliuminant problem of the urban ation andRedistribution. There voor is not housing but employment are 11 country studies and an wad social security. Hence all overview of world urbanization mmiug strategies for the urban patterns. The chapter on urbaniz- F,Or have to incorporate and ation in India, "A Demographic

- 172 - 166 Urbanization and distribution

Perspective" by Ashish Bose, Thereis a greatdeal of urban gives the historical background poverty, even in the million- and tracesthe growth of urban plus cities of India. population from 1901 to 1971. How far migration has affected Descriptors:Urban Development; urbangrowth is next assessed. Human Settlement; Some critical issues of urbaniz- Environment; Mi- ation, the environment and human gration; India settlements are thendiscussed. A basic issue which needs atten- Source: International Union tion is the reversal of the policy for the Scientific of the colonial pattern of settle- Study of Population ment inwhich the housingand 5, Rue Forgeur transportation systems catered 400 Liege, to the needs of the affluent. Belgium Lastly, the author makes his comments on urbanization and development. Industrialization has not been an important instru- ment of economic regeneration. CHAPTER TEN: IMPACT OF POPULATION GROWTH ON SOCIO-ECONOMIC AND EDUCATION VARIABLES Impact on socio-economic and education variables

Impact of Population Growth on Socio-Economic and Education Variables

The impact of population growth can be felt in almost all aspects of life. Rapid population growth affects a country's health, food, education,environment, housing,employment, transportation and other requirements. In turn, providing for these requirements creates many problems that demand the full exploitation of a country's resources.

Abstracts in this section specifically probe the implication or impact of fertility and population growth trends in the areas offood, healthandnutrition, education, housing, natural resources,ecology and environment,employment and labour participation,economy and law.

There are 22 entries in this section. Four deal with the effects of population growth on food supplies, nutrition and health. These selections point out that rapid increase in population has been matched by corresponding increases in the average per capita food production. The imbalance between adequate food supplies and population size result in.an immediate and direct impact on food requirements and the level and adequacy of food intake. A number of these entries also look into thepatterns and levelsof food consumption,the uneven distribution of food and the incidence of malnutrition.

One selection points out that population growth has been increasingly recognized as a. major variable affecting educational development. Large increases in the size of the school-age population can hinder attainment of educational targets and slow the improvement of the quality of education. In developing countries,for instance,limited school facilities can hardly accommodate the growing number of pupils. This has led to increase in the illiteracy rate and in the number of out- of-schol youths.

One entry which correlates population growth with employment and labour participation states that an increase in the population size has the-effect of increasing the labour force. In many developing countries with a very limited labour market, an increase in the size of labour force leads to an increase in unemployment rate. Two of these entries also examine the compatibility of the statistical data on labour force, the major determinants oflabour force and analysed the labour force trends and their relationship to population. An abstract on population and natural resources shows that rapid population growth increases population pressure on land, forest, mineral and fishery resources resulting in their depletion and inability to supply the needs of the growing population. It stresses that there is no problem with a large population per se. There is a problem when the resources available cannot meet the requirements of the population.

177 169 Demography and its bearing on population education

Three entries examine the effects of rapid population growth on the environment. The papers present a grim picture of how increases in population contribute to pollution,food contamination, overcrowding and other health and sanitation hazards. Three selections look into the legal aspect of population dynamics. Two papers support the use of legal measures to curb population growth. The others review the population policy of the countries and discuss laws that could affect the population and the practice of family planning. These include laws per- taining to compulsory education, social security, child labour, status ofwomen, environmental and consumer protection, abortion,artificial insemination,tax laws on population,contraception and sterilization, citizenship and migration laws and criminal laws relating to sexual activity.

With regard to economy vis-a-vis population growth, two entries examine the economic effects of rapid population growth. One selection shows that in principle, population growth is considered good for the economy because it challenges the human spirit to be more diligent, creative and productive and increases aggregate demand and hence, stimulates production and investment. However, this principle does not necessarily apply in developing countries with a high population growth and a low per capita income. It is pointed out instead that rapid population growth will only contribute to a low per capita income, low savings and inadequate social services. A reduction in fertility, on the other hand, can stimulate economic growth and consequently alleviate poverty in the country. One entry on housing gives details of land availability for housing in view of increasing population pressures on land.

The last group of four abtacts are general in nature since the selections do not focus on any ,Jne of the various aspects of quality of life, but by and large encompass more than one of these aspects or relate to all of the topics of quality of life. Some of these entries approach the correlation on a macro level while some show the impact of population growth or the family level. Another distinguishing characteristic of some of the selections in this group is that they consider a chain of relationships rather than the relationship between population and one other variable or vice-versa.

Data presented in this section may now serve to make discussion ofthe consequences of large family size and rapid population growth more relevant,scientific and authoritative. Earlier, trainers and teachers were constrained to rely mainly on theoretical assumptions with regard to correlating rapid population gmuMh to socio-economic and educational variables. Now, many empirical studies ha,,e been undertaken and research reports written to prove the message that rapid population growth has negative implications for the different aspects of life, both at micro and macro levels.

- 178 - 170 Impact on socio-economic and education variahZes

166. Calado, R.R. "Population portionis,43 high as 1to 20. growth and educational As the country has nearly achieved development," in: Economic universal primary education, no and Social Commission great effort is needed to accommo- for Asia and the Pacific. date the increase in numbers, Population of the Philip- but the financial burden imposed pines. Bangkok, 1978. by the increase in numbers at (Country monograph series the secondary and tertiary levels no. 5), p. 231-261. would be.

This article presents data Mortality is also related showing recent trends as well to family size. Mortality in increases as the presentstatu9 ii, . regard the first two yars to literacy, school-a8R population with parity ai family size. and enrolments,retcation ratios This phenomenon of increased mor- and educational attainment. tality in the first two years Then it proceeds to discuss futurP of life is observed in both devel- prospects in respect of all these. oping and developed countries. A concludingsection isdevoted to a discussion of the impli- Descriptors:Educational Needs; cations of population trends EducationalDevelop- for education. ment; Philippines

The article points out that Source: Clearinghouse and populationgrowth has beenin- Information Section creasingly recognizedas a major ESCAP Population variable affecting educational Division development. From 1960 to 1975, Rajdamnern Avenue the populationaged 7 years to Bangkok 10200 12 years increased roughly by Thailand 50percent, while the 13- to 16-year olds and 17-to 20-year olds showed increase of 83 to 73 percentrespectively. The projections are that by 1984, the population elementary school age will have increased by twothirds and thatof the other two age groupswill have more than doubled. In accommodat- ing the anticipated increase innumbers, it is not overall 167. Centrefor Society andRe- increase in enrolment itself ligion. Sri Lanka and but its distribution among the the environmental crisis. various levels of education that Colombo, n.d. (Dossier wouldimpose a severefinancial 81). burden. This is because the cost of a student place in second- This dossier brings into ary education is about five focus the magnitude of the prob- times the cost of a student place lems that are inherent in any in elementary education, while process of development if the for tertiary education the pro- earth's natural resources and

- 179 171 Demography and its bearing on population education

envilunment are not adequately Dr. Chandrasekhar, a renowned protected for such a development. Indian demographer bases this There are certain sections which essay on his presidential address have specific reference to popu- to the National Seminar on Popu- lation problems. The section lation andLaw. He urges that entitled,"Population, Pollution, all possible avenues beexplored Plunder", shows how environmental to curb the nation's birth rate. problems stem from the growth He feels that the subject of of the human population, and law and population has been some- how increase in population leads what neglected in the country. to a drain on the finite resources A beginning must be made to use of the earth. The discussion existing laws to control the na- of the use of pesticides and tion's population explosion. their effects on human beings Family planning is urgent in as well as the section on "Pol- the nation's interest. Compulsory lution", are of vital importance sterilization aftertwo orthree in the contextof thewelfare children must be considered in of population. It also gives thelight ofthe welfare of the a table of pollutants andtheir nation. Those couples determined effectson human health. This to have more than the stipulated table presents a sordid picture number of childrenshouldadopt ofhuman health asaffectedby homeless children. The author pollutants. The document stresses alsocommentson thelegalpos- the urgent need for the establish- ition of the State to use compul- ment of a Central Environmental sion in limiting the size of the Authority. family. He goes on to say that the reasonable regulation of popu- Descriptors: Health; Environ- lation growth isthe moral duty mental Effects; of every citizen. The nation NationalResources; needs disciplined and dedicated Sri Lanka citizenswho are willingto do their duty. Source: Centre for Society and Religion Descriptors:Law; India 281 Deans Road Colombo 10 Source: Centre for Population Sri Lanka Studies Annamalai University 35 Thayumanavar Street Villapuram-605602 Tamil Nadu India

168. Chandrasekhar, S. Population and law in India. Bombay, Blackie & Sons (India) Limited, n.d., 157 p.

180 172 Impact on socio-economic and education variables

169. De Mel, Beatrice, and T. 170. Economic and Social Com- Jogaratnam- "Population mission for Asia and the growth, nutrition and Pacific.Comparative study food supplies in Sri of population growth and Lanka," Margo 4(3): 60- agricultural change - 83, 1977. case study of India. Bangkok, 1975. 131 p. The basic objective of this (Asian populationstudies study is toexplore the impli- series no. 23). cations of population growth for food and nutrition. The This studywasdesigned to available evidence indicates assist in clarifying the relation that food supplies have been between population pressure and sufficient on average to meet agriculturalchangethrough time nutritional requirements. The series analysis withan ultimate food supply, however, is charac- objective of providing better terized by an overwhelming depen- understanding for setting develop- dence on starchy staples and ment goals. vegetable fats. Surveys done hererevealed an inadequacy of The study is based onthe calories, calcium, iron and ribo- analysis of demographic and agri- flavin. Population is projected culturaldata oftwo states in to increase from 50 to 100 per India - viz.Punjab and Orissa. cent by the year2000 depending The mainfactorcausingdiffer- on the fertility assumptions ences in population growth between made. The outlookfor protein the two states is the differential supplies is not bright. Major mortality. There is fairly re- shifts of government policies liable evidence of decline in and commitments of resources birth rates in some of the pros- will be requirel to ensure ade- perous districts of Punjab, while quate levels of nutrition for there is no suchindication in the population of Sri Lanka. Orissa. The hypothesis of special .The article has a number of interest is themutualresponse foodbalance sheets and tables of demographic and agricultural relating to nutrition in the variables to population pressure. country. Thehypothesis is stronglycon- firmed only by the experience Descriptors: Food Supply; Nu- of the Punjab in the decade 1951- trition; Sri Lanka 1961. The trends in other decade didnot support the hypothesis. Source: Marga Institute It cannot be firmly concluded 61 Isipathana that population is the motive Mawatha force in agricultural development. Colombo 5 Sri Lanka Descriptors: Agricultural Develop- ment; Demographic Factors; Comparative Analysis; India

- 181 - 173 Demography and its bearing on population education

Source: Clearinghouse and the food supply fell short in Information Sec- both quantity and quality in re- tion lation to the needs of the nation. ESCAP Population India has revised food production Division and the birth rate had come down Rajdamnern Avenue to 33 by 1977butinthe past Bangkok 10200 two years (1977-1979) there has Thailand been a setback in the programme. Nepal is a very poor country where nearly40per cent are lilted below the poverty. line. Agricultural production has stag- nated. A multi-sectora3 co- ordinated approach is necessary for promotion ofnutrition. In Sri Lanka, a newDivision, The Food and Nutrition Policy Planning Division, launched a five-year 171. Economic and Social Com- programme(1972-1976)emphasising mission for Asia and familyplanning. New financial the Pacific. An integrated .incentives are given to acceptors approach to population, butthere is a lack ofco-ordi- food and nutrition poZ- nation in the operational family icies and programmes planning programmes. In Pakistan, for nationaZ deveZopment. nutritional implementation pro- Report of a Regional grammes are at various stages Seminar, UnitedNations, of implementation. The seminar 24th-31st July 1979. agreed that the initiative in Bangkok, 1979. 39 p. developing anintegratedgovern- (Asian population studies ment policy should come from the no. 45). highest national planning and policy-making agency. The Regional Seminar on an Integrated Approach ofPopu- Descriptors:Food PoZicy; Nu- lation, Food and Nutrition Pol- trition PoZicy; icies and Programmes was held Asia atBangkok from 24th-31st July, 1979, sponsored by ESCAP. Four Source: Clearinghouse and specific objectives were (1) Information Sec- to catalogue and exchange infor- tion mation; (2) to formulateguide- ESCAP Population lines for suitable strategies; Division (3) to suggest action-oriented Rajdamnern Avenue integrated programme; and (4) Bangkok 10200 to ensure co-operationand co- Thailand ordination. The current situation in the ESCAP region was reviewed at the seminar. The problems in Bangladesh are given. Bangla- desh isconfronted with serious problemsin theareas of population, food and nutrition because

182 - 174 Impact on socio-economic and education variables

172. Economic Review, volume 5, managing the world's natural no. 11 -Special report resources. on environment, February 1980, p.3-16. Descriptors: Environmental Ef- fects; Health; Pol- There is a long article lution; Sri Lanka in this issue under the caption "Environment" and a short article Source: The People's Bank by RentondeAlwis. The main Research Department article says that in recent years Sir Chitamapalam the grading of the human environ- A. Gardiner Mawatha ment has been attempted by many Colombo 2 workers in view of the congestion Sri Lanka of the population in cities. Heexamines theproblem of environmental pollution and divides this topicintoIndustrial Pol- lution, Ocean Pollution and Cul- tural Pollution. There is a special section on theMahaweli Area where the author feels there is an urgency for environmental management, inviewof the new settlements. Industrial pollution is one of the most visible, but 173. Future Group.The effects hardest to control. With regard ofpopulation factors on to food contamination, it has social and economic devel- been found that "keera" (green opment. Rapid resources leaves), some vegetables and for the awareness of popu- pulses contained insecticide lation impacts on develop- residues which were injurious ment. n.p., 1980. 52 to health. Airpollution from p. vehicular trafficand other en- gines is taking its toll not This analysis of Sri Lanka's only of humanhealthbut also population problems is provided of theancienttreasures of our by the "Futures Group" in conjunc- heritage. The oxides of nitrogen tionwith RAPID (Resources for areparticularly harmful tothe the Awarness of Population Impacts lungs. Noise pollution is a on Development) as a presentation feature of highly-populated which would be helpful to policy- industrial areas, highways and makers and scholars in understand- airports. Constant exposure ing the effects of population to loud noise results in permanent growthand distribution on the hearing loss. Ocean pollution economic and social development results in loss of marine life. of the country. After stating Three majorsourcesof cultural the national development objec- pollution are noticeable - tour- tives of Sri Lanka, the author ism, conspicuous consumerism goes on to"Population Dynamics" and population centralization,- under which the momentum of popu- with its attendant evils. Renton lation growth, birth rates, death de Alwis, in his article, pleads rates, migration and age distri- for a national strategy for bution aregiven. The next

ft3 175 Demography and ite bearing on population education section entitled "How Sri Lanka's seminar was addressed by the Depu- Population Characteristics will ty Ministers of Health and Justice affect National Objectives" gives and a number of officialsfrom details of Mahaweli Ganga project, the government sector as well education, health,housing,for- as representatives of foreign estry and expenditure and social missions in Sri Lanka. Some in- services. In conclusion, the teresting features of the seminar author says that "although devel- are reported inthis publication opmentand family planning pro- which covers the complete seminar. grammes, show tremendous insight The first paper is by Dr. Wickrema on the part of Sri Lanka's plan- Weerasooria on "Law and Popu- ners, the disturbing trends in lation". A legal approach to increasing birth rates show that the population problem of Sri continued efforts must be made Lanka hadnot been discussed at to reduce the rate of population a seminar before, and therefore growth. evoked much interest. The discussion centredaround a few Descriptors: Population Dynamics; specificareas of the law that Socio-economic De- directly or indirectly affected velopment; Sri population growth or decline. Lanka Other papers oftopical interest were "Labour and Welfare Laws and Their Bearing on Population", "Contraception, Sterilization and Abortion", Legal Status of Women and the Institution of the Family", "Citizenship, Immigration and EmigationLaws". A number of recommendations wee made, one.of which was the establishment of a central authority onpopulation problems. 174. Goonesekera, R.K.W. and W.S. Weerasooria. Report Descriptors: 'Legal Aspects; Sri of the National Seminar Lanka on Law and Population in Sri Lanka at the Source: UNFPA Bandaranai;

The National ScQinar on Law and Population was organized by the Law and Population Project, Sri Lankaand wLs held at the Bandaranaike Memorial Inter- national Conference Hall from 16th to 18th January 1984. Seven- teenpapers were read and the Impact on socio-economic and education variab,,:,

175. "ImplicuUons of RPG on age structure. Thus,developing health care," Repro- countries with young age structure ductions, vol. 4, 'no. requirerelatively higher health 51, August 1976. services. Considering the high fertility level in less developed The article states, "There countries, much of the health is a very profoundandintense services will be concentrated relationship between health status on maternal and child care. The and therate at which a popu- article points out that if health lation grows."The group's health services remain constant (for status reflects their reproductive some reasons, in less developed characteristics, andmay affect countries, they tend to remain the rate atwhich a population constant), the rapid growing popu- increases. Ontheotherhand, lation will consequently suffer the rate atwhich a population from greatermorbidity and mor- grows also hasa bearing on the tality. health requirements and health status of a population. Descriptors:HeaZth Conditions; HeaZth Services; Improvements in health tech- Population Dynamics; nology have broughtaboutrapid Philippines declines in the death rate. In Western European and North Source: Institute for the American countries,health tech- Study of Human nologyuas applied slowly over Reproduction, decades, and the death rates Faculty of Medicine dropped moreclosely. In less University of Santo developed countries like the Tomas Philippines, generalimprovement Espalla, Manila in health has led to the current Philippines increased natural fecrlidity, decreased mortality and consequently, rapid population growth. Most population-related efforts in these countries are now aimed at reducing the population growth rate through the introduction of contraceptive programmes.

The large scale effects of public health measures in less developed countries have 176. Jayasuriya, D.C. Legal di- been exhausted, and in some coun- mensions of population tries, it is unrealistic to dynamics; perspectives expect more significant health from Asian countries. Mt. improvements through such measures Lavinia, Associated Edu- without starting moreelaborate cationalPublishers, 1979. and more expensive programmes. 175 p. The people's healthneeds tend to vary with age structure. Most ofthestudiesin the Young age structure demands higher Asian region have contained hardly health requirements than old anyinformation on the legal

- 185 - 177 Demography and its bearing on population education aspects of poptilation dynamics. 11 7. Luna, Telesforo W. "Popu- This book is intended to fill lation and natural re- thu void. The first two chapters sources," in: Economic deal with the genesis and concep- and SocialCommisionfor tualization of Population Law. Asia and the Pacific. InPakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Population of the Philip- Lanka, the legal position regard- pines. Bangkok, 1978. ing abortion is the same. A (Country monographseries pregnancy could be terminated no. 5), p. 289-297. only to save the life of the mother. Ir Nepal it is a Crime This paper examines the to induce abortion. Property availability of various natural and inheritance laws in Sri Lanka, resources in the Philippines which Pakistan, Ind:la and Bangladesh can be utilized to meet e devel- are discussed. In several coun- opment needs of the country's tries of thisregion population growing population. The Philip- laws have not been enacted. pines iswellendowed withre- Sri Lanka is a classic example, sources which can meet the devel- although it has held many seminars opmentneeds of the population. onpopulation and law. During These are forestry, land, mine: ,1 thecourse of visits to Nepal, and fishery resources. The Bangladesh and India, the author favourable climate, soil and topo- hashadoccasionto meet those graphymake many parts of the associated with problemsonlaw country suitable areas foragri- and population and touse these cultural development. The vast interviews as the basis for this topicalforestis a goodsource book. of timber; the mineral resources provide the country's need for Descriptors: Law; Population ore,nickle,copper, gold, iron, Dynamics; Legal etc., the land and fisheryre- Aspects; Asia sources provide the population with their food supply. However, Source: Associated Edu many of the country's natural cational Pub - resources, particularlyland and blishers forest, have been suffering from 34/2 De Saram Road indiscriminate exploitation and Mt. Lavinia neglect. The mineral and fishery Sri Lanka resources appear to be more yvrom- ising.

The author recon 'ends a comprehensive programme for socio- economic development which stauld include: (a) an appraisal of the present system of resource utilization; (b) ananalysis of cultural and physical obstacles to resource development; and (c) an estimate of resource potentials, taking intoaccount con- flicting uses and demands for given resources, expected popu-

186 - 178 Impact on socio-economic and education variables lation trends and the probable least. The xesult from the find- role of technological change ings suggested that to develop through successive periods. the rural area, a single development programme will not work out Descriptors: Natural Resources; successfully, but should take Nature ConservaL:ion; i-toconsideration otherschemes Philippines that are suitable tothe areal differentiation ofeach specific Source: Clearinghouse and rural area. Information Sec- tion Descriptors: Rural Development; ESCAP Population Environment; Socio- Division economic Factom; Rajdamnern Avenue Thailand Bangkok 10200 Thailand Source: Matlonal Institute of Development Administration. Klong Chan, Bangkapi Bangkok 10240 5 Thailand

178. Manat Suwan. Population and rural development: a human ecological analysis. Bangkok, National Institute of Development Adminis- tration, 1984. 82 p. 179. Marge Institute. The new In Thai. housing study, June 1984. Colombo, 1984. 470 p. This study is attempted (M.19 Restricted circu- to examine the factors that influ- lation). ence the living of rural people. These factors are population, This study is the outcome physcz1 environment and socio- of a proposal which was made economicfactors. Using survey jointly by the Ministry of Local data from two areas, one in the Government, Housing and Construc- Maung District of Lumphun Province tion and USAID for a comprehensive and the other in Doi-Saked Dis- analytical policy of the develop- trict of Chiang Mai Province. ments in the housing sector during the inter-censal period 1971- It was found that the popu- 1981. Some of the special charac- lation factors have the strongest t,eristics ofSri Lanka's pattern influenceon the livingof the of development are discussed rural people. Socio-economic briefly in Chapter 1 on the socio- factorshavemoderate influence economic background. Chapter and physical :factor have the 2 provides a detailed analysis - 187- 179 Demography and its bearing on population education tf the changes in the housing 180. Pakistan. Ministry of Health situation which occurred between and Social Welfare. Popu; 1971 and 1981. Chapter 3 provich- 1 lation Planning Division. three alternative projectic Prologue to development of future housing needs for fc policy and population pol- to five-yearperiodsupto th_ icy. Background papers year 2001. Chapter 4 discusses of Workshop/Seminar, 4- Povernment housing programmes 8th February 1975. Rawal- andpolicies and the role the pindi [1975]. 78 p. State has played in housing development. Chapter 5 gives details These background papers were of land availability for housing published in the form of a mono- which is of prime concern in graph at the end of an ICP work- view of population pressures shop/seminar of the International on land. Chapters 6, 7 and8 Programmefor Population Analysis deal with some of the keyre- of the Inter-disciplinary Communi- sources needed for housing cation Programme. The first and finance, land,materials related second articles are in French to the construction industry "Resumeen Francais" and "Resume and. manpower. The concluding en Castellana". The next article chapter is a selected summary is in English "Food and Fertility of the main conclusions and rec- Formulationof Public Policy in ommendations of the substantive Pakistan". Table 1 gives daily part of the study. This work per capita calorie intake and was supported by a field survey paints a grim picture of malnu- whichprovided useful "insights trition. The author suggests regardinghousing needs, levels that a demand be created for of satisfaction and aspirations modern means of limitingfamily of a cross-section of households size, where agricultural policies in population". merge with ponulation policies. A massive social reorganization Descriptors: Housing Needs; hasto take placethat requires Sri Lanka redistribution of land, reform of tenurial and marketing arrange- Source: Sri Lanka Centre ments and setting up new financial for Development institutions. Thelast article Studies is on "MajorAspects ofFamily Marga Institute Planning in Pakistan". These 61 Isipathana programmes in'clude health services Mawatha that lower infant and child mor- Colombo 5 tality, programmes of functional Sri Lanka literacy, institutionalized forms of old age security, upgrading education, improvement of the status of women, moreequitable distribution o jme, in addition to direct birth control programmes. The la9t section is an annotated biblIraphy of social science literature cm population policy in Pakistan.

- 188 - 180 Impact on socio-economic and education variables

Descriptors: Socio-econowLc De- ductive and increase agregate velopment; Popu- demand, and hence, stimulate pro- lation Policy; duction and investment. The Pakistan author strongly pointedout that thisprinciple does notapply in Source: Interdisciplinary developing countries like the Communications Philippines. The Philippines Programme is characterizedbyamongother Smithsonian things, high population growth institute and low percapita income. It 1717 Massachusetts ispointed out thatrapid popu- Avenue, N.W. lation growth will only contribute Washington, D.C. tolower per capita income,low 20035 savings and inadequate social U.S.A. services. A reductionin fertility, onthe otherhand, can stimulate economic growth and consequently alleviate poverty in the country.

Public intervention in the procreative decisions ofcouples is recommended to achieve the goals of reducing fertility. A reduction in fertility will facilitate the achievement of 181. Paqueo, Vicente B. "Economy- thegood of raisingpercapita wide consequences of rapid income, reducing poverty and pro- population growth," in: viding better social services. Herrin, Alejandro N. Essays on the economics Descriptors:Economic Development; of Prtility. Population Family Planning; growth and public inter- Philippines vention in a developing country: the Philippines. Source: University of the [Quezon City] School of Philippines Economics, University School of Economics of the Philippines, 1982. Diliman, Quezon (Discussion paper 8212), City p. 1-35. Philippines

A review of literatureon the effects of demographic process on economic development shows that in principle, there are various mechanisms through which population growth can positively influence economic growth. Popu- lation growth is considered good for the economy because it challenges the human spirit to be more diligent, creative and pro-

189 181 Demography and its bearing on population education

182. Philippines. Ministry of ishingnegativereturns. Rapid Education, Culture and population growth increases popu- Sports. Population Edu- lation pressure on land and oi:her cation Program. Conse- resources and consequently dim- quences of rapid popu- inish investment returns. An lation growth. Module no. increase inpopulation sizehas 8 of"A module in popu- the effect of increasing the lation education for labour force. In many developing elementary and secondary countries with a very limited school teachers."Manila, labour market, an increase in 1984. 30 p. the size of the labour force leads to an increase in unemployment There reallyisno problem rate. with a large population perse. There is a problem when the re- Themodule alsopoints out sources available cannot meet the ways in which rapid population the requirements of the popu- growth affects education. Large lation. This module is concerned increasesin the size of the with the resources needed to school-age population can hinder support the population. Specifi- attainment of educational targets cally, itis concerned with the andslow the improvement of the consequencesof rapid population quality of education. In develop- growth on food, economic developing countries for instance, ment, education, health and social limited school facilities can services and ecosystem. hardly accommodate the growing number ofpupils. This has led The module presents data to increase in illiteracy rata showing the adverse effects of and in the number of out-of-school rapid population growth onfood youths. supply. With the rapid increase inthe sizeofthepopulation, Rapidpopulation growth can world per capita food production also have negative conscuences experiences a significant decline. on health andothersocial ser- This decline has led to increase vices. As population grows, the in food prices and dependence maintenance of existing health of less developed nations on andothersocial services become few developed countries for food increasingly difficult. Quali- supply. Moreover, theshortage tative improvements of health in food supply has brought about facilitiesare alsohindered by an increase in the number of rapid population growth. malnourished population and a rise in death rates. The rapid rate of population increase can also negatively af- Rapid population growth fect the ecosystem. Rapid indus- is also associated with economic trialization and urbanization stresses such as unemployment, have caused the deterioration low per capita income, global of many parts of the world. These inflation, capital scarityand factors have alsobrought about diminishing negative returns. pollution, congestion and disrup- Rapid population growth increases tion ofthe balance in the eco- population pressure on land,other system. resources and consequently dimin- - 190 - 182 IMpact onsocio-economic and education variables

Descriptors: Population Pressure; prospects in this area for the Health Conditions; year 2G00 are discussed. Education; Economic Development; En- The sccond and ',third chapters vironment; Quality deal with the Philippine popu- of LiP; Philippines lation. Thefoc7zs is on the growth and uistribution of t'Ae Source: Population Education population during the century, Program. paying close attention to mi- Ministry of Edu- gration flows between and within cation, Culture regions, and the sources and vari- and Sports ations of urban growth; population Palacio del Gober- size and density;age structure; nador the growth and composition of Intramuros, Manila the labour force; family forma- Philippines tion; and alternative population future. Thesucceeding chapters assessthe current situation and drawup scenarios for the year 2000 for the following areas which affect quality of life: natural resources, education, healthand nutrition and income sharing. Policy recommendations intended to secure the "best" possible futurQ for the country are given for areE. 183. Population, Resource, En- vironment and the Philip- Descriptors: Development Planning; pine Future Program Socio-economic Con- (PREPF). Probing our ditions; Quaity future: the Philippines of Life; Philippine..? 2000 AD. Manila, National Economic and Development Source: Population Center Authority, 1980. 222 Foundation p. P.O. Box 2065 Makati Central Post The PREPF report is a col- Office lection of scenarios about the Sen. Gil Puyat Avenue world situation, and the Philip- Makati, Metro Manila pine population, resources and Philippines environment, health,' education and income-sharing into 2000 A.D. The first chapter looks into the world scenarios for 1975-2000. Scientists and experts hazard a cautious optimistic projection: the earth willsur- vive, giventheright interplay of the following variables population, food supply, politics, trade and energy. The world

- 191 183 Demography and its bearing on population education

184. Puvanarajan, P. On-going Source: Family Planning social change in Sri Lanka. Communications Colombo, Family Planning Strategy Project Communications Strategy Department of Infor- Project, Department of mation Information, 1975. 44 No. 7, Sir Baron p. Jayatillaka Mawatha Colombo 1 This study focuses attention Sri Lanka on the population affected by on-going socio-economic changes in Sri Lanka. In Chapter I, the main demographic trendsare traced and their implications for social change assessed. Chapter III lists the agents of social change in the country - education, urbanization, age at marriage and land reform. In the field of education the equalization of opportunities 185. Rao, V.M. .Food. New Delhi, among students through the intro- Macmillan Company of India, duction of the free education 1975. 117 p. (Second scheme was the main positive Indian Studies). factor In populationreduction, as educdtion has a powerful influ- The purpose of this study ence on fertility. Urbanization is to preseut a brief acco,T, wasalso a precursor to social of India's prospects for change, resulting in moderniz- over the next three decad,, ation, whichinturndisturbed The book begins with a vivid norms affecting high fertility scription of the nature cn: r and changed nuptiality patterns. food problem in India. It t1-1. Employment ana education were examines the requirements of ',:ood causalfactorsin maritalpost- relation to the population. ponementanda rise in the age is suggested that the policies of marriage. Land settlement needed for solving the food prob- schemes, partilarly colonization lem go way beyond the programmes schemes, tended to relieve press- for increased production. Chapter ure on land in the villages and Three indicates the potential led to increased production. for increased production and Favourable termsof trade, high describes the main dimensions pricesfor agricultural products of the tasks entailed in realizing and better ,!,ocial amenitiesled it so that its impact on the food to changes in income distribution, problem is maximized. Hunger although there was a large pro- in India is an integral component portion still living far below of poverty. The broad effect the poverty line. of its food p:Aicies in the years since Independence has bcn to Descriptors: Socio-economic De- control "overt hunger" caused velopment; Social by erratic monsoons without allow- Change; Sri Lanka ing them to develop into famines.

192 1 84 Impact on socio-economic and education variables

The newthinkingon the Fifth nuts, roots and tubers, sugar, and later plans provides some pulses, meat, fish, milk, veg- ground for hopethat India has etables, fruits, beverages and begun to look beyond "overt hun- spices. The requirements are ger". The proved scenario given in respect of the different sketched in ttlis book justifies age groupsand sexes. Infants a measure of optimism, namely under one year ofage have been that Indiacan solve its food omitted. In connection with the problem. planning of cropping patterns and crop acreages from the Mahe- Det.riptors: Food Production; weli Project, the food require- Food Requirements; ments using nutritional standards Food Policy; India havebeen computed and are reported in this publication. These Source: Macmillan Company projections have been preparel of India Lr.-% assuming that fertility will 4 Community tentre gradually decline to 60 per cent Narina Inuustrial of the 1971 level and the expec- Area, Phase 1 tation of lifewill reach the New Delhi-110028 valueof 72.2 yearsfor females India and 68.5 for males.

Descriptors:Food Requirements; Sri Lanka

Source: Department of Census and Statistics P.O. Box 563 Colombo 7 Sri Lanka

186. SriLanka. Department of Census and Statistics. Projectionsof food requirements for Sri Lanka 1981-2001. Colombo, 1978.

For the purpose of projecting the food requirements of the country,the populati nforthe period 1981-2001 has beenpro- 187. World Bank. Population, jected, starting with theesti- health and nutrition in mated population at mid-year the Philippines. A sectox . 1971. In this publication,the review, volume II: Main approach taken in forecasting report with tables and the food needs of the future technical annexes.Washing- is based on nutritional standards ton, D.C., 1984. and the balanced diet tables set upby the Medical Research Reducing population growth Institute. The items listed and improving health and nutrition rice, bread, wheat flour, coco- in the Philippines are primary

- 193 185 Demography and its bearing on population education

concerns of the Philippine Govern- IV is about the economics and ment. This volume comprehensively financing of the three sectors. reviews the status of these three The roles of various agencies sectors. supporting the population, health, and nutrition programmes are high- Part I focuses on such topics lighted. Issues and recommen- as popuiai:ion, size, trendsand dations are also provided. demographic characteristics like age-sex composition, dependency Descriptors:Population Policy; ratio, fertility, mortality and Health Conditions; nuptiality, socio-economic conse- Health Policy; Nu- quences of population growth, trition; Population population policy and organiz- Dynamics and Compo- ation,population plans and pro- sition; Philippines gramme, and population prer,ramme performance. Part II discusses Source: Population, Health the health status of thepopu- and Nutrition lation. Health policis and Department plans, organization andmanage- World Bank ment, health sector performance, 1818 H Street and health care programmes are Washington, D.C. dealt with. .Part IIIanalyses 20433 the nutritional status of the U.S.A. population. The country's nu- tritionprogramme, its policies andplans are presented. Part

1941.86 Geographical index

GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX (Refer to abstract number)

Bangladesh02, 22, 61, 65, 97, SriLanka 05, 16, 21-22,25-27, 114, 133, 154 30, 35, 38-40, 48, 54, 56- 59, 64, 73, 88, 90-93, 97, India 03, 22-23, 28, 44, 51- 102, 112, 116,126, 130,136, 53, 72, 100, 103-105, 122, 141, 147, 152, 156, 158-159, 127, 165, 168, 170, 185 164, 167, 169, 172-174, 179, f84, 186 Nepal 04, 22, 24, 36, 66, 97, 109, 121 Thailand 06, 18, 29, 68-70, 75- 76, 78-81, 83-86, 89, 94- Pakistan 17, 22, 31, 37, 43, 96, 98, 101, 108, 110, 115, 67, 111, 124,132,146, 155, 117, 137, 140, 143-144, 148, 180 150,153,178

Philippines 07-14, 20, 31-34, 41-42, 45-46, 49-50, 52, 60, 62-63, 74, 77, 82, 87, 106-107, 118-120, 123, 125, 128-129, 131, 134, 138-139, 145, 149, 151, 157, 160- 163, 166, 175, 177, 181- 133,187 Subject index

SUBJECT INDEX (Refer to abstract number)

Adolescents 45, 74, 87 Environment 167, 172, 178, 182

Age-sex compositicn 42-58 Ethnicity 59, 94

Age at marri:,.. 64, 128-129, Family planning 93, 95, 98, 181 132-134 Ferti."ty 59-101 Agriculture 70, 78, 83-84, 170 Fertility analysis 64-67, 73, Causesof death 102, 105, 111- 79, 92, 99, 131 114 Fertility behaviour 77, 97 Causes of morbidity 120-121, 124 Fertility decline 27, 100

Data collection 02-07, 47 Fertility determinants 59, 63- Demographic statistics 19, 22, 65, 67, 69-73, 76, 83, 87, 35, 40-41, 48, 54, 103-104, 89, 91-92, 94, 96, 98, 100- 114,118 101

Fertility surveys 60-61, o5, 67, Demographic trans.Ltion 32, 39, 98 102 Food 169, 01, 185, 186 Desired family size 66, 68, 80, 96 Health conditions 120, 123, 126, 157, 175, 182, 187 Differential fertility 75, 77- 81, 83-89, 115, 132 Health policy 122, 124, 172, 187

Differentialmortality 107, 118 Health services 104, 106, 109, 111, 113, 116-117, 119, 121 Education 166, 182 122, 175

Emigration 146-147, 149-150, Housing 179 152 Human settlement 165 Emplo, 56-58, 79, 81, 101,

1 . l!L7-148, 150, 152, Labour migration 146-147, 149- 1: 150, 152, 154

- 197 Demography and its beaing on population education

Law 168,174,176 Population education instructional materials 11-14, 32-33, 52, Marriages66, 128, 130-131, 133- 182 134 Population growth 17-41 Migrants137, 143-144, 149, 153- 154 Population policy 14-15, 17, 20, 180, 187 Migration 135-154, 161, 165 Internal 135-136, 138-140, Population pressure 02-07, 10 142-143, 146, 148, 151 23, 26, 30, 166-187 International 146-147, 149- 150, 152 Population projections 08, 29, Labour 146-147, 149-150, 34-35, 38, 49-50 152, 154 Rural-urban 137-138 Population size 17-41 Statistics 138, 144, 147, 151 Religion 72,77

Morbidity 120-127 Socio-cultural factors 02-06, 62, 72, 77, 130, 133 Mortality 102-118 Child 110, 112 Socio-economic conditions 55, Infant 105-106, 108, 110, 63, 149, 153, 164, 183 112-113, 120 Socio-economic development 16, Mortality decline 117 23-25, 75-76,79-80, 83, 85, 88, 162, 173, 180-184 Natural resources 26, 30, 167, 177 Socio-economic factors 53, 59, 68-69, 81, 90-91, 96, 100- Nutr:ttion 161, 171, 187 101, 108, 112, 117, 129-130, 134, 139-140, 144, 148, 150, Nuptia.Lity 127-134 152, 160, 178

Population cha)ige 19, 21, 23- Urban planning 158-160, 162, 164 24, 26-28, 30, 33, 36-37 Urban policy 158-160, 162, 164 Population characteristics 52 Urbanization 141, 155-165 Population composition and characteristics 42-58 Women 44, 51, 56, 69, 77, 86, 88 Popu.ation composition and dynamics 01-08, 10, 12-14, 16, 18, 20, 25, 31, 34, 42-58, 173, 175, 176,.187

Population distribution 141- 142, 155-165

- 198