An Alternative History of Video Game Space Philip Sharp University of California, San Diego USA Email: [email protected]
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Peep-boxes to Pixels: An Alternative History of Video Game Space Philip Sharp University of California, San Diego USA Email: [email protected] ABSTRACT might infer, the history of video games is, then, rather “Peep-boxes to Pixels” offers an alternative cross-section nascent. of gaming history. Focusing on the dichotomous profiles of the video game arcade in the US and in Japan, the Many histories more or less begin with Steve Russell’s in- paper traces various cultural and technological planes as house Spacewar!, given a coin slot and called Computer they scroll amongst each other in forming the collective Space by Nolan Bushnell (Wolf, 36 -- and others). It is the zone we call an arcade today. This metaphor I extend by coin slot that becomes the synecdoche: these histories appropriating into my discourse a term that video games conspicuously arise with (and are preoccupied) by the appropriated from astronomy: parallax. economic girth of the video game market. The histories of Arthur Asa Berger, Steven Poole, J.C. Herz, and other Of particular interest in this alternative history are the video game histories follow this pattern, which is largely Dutch peep-boxes which, when introduced to Japan and known to popular culture discourse in general. The given a pay-per-play cost, can be thought of as proto- statistics for the tokens-cum-capital are spread about as if arcade games. However, these objects are generally the money justifies the writing see Berger, 25), perhaps mentioned in regards to a history of cinema. Why not a serving as a cordon sanitaire between a discourse that history of games? Certainly, peep-boxes, pointillism, seems to romanticize the same games which had penny arcades, pinball machines, pachinko and the pixels previously elicited a more immediate and vituperative of Pac-man begin to interrelate as parallax once one Western scholarly reaction: writings preoccupied by weaves together the pedigree of their respective spaces. psychology fretted about video game addiction, licentiousness, and the general decrepitude of America’s This paper asks a lot of questions. What does the innocent youth. Different from writing about, say, the respawning of fetishistic game historians leave behind? French Revolution, a history of video games can now be What cultural remnants have been blasted right past? injected with a tone of nostalgia and retro appeal; most What framework(s) made their debut in Japan so writers ostensibly were not around to see Gericault paint successful, and why should or shouldn't we be surprised images of revolution, but were around to see Bushnell’s that the Japanese arcade scene is so much more informed Atari produce the decidedly minimalist and exegetically and vibrant than ours? (It is.) haptic Pong. In looking at a history somewhat glitched and incongruent This was not until theorists were given permission, I posit, with the common offerings, I hope a more cosmopolitan by the dollar signs in the profit reports that told academia cerebration may produce more interesting game content Hollywood had been dwarfed by polygons and pixels. and more compelling places to play. The future of play This history is well written by others and will not be may lie in the past. accounted for here. Author Keywords Perhaps a new generation of academics is set to change Arcade, geisen, geimu sentaa, Holland, history, oranda, how this history is written. The placement of Pong in the parallax, historiography, glitch, hanafuda, SNK, Sega, local bowling alley is as much a part of cultural memory Nintendo, pinball, pachinko. now to the younger bearers of the joystick as is France’s penchant for the guillotine. The very recent creation of a OPENING CINEMA history of video games defined by technological The history of video games, like any history, is created in paradigms (to which Berger devotes much space) and the terms of how it is written. Not to enshroud the birth of the profit of grinning computer wonks is not the only possible objects themselves with pedagogic trickery, but, as one history, especially to those who see the artistic and cultural worth of video games regardless of big business. Situated Play, Proceedings of DiGRA 2007 Conference © 2007 Authors & Digital Games Research Association (DiGRA). Personal and educational classroom use of this paper is allowed, commercial use requires specific permission from the author. 278 This paper aims to look at a longer and more extrapolated many Japanese who do the same. I use this example as a cultural history. Recalling the dominant synecdoche of the flag to illustrate that coin slot, I suggest looking instead to another word that appears (albeit in a different context) in these histories: space. The major players in early game history— 1) leisure in general can say much about a modern Computer Space, Spacewar!, Space Invaders—all refer to society, it, at least in the astronomical sense. In the architectural 2) leisure is subject to public policy and and psychogeographical sense, the history of these governmental control, and games—and this may sound something like Ted Bestor’s 3) decisions are made about identity based on the account of Tsukiji—is necessarily tied to the kinds of value attributed to a certain type of leisure. spaces they were put in. In terms of Koichi Iwabuchi’s thoughts on "glocalization" Acknowledged by Herz (44-45), Wolf (23-24), and others, in his book Recentering Globalization, and given the arcades are a subject of wonder in themselves, with a appearance in Japanese scholarship of very pro-Japanese colorful history that, I feel, is addressed though under- or associations with the video game (Masuyama Hiroshi’s misrepresented in common scholarship. Video game Terebi Geimu bunkaron), it may become surprising as the arcades are not without vast historical precedent. They are paper progresses that there is truth in Leheny’s responsible for the coming of age of video games, and are observation about arcades. With these themes in mind, I now a useful indication of the state of video games and of insert the proverbial coin and begin this brief alternate society as a whole. history of video games. The claim of this weighted preamble is that arcades are a SPACE INVADERS gestalt of many histories smashing together: the histories It has been said that the West brought with it a "new of leisure space and ludic endeavors, in Japan and in the vision" to Japan, metaphorically referring to larger West, fuse tightly into the considerably pluralist video matters through the devices of rangaku, ostensibly of game arcade. I will be risking many a non- sequitur by rather drab scientific use by the Dutch who introduced looking at (among other things) how Dutch peep-boxes, them. As Timon Screech details in The Lens within the pachinko, pinball, and the companies that produce them Heart, the technological devices were of course a source all intersect amongst the flow of arcade tokens. I will of marvel for the Tokugawa elite who were fortunate conclude with a less weighted discussion of intertextuality enough to tinker with them. Screech also explains how in terms of how arcades are represented rather these devices were gateways to a new vision—they eulogistically within the diagetics of games themselves. "supplanted the empirical gaze", in his terms. (94) A new perspectival visual style, ranga, became introduced But first, one last bit of theoretical grounding. Video through these devices. games are, in terms of explicitly marketed purpose, at least, a leisure activity. Why is it—besides the money— Perspective images even demanded a form of that the games are worth looking at? I answer this concentration and interactivity: in order to properly question by grounding them in the historical modes of the engage with the image, the viewer had to be lined up just banal, the everyday, the ludic and the leisurely—modes so, stand still, and forfeit outside interaction in any which are not without theoretical precedent proffering "spiritual way." (98) The peep-box (which, to me, their importance in adding (ironically) a more human resembles the ill-fated Nintendo viewing device, the dimension to social science. For example, David Leheny’s Virtual Boy) presented the Japanese with an interface The Rules of Play: National Identity and the Shaping of made of glass, representing what was seen as a Western Japanese Leisure is concerned with the "explanation for "lens culture" (borrowing a term from Norman Bryson) [Japanese governmental] leisure initiatives", and how it and foreshadowing the video game interface of the glass enforces the Japanese government’s desire that the monitor. These glass plates laden with Western visual Japanese "should behave...like Americans and Europeans, convention were swappable, not unlike Babbage’s but they need also to remain uniquely Japanese." (3) In precursor to the computer, the Analytical Engine Leheny’s view, the institutions of leisure reflect not only (Manovich, 21) – or the modern video game cartridge. the society but even the governmental machinations of that society, which is why he makes the following caveat The visual effects of these devices suggest a kind of warp on the preceding page: "The Japanese government to modern day game effects. Screech’s description of a determined...that golf course development merited state zograscope’s optics are reminiscent of game sprite effects support but has not made the same determination about such as scrolling and scaling. (98) The Magic Lantern video game arcades." He also confesses gingerly to Society’s Encyclopedia of the Magic Lantern detail preferring video games to golf, and remarks that he knows Japanese magic lanterns referred to on page 120 as furo, due to the resemblance to a Japanese bath. (Thus, here, we have already a Japanese indigenization of a Western 279 device.) The glass plates made possible "animated semantics, as a means of experiencing another space – a effects" (120, 145); indeed, the lanterns and the peep- "warp zone", of sorts.