Theme 1: Handicrafts

Report of

by Eleni Liva, Flora Tzelepoglou, Dr. Sotiris Chtouris

Cultural & Social Digital Documentation Laboratory

October 2011

REPORT ON SHEEP AND GOAT HANDICRAFTS

HANDICRAFTS from:

• Sheep wool and Goat hair: weavings

1. Sheep wool & Goat hair Production and Trade

2. The Art of Weaving

3. Weaving material: Sheep wool, Goat hair 3.1 Wool: Shearing, scouring, combing Spinning Dyeing Weaving 3.2 Goat hair: Shearing, combing, spinning, weaving

4. Weavings: 4.1 Weavings from lambs wool: 4.1.1 Rugs / Bedding: 4.1.1.1 Chrami 4.1.1.2 Kilimi. 4.1.1.3 Patania 4.1.2 Carrying Bags: 4.1.2.1 Torvas 4.1.2.2 Haipes 4.1.2.3 Anaema (troknia) 4.1.3 Costumes: 4.1.3.1 Traditional female costume: sigouni

4.2 Weavings from goat hair: 4.2.1 Monk’s robe 4.2.2 Shepherd’s cape 4.2.3 Tsoupia: olive sacks 4.2.4 Chararia: large bags

• Sheep and Goat skin:

1. Aerophone musical instruments: Gaida Tsambouna

2. Membranophone musical instruments: Daouli Defi Toubeleki

• Ram and Goat horn: dagger hilts

1. Cretan Dagger 2. Skopelos Dagger 3. Polydrosos Dagger

• Wool, skin, horn: ceremonial artifacts

1. Wedding banner 2. Disguise costumes, masks

• Present Situation

• Bibliography

• Key Words

• Sheep wool and Goat hair handicrafts: Weavings

1. Sheep wool & Goat hair Production and Trade

The European economic history is marked by the industrial revolution which took place in the 18th century. Consequently, the search for raw materials was extremely important and the Middle East was one of the most significant territories where Britain, France, the Netherlands, Germany and Italy competed strongly in order to gain access to raw materials they needed for their industrial development. The textile industry was of vital interest to the Europeans, since it had been one of the most advanced economic sectors since the 17th century; that is why, wool, cotton and silk were the main export products of Thessaloniki, then part of the Ottoman Empire. The French, interested mainly in wool and animal skins, were the first to circumvent obstacles that the Ottoman administration posed to wool exports. In 1691, just before the establishment of French traders in Thessaloniki, Quenet characteristically writes in his “Memorandum on the current situation in Thessaloniki”: “As far as wool is concerned, there are only 1,200 to 1,400 quintals per year that we can count on, since only the French are allowed to buy them”. Wool yarns from Macedonia and Albania were exported through Thessaloniki commercial port and were considered as the finest in the Levant. Foreign consuls, in their reports, compared them to Spanish ones, deemed to be of the highest quality. Quenet, in the same Memorandum, adds: “This wool is excellent, comparable to the Spanish one, very soft and much cleaner. Such good quality cannot be collected in any other part of the Orient”. It was in Thessaloniki that wool from Albania, Serbia, Bulgaria and Macedonia was brought in to be exported. However, wool from herds grazing in the Thessaloniki region was considered the finest. Export traders had to go the shepherds themselves in order to buy wool fleece, at the exact location where shearing took place. Sometimes they would strike deals with the local people and entrust them with the task to buy wool on their behalf (one or two aspra per oka). The next step was to bring the wool fleece to the store houses, in Thessaloniki, in pokaria 1 (batches); they would proceed to sorting it according to quality; for example, the Macedonian wool quality varied a lot. The wool straight off the sheep was sorted according to its finesse and colour, namely fine white wool, black wool, thick wool and “batzak”, i.e. wool from bellies and legs, which is greasy and dirty. Furthermore, wool off dead sheep, or “bastard” wool falling off sick animalΣ and “butcher” wool, that is wool of slaughtered animals bought from the butchers. Wool export faced another obstacle, namely competition among local and Turks, mainly because they needed it for the manufacturing of “abades’2.

1 Pokari is the total amount of a sheep’s woolen fleece; usually it involves wool taken from the second shearing, as it is considered higher quality. The first shearing gives the kolokourema (or kolokra), coarse wool which is considered of inferior quality, as it is dirty and comes form the animal’s legs and tail.

2 What we usually call abades is a kind of coarse fabric destined for poor people’s clothing, as well as packaging of fine tobacco. This was produced by the Yuruk, a Turcoman people, Undoubtedly, Thessaloniki was the most important export port, as big quantities of wool arrived from all over the region, cities like Yenitze, Doirani, Serres, Stromnitsa etc.; up to 300.000 okades would arrive at the Thessaloniki port. The Thessaloniki plain would provide for 200,000 okades and, if we add quantities from Albania and Larisa, then the amount could surpass 400,000 or 500,000 okades. In reality, shearing produced much more wool, but 200,000 okades would remain at the abatzidika (the abades workshops), while considerable quantities would be exported to Venice through the Dalmatian ports. Eastern Macedonia wool was brought to Kavala, Adrianoupoli and Filippoupoli to be processed at the local abatzides workshops. During the same time, a certain quantity of goat-hair and cotton wool textiles from Smyrna was exported by Thessaloniki traders.

2. The Art of Weaving

In Greece, up to the mid ‘50s, weaving on the loom was considered one of the main household activities, as rural families would cover in this way their needs in clothing, beddings and rugs. Raw material was abundant and of good quality – namely sheep wool and goat hair – thus making weaving an art of enviable value. Indeed, every house had its own loom, as girls to be married had to prepare their dowries. A dowry was considered as satisfactory if it had at least forty rugs and beddings woven on the household’s loom. During the time of the Ottoman occupation, in many regions of Greece, as in the mountain villages of Agrapha and Evrytania, weaving became a professional, manufacturing activity. The main products were capes, sacks, as well as a fine, all wool fabric fit for clothing, the famous dark blue or black coloured dimito. Most of these textile products were exported to Venice, France and other European countries. After Greece’s liberation from the Ottomans and the development of the first urban centers, weaving emerged as a cottage industry with professional weavers. These were usually poor women who wanted to supplement their meager family income with their weaving on the loom. Thus, the first textile centers developed in the towns of Etoliko, Agrinio and Mesolongi (Western Greece). In Crete, professional weavers (anyfantoudes) either worked on behalf of someone else, or sold directly their own weavings to customers. More often than not, these professional weavers were girls of good families, who wanted to support the family’s low income, so they manufactured on their own loom weavings that were given to intermediaries, namely women who would go around the villages to sell them; however, these intermediaries bought very cheaply from the weavers (mufti), while they profited by further promoting their fare to men dealers who would trade in the big cities. In older times, nuns in monasteries were also professional weavers; in 1910, in Heraklion, Crete, there was a special establishment called “anyfantirion”, where poor girls would work as weavers under the supervision of the local “Ladies Association”.

descendants of the first Macedonia settlers, who lived up in the mountains, as nomadic shepherds and breeders. They used this fabric for clothing and sold it for 2 piastra each. Their yearly production was 80.000 pieces, exported mainly to Smyrna and the Orient. Additionally, 5,000 pieces were exported to Italy and 8,000 to Marseilles (they would export to West Indies).

3. Weaving material: Sheep wool, Goat hair

3.1 Sheep Wool: “Wool is the fleece of the sheep as we cut it off entirely from the animal’s skin and we call it pokari”, from the Greek word “pokos” (Hermes the Agoraeus, Commercial Encyclopedia, Venice 1815). Sheep wool comes in different qualities depending on the breed, animal health, climate and shearing season. Wool form the animals back is considered as superior quality, as fleece is long and thick, thus making a strong yarn. Wool from the sheep’s belly and legs is second rate, as it is short, brittle and dirty. An old sheep may give up to one oka of “greasy wool” (unwashed wool). Following scouring (i.e. cleaning the greasy wool) almost half of the wool’s volume is gone. One of the quality criteria is the animal’s age, for example, old aged sheep give longer and stronger fibers, while young animals produce shorter and thinner ones. The process of making spun yarn out of wool fleece, as well as the tools used for this purpose, are the following: shearing, scouring, combing, spinning with distaff and spindle, dyeing with natural dyes and weaving on the loom.

• Shearing, scouring, combing In Crete, sheep were sheared in April. Those who had a lot of sheep to shear (“kouradia”) they would invite friends and relatives to help them, organizing also a kind of feast for the participants. (Fig. 1)

Fig. 1

Shearing sheep in the island of Crete (www.travelpaths.gr. Photo by George Zaphiropoulos)

They filled bags with wool fleece and brought them home. From that moment on women took over, helping each other as it was hard work. First, they sorted the wool according to quality and spread it under the sun to dry. Next day they started scouring the wool, first bringing spring water – not well water – and then lighting a fire. Water was heated in cauldrons over the fire, and the wool fleece was dipped into the scalding hot water; after a short while, they rinsed them, combed them roughly and stretched them to dry; then they were put inside big bags. In winter time they would gather at home in the evening, neighbours, family and friends, all helping with wool combing. They would tell stories, sing songs and have a good time, going from house to house. Sorting thick from thin fleece was done with a hand comb. Then they would start spinning using their distaff and spindle. It is worth noting that the whole preparation of the wool fleece was done by the elder women of the village; younger women would undertake all the other processes. All over Greece there were different traditions and customs followed by shepherds. On the Aegean island of Milos (the Cyclades), shepherds would wash their sheep in seawater, in springtime, so as to clean it from any dirt. May was not a propitious month, since they believed that sheep “go crazy’ during this month of the year. Shearing was never done during crescent moon because they thought that it would spoil the fleece. Scouring was done first by dipping the wool into scalding water, during waning moon, and then washing it in the sea. Rinsing was done with sweet spring water. Women undertook carding - wool combing - using their fingers or special hand cards or wool combs, undoing knots and aligning the fibers, before starting spinning with distaff and spindle. In Thessaly, central Greece, shearing (the “kouros”) was done from April till mid- June. The first shearing cut off fleece from the animal’s breast and belly and was considered of inferior quality, while the second shearing provided the best quality. They also dipped the wool into cauldrons with scalding water and then carried it in big baskets to the riverside to rinse it abundantly; it was then stretched under the sun to dry. Combing was done on the ‘lanari’, (Fig 2) a special device made of four wooden planks forming a rectangular frame; in the middle of the top plank “iron teeth” were nailed vertically, so as to facilitate the wool combing. The next stage was spinning, i.e. making yarn out of the woolen fibers.

Fig. 2

The above lanari can be found at the exhibition hall of the Cultural Association “Fraternity of Epirotes Sarakatsani in Athens”. (Photos byEleni Liva)

• Spinning

Long fibers were spun using the distaff and short ones using the tsikrika. The distaff is a long cylindrical wooden stick, designed to hold the unspun fibers (“touloupa”), keeping them untangled and thus easing the spinning process. It is combined with the spindle, (Fig. 3) a wooden spike, which is commonly weighted at either the bottom, middle or top, most commonly by a circular or spherical object called a whorl, and may also have a hook, groove or notch.

Fig. 3

The above distaff and spindle can be found at the exhibition hall of the Cultural Association “Fraternity of Epirotes Sarakatsani in Athens”. (Photos by Pavlos Katris, member of the Cultural Association “Fraternity of Epirotes Sarakatsani in Athens”.

A bunch of fibers is gently drawn from the distaff and tied to the spindle; women give it a whirling motion with their right hand periodically, as the whorl keeps the rotational movement for a while. When the fibers are properly spun to yarn, they are wound around the spindle. When the spindle is full, the spun yarn it is wrapped around the “tyligadi”, a long stick with clefts on both ends; that is how wool skeins are formed and they can be dyed later on. A distinction is made according to the yarn’s role in the weaving process: the warp and weft. The wrap is thinner and more twisted, while the weft is thicker and less twisted. So, now yarn is ready to be dyed, of course of it is white, because dark coloured yarns can only be dyed black. The “tsikrika”, a simple wooden tool, is used for soft and short hair fibers; it has a big wheel that is hand operated and motion is transmitted to bobbins that are like spindles. The perimeter difference between the bobbins and the wheel adds to the overall spinning speed. Superstitions about spinning: Never spin on Fridays; women who are in the process of spinning should not go to the field because the weather will change and winnowing will be prevented.

• Dyeing: In the older times, housewives used to dye wool with natural plant dyes. However, a preparatory phase was necessary in order to prepare wool for dyeing. It mainly involved washing the wool beforehand - not only with water but also with the addition of alum or salt, as well as lye. As soon as the wool was thoroughly rinsed it was dipped into boiling water. Different plants were used to dye yarns in various colours. For instance, the “rizari” (Rubia tinctorum: a native shrub that grows in Southern Europe) was widely used for red colour, as well as poppies (used also in Ancient Greece), while onion skins and narcissus flowers give a beautiful light yellow colour. In the village of Anogia, in Crete, village women dyed wool yellow using berberis bark and leaves, for light brown dye, pine and plane tree bark, as well as rust and smut. Deeper shades were produced by using walnut leaves and green walnut skins. Indigo was excellent for blue colour, Lapathos flowers (wild rhubarb) for cinnamon like colour, acorns and vitriol for gray colour, smut, rust, pomegranate with copperas for black colour. Fixing the dyed colours was very important, that is why they would give a final alum bath to the dyed woollen yarns. When dried, they were ready to weave on the loom.

• Weaving: Weaving is the last and the most difficult part of this long process that starts from shearing the sheep and ends in a woven fabric. There is a quite evocative saying among villagers:” Embroidery is fun, the distaff is just a walk, but the loom (Fig. 4) is a girl’s slavery”.

Fig. 4

Weaving on the loom

The loom (argalios) is the main tool to weave cloth. Throughout the ages, Greeks have given it a lot of different names: argalios, telaro, argastiri, vua, krevati. Homer calls it under the name of istos (from spider’s web). Working on the loom was considered as a predominately female activity. Girls had to “weave their dowry and God will send a good husband for them”. The loom stands on four vertical wooden legs joined by four planks at the bottom and another four on top. On this simple structure the loom’s numerous parts are installed. Between the double rows of longitudinal yarn, the warp, the shuttle moves back and fro unfolding, vertically to the warp, the transverse thread called weft. Following each shuttle throw, the two sets of warp intersect with the weft and the weaving gets going. As the shuttle moves across the loom laying down the fill yarn, it also passes through openings in another frame called a reed (which resembles a comb). With each picking operation, the reed presses or battens each filling yarn against the portion of the fabric that has already been formed. In terms of design, weavings can be distinguished in two categories, each with its own special technique: striped and embroidered. Striped weavings consist of consecutive coloured stripes. This can be achieved by alternating weft colours: wider stripes depend on more weft rows being passed through. Embroidery on the loom is more complicated because designs are created with the suitable arrangement of weft colour on the same row. It requires great skill and careful measurement, so that the weaver can create multicoloured designs, such as flowers, landscapes, birds, geometrical motifs etc. There is also a mixed technique, as the weaver can alternate both striped and embroidery techniques. Flokates is a kind of weaving that requires a different technique: During weaving on the loom, untwisted fringes are fastened between warp and weft, giving to the finished product, the flokati rug, a warm and soft texture. Flokates are usually monochrome.

3.2 Goat hair: Goat hair had a limited use for weaving only certain kind of cloth. Its treatment was relatively simple, without much care. Goat shearing took place between the months of May and June. They did not wash them in the sea and there were no superstitions about the moon phase (crescent or waning).

• Shearing, combing, spinning, weaving Goat shepherds sorted goat hair according to colour in order to raise their product quality. This practice saved weavers form the time consuming process of dyeing, since they could use the goat hair directly for weaving on the loom. Combing was a process that demanded a lot of skill and dexterity. In an empty store room they would take a thin 3 meter long rope and fasten one end on the wall. On a low stool the comber would sit holding the other hand on her hand. Somewhere in the middle she placed the goat hair to be combed. Then she would rotate the rope gradually and, when it gained momentum, at every turn she would cut off a small amount of hair by tightening the rope abruptly. Hair would fly everywhere, that is why an empty room was needed. The combed hair was put on the distaff ready to be woven. Goat hair was spun unwashed as it was straighter and coarser than sheep wool, thus more brittle when washed. Because of the heavy smell they whole process took place in a separate sore room outside the house. Before weaving thy used to wet the yarn and mix it with sheep wool “arnies” (short and thin sheep hair). This addition made a softer fabric which was suitable for beddings.

4. Weavings Till the middle of the 20th century, weaving was one of the main household activities, as the needs of the village family in clothing, bedding and rugs were covered by women’s work with the loom. There was an abundance of good quality raw material, namely sheep and goat wool that made Greek weaving an art in its own merit. Till the ‘50s, the loom was a standard fixture in every village house, since the daughters’ dowry would be woven on it; a good dowry would list at least forty beddings and rugs.

4.1 Weavings from lambs wool:

4.1.1 Rugs / Bedding: 4.1.1.1 Chrami is a thick woolen fabric, woven on the loom, very common in everyday life, used extensively as bedding, blanket or rug. It is considered as the oldest kind of weaving, because ancient themes are depicted and woolen warps remain preserved, before, that is, the introduction of cotton yarns. Normally, the background is dyed red, red being considered as the colour of joy and a deterrent of evil. Very rarely, we encounter blue coloured background, dispersed with warm colours like red and yellow. There are a number of decorative motifs, which, when suitably combined and arranged, determine the weaving’s theme. These motifs are very old and it is hard to date their origin, as each one of them takes its name from the imagery depicted. The Vlachs (Greek nomadic pastoral people) produce woven rugs with cross- stitched embroidery, the combination of crosses being the dominant theme of their decoration. It is rarer to encounter scenes from the natural environment and everyday life, since they were time consuming and more difficult to weave. In Western Sterea Ellada, Peloponnesus and Thessaly, a very popular theme was the ‘sun’, with its warm yellow colour. Depending on the size of the chrami, there were one or more ‘suns’ i.e. rhombus shaped motifs. 4.1.1.2 Kilimi: The oldest kilimi rugs that have been preserved till today date since the middle of the 19th century. In spite of the fact that they have been in use for so many years, they still preserve their vivid colours, almost unchanged, because they had been dyed with natural plant dyes. In terms of design, in the early 20th century, traditional geometrical patterns are not popular anymore, the fashion being more flowery designs embroidered by the weaver. Weavings are not so severe in style, but gain aesthetically in beauty. After 1925 the invasion of stamps, designs printed on paper, conquer the imagination of weavers mostly in urban centers. Young weavers consider them more modern and “European’. The design is transferred from paper to canvas with multicoloured yarns and becomes the pattern to follow on the loom. 4.1.1.3 Patania is the thick woollen blanket, or, more generally, the bedding that is woven on the loom. There are various types and qualities, as we have one-leaf, two- leaf or even three-leaf blankets. A good quality patania is very heavy, with lace frills on three sides ending in tassels. Velentza (Fig. 5) is another type of heavy patania, woven with both wool and cotton.

Fig. 5

The above velentza can be found at the exhibition hall of the Cultural Association “Fraternity of Epirotes Sarakatsani in Athens”. The photograph was were taken by Pavlos Katris, member of the Cultural Association “Fraternity of Epirotes Sarakatsani in Athens”.

4.1.2 Carrying Bags: 4.1.2.1 Torvas (or ‘dourvas’) was a small woolen bag, with an opening, useful for carrying food or small farming tools. Men used to hang it on the shoulder with a cord, when they went to the fields for work. Weavers would take wool left over from blanket weaving and make these bags, often with coloured stripes. Goat hair torvas were used for horse or other livestock feeding bags. 4.1.2.2 Haipes, as it was called on the islands of Nisyros and Rhodes, was a woolen bag, bigger than a saddle bag. It was an item for daily use, originally form Asia Minor. It was woven, with stripes of geometrical designs. Weavers like to use vivid colours; its handles were also woven and colourful. Tassels would decorate the ‘haipes’. This bag was used to exchange various farm products from house to house; it was also used to carry gifts to weddings, when they had to transport them on horseback. When the haipes became worn, then it was suitable to use as an animal feed bag. 4.1.2.3 Anaema, or troknia, ranks as one of the most essential woven items. This was the name given to this weaving from the Nisyros island weavers. It was a woolen woven bag in which mothers would carry their babies to the fields. The bag itself was half a meter long and had vertical stripes, as well as woolen handles. It was easy to carry, hung from the shoulder, thus enabling mothers to carry their babies wherever they had to go to work. In Chalkidiki – Northern Greece-, they used the same bag to carry their babies, only they called it troknia. The name derives, in the local dialect, from a synthesis of two words, ‘road’ and ‘swing’.

4.1.3 Costumes: 4.1.3.1 Traditional female costume (sigouni) Traditionally, female costumes had more to do with individual handicraft than specialized tailors workmanship, that is why they have preserved, over the years, their traditional form and decoration, in contrast to traditional male costumes, crafted at tailor shops and embroidered by skilled craftsmen. Female costumes with sigouni were common in Greece, during the 18th and 19th centuries. Sigouni was an all woolen fabric, woven on the loom by women for their own use. It had a vertical opening on the front, no sleeves, worn over a thick cotton sleeveless shirt, embroidered with geometrical designs. Additionally, there was a woolen sash that women would wear around their waist. Local climatic conditions, as well as financial, practical and aesthetic needs, led people to use thick woolen or cotton fabrics, depending on local production, or, sometimes, silk and gossamer textiles.

4.2 Weavings from goat hair:

4.2.1 Monks robes. Τhe fabric of the outer garment of monastery monks, who usually did farming work, was made of black goat hair. It was mixed with black sheep wool, arnies, to make it softer and facilitate the weaving. The warp was also dyed black with natural plant dyes. When it was finished they would wash it with warm water to enhance its resilience. . 4.2.2 Shepherd’s cape. In mountainous regions of Greece shepherds used to wear thick woolen capes, woven on the loom. White woolen capes were the most common, and a good cape needed approximately four kilos of thickly spun wool. Apart from sheep wool capes there were also goat-hair ones which were considered as lower quality. These were not monochrome, but had different colours, as the hair came from white, black, grey or white goats. (Fig. 6) This cape served multiple purposes, namely as the shepherd’s cloak, but also his bed and blanket. It was sleeveless and had a hood with laces to tie around the neck; since shepherds used to follow their herd in all kinds of weather, the cape had no pockets to avoid any rainwater infiltration. On the front surface two wide strips were stitched, from top to bottom, to keep it from opening in the strong wind, while there was an opening for the hands, to fold on the inside, close to the body. Its length reached up to the shepherd’s ankles.

Fig. 6

The above cape can be found at the exhibition hall of the Cultural Association “Fraternity of Epirotes Sarakatsani in Athens”. (Photo taken by Eleni Liva) 4.2.3 Tsoupia (olive sacks). In olive oil producing regions of Greece this goat hair fabric was extremely valuable. Tsoupia (Fig. 7) were heavy sacks made of goats’ hair.

Fig. 7

Olive sacks (tsoupia) at the Museum of Industrial Olive-Oil Production in Lesvos (Photo by

The sacks were made from rectangular kerchiefs woven on looms and sewn together at the sides. Olive pulp was put into them. In front of the presses there were rectangular benches or tables upon which the binder filled the olive sacks, “tsoupia”, with pulp, 5 to 6 cm thick. The binder tied them up tightly and passed them on to the master’s assistant. The pulp inside the approximately 40 tsoupia, stacked one on top of the other, was compressed at the oil press. Goat hair was more resilient than plant fibers and more suitable to retain the pure olive oil without any foreign substances. 4.2.4 Chararia are large sacks, usually striped, up to 1,70m long, made of goat hair,from goats that were shorn in spring time. Furthermore, goat hair was used for rope making. These artisans were called “saratsides”. In the older times, in Crete, there were only Turkish “saratsides”. The “torvas”, feeding bags for animals, were also made of goat hair.

• Handicrafts from sheep and goat skin: aerophone and membranophone musical instruments

Aerophones are called the musical instruments which produce sound primarily by causing a body of air to vibrate. Reeds (aulos) with percussion lamella have existed in Asia and the Mediterranean since the third millennium BC. Indeed, a well-known figurine from ancient Greece, the ‘Keros Piper’, dates between 2700 and 2300 BC. The Piper plays with two pipes. The combination of reed and bag, under the ancient name of ‘askavlos’ emerged as a means to ensure a continuous sound of the pipe without frequent breath interruptions. The stored air in the bag goes to the pipes that continue to sound for as long as the organist needs to take a breath. The ‘askavlos’ originated in Asia. In Greece, the ‘askavlos’ instrument is introduced during the 1st century AD and takes two distinct forms: the gaida and the tsambouna. (Fig. 8)

Fig. 8

Gaida and tsambouna at the Museum of Greek Popular Instruments “Phoebos Anoyanakis”, Centre of Ethnomusicology, in Athens (archive photos).

The bag in both instruments is an airtight sack made out of sheep or goat hide. The construction of both the gaida and the tsambouna takes time and hard work. Musical instrument makers have to choose the animal that will give its skin to make the gaida, preferring a female animal because the male has a heavy odour. He usually opts for a goat’s hide - not sheep - using the two forefront legs and head part. It is important that the hide should be in good condition, not torn or damaged in any way. A special treatment follows, in order to stop it from rotting, ensuring that it remains soft and white when dried. First, the fresh skin is roughly washed and then salt is put on the hide’s inner surface (not the furry side). The skin’s hair is trimmed, in a way that 1 to 1, 5 cm is left, as it helps keeping the pores closed. Nowadays, the gaida is very popular mainly in Northern Greece (Macedonia and Thrace), while it used to be played all over the mainland. It is also a very well-known traditional instrument in Europe, North Africa and the Middle East. The tsambouna is played, among others, on the islands of Karpathos, Kea, Kythnos, Mykonos, Naxos, Paros, Syros, Andros, Leros, Kalymnos, Samos and Crete. In membranophones, the sound producing part is a vibrating stretched membrane. The daouli, the defi and the toumbeleki (Fig. 9) are such kind of instruments. Their common characteristic is their round membrane surface is made of stretched goat, and more rarely of sheep, skin.

Fig. 9

Daouli, defis, toumbeleki at the Museum of Greek Popular Instruments “Phoebos Anoyanakis”, Centre of Ethnomusicology, in Athens (archive photos).

The goat skin, while making the daouli, is processed in the following way: First it has to dry, so it is either left under the sun, or simply is wrapped in salt and alum. After three or five days, it is put in quicklime with water. Another three to five days later it is cleaned and smoothed with glass, also coated with oil to remain soft after being dried. Next, it is stretched and fastened on two wooden hoops, adjusting it to the two bases of the cylindrical wooden shell. The defi has only one leather drumhead, usually made of goat, sheep or hare skin, with metal bangles attached around the frame. In Thrace, they paint the skin with representations of flowers, birds, double- headed eagles, and they adorn it with silk ribbons. Regarding the toubeleki, synthetic leather (plastic) is nowadays replacing the goatskin, as it is much more resistant to humidity and cold. Indeed, goatskin leather heads tend to be very susceptible to temperature changes, during playing, since the sound may be altered (a prominent bass sound is created).

• Handicrafts from ram and billy-goat HORN: daggers’ hilt

In Crete, the numerous herds of goats offer abundant raw material for the manufacturing of dagger hilts. The strongest hilts are those made of ram and goat horn. Dagger manufacturers choose carefully the animal horns that they will use for making the manikas (hilts). They mainly prefer those of male animals, which thus offer their horn weapons for the manufacturing and embellishment of human weapons. Each bone or horn is used for only one hilt. The horn-hilt, made either from ram or billy-goat horn demands a special elaboration technique. First, they cut the horn matching the blade’s size and length, occasionally keeping or cutting the curled part. In the past they used to cut it. Then, when the horn has been cut, it is ‘skinned’, that is, the interior thin skin is removed. Right after that it is warmed on fire, till it becomes like a ‘soft fig’. When softened and flexible it is stretched flat with special pliers, pressed in a special vice. When completely flat it is ready to be used for the hilt’s first side. The Cretan dagger can be found not only in Crete and in the other regions of Greece, but also at the ends of the earth; from Egypt to Russia and from the U.S.A. and Canada to Australia. (Fig. 10) Modern day daggers usually have verses from popular “Mantinades” engraved on the blade, praising for example the courage and generosity of its owner; however, it is worth noting that the dagger maker engraves also his initials so as to be recognized as the manufacturer of the masterpiece.

Fig. 10

Cretan daggers (Photo by Eleni Liva)

Daggers are manufactured in other regions of Greece too. In Chora of Skopelos, old Christos Patsis is the last dagger maker on Skopelos Island. As he characteristically says, young people are not interested in carrying on the traditional craft. He has been making daggers since 1960, mostly custom made. The hilt of the Skopelos dagger is made of ram or billy-goat horn. In older daggers one can see the combination of ram and billy-goat horn, thus having a two-coloured hilt, one side light the other one deep coloured. On Parnassus Mountain, in the village of Polydrosos, the ancient craft of dagger making still survives. These daggers are suitable for farmers, animal breeders and also for domestic use. The art and craft of dagger manufacturing in the area is very old, there is even evidence that it has been practiced since the Ottomans. Dagger makers used to travel around trying to sell their merchandise, or they would make custom knives.

• Ritual handicrafts from sheep and goat products: wedding banner, disguise costumes, masks

Ritual or ceremonial artifacts are the objects that take part in public, ritual, magic performances that upon repetition become a norm for the community, enhancing their collective identity. The zoomorphic disguises of the Twelve Days of Christmas, as well as the Carnival, are forms of popular worship marking important moments in a year’s cycle. Their purpose is to appease supernatural forces that men believe to govern their life and destiny. Rituals, connected with such events, gather groups of performers who represent these demonic creatures, through prescribed costumes, movements, theatrical elements, dance, music, and oral narrative. (Fig. 11)

Fig. 11

Carnival at Monastiraki, Northern Greece, 2011. (Photo by Miranda Terzopoulou)

They are more common in Northern Greece, namely North Thessaly, Macedonia, Thrace and the North Aegean islands. Similar rituals with disguised performers are quite common all over the Balkan Peninsula and other European countries. A wide range of names are given to these disguises, such as Rogatsia, Rougatsaria, Goats, Babougeri, Old men, Tzamalides etc. The most characteristic features of the disguise costume are the mask (with two openings for the eyes and one opening for the mouth) which is made of goat skin – goat being Dionysus animal, and the special head gear. Additional fixtures of the disguise are sheep hides, blackened faces, belts of heavy pastoral bells that make a deafening noise, wooden clubs and swords, as well as a stock filled with ash with which they hit passers-by. These groups of masked men run around, dancing, teasing, stealing, and scaring people. . They join other groups and perform theatrical happenings. The violent nature of visual expression along with traditional sounds, remnants form a primordial past, reflects aspects of a pastoral culture that appeals greatly to modern visitors. The wedding banner is a widespread custom in the Greek regions of Epirus, Thessaly, Macedonia, Thrace and Sterea Ellada. Moreover, it is also common practice in other Balkan countries, such as Albania, ex-Yugoslavia, Bulgaria and Romania. The same custom is fairly common to nomadic populations, such as Sarakatsani, Koutsovlachs and Arvanitovlachs, who have been mainly transhumant pastoralists, and nowadays have been significantly urbanized. The origins of this custom date since the Byzantine era, while the migratory movements of the above mentioned populations have contributed to its diffusion through the territories of their itineraries. The wedding banner (also called ‘bayraki’ from the Turkish word bayrak = flag) is a kind of handmade flag that the groom’s relatives make a few days before the wedding ceremony. It consists of a wooden pole, usually made of dogwood, and a big rectangular cloth attached to it, made of wool or cotton. This piece of cloth is either monochrome (white, blue, red, yellow) or comes in two colours (blue and white, red and white). (Fig. 12) On its surface there are various representations embroidered by hand, such as Jesus Christ, Panagia (the Madonna), St George or St Demetrious. In certain villages of Kalambaka and Elassona the whole flag is wrapped with “fouskes”(bubbles), made of white and red wool. In some other areas they decorate the flag’s edges with wool, cotton, golden fringes or lace.

Fig. 12

Carrying the wedding banner at Tsepelovo, Epirus. (Photo by Carsten Hoeg, 1922).

• The Present Situation

In relation to sheep wool artifacts (weavings) it is quite evident that the loom had an extensive usage during the pre-industrial era; later on, it was an indispensable part of rural household economy, as it was the main weaving tool. After the industrial revolution the traditional wooden hand loom was replaced by the power loom. Today it has been replaced altogether by industrial looms and can only be found in remote rural areas or folk museums of traditional art. Thus, modern consumer society has marginalized traditional weaving crafts; only a few weavers still work on the loom, producing unique examples of a traditional art, creating original designs and beautiful, natural colours . In Crete, weaving was both necessity and artistic creation; one can mention weaving centers such as the villages of Sfakia, Anogia, Zaros, Viannos and several mountain villages of Setia. In Naxos, at the village of Chalki, there still remains a weaving workshop, with hand loom, that produces traditional weavings. In Mykonos, as well as in neighbouring islands of Delos and Renia, archaeological excavations have brought into light findings that prove the existence of a flourishing weaving activity since ancient times. In Mykonos, weaving was the main household activity for women till the first decades of the 20th century. Foreign travelers, during the 17th, 18th and 19th century, give several references in their travel journals about the island’s famous weavings. In the ‘20s and ’30s, the island’s weavings were competitive at international level; indeed, during the Paris World Fair Mykonos traditional weavings were awarded prizes, as the local press of that time informs us. In the ‘50s and ‘60s, tourism gave a new impetus to the weaving craft, as these textiles became fashionable, not only as household items, but as haute couture fashion in Paris. This demand for woven textiles pushed Mykonos people to convert their house basements to shops, during the summer months, selling all kinds of weavings for foreign tourists. It was the golden age of the ‘Mykonos yfanto’ (weaving) and one could find it everywhere, from urban middle class houses to upscale hotels and shops. Unfortunately, in the ‘80s, there was no more demand, as it went out of fashion; looms were thrown away, or were burnt for firewood. Nowadays, professional weavers can be counted on the fingers of one hand. However, they keep the tradition alive, weaving a limited range of items, such as rugs and clothing items, namely women’s shawls and men’s scarves that are considered as luxury products, compared to imported ones. Furthermore, both public and private sector undertake initiatives in order to promote and sustain the traditional craft of weaving. Such measures involve: -Organization of seminars that provide background knowledge in relation to the history of weaving, as well as practical training courses on hand weaving on the loom. - Organization of workshops and conferences on traditional weaving and classification of woven textiles (organized by the Association for the Vocational Training of Young Women) - Training courses on weaving organized by the Greek Museum of Folk Art

In relation to dagger manufacturing, it is in Crete that most workshops still operate (especially in Heraklion), as this traditional craft is one of the last to persist. Daggers with ram or goat horn hilt are still being manufactured by the remaining few craftsmen. In the old times, in Heraklion, Rethymnon and Chania, whole neighborhoods were dedicated to dagger shops and they were given the name of “bitsaktsidika”, from the Turkish word “bicak” (knife). However, today this craft is in danger of extinction. Indeed, dagger making is so time consuming and labour intensive – consequently quite expensive - that can hardly compete with mass production and low prices.

We could say that a similar situation exists in reference to sheep and goat skin artifacts, namely aerophone and membranophone musical instruments: Animal skin has been replaced by synthetic leather (plastic), as this is not affected by weather conditions, i.e. heat, cold or humidity. Indeed, animal skin is sensitive to temperature changes, thus affecting the instrument’s sound. In addition to that, the instrument has to be unwound, after each performance, since it is affected by natural contraction and expansion that can be damaging. However, today, there are many workshops in Greece where dedicated craftsmen still manufacture hand made instruments. Training on manufacturing traditional folk instruments is provided by a host of Technical Schools and Colleges, such as the Sound Technology and Musical Instruments Department of the Ionian islands Technical University, the Municipality of Vocational School for the Study and Manufacturing of Traditional Musical Instruments, the department of Folk and Traditional Music of the Epirus Technical University, as well as seminars and workshops organized by the Music and Acoustics Research Institute ( Experimental Musical Instruments Workshop) for laymen and professional instrument makers. As far as traditional performers are concerned, the number of gaida players (“gaitatzides”) is dwindling nowadays and almost all of them are elderly. All hope is not lost, however, since there has been a revival of interest during the last years, as more and more young musicians seek to learn how to play the gaida. In the village of Orini, Serres, the 80 years old Vangelis Bourvanis, self –taught gaida manufacturer, teaches his children his craft. “I was taught by my parents”, he explains, “this is a difficult musical instrument and you need to love it, be committed and patient, otherwise you will not succeed”. Folk festivals are another means of preserving this cultural heritage. In Greece, every year, local cultural associations organize such events in order to promote traditional music and instruments. For instance, in the village of Trikala, in Imathia, the local Cultural and Folklore Association, named “Eastern Romylia”, organized this summer (August 2011) the ‘3d Gaida Festival’, with 35 participants from all over Greece and Europe. (Fig. 13) Apart from gaida musical performances, folklore dancing groups performed with the enthusiastic participation of the audience. The aim of this Festival, as explained by its director, is to recognize the gaida as a timeless symbol of Thracian cultural heritage and, more important, to bring young people closer to their rich musical heritage, as their ancestors have done before them, in the old homeland, in their refugee exodus and in their new homelandi.

Fig. 13

The Gaida Festival organized by the Cultural and Folklore Association, “Eastern Romylia”, in Imathia, Northern Greece, in August 2011.

1 The Eastern Romylia Greeks were among the refugees who came to Greece following the Population Exchange Treaty between Greece and Turkey in 1922

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KEY WORDS wool, loom, weavings, chrami, Vlachs, rugs, natural dyes, woven bag, baby carrier, daouli, defi, goat skin, gaida, tsambouna, bag, zoomorphic mask, disguise, goat, bells, Carnival, Twelve Days of Christmas, haipes, woven bag, transport of products, torvas, food and tools carrying bag, patania, velentza, karpeta, kilimi, shepherd’s cape, woolen cape, goat-hair cape, samaroskouti, female costume, woolen fabric, sigouni, toubeleki, tsambouna, bag, horn, wedding banner, bayraki, knife, dagger, knife, horn, horn dagger hilt, billy-goat horn, Cretan dagger, Skopelos dagger, dagger manufacturing