BIOLOGICAL FIELD STATION Cooperstown, New York
42nd ANNUAL REPORT 2009
Experimental phosphorus removal modules for use in onsite wastewater treatment systems.
STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK COLLEGE AT ONEONTA
OCCASIONAL PAPERS PUBLISHED BY THE BIOLOGICAL FIELD STATION
No. 1. The diet and feeding habits of the terrestrial stage of the common newt, Notophthalmus viridescens (Raf.). M.C. MacNamara, April 1976 No. 2. The relationship of age, growth and food habits to the relative success of the whitefish (Coregonus clupeaformis) and the cisco (C. artedi) in Otsego Lake, New York. A.J. Newell, April 1976. No. 3. A basic limnology of Otsego Lake (Summary of research 1968-75). W. N. Harman and L. P. Sohacki, June 1976. No. 4. An ecology of the Unionidae of Otsego Lake with special references to the immature stages. G. P. Weir, November 1977. No. 5. A history and description of the Biological Field Station (1966-1977). W. N. Harman, November 1977. No. 6. The distribution and ecology of the aquatic molluscan fauna of the Black River drainage basin in northern New York. D. E Buckley, April 1977. No. 7. The fishes of Otsego Lake. R. C. MacWatters, May 1980. No. 8. The ecology of the aquatic macrophytes of Rat Cove, Otsego Lake, N.Y. F. A Vertucci, W. N. Harman and J. H. Peverly, December 1981. No. 9. Pictorial keys to the aquatic mollusks of the upper Susquehanna. W. N. Harman, April 1982. No. 10. The dragonflies and damselflies (Odonata: Anisoptera and Zygoptera) of Otsego County, New York with illustrated keys to the genera and species. L.S. House III, September 1982. No. 11. Some aspects of predator recognition and anti-predator behavior in the Black-capped chickadee (Parus atricapillus). A. Kevin Gleason, November 1982. No. 12. Mating, aggression, and cement gland development in the crayfish, Cambarus bartoni. Richard E. Thomas, Jr., February 1983. No. 13. The systematics and ecology of Najadicola ingens (Koenike 1896) (Acarina: Hydrachnida) in Otsego Lake, New York. Thomas Simmons, April 1983. No. 14. Hibernating bat populations in eastern New York State. Donald B. Clark, June 1983. No. 15. The fishes of Otsego Lake (2nd edition). R. C MacWatters, July 1983. No. 16. The effect of the internal seiche on zooplankton distribution in Lake Otsego. J. K. Hill, October 1983. No. 17. The potential use of wood as a supplemental energy source for Otsego County, New York: A preliminary examination. Edward M. Mathieu, February 1984. No. 18. Ecological determinants of distribution for several small mammals: A central New York perspective. Daniel Osenni, November 1984. No. 19. A self-guided tour of Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary. W. N. Harman and B. Higgins, February 1986. No. 20. The Chironomidae of Otsego Lake with keys to the immature stages of the subfamilies Tanypodinae and Diamesinae (Diptera). J. P. Fagnani and W. N. Harman, August 1987. No. 21. The aquatic invertebrates of Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary, Otsego Lake, Otsego County, New York. Robert J. Montione, April 1989. No. 22. The lake book: a guide to reducing water pollution at home. Otsego Lake Watershed Planning Report #1. W. N. Harman, March 1990. No. 23. A model land use plan for the Otsego Lake Watershed. Phase II: The chemical limnology and water quality of Otsego Lake, New York. Otsego Lake Watershed Planning Report Nos. 2a, 2b. T. J. Iannuzzi, January 1991. No. 24. The biology, invasion and control of the Zebra Mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) in North America. Otsego Lake Watershed Planning Report No. 3. Leann Maxwell, February 1992. No. 25. Biological Field Station safety and health manuel. W. N. Harman, May 1997. No. 26. Quantitative analysis of periphyton biomass and identification of periphyton in the tributaries of Otsego Lake, NY in relation to selected environmental parameters. S. H. Komorosky, July 1994. No. 27. A limnological and biological survey of Weaver Lake, Herkimer County, New York. C.A. McArthur, August 1995. No. 28. Nested subsets of songbirds in Upstate New York woodlots. D. Dempsey, March 1996. No. 29. Hydrological and nutrient budgets for Otsego lake, N. Y. and relationships between land form/use and export rates of its sub -basins. M. F. Albright, L. P. Sohacki, W. N. Harman, June 1996. No. 30. The State of Otsego Lake 1936-1996. W. N. Harman, L. P. Sohacki, M. F. Albright, January 1997. No. 31. A Self-guided tour of Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary. W. N. Harman and B. Higgins (Revised by J. Lopez),1998. No. 32. Alewives in Otsego Lake N. Y.: A Comparison of their direct and indirect mechanisms of impact on transparency and Chlorophyll a. D. M. Warner, December 1999. No.33. Moe Pond limnology and fish population biology: An ecosystem approach. C. Mead McCoy, C. P. Madenjian, V. J. Adams, W. N. Harman, D. M. Warner, M. F. Albright and L. P. Sohacki, January 2000. No. 34. Trout movements on Delaware River System tail-waters in New York State. Scott D. Stanton, September 2000. No. 35. Geochemistry of surface and subsurface water flow in the Otsego lake basin, Otsego County New York. Andrew R. Fetterman, June 2001. No. 36 A fisheries survey of Peck Lake, Fulton County, New York. Laurie A. Trotta. June 2002. No. 37 Plans for the programmatic use and management of the State University of New York College at Oneonta Biological Field Station upland natural resources, Willard N. Harman. May 2003. No. 38. Biocontrol of Eurasian water-milfoil in central New York State: Myriophyllum spicatum L., its insect herbivores and associated fish. Paul H. Lord. August 2004. No. 39. The benthic macroinvertebrates of Butternut Creek, Otsego County, New York. Michael F. Stensland. June 2005. No. 40. Re-introduction of walleye to Otsego Lake: re-establishing a fishery and subsequent influences of a top Predator. Mark D. Cornwell. September 2005. No. 41. 1. The role of small lake-outlet streams in the dispersal of zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) veligers in the upper Susquehanna River basin in New York. 2. Eaton Brook Reservoir boaters: Habits, zebra mussel awareness, and adult zebra mussel dispersal via boater. Michael S. Gray. No. 42. The behavior of lake trout, Salvelinus namaycush (Walbaum, 1972) in Otsego Lake: A documentation of the strains, movements and the natural reproduction of lake trout under present conditions. Wesley T. Tibbitts. No. 43. The Upper Susquehanna watershed project: A fusion of science and pedagogy. Todd Paternoster. No. 44. Water chestnut (Trapa natans L.) infestation in the Susquehanna River watershed: Population assessment, control, and effects. Willow Eyres. No. 45. The use of radium isotopes and water chemistry to determine patterns of groundwater recharge to Otsego Lake, Otsego County, New York. Elias J. Maskal.
Annual Reports and Technical Reports published by the Biological Field Station are available from Willard N. Harman, BFS, 5838 St. Hwy. 80, Cooperstown, NY 13326.
42nd ANNUAL REPORT 2009
BIOLOGICAL FIELD STATION COOPERSTOWN, NEW YORK
STATE UNIVERSITY COLLEGE AT ONEONTA
The information contained herein may not be reproduced without permission of the author(s) or the SUNY Oneonta Biological Field Station
BFS 2009 ANNUAL REPORT CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION: W. N. Harman…………………………………………………………………...….1
ONGOING STUDIES:
OTSEGO LAKE WATERSHED MONITORING: 2009 Otsego Lake water levels. W.N. Harman and K.S. Ernst…………………………..4 Otsego Lake limnological monitoring, 2009. H.A. Waterfield and M.F. Albright..……7 A survey of Otsego Lake’s zooplankton community, summer 2009. S. Gillespie…….…19 Chlorophyll a and phytoplankton survey, Otsego Lake, 2009. I. Primmer.....………...... 25 Water quality monitoring of five major tributaries in the Otsego Lake watershed, summer 2009 results update. H.A. Waterfield and M.F. Albright…..32
SUSQUEHANNA RIVER MONITORING: Monitoring the water quality and fecal coliform bacteria in the upper Susquehanna River, summer 2009. L.Heiland.…………………..…….……….43 Otsego County baseline water quality monitoring. S. Fickbohm….…………………….58 Monitoring the water chemistry of the upper Susquehanna River in Otsego County, New York, June – October 2009. Z.Balogh-Brunstad………….80
ARTHROPOD MONITORING: Mosquito Study – Thayer Farm. W.L. Butts……………………………………………..97 Mosquito survey- Goodyear Swamp. W.L. Butts……………………….………………99 Apparent increased local incidence of Ixodes scapularis Say. W.L. Butts…………….100
REPORTS: Continued monitoring of Canadarago Lake and its tributaries, 2009 (interim report). C. Bailey and M.F. Albright………………………………………………………..….101 A survey of Canadarago Lake’s zooplankton community, summer 2009. S. Gillespie…………125 Chlorophyll a and phytoplankton survey, Canadarago Lake, 2009. I. Primmer……………...... 131 Walleye (Sander vitreus) seasonal activity and habitat utilization in Otsego Lake, New York. J. Potter, J.M. Byrne, D.S. Stitch, and J.R. Foster………………………….138 The efficacy of jaw tag, visual implant elastomer, fin clip, and fin punch in Otsego Lake, NY walleye (Sander vitreus) studies. W.T. Crawley, J.C. Lydon, J.R. Foster, D. Johns, K.J. Poole, and M.D. Cornwell……………………………………………….152 The effectiveness of spring stream electro-fishing, trap netting and lake electro-fishing for determining walleye (Sander vitreus) abundance in Otsego Lake, NY. D.J. Peck, J.R. Foster, J.C. Lydon, K.J. Poole, M.D. Cornwell…………………………161 Littoral fish community survey of Rat Cove and Brookwood Point, summer 2009. J. Potter….173 Treatment performance of advanced onsite wastewater treatment systems in the Otsego Lake watershed, 2009 results update. H.A. Waterfield …………….…………….……179 Evaluating phosphorus-removal media for use in onsite wastewater treatment systems (draft report). M.F. Albright and H.A. Waterfield…………………………………...... 189 Historical archaeology at the Thayer homestead: progress report of the 2008 and 2009 investigations. D.P. Staley…………………………………………………….206 Preliminary investigation of biotic and abiotic factors involved in carbon Biogeochemical cycling in open water areas at Greenwoods Conservancy And Thayer Farm, NY. N.A. McEnroe and Z. Burriss………………………………….219 Delineation of the Niedzialkowski wetland, Hartwick, NY. J. Clements, D. Vogler N. McEnroe………………………………………………………………………………231 Year 2: Susquehanna freshwater mussel surveys. P.H. Lord and W.N. Harman…………….…239 Bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) sightings along the Susquehanna River watershed tributaries. T.N. Pokorny……………………………………………..….…250 Pond water quality and pond size. Z. Burriss……………………………………………………252 Spatial & temporal distributions of Dreissena polymorpha larvae in Otsego Lake. T. Horvath, A. Wolfe and D. Monie…………………………………………………….259 An update of the control and eradication of water chestnut (Trapa natans, L.) in an Oneonta wetland, 2009 summary report of activities. H.A. Waterfield, W.N. Harman and M.F. Albright……………………………………………………….260 Monitoring the dynamics of Galerucella spp. and purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) in the Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary, summer 2009. M. Rubenstein………..…………..266 A survey of the acanthocephalan parasites of fish species Otsego County, NY. L.G. Hendricks and F.B. Reyda………………………………………………………..273 Parasitic worms of fishes of Otsego Lake and nearby water bodies. F.B. Reyda………………277 Chlorophyll a and phytoplankton surveys of Cranberry Bog, Burlington, NY, summer 2009. I. Primmer………………………………………………………………283 Characterization of wetland soils and vegetation in Cranberry Bog and Goodyear Swamp, Otsego County, New York, summer 2009. M. Rubenstein…………288
TECHNICAL REPORTS: BFS Technical Report #27. Aquatic macrophyte management plan facilitation, Lake Moraine, Madison County, NY, 2009. W.N. Harman, M.F. Albright H.A. Waterfield and M. Rubenstein…………………………………………….……..300
INTRODUCTION
Willard N. Harman
Internships and research assistants:
College undergraduate intern Maribeth Rubenstein, from SUNY Oneonta, held a Madison County sponsored internship to work on Moraine Lake aquatic plant management. She also worked at Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary where she continued monitoring biocontrol efforts on the non-native purple loosestrife. Justin Potter, from SUNY Cobleskill, held the Robert C. MacWatters Internship in the Aquatic Sciences. He investigated habitat utilization by walleye in Otsego Lake by tracking acoustically tagged fish. In addition, Justin conducted the annual warm water fisheries surveys at Brookwood Point and Rat Cove in Otsego Lake. Shawn Gillespie from SUNY Oneonta held a Rufus J. Thayer Otsego Lake Research internship. He evaluated the zooplankton communities of both Otsego and Canadarago Lakes. Irene Primer received a Peterson Family Trust internship. She worked on algal communities and chlorophyll a concentrations of Otsego and Canadarago Lakes and at wetland sites at Greenwoods Conservancy. Liza Hendricks, from SUNY Oneonta, was given the SUNY Oneonta Biology Department internship. She worked with Florian Reyda on surveys of the parasites of local fish. Carter Bailey from SUNY ESF received a Canadarago Lake Improvement Association internship. He conducted monitoring on that lake as part of the BFS involvement in the development of a State of the Lake Report for Canadarago Lake.
Liam Highland, a high school student from Oneonta received a FHV Mecklenburg Conservation Fellowship and worked on several research projects including Susquehanna River water quality monitoring. He was supported by the OCCA and by the Village of Cooperstown.
Zach Burriss, a SUNY Oneonta Environmental Studies student, was involved in water quality work at Greenwoods Conservancy and the Thayer Farm. Crystal Wiles and Kathryn Eyring, also from SUNY Oneonta, worked with Florian Reyda on local fish parasites.
Intensive offerings:
About 200 students enrolled in several SUNY Oneonta and SUNY Cobleskill on-campus courses and attended field exercises on site. More than 1,200 K-12 students visited the BFS and received hands-on experiences on Otsego Lake and BFS woodlands over the year enrolled in the to the pre-college “Learning Adventures” and “Agricultural Environmental Quality” programs. Holly Waterfield and Shawn Gillespie served as interpreters in the latter programs with BFS staff and faculty.
Faculty and staff activities:
Holly Waterfield was also deeply involved with Lars Rudstam and Tom Brooking, from the Cornell BFS, and Mark Cornwell, SUNY Cobleskill, as all continued to utilize acoustic monitoring
- 1 - to document alewife population dynamics in Otsego Lake. She and Matt Albright continued working on a project, supported by a DEC grant, on phosphorus control strategies related to onsite systems. For the 10th year, we stocked Otsego Lake with walleye fingerlings. Monitoring was continued by Holly, with advice and help from Lars Rudstam, Tom Brooking and Dave Warner (USGS Great Lakes Research Center, Ann Arbor) evaluating the impacts on both the fishery, and with Matt Albright, impacts on water quality and trophic cascades. Mark Cornwell and John Foster, SUNY Cobleskill, were involved in fisheries research related to the walleye/alewife acoustic work including tracking of several mature walleye in Otsego Lake over the year. Renee Walker, SUNY Oneonta Anthropology Department, and David Staley, Archeologist and Project Manager, Cultural Resource Survey Program, New York State Museum, continued work on the cultural resources at the Thayer Farm. Matt Albright, in fulfilling his responsibilities as laboratory supervisor and coordinator of staff and intern activities was deeply involved in all BFS activities.
We conducted the third year of work involving water chestnut control in a wetland near Oneonta, supported by a DEC Exotic Species Eradication grant of $29,000. We are also assisting the OCCA and their citizen volunteers in the control of water chestnut in Goodyear Lake, also supported by the DEC. We are in the second year of a contract for $225,000 with the NYSDEC to map unionid mussel habitats in the Susquehanna Drainage Basin in New York and determine the status of State and federally listed species occurring there. Paul Lord has been conducting the field work and data analysis with the help of Lee Fererra, Tim Pocorny and interns.
We are monitoring and conducting work on Canadarago Lake intended to provide the basis for a management for that water body. Following the completion of that document, local stakeholders can begin work on a lake and watershed management plan.
We have been keeping an eye on zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha), first found in the Otsego Lake in 2007. Those populations are increasing as expected. For several years active boat inspections and cleaning by the Village of Cooperstown, as well as boat registration at the Town of Springfield landing, have kept the lake zebra mussel free, despite large populations in all the surrounding lentic waters as well as the Erie/Barge Canal System, the Mohawk/Hudson drainage and the nearby Susquehanna River below the confluence of Oaks Creek draining infested Canadarago Lake. We commend the Village for continuing its inspection program and their recognition of the fact that many more habitat-degrading, potential aggressive exotic organisms are poised to invade the Otsego Lake drainage.
Hop House renovations are essentially complete. The latter work was supported by the National Science Foundation with extensive matching by the College administration. The building will provide year round facilities, a reception area, three laboratories, conference space and two faculty or staff offices. It has been developed as the Administrative Center at the Thayer Farm. All BFS faculty and staff moved there at the end of the spring 2009 semester when extensive renovations begin in the Main Laboratory at Cooperstown. Support from the College administration, MOC, Telecommunications and Facilities Planning has been greatly appreciated. The Main Laboratory is scheduled to reopen late in 2010.
Jeane Bennett-O’Dea continues to work part-time in the office assisting with administrative tasks. Because of recent changes processing finances in the Oneonta Foundation, the SUNY
- 2 - Research Foundation and funding associated with Thayer Farm renovations, her workload has greatly increased. In addition to renovations at the Hop House, Dale Webster continues to work improving and maintaining all facilities at the Thayer Farm. Several talented citizen volunteers again helped at the BFS during the year. They included Kathy Ernst and the following SCUBA divers: Paul Lord, Dale Webster, Jeff Back, Jeff Opar, Lee Ferrara, Andrew Lachut, Jennifer Szarek and Brian Sydow.
Public support makes our work possible. Funding for BFS research and educational programs was procured in 2009 from many citizens and organizations. Special thanks go to the Clark Foundation who generously supports our annual needs. The Peterson Family Conservation Trust, the OCCA, Otsego 2000, the Otsego Lake Association, the Village of Cooperstown, SUNY Oneonta, and the SUNY Graduate Research Initiative have also supported our endeavors.
Willard N. Harman
- 3 - ONGOING STUDIES:
OTSEGO LAKE WATERSHED MONITORING:
2009 Otsego Lake water levels
W.N. Harman and K. Ernst
- 4 -
- 5 -
- 6 - Otsego Lake limnological monitoring, 2009
Holly A. Waterfield1 and Matthew F. Albright2
INTRODUCTION
Otsego Lake is a glacially formed, dimictic lake (max depth 51m) supporting a cold water fishery. The Lake is generally classified as being chemically mesotrophic, although flora and fauna characteristically associated with oligotrophic lakes are present (Iannuzzi, 1992).
This study is the continuation of year-round protocol that began in 1991. The data collected in this report run for the calendar year and are comparable with contributions by Homburger and Buttigieg (1992), Groff et al. (1993), Harman (1994; 1995), Austin et al. (1996), Albright (1997; 1998; 1999; 2000; 2001; 2002; 2003; 2004; 2005; 2006; 2007; 2008), and Albright and Waterfield (2009). Concurrent additional work included estimates of fluvial nutrient inputs (Waterfield and Albright 2010), and descriptions of the zooplankton (Gillespie 2010), phytoplankton (and chlorophyll a) (Primmer and Waterfield 2010), and nekton communities (Potter 2010).
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Physiochemical data and water samples were collected near the deepest part of the lake (TR4-C) (Figure 1), which is considered representative of whole-lake conditions, as past studies have shown the Lake to be spatially homogenous with respect to the factors under study (Iannuzzi 1991). Data and sample collection occurred approximately bi-weekly during open water conditions and monthly through the ice, though no samples were collected in February or late-December 2009 because of marginal ice conditions. Physical measurements were recorded at 2-m intervals between 0 and 20 m and 40 m to the bottom; 5-meter intervals were used between 20 and 40 m. Measurements of pH, temperature, dissolved oxygen and conductivity were recorded with the use of a Hydrolab® Scout 2 or a Eureka Manta™ multiprobe digital microprocessor which had been calibrated according to the manufacturer’s instructions prior to use (Hydrolab® Corp. 1993; Eureka Environmental Engineering 2005). Samples were collected for chemical analyses at 4-m intervals between 0 and 20 m and 40m and 48m; 10-m intervals were used between 20 and 40 m. A summary of methodologies employed for sample preservation and chemical analyses is given in Table 1. Data for a particular parameter were occasionally omitted from analysis in a few cases where equipment malfunction or miscalibration was suspected following further scrutiny.
1 Research Support Specialist, SUNY Oneonta Biological Field Station. 2 Assistant to the Director, SUNY Oneonta Biological Field Station.
- 7 -
TR4-C
Figure 1. Bathymetric map of Otsego Lake showing sampling site (TR4-C).
- 8 - Table 1. Summary of laboratory methodologies.
Parameter Preservation Method Reference Persulfate digestion followed by single
Total Phosphorus H2SO4 to pH < 2 reagent ascorbic acid Liao and Marten 2001 Cadmium reduction method following Pritzlaff 2003;
Total Nitrogen H2SO4 to pH < 2 peroxodisulfate digestion Ebina et al. 1983
Nitrate+nitrite-N H2SO4 to pH < 2 Cadmium reduction method Pritzlaff 2003
Ammonia-N H2SO4 to pH < 2 Phenolate method Liao 2001 Calcium Store at 4oC EDTA trimetric method EPA 1983 Chloride Store at 4oC Mercuric nitrate titration APHA 1989 Alkalinity Store at 4oC Titration to pH= 4.6 APHA 1989
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Temperature Figures 2a and 2b depict temperatures observed in profile (0 to 48m) at site TR4-C from 22 January through 4 December 2009. Surface temperature ranged from 0.19oC below the ice on 22 January to 24.7oC on 20 August. Spring turnover occurred between 5 March and 27 April, with thermal stratification strongly developing by 27 May. Maximum stratification was observed on August 20, 2009, with the thermocline representing a temperature change in excess of 11oC over a depth of approximately 9 m (Figure 2a). On this date surface waters measured 24.7oC while the temperature was 5.5oC at a depth of 48 m. After this date observed surface temperatures decreased steadily and the thermocline occurred at greater depth until fall turnover, which occurred sometime after 4 December (Figure 2b).
Dissolved Oxygen Isopleths of oxygen concentration based on the profiles for the calendar year are presented in Figure 3. Prior to the onset of thermal stratification (May), dissolved oxygen below 40m averaged 11.6 mg/L. Dissolved oxygen concentrations in the hypolimnion remained above 6 mg/L through much of July, falling below this level with a concentration of 5.6 mg/L observed at 48m on 23 July. During observations just prior to fall turnover, concentrations below 40m had decreased to an average of 1.2 mg/L, with essentially anoxic conditions below 44m. The areal hypolimnetic oxygen depletion rate (AHOD), calculated at 0.082 mg/cm2/day, was lower than that observed in the recent past (Table 2). Though this is a lower value than reported in recent years, it is still greater than the lower limit of eutrophy (0.05 mg/cm2/day) suggested by Hutchinson (1957).
- 9 -
Temperature (C) 0 5 10 15 20 25
0 1/22/2009 5 3/5/2009 10 4/27/2009 15 5/27/2009
20 6/10/2009 25 6/24/2009 30 7/10/2009 Depth (meters) Depth 35 7/23/2009 40 8/7/2009 45 8/20/2009 2a. 50
Temperature (C) 0 5 10 15 20 25 0
5 8/20/2009 10 9/3/2009 15 20 9/17/2009 25 10/1/2009 30 10/19/2009
(meters) Depth 35 11/13/2009
40 12/4/2009 45 2b. 50
Figure 2. Otsego Lake temperature profiles (oC), as observed at site TR4-C between 22 January and 20 August (2a) and 20 August and 4 December 2009 (2b).
- 10 -
Table 2. Areal hypolimnetic oxygen deficits (AHOD) for Otsego Lake, computed over summer stratification in 1969, 1972 (Sohacki, unpubl.), 1988 (Iannuzzi, 1991), and 1992-2009.
2 Time Interval AHOD (mg/cm /day)
05/16/69 – 09/27/69 0.08
05/30/72 – 10/14/72 0.076 05/12/88 – 10/06/88 0.042 05/18/92 – 09/29/92 0.091 05/10/93 – 09/27/93 0.096 05/17/94 – 09/20/94 0.096 05/19/95 – 10/10/95 0.102
05/14/96 – 09/17/96 0.09
05/08/97 – 09/25/97 0.101 05/15/98 – 09/17/98 0.095 05/20/99 – 09/27/99 0.095 05/11/00 – 09/14/00 0.109 05/17/01 – 09/13/01 0.092 05/15/02 – 09/26/02 0.087 05/16/03 – 09/18/03 0.087
05/20/04 – 09/24/04 0.102 05/27/05 – 10/05/05 0.085 05/05/06 – 09/26/06 0.084 05/18/07 – 09/27/07 0.083 05/08/08 – 10/07/08 0.088 05/27/09 – 10/19/09 0.082
Conductivity (indirect measure of ions in solution) Mean conductivity in 2009 was 293 µmho/cm, ranging from a minimum of 271 µmho/cm on 22 January to a maximum of 324 µmho/cm on 5 March. Conductivity distribution within the water column followed patterns associated with thermal stratification, as illustrated in Figure 3.
pH Mean 2009 pH value at TR4-C was 8.02; pH was highest in the upper 10m on 1 October, with an average value of 8.61. The lowest mean pH in the upper 10m was observed 5 March, at 7.94.
- 11 - Figure 4. Distribution of dissolved oxygen (isopleths in mg/L) as recorded in 2009 at TR4-C on Otsego Lake. Points along the x-axis indicate profile observation dates.
Conductivity (umho/cm) 270 280 290 300 310 320 0 8/7/2009 5 8/20/2009 10 15 9/3/2009
20 9/17/2009 25 10/1/2009 30 10/19/2009 (meters) Depth 35 40 11/13/2009 45 12/4/2009 50
Figure 3. Conductivity (umho/cm) measured at TR4-C, Otsego Lake, between 7 August and 2 December 2009.
- 12 - Alkalinity Alkalinity (mg/L as CaCO3) demonstrated seasonal distribution throughout the water column, as inorganic carbon cycling (tied mainly to photosynthesis) greatly influences alkalinity. The maximum gradient was observed on 1 October; Figure 5 illustrates this gradient (low alkalinity in the epilimnion) and provides a comparison to samples collected on 5 March, prior to high rates of photosynthetic activity.
Alkalinity (mg/L as CaCO3) 100 110 120 130 140 150 0 5 10 3/5/2009
15 10/1/2009
20 25 30
(meters) Depth 35 40 45 50
Figure 5. Alkalinity (mg/L as CaCO3) as determined for samples collected in profile (0 to 48m) on 5 March and 1 October at TR4-C, Otsego Lake.
Calcium Calcium concentrations followed a typical seasonal pattern of fluctuation and stratification, with the highest gradient of the season observed on 1 October, shown in Figure 6. Calcium stratification in Otsego Lake was mild compared to other hardwater lakes (Wetzel 2001). A noticeable decline in calcium concentration in the epilimnion late in the growing season (as seen in Figure 6) is consistent with seasonal algal productivity and the correlated decalcification of the epilimnion described by Wetzel (2001).
Chlorides Mean chloride concentrations in Otsego Lake from 1925 to 2009 are shown in Figure 7. Between 1985 and 2005 the mean chloride concentration rose steadily at of rate of 0.5 to 1.0 mg/L per year (Figure 7). Since 2005, mean concentrations have been variable, with no clear directionality. Annual mean concentration in 2009 was 14.9 mg/L. Chlorides in Otsego Lake are generally attributed to road salting practices, with the greatest influx of the ion during spring snowmelt events. The highest concentrations throughout the profile (0 to 48m) at TR4-C were observed on 27 April (mean of 15.4 mg/L).
- 13 - Calcium (mg/L) 40 45 50 55 0 5 10 3/5/2009 15 10/1/2009 20
25
30 (meters) Depth 35 40 45 50
Figure 6. Calcium concentration (mg/L) determined in profile (0 to 48m) for site TR4-C, Otsego Lake on 5 March and 1 October 2009. Decalcification of the epilimnion is apparent in the 1 October profile.
20 18
16 14 12 10
8
6
(mg/L) Chloride 4 2
0
1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 Year
Figure 7. Mean chloride concentrations at TR4-C, 1925-2009. Points later than 1990 represent yearly averages (modified from Peters 1987).
- 14 - Nutrients Total phosphorus-P averaged 7.5 µg/L in 2009, ranging from below detectable levels (< 4 µg/L) on multiple dates to 41.2 µg/L at 8m on 7 August. No phosphorus release from the sediments was observed prior to fall turnover despite low oxygen concentrations below 40m. Nitrite+nitrate-N averaged 0.48 mg/L, while ammonia-N was generally below detectable levels (<0.02 mg/L). Total nitrogen analyses indicate an average organic nitrogen concentration of about 0.2 mg/L over the year.
Secchi disk Transparency and chlorophyll a Chlorophyll a analysis was conducted for nine sampling dates in 2009. Additional discussion of 2009 chlorophyll a data for TR4-C and other sites on Otsego is presented by Primmer (2010) in conjunction with a survey of the phytoplankton community. Average 0-20m composite chlorophyll a concentration from May through September 2009 was 4.9 µg/L (range 1.1 to 16.8 µg/L). Mean Secchi transparency (May through October) increased markedly between 2008 and 2009 (Figure 8), from 3.1m to 5.1m. Changes are possibly related to the filtration capacity of the growing zebra mussel population, as similar changes in Secchi transparency and chlorophyll a have been documented concurrent with the establishment and growth of zebra mussel populations elsewhere (e.g. Leach 1993). Secchi disk transparencies ranged from 2.2m on 27 May to a season-maximum of 7.5m on 24 June.
Year
'35 '68 '69 '70 '71 '72 '73 '75 '76 '77 '78 '79 '80 '81 '82 '84 '85 '86 '87 '88 '92 '93 '94 '95 '96 '97 '98 '99 '00 '01 '02 '03 '04 '05 '06 '07 '08 '09 0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
Secchi Transparency Transparency Secchi (m) 5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
Figure 8. Mean summer (May-October) Secchi transparencies collected at TR4-C, 1935 to 2009.
- 15 - REFERENCES
Albright, M.F. 1997. Otsego Lake limnological monitoring, 1996. In 29th Ann. Rept. (1996). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Albright, M.F. 1998. Otsego Lake limnological monitoring, 1997. In 30th Ann. Rept. (1997). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Albright, M.F. 1999. Otsego Lake limnological monitoring, 1998. In 31st Ann. Rept. (1998). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Albright, M.F. 2000. Otsego Lake limnological monitoring, 1999. In 32nd Ann. Rept. (1999). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Albright, M.F. 2001. Otsego Lake limnological monitoring, 2000. In 33rd Ann. Rept. (2000). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Albright, M.F. 2002. Otsego Lake limnological monitoring, 2001. In 34th Ann. Rept. (2001). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Albright, M.F. 2003. Otsego Lake limnological monitoring, 2002. In 35th Ann. Rept. (2002). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Albright, M.F. 2004. Otsego Lake limnological monitoring, 2003. In 36th Ann. Rept. (2003). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Albright, M.F. 2005. Otsego Lake limnological monitoring, 2004. In 37th Ann. Rept. (2004). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Albright, M.F. 2006. Otsego Lake limnological monitoring, 2005. In 38th Ann. Rept. (2005). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Albright, M.F. 2007. Otsego Lake limnological monitoring, 2006. In 39th Ann. Rept. (2006). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Albright, M.F. 2008. Otsego Lake limnological monitoring, 2007. In 40th Ann. Rept. (2007). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Albright, M.F. and H.A. Waterfield. 2009. Otsego Lake limnological monitoring, 2008. In 41st Ann. Rept. (2008). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
APHA, AWWA, WPCF. 1989. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 17th ed. American Public Health Association. Washington, DC.
- 16 - Austin, T., M.F. Albright, and W.N. Harman. 1996. Otsego Lake monitoring, 1995. In 28th Ann. Rept. (1995). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Ebina, J., T. Tsutsi, and T. Shirai. 1983. Simultaneous determination of total nitrogen and total phosphorus in water using peroxodisulfate oxidation. Water Res. 17(12):1721-1726.
EPA. 1983. Methods for the analysis of water and wastes. Environmental Monitoring and Support Lab. Office of Research and Development. Cincinnati, OH.
Eureka Environmental Engineering. 2004. Manta water quality probe, startup guide. Austin, TX.
Gillespie, S. 2010. A survey of Otsego Lake’s zooplankton community, summer 2009. In 42nd Ann. Rept. (2009). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta. SUNY Oneonta.
Groff, A., J.J. Homburger and W.N. Harman. 1993. Otsego Lake limnological monitoring, 1992. In 24th Ann. Rept. (1991). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Harman, W.N. 1994. Otsego Lake limnological monitoring, 1993. In 26th Ann. Rept. (1993). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Harman, W.N. 1995. Otsego Lake limnological monitoring, 1994. In 27th Ann. Rept. (1994). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Harman, W.N., L.P. Sohacki, M.F. Albright, and D.L. Rosen. 1997. The state of Otsego Lake, 1936-1996. Occasional Paper #30, SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Harman, W.N., L.P. Sohacki, and P.J. Godfrey. 1980. The limnology of Otsego Lake. In Bloomfield, J.A. (ed.). Lakes of New York State. Vol. III. Ecology of East-Central N.Y. Lakes. Academic Press, Inc., New York.
Homburger, J.J. and G. Buttigieg. 1992. Otsego Lake limnological monitoring. In 24th Ann. Rept. (1991). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Hydrolab Corporation. 1993. Scout 2 operating manual. Hydrolab Corp. Austin, TX.
Iannuzzi, T.J. 1991. A model plan for the Otsego Lake watershed. Phase II: The chemical limnology and water quality of Otsego Lake, Occasional Paper #23. SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Leach, J. H. 1993. Impacts of the zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha) on water quality and fish spawning reefs in western Lake Erie. In: Zebra Mussels: Biology, Impacts, and Control. Lewis Publishers, Boca Raton, FL p 381-397.
Liao, N. 2001. Determination of ammonia by flow injection analysis. QuikChem ® Method 10- 107-06-1-J. Lachat Instruments, Loveland, CO.
- 17 - Liao, N. and S. Marten. 2001. Determination of total phosphorus by flow injection analysis colorimetry (acid persulfate digestion method). QuikChem ® Method 10-115-01-1-F. Lachat Instruments, Loveland, CO.
Peters, T. 1987. Update on chemical characteristics of Otsego lake water. In 19th Ann. Rept. (1986). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Potter, J. 2010. Littoral fish community survey of Rat Cove and Brookwood Point, summer 2009 In 42nd Ann. Rept. (2009). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Primmer, I. and H.A. Waterfield. 2010. Chlorophyll a and phytoplankton survey, Otsego Lake, 2009. In 42nd Ann. Rept. (2009). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Pritzlaff, D. 2003. Determination of nitrate/nitrite in surface and wastewaters by flow injection analysis. QuikChem ® Method 10-107-04-1-C. Lachat Instruments, Loveland, CO.
Waterfield, H.A., and M.F. Albright. 2010. Water quality monitoring of five major tributaries in the Otsego Lake watershed. In 42nd Ann. Rept. (2009). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
- 18 - A survey of Otsego Lake’s zooplankton community, summer 20091
Shawn Gillespie2
INTRODUCTION
Otsego Lake is a complex ecosystem that boasts a diverse zooplankton community. Various zooplankton species conduct energy and nutrients between Otsego Lake’s producers and large consumers. As such, the composition and abundance of this community has significant implications for the trophic state of the lake.
A trophic state describes the extent of production that takes place within a lake. All production begins with energy from the sun, which is converted into sugar by photosynthetic organisms at the base of the food web. The rate at which phytoplankton are able to produce sugar is partially dependent upon the availability of nutrients. These same nutrients often limit the reproductive capacity of phytoplankton. In general, production in a lake is high when sunlight and nutrients are readily available.
A lake may have ample nutrients, but they may not be immediately available for use by phytoplankton. For instance, some may be locked up in the bodies of organisms. The cycling of nutrients within a food web is not the only means of obtaining nutrients for growth and production. Natural and/or cultural nutrient input also plays a significant role in supplying nutrients for a lake’s producers. As human influence continues to expand, external loading of nutrients becomes an increasingly important factor in maintaining desirable trophic states.
Otsego Lake is an interesting case in terms of its trophic status. Historically, Otsego Lake was characterized as oligo-mesotrophic based on various trophic state indicators (Harman et. al 1997). These included high transparency, relatively low chlorophyll a concentrations, high dissolved oxygen levels, low areal hypolimnetic oxygen deficits and a cold water fishery. In terms of its physical parameters, Otsego is one of the deeper lakes in New York State, with a maximum depth of 50 m (Harman et al. 1997). It is also predominated by steep, narrow shores. These characteristics result in a restricted phototrophic zone, which limits the productivity of the lake and affords some measure of resistance to nutrient loading from natural and cultural sources. In addition to relatively low levels of production, Otsego Lake sustained an abundance of large-bodied crustacean zooplankton, including Daphnia spp., which controlled phytoplankton abundances by means of grazing. The phytoplankton populations were largely controlled through predation, as well as nutrient availability (Godfrey 1978).
Cultural eutrophication in Otsego Lake has been evident (Harman et. al. 1997). Various sources of nutrients included wastewater from Glimmerglass State Park, effluent from residential septic systems, and agricultural and urban runoff. These nutrients increased production and
1 Support provided by the Otsego County Conservation Association.
2 SUNY Oneonta Intern, summer 2009.
- 19 - artificially accelerated the eutrophication process. For those individuals with aesthetic, recreational and economic interests in the lake, an increased rate of eutrophication is undesirable.
Alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus), an efficient planktivore, was illegally introduced into Otsego Lake in 1986 (Foster 1990). Zooplankton numbers and mean sizes subsequently declined (Wigen 1991), while algal standing crops, transparency, areal hypolimnetic oxygen depletion, biological oxygen demand, chlorophyll a concentrations, and lake trout abundance all increased (Warner 1999). In order to implement a top down management effort, the annual stocking of walleye (Sander vitreus) began in 2000 (Cornwell 2005). In theory, the establishment of a gamefish like walleye would reduce alewife, releasing larger zooplankton. Increased grazing would reduce algae, increasing transparency and decreasing rates on deep water oxygen loss. This current study is a continuation of long-term monitoring of Otsego Lake’s zooplankton community intended to provide an indirect measure of the success of this top down management strategy.
METHODS
Samples were collected from 27 May to 11 August 2009 at TR4C, the deepest area of Otsego Lake (Figure 1). A conical plankton net with a 0.2 m diameter and a 147µm mesh was hauled from 12 m (approximately the upper limit of the hypolimnion) to the surface. A G.O. ™ mechanical flow meter mounted across the net allowed for the determination of the volume of lake water filtered. Samples were diluted to double the original volume with reagent grade ethanol. The volume of the preserved samples was recorded, allowing for later back-calculation of zooplankton abundances in the lake. One ml from each sample was placed on a Sedgwick rafter cell. Zooplankton were identified, enumerated and measured using a research grade compound microscope with digital imaging and analysis capabilities. Each sample was analyzed in triplicate. Mean densities and lengths for cladocerans, copepods and rotifers were used to calculate dry weight (Peters and Downing 1984), daily filtering rate (Knoechel and Holtby 1986) and phosphorus regeneration (Esjmon-Karabin 1983) on each date sampled according to the equations listed below. Dry Weight: D.W. =9.86*(length in mm) ^2.1 Filtering Rate: F.R. =11.695*(length in mm) ^2.48 Phosphorous regeneration: -.023 0.039 Cladocerans: P.R. =0.519*(dry weight in µg) *e *(° C of H2O) -.645 0.039 Copepods: P.R. =0.229*(dry weight in µg) *e *(°C of H2O) -1.27 0.096 Rotifers: P.R. =0.0514*(dry weight in µg) *e *(°C of H2O)
Table 1. Equations used to determine zooplankton dry weight, filtering rate and phosphorus regeneration.
- 20 -
TR4-C
Figure 1. Otsego Lake, New York, showing location of sampling site (TR4-C).
RESULTS AND DISCUSION
Table 2 summarizes mean epilimnetic temperature, zooplankton densities and mean length per taxa, as well as values for mean weight per individual and per liter, phosphorus regeneration per individual and per liter, filtering rates per individual and the percent of the epilimnion filtered per day. Those values were derived from equations given in Table 1.
Over the course of monitoring, crustacean abundances were highest at the onset of collections (27 May), having a total of 575 per L. By 24 June, crustacean abundance was 236 per L. In the July and August samples, abundance was between 9 and 33. During the interval, mean cladaceran length increased, from 0.467 mm in May to 0.927 mm in July (none were encountered in August). This was, in part, due to a smaller contribution by Bosmina as the summer progressed (they are smaller bodied than are Daphnia). Neither of these trends was noted in previous work on Otsego zooplankton (i.e., Albright 2009).
- 21 - Phos. Regen. Phos. Avg Avg Mean Dry Rate Regen. Filtering % Temp. #/L length Dry Wt Wt ugP*mgdrywt-1 Rate Rates Epilimnion
(°C) (mm) (µg) (µg/L) *ind*h-1 (ug/l/day) ml/ind/day filtered/day 5/27/2009 12.51 Cladocera 86 0.467 2.619 225.165 0.677 3.661 1.768 15.20 Copepoda 489 0.213 0.623 304.418 0.943 6.887 0.253 12.38 Rotifers 674 0.120 0.133 89.380 1.346 2.886 0.061 4.09 Total 618.964 2.966 31.67 6/24/2009 17.3 Cladocera 72 0.751 6.590 477.227 0.660 7.564 5.758 41.69 Copepoda 164 0.294 1.076 176.400 1.002 4.242 0.560 9.19 Rotifers 345 0.112 0.192 66.174 1.490 2.366 0.052 1.78 Total 719.801 3.152 52.67 7/10/2009 18.66 Cladocera 2 0.634 5.614 10.872 0.723 0.189 3.780 0.73 Copepoda 7 0.403 1.913 13.587 0.926 0.302 1.231 0.87 Rotifers 18 0.104 0.087 1.553 1.882 0.070 0.043 0.08 Total 26.011 3.530 1.68 7/23/2009 18.77 Cladocera 3 0.927 8.643 27.410 0.657 0.432 9.702 3.08 Copepoda 15 0.372 1.655 24.748 0.961 0.571 1.009 1.51 Rotifers 33 0.122 0.212 6.928 1.541 0.256 0.063 0.21 Total 59.086 3.159 4.79 8/7/2009 20.39 Cladocera 0 Copepoda 33 0.210 0.448 14.823 1.382 0.492 0.245 0.81 Rotifers 165 0.108 0.094 15.605 1.978 0.741 0.047 0.78 Total 30.427 3.360 1.59 Season Mean Cladocera 33 0.695 5.866 185.169 0.679 2.962 5.252 15.18 Copepoda 142 0.299 1.143 106.795 1.043 2.499 0.660 4.95 Rotifers 247 0.113 0.144 35.928 1.647 1.264 0.053 1.39 Total 327.891 3.369 21.52
Table 2. A summary of mean epilimnetic temperature, zooplankton densities and mean length per taxa, as well as derived values for mean weight per individual and per liter, phosphorus regeneration per individual and per liter, filtering rates per individual and the percent of the epilimnion filtered per day.
- 22 - Table 3 summarizes mean cladoceran size, mean crustacean density, mean dry weight, percent of the epilimnion filtered per day and phosphorus regeneration by crustaceans in 2000 and 2002-2009. Mean cladaceran size was highest since 2000, though crustacean abundance was lower (in the latter part of the summer), so that total crustacean weight, epilimnetic filtering rates and phosphorus regeneration rates were lower than other years.
2000 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Mean cladoceran size (mm) 0.29 0.3 0.36 0.532 0.551 0.551 0.34 0.535 0.695 Mean crustacean density (#/l) 208 146 132 163 159 159 154 178 97 Mean crustacean dry wgt (ug/l) 175 145 177 261 206 206 128 321 142 Mean % epilimnion filtered/day 11.9 9.9 12.7 25.1 19.2 19.2 12.2 31.9 9.5 Mean P regeneration (ug/l/day) 4.49 2.6 3.1 4.4 2.7 2.4 3 5.8 1.5
Table 3. Mean cladoceran size, mean crustacean density, mean dry weight, percent of the epilimnion filtered per day and phosphorus regeneration by crustaceans in 2000 and 2002-2009
Of note was the collection of a single specimen of Leptodora kindtii on 23 July. This species has not been found in the lake for at least a decade. Leptodora kindtii is a cladoceran, but it is much larger than Daphnia. The specimen collected measured at approximately 6 mm. (By contrast, a large Daphnia specimen may only extend 1mm.) Although this finding is not significant in a quantitative sense, it does indicate that large-bodied zooplankton are recovering from the extensive predation suffered at the hands of the alewife. Since the alewife is a visually- oriented predator, it stands to reason that large-bodied zooplankton are preferentially targeted. As reflected in the longitudinal dataset, Leptodora and Daphnia numbers declined drastically relative to the smaller Bosmina.
REFERENCES
Albright, M.F. 2009. A survey of Otsego Lake’s zooplankton community, summer 2008. In 41st Ann. Rept. (2008). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Cornwell, M.D. 2005. Re-introduction of walleye to Otsego lake: Re-establishing a fishery and subsequent influences of a top predator. Occas. Pap. No. 40. SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Esjmont-Karabin, J. 1984. Phosphorus and nitrogen excretion by lake zooplankton (rotifers and crustaceans) in relation to the individual body weights of the animals, ambient temperature, and presence of food. Ekologia Polska 32:3-42.
Foster, J.R. 1990. Introduction of alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus) into Otsego Lake. In 22nd Ann. Rept. (1989). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
- 23 - Godfrey, P.J. 1978.Otsego Lake limnology: Phosphorous loading, chemistry, algal standing crop and historical changes. In 10th Ann. Rept. (1997). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Harman, W.N., L.P. Sohacki, M.F. Albright and D.L. Rosen. 1997. The state of Otsego Lake, 1936-1996. Occas. Pap. No. 30. SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Knoechel, R. and B. Holtbly.1986 Construction of body length model for the prediction of cladoceran community filtering rates. Limnol. Oceanogr. 31(1):1-16.
Peters, R.H. and Downing, J.A. 1984 Empirical analysis of zooplankton filtering and feeding rates. Limnology and Oceanography, 29 (4). pp. 763-784.
Warner, D.M. 1999.Alewies in Otsego Lake: A comparison of their direct and indirect mechanisms of impact on transparency and chlorophyll a. Occas. pap. No. 32. SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Wigen, J. 1991. Zooplankton community structure as an indicator of the fish community structure of Otsego Lake. In 23rd Ann. Rept. (1990). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
- 24 - Chlorophyll a and phytoplankton survey, Otsego Lake, 20091
Irene Primmer2
INTRODUCTION
In the summer of 2009 Otsego Lake was surveyed for both algal composition and chlorophyll a concentration. The purpose of the research was to assess the temporal and spatial variability of algal abundance and community composition in Otsego Lake. Chlorophyll a concentration was also analyzed to assess the relationship between the amount of Chlorophyll a present, algal abundance, and the taxonomic composition of the community.
Algae are non-embryonic, non-vascular, oxygenic photoautotrophs whose primary photoreceptive pigment is chlorophyll a (Dillard 1999). Aquatic algae inhabit a variety of environments, occupying various niches in a body of water. Phytoplanktonic algae, which are suspended or swim freely in open water, are the focus of this study. The type of algae present and their abundance in an aquatic system can reflect a lake’s trophic status and may be indicative of contamination from the addition of nutrients from agriculture run-off or sewage (Prescott 1964). Conditions of salinity, size, depth, transparency, nutrient conditions, pH, and pollution effect the composition and abundance of algae present in a body of water (Sheath and Wehr 2003), thus the algal composition is, to some degree, a reflection of the condition of a body of water.
Most phytoplankton are microscopic, making it difficult to quantify the population in terms of absolute numbers of individual algal cells. To get around this, photosynthetic pigments present in such organisms can be quantified in order to estimate the abundance of organisms present within a body of water. All photosynthetic organisms contain pigments that are employed to help absorb specific wavelengths of light from the sun’s color spectrum. These wavelengths provide energy to assist in the electron transport aspect of photosynthesis. This aids in the production of energy for the specific organisms. Chlorophyll a is a pigment that is found in most photosynthetic organisms, so its quantification is used as an indicator of the amount of photosynthetic material in water bodies.
As described by Stevenson and Smol (2003), surveys to determine the taxonomic composition of algae in the phytoplankton community are a useful means by which to assess biotic integrity and begin to diagnose causes of environmental problems. Changes in assemblage should reflect physical and chemical changes caused by perturbations of the system, whether caused by human actions or changes in the trophic composition. Species presence and success in community assemblages are ultimately constrained by environmental conditions and interactions with other species in the habitat (i.e. grazing by zooplankton and zebra mussels, trophic cascades that impact grazing populations, etc.).
1 Support provided by the Otsego County Conservation Association.
2 Peterson Family Conservation Trust Fellow 2009. Current Affiliation: Mansfield University, Mansfield, PA.
- 25 -
Phytoplankton studies were first conducted on Otsego Lake during a biological survey of the Delaware and Susquehanna watersheds in the summer of 1935 (Tressler and Bere 1936). During this study total cell counts were performed within selected taxonomic groups of algae and measures of total suspended solids were also performed. In 1968 the field station performed surveys of Otsego Lake where there were intense blooms of blue-green algae dominated by Anabaena (Harman et al. 1996). Such blooms affected Secchi transparencies throughout the lake were reduced to 2 meters or less because of the increase of particles of phytoplankton within the water. These blooms indicated nutrient enrichment (Harman et al. 1996). Since then, phytoplankton research has continued in the fashion of chlorophyll a testing as well as non- regular surveys to study the algal composition of the water in relation to its health.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Samples were collected at 3 sites on Otsego Lake on 24 June, 10 and 23 July 2009 (Figure 1 and Table 1). A Van Dorn sampler was used to collect about 250 mL of water from 1 meter, 2 meter, and 3 meter depths. Samples were immediately split into subsamples for chlorophyll a and phytoplankton analyses; equal volumes of each discrete depth sample were combined into a single 0-3m composite sample. The methods of sample preservation, storage, and analysis are given in the following sections.
Chlorophyll a Samples were kept on ice immediately following collection and during transport. In the lab, two 100mL portions of each sample were run through Whatman GF-A filters in a vacuum assembly. The filters were frozen until further processing. On the day of analysis, the filters were cut into small pieces and placed in a glass tube to which 10 mL of a buffered acetone solution were added. This mixture was ground to a homogeneous slurry using a power drill with a teflon bit. The slurry was centrifuged at 2,100 rpm for 10 minutes to separate the solution from the filter paper. A fluorometer was used to determine the fluorescence of the supernatant according to the methods of Welschmyer (1994). Reported concentrations for samples run in duplicate represent the average of the concentrations determined for each replicate.
Phytoplankton 100 mL were poured into a separate container and preserved with Lugol’s solution. In the lab, the samples were set aside to settle for at least 24 hours. A total of 5 mL from the settled portion of each sample were surveyed for the following phytoplankton taxa according to Prescott (1954): Chlorophyta, Cyanophyta, Chrysophyta, and Pyrrophyta. For each sample, 1 mL of the settled portion of sample was added to a Palmer-Maloney slide and examined in entirety using a digital compound microscope. This was repeated 5 times so that a total of 5 mL was examined. Prescott (1954) was used as a reference for grouping the algae.
- 26 -
OL 1
OL 2/Tr4-c
OL 3
Figure 1. Otsego Lake, Otsego County, New York showing locations of summer 2009 sample sites.
- 27 -
Table 1. The site names and c orresponding GPS Coordinates for Otsego Lake samples (WGS 84 Degrees Decimal Minutes).
Site Name GPS Coordinates (D mm.mmm) OL-1 N 42 48.212’, W 74 53.557’ OL-2 (TR4-C) N 42 45.436’, W 74 53.757 OL-3 N 42 42.759’, W 74 55.137’
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Chlorophyll a concentrations Chlorophyll a concentrations for 0-3m composite samples are presented in Figure 2 and Table 2. Across all three sites, concentrations were highest on 24 June (average of 5.6 ppb); the greatest concentration of the sampling period, 6.0 ppb, was observed on this date at OL-1. Samples collected on 10 and 23 July had much lower average concentrations (0.7 and 0.6 ppb, respectively). OL-3 yielded the lowest concentration of the sampling period, 0.3 ppb, on 23 July (Figure 2, Table 2). Temporal variation was evident, though spatial variation was not apparent. More robust sampling efforts would more decisively and accurately determine variation on such gradients; id eally, a greater number of sampling dates and additional analyses for nutrients, major ions, and environmental factors should also be conducted to assess the spatial distribution of the community. Interestingly, samples with high chlorophyll a concentrations did not correspond to those having high individual cell counts (Table 3). This highlights the complexity of estimating communities with a single metric, such as chlorophyll a, as the amount of chlorophyll a within a single cell varies among taxonomic groups (Sheath and Wehr 2003).
2009 Chlorophyll a Concentrations 0-3m Composite
7 6
5 4 OL-1 3 OL-2
ncentration (ppb) 2 OL-3 Co 1 0 24-Jun 10-Jul 23-Jul Date Sampled
Figure 2. Chlorophyll a (ppb) 0-3 meter composite for Otsego Lake, New York, sample sites OL-1, OL-2, and OL-3 for samples collected 24 June and 10, 23 July 2009.
- 28 -
Table 2. Average chlorophyll a (ppb) 0-3 meter composite for Otsego Lake, New York, sample sites OL-1, OL-2, and OL-3.
Sample Date OL-1 OL-2 OL-3 24-Jun 6.0 5.1 5.7 10-Jul 0.4 1.0 0.8 23-Jul 0.9 0.5 0.3
Average 2.4 2.2 2.3
Phytoplankton Figure 3 illustrates the composition of each sample in terms of the relative abundance of each of the four taxonomic groups for each sample date and site. Chlorophyta was the dominant taxon in the community at each site for all sample dates, generally comprising greater than 80% of algal cells counted (Figure 3, Table 3). Cyanophyta was the second-most common group in the algal community, comprising over 11% of algal cells on average. Some samples did not contain individuals from each of the four taxonomic groups. The community composition varied slightly between sample sites, though a clear pattern was not apparent. Temporal variation in the community composition was minimal, though on 24 June, cyanophytes and pyrrophytes comprised a greater portion of the community than on subsequent sample dates (Figure 3, Table 3).
Phytoplankton Community Percent Composition of Taxa 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 24-Jun 10-Jul 23-Jul 24-Jun 10-Jul 23-Jul 24-Jun 10-Jul 23-Jul
OL-1 OL-2 OL-3
Chlorophyta Cyanophyta Pyrrophyta Chrysophyta
Figure 3. Composition of four different algal groups; Chlorophyta, Cyanophyta, Pyrrophyta and Chrysophyta for a 5ml, 0-3meter depth sample for Otsego Lake, sample sites OL-1, OL-2, and OL-3.
- 29 -
Table 3. Percent composition of four algal groups and the total number of organisms counted in 5 mL of concentrate; Chlorophyta, Cyanophyta, Pyrrophyta and Chrysophyta for a 5ml, 0-3meter depth sample for Otsego Lake, sample sites OL-1, OL-2, and OL-3.
OL-1 OL-2 OL-3 Date Sampled 24-Jun 10-Jul 23-Jul 24-Jun 10-Jul 23-Jul 24-Jun 10-Jul 23-Jul Chlorophyta 78.5 94.2 97.6 90.4 88.6 96.8 83.8 99.0 97.3 Cyanophyta 13.8 4.9 2.4 5.8 9.0 1.9 8.1 0.3 1.8 Pyrrophyta 7.7 1.0 0.0 3.8 1.8 1.3 8.1 0.6 0.9 Chrysophyta 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.6 0.0 0.0 0.1 0.0 No. of Organisms 65 411 124 52 167 158 37 707 112 Counted
Historical Comparison As described and summarized in The State of Otsego Lake (Harman et al. 1997), various studies of the phytoplankton community have been conducted between 1935 and 1996, including both taxonomic surveys and chlorophyll a analyses. The current mid-summer community is dominated by chlorophytes. Cyanophytes are consistently present in the community, but at their greatest relative abundance comprised less than 20% of algal cells. Table 4 presents historical and current percent composition of phytoplankton taxa, allowing for qualitative comparisons between the current mid-summer community composition and those observed for the entire period of summer stratification (May – Sept.) in 1976 and 1993. At first glance, the composition documented in 2009 suggests a major shift in community composition, with chlorophytes comprising greater than 90% of algal cells counted; however, 2009 sampling dates only represent June and July conditions, and thus provide a mid-summer snap-shot of the community. The results observed in 2009 are consistent with previously-documented timelines of seasonal changes in community composition (Harman et al. 1997). It is likely that the percent composition of taxa would differ substantially with a greater number of sampling dates, as chrysophytes (diatoms) generally dominate early in the season and cyanophytes become more prevalent later (Harman et al. 1997).
Table 4. Average percent composition of phytoplankton taxa in the water column during summer stratification in 1976 and 1993 and in June/July 2009 (modified from Harman et al. 1997).
Group 1976 1993 2009 Bacillariophyceae 43 9 - Chrysophyceae 7 - 0.1 Chlorophyta 12 31 92 Cyanophyta 7 60 5 Cryptophyceae 15 - - Pyrrophyta 16 - 3
- 30 -
CONCLUSIONS Samples containing the highest chlorophyll a concentration and phytoplankton count were not strongly correlated. This demonstrates that chlorophyll a concentration and phytoplankton abundance may not always be directly related. There was also no apparent relationship between the concentrations of chlorophyll a and taxonomic composition of the phytoplankton community. Historical changes in the community could not be quantified. Further research may provide additional insights into short-term community dynamics and historical changes.
REFERENCES
Albright, M.F., H.A. Waterfied. 2009. Otsego Lake limnological monitoring, 2008. In 41st Ann. Rept. (2008). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
APHA, AWWA, WPCF. 1989. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 17th ed. American Public Health Association. Washington DC.
Dillard, G.E. 1999. Common freshwater algae of the United States. Berlin: Gebruder Borntraeger.
Harman, W.N., L.P. Sohoacki, M.F. Albright, D.L. Rosen. 1997. The state of Otsego Lake 1936- 1996. Occasional Paper #30, SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Prescott, G. W. 1954. The fresh-water algae. WM. C. Brown Company. Dubuque.
Sheath, R.G., J.D. Wehr. 2003. Introduction to freshwater algae. In: Freshwater algae of North America. Elsevier. San Diego.
Stevenson, R.J., J.P. Smol. 2003. Use of algae in environmental assessments. In: Wehr, J.D. and R.G. Sheath (Ed.). Freshwater Algae of North America. Elsevier. San Diego.
Tressler,W.L. and R. Bere. 1936. A limnological study of some of the lakes in the Delaware and Susquehanna watersheds. In A biological survey of the Delaware and Susquehanna watersheds. NYS Dept. Environ. Conserv. Albany, NY.
Welschmyer, N.A. 1994. Fluorometric analysis of chlorophyll a in the presence of chlorophyll b and pheopigments. Limnol. Oceanogr. 39:1985-1992.
- 31 - Water quality monitoring of five major tributaries in the Otsego Lake watershed, summer 2009 results update
Holly Waterfield1 and Matt Albright2
INTRODUCTION
Water quality monitoring along White Creek, Cripple Creek, Hayden Creek, Shadow Brook, and a stream that runs off Mount Wellington continued in the summer of 2009. These 5 tributaries make up the northern watershed of Otsego Lake, of which 44 percent of that land is used for agricultural purposes (Harman et. al 1997). Nutrient loading, particularly phosphorus, poses the greatest threat to the health of Otsego Lake (Harman et. al 1997). Due to the large amount of agricultural land use there is high potential for excess nutrients to be transported into Otsego Lake by these streams. This has become a major focus of the plan for the management of the Otsego Lake watershed, put forth by the Otsego county water quality coordinating committee (Anonymous 2007).
This report serves as an update of 2009 monitoring results. A full introduction and historical perspective can be found in J. Denby’s report of 2008 monitoring (2009).
METHODS
Methods were carried out in accordance with data collection from previous years of this study (Denby 2009). Water samples were collected weekly at 23 designated sites along the 5 tributaries in the northern watershed from 2 June to 4 August 2009. These sites were established in 1995 (Heavey 1996) and expanded in 1996 (Hewett 1997). Figure 1 illustrates sample locations (numbered) and current Best Management Practices (asterisks). Table 1 provides the site name, coordinates, and a brief description for each sample site.
A Eureka Amphibian Multiprobe was used at each site to monitor temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH and specific conductivity. Prior to each sampling event this probe was calibrated as per manufacturer’s instructions. Water samples were collected at each site in 125mL acid washed bottles and preserved to pH <1 with sulfuric acid. These samples were processed according to automated methods using a Lachat QuikChem FIA+ Water Analyzer. Samples were analyzed for total phosphorus using ascorbic acid following persulfate digestion (Liao and Martin 2001), total nitrogen using the cadmium reduction method (Pritzlaff 2003) following peroxodisulfate digestion as described Ebina et. al (1983), ammonia using the phenolate method (Liao 2001), and for nitrate+nitrite nitrogen using the cadmium reduction method (Pritzlaff 2003).
1 Research Support Specialist, SUNY Oneonta Biological Field Station 2 Assistant to the Director, SUNY Oneonta Biological Field Station
- 32 -
Figure 1: Map of five tributaries in northern watershed of Otsego Lake. Sampling sites are numbered; agricultural BMPs are marked with an asterisk.
Table 1: Physical descriptions and GPS coordinates of sampling sites (modified from Bueche 2008). Sites are displayed in Figure 1.
White Creek 1: N 42º 49.646’ W 74º 56.986’ South side of Allen Lake on County Route 26 near outlet to White Creek.
White Creek 2: N 42º 48.93’ W 74º 55.303’ North side of culvert on County Route 27 (Allen Lake Road) where there is a large dip in the road.
White Creek 3: N 42º 48.355’ W 74º 54.210’ West side of large stone culvert on Route 80.
- 33 - Table 1 (cont.): Physical descriptions and GPS coordinates of sampling sites (modified from Bueche 2008). Sites are displayed in Figure 1.
Cripple Creek 1: N 42º 48.919’ W 74º 55.666’ Weaver Lake accessed from the north side of Route 20 just past outflow of beaver dam. water here is slow moving and there is an abundance of organic matter
Cripple Creek 2: N 42º 50.597’ W 74º 54.933’ Young Lake accessed from the west side of Hoke Road. The water at this side is shallow; some distance from shore is required for sampling.
Cripple Creek 3: N 42º 49.437’ W 74º 53.991’ North side of culvert on Bartlett Road. The water at this location is cold and swift.
Cripple Creek 4: N 42º 48.836’ W 74º 54.037’ Large culvert on west side of Route 80. The stream widens and slows at this point; this is the inlet to Clarke Pond.
Cripple Creek 5: N 42º 48.822’ W 74º 53.779’ Dam just south of Clarke Pond accessed from the Otsego Golf Club road.
Hayden Creek 1: N 42º 51.658’ W 74º 51.010’ Summit Lake accessed from the east side of Route 80, north of the Route 20 and Route 80 intersection.
Hayden Creek 2: N 42º 51.324’ W 74º 51.294’ North side of culvert on Dominion Road.
Hayden Creek 3: N 42º 50.890’ W 74º 51.796’ Culvert on the east side of Route 80 north of the intersection of Route 20 and Route 80.
Hayden Creek 4: N 42º 50.258’ W 74º 52.144’ North side of large culvert at the intersection of Route 20 and Route 80.
Hayden Creek 5: N 42º 49.997’ W 74º 52.533’ Immediately below the Shipman Pond spillway on Route 80.
Hayden Creek 6: N 42º 49.669’ W 74º 52.760’ East side of the culvert on Route 80 in the village of Springfield Center.
Hayden Creek 7: N 42º 49.258’ W 74º 53.010’ Large culvert on the south side of County Route 53.
Hayden Creek 8: N 42º 48.874’ W 74º 53.255’ Otsego Golf Club, above the white bridge adjacent to the clubhouse. The water here is slow moving and murky.
- 34 -
Table 1 (cont.): Physical descriptions and GPS coordinates of sampling sites (modified from Bueche 2008). Sites are displayed in Figure 1.
Shadow Brook 1: N 42º 51.831’ W 74º 47.731’ Small culvert on County Route 30 south of Swamp Road.
Shadow Brook 2: N 42º 49.882’ W 74º 49.058’ Large culvert on the north side of Route 20, west of County Route 31.
Shadow Brook 3: N 42º 48.788’ W 74º 49.852’ Private driveway (Box 2075) leading to a small wooden bridge on a dairy farm.
Shadow Brook 4: N 42º 48.333’ W 74º 50.605’ One lane bridge on Rathburn Road. This site is located on an active dairy farm. The stream bed consists of exposed limestone bedrock.
Shadow Brook 5: N 42º 47.436’ W 74º 51.506’ North side of large culvert on Mill Road behind Glimmerglass State Park.
Mount Wellington 1: N 42º 48.864’ W 74º 52.594’ Stone bridge on Public Landing Road adjacent to an active dairy farm.
Mount Wellington 2: N 42º 48.875’ W 74º 52.987’ Small stone bridge is accessible from a private road off Public Landing Road; at the end of the private road near a white house there is a mowed path which leads to the bridge. Water here is generally stagnant and murky.
RESULTS & DISCUSSION
Temperature
Mean temperatures ranged from 15.9ºC at Cripple Creek 3 to 21.2ºC at Hayden Creek 1 (Figure 2). This is comparable to the summers of 2007 and 2008 when minimum and maximum mean temperatures occurred at White Creek 3 and Hayden Creek 1 (Bueche 2008, Denby 2009). All mean temperatures are displayed in Figure 2.
- 35 - Mean Temperature of Sampling Sites 24.0
22.0
20.0
18.0
Temperature (C) 16.0
14.0
12.0 02468101214
Distance from Otsego Lake (km)
White Creek Cripple Creek Hayden Creek Shadow Brook Mount Wellington
Figure 2: Mean temperatures for sampling sites in the five tributaries of the northern watershed of Otsego Lake, summer 2009. Points on the left side of the graph represent stream mouths, while points on the right side of the graphs represent headwaters.
Dissolved Oxygen
Mean dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations ranged from 4.81 mg/L at Hayden Creek 1 to 10.2 mg/L at Shadow Brook 4 (Figure 3). These concentrations are lower than last summer, but comparable to observations in 2007( Bueche 2008, Denby 2009). Three sites had average concentrations less than 6 mg/L; sensitive species may be negatively impacted at concentrations below this level. These sites (CC1, HC1, and SB1) often become stagnant or have low flows in July and August.
pH and Conductivity
Mean pH values were within an anticipated range given past results and the geology of the watershed, with mean values ranging from 7.4 and 8.4 across the five tributaries. Conductivity generally increased over the sampling period, as might be expected with the lower flows encountered as summer progressed. 2009 mean conductivity readings overall were lower than was observed in 2008.
- 36 - Mean Dissolved Oxygen of Sampling Sites
12.0
11.0
10.0
9.0
8.0
7.0
Disolved Oxygen (mg/l) 6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0 02468101214 Distance from Otsego Lake (km)
White Creek Cripple Creek Hayden Creek Shadow Brook Mount Wellington
Figure 3: Mean dissolved oxygen for sampling sites in the five northern tributaries of Otsego Lake, summer 2009. Points on the left side of the graph represent stream mouths, while points on the right side of the graphs represent headwaters.
Phosphorus
Mean summer total phosphorus concentrations ranged from 18 to 57 ug/L at sites Hayden Creek 2 and Mount Wellington 2, respectively. The mean total phosphorus at each site is displayed in Figure 4. A comparison of the mean phosphorus concentration at each stream mouth, (1996-2009) is displayed in Figure 5. A comparison of the mean phosphorus concentrations at each site, (2000-2009) is displayed in Table2. Mean total phosphorus throughout the years has been variable, though in recent years concentrations in most sites seem to be declining (Table 2).
- 37 - Mean Total Phosphorus of Sampling Sites 100 90 80 70 60 50 40
Total Phosphorus (ug/L) Phosphorus Total 30 20 10 0 02468101214 Distance from Otsego Lake (km)
White Creek Cripple Creek Hayden Creek Shadow Brook Mount Wellington
Figure 4. Mean total phosphorus concentration (ug/L) for sampling sites in the five tributaries of the northern watershed of Otsego Lake, summer 2009. Points on the left side of the graph represent stream mouths, while points on the right side of the graphs represent headwaters.
1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
250
200
150
100
50 Total Phosphorus (ug/L) Phosphorus Total
0 White Creek Cripple Creek Hayden Creek Shadow Brook Mount Wellington Stream Outlets
Figure 5. Mean total phosphorus concentration (ug/L) at each stream mouth from 1996- 2009.
- 38 - Table 2. A comparison of the mean phosphorus concentration (ug/L) at each site from 2000-2009.
Comparison of phosphorus concentrations (ug/L), 2000-2009 Site 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 WC131347225335117664633 WC228332326396133373424 WC319241223263640381922 CC1 45 36 112 30 49 49 33 86 89 38 CC2 48 23 46 124 144 172 37 36 25 24 CC325241025393762402226
CC428351922465540393427 CC542455128467037585934 HC126256021433333484335 HC220171413233457302718 HC325284726343950355424 HC420231726294122382724 HC528272722334346413722 HC624242133284040493226 HC734261930445473404227 HC8323754315112089437130 SB1523957212710354281936 SB256432431456350173234 SB328364624374030353025
SB448372727626222263938 SB539544034638538454437 MW138453650835123543329 MW2 142 192 99 136 88 214 69 65 38 57
Nitrogen
Ammonia concentrations were generally near or below the minimum detection limit (<0.02 mg/L). Mean nitrate + nitrite concentrations ranged from below detection at Cripple Creek 1 & 2 to 1.9 mg/L at Hayden Creek 7, which is substantially greater than concentrations observed in the recent past (Table 3). Nitrate+nitrite concentrations on 17 and 23 June were higher than typically reported at most sample sites. Mean nitrate + nitrite concentrations are displayed in Figure 6. A comparison of the mean nitrate + nitrite concentration at each stream mouth (1991, 1998-2009) is displayed in Figure 7. A comparison of the mean nitrate+nitrite concentrations at each site, (1998-2009) is displayed in Table 3. Nitrate+nitrite concentrations were considered to be 0 mg/L for graphing purposes where concentrations were observed below detection (0.02 mg/L).
- 39 - Mean Nitrate + Nitrite at each Sampling Site
3.0 mg/L) 2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
Nitrate Nitrite + Concentrations ( 0.5
0.0 02468101214 Distance from Otsego Lake (km)
White Creek Cripple Creek Hayden Creek Shadow Brook Mount Wellington
Figure 6. Mean nitrate + nitrite for sampling sites in the five tributaries of the northern watershed of Otsego Lake, summer 2009. Points on the left side of the graph represent stream mouths, while points on the right side of the graphs represent headwaters.
1991 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 3
2.5
2
1.5
1 Nitrate (mg/L) Nitrate 0.5
0 White Creek Cripple Creek Hayden Creek Shadow Brook Mount Wellington
Stream Outlets Figure 7. A comparison of mean nitrate concentration (mg/L) at each stream mouth from 1991, 1998-2009.
- 40 - Table 3. A comparison of the mean nitrate concentration (mg/L) at each site, 1998-2008. Comparison of Mean Nitrate Concentrations (mg/L) 1998-2009 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 WC1 0.10 0.05 0.11 0.25 0.31 0.29 0.15 0.27 0.01 0.22 0.21 0.06 WC2 0.31 0.30 0.12 0.16 0.25 0.24 0.15 0.09 0.04 0.11 0.09 0.12 WC3 0.37 0.41 0.19 0.22 0.33 0.24 0.35 0.31 0.12 0.35 0.24 0.16 CC1 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.08 0.12 0.18 0.13 0.04 0.00 0.02 0.01 0.01 CC2 0.04 0.02 0.24 0.04 0.16 0.34 0.22 0.20 0.01 0.00 0.00 0.01 CC3 1.54 1.19 0.89 1.63 1.20 1.12 1.06 0.60 0.86 0.88 0.97 1.16 CC4 1.42 0.97 0.92 1.77 1.07 1.37 1.05 0.56 0.88 0.97 0.77 1.15 CC5 0.99 0.37 0.68 1.41 0.77 0.80 0.77 0.27 0.83 0.39 0.38 0.99 HC1 0.82 0.29 0.82 0.68 0.64 0.52 0.26 0.02 0.72 0.07 0.01 0.47 HC2 0.72 0.24 0.71 0.66 0.76 0.52 0.24 0.03 0.84 0.06 0.01 0.59 HC3 1.35 0.64 0.96 1.62 1.44 1.43 1.11 0.60 1.11 0.51 0.44 0.62 HC4 1.34 0.95 1.17 1.73 1.41 1.27 1.11 0.66 1.10 0.55 0.46 0.68 HC5 1.36 0.85 1.19 1.87 1.18 1.34 1.39 0.98 1.64 0.59 0.36 0.94 HC6 1.45 0.90 1.29 1.87 1.51 1.27 1.51 1.38 1.58 0.69 0.45 1.02 HC7 1.45 0.95 1.33 2.00 1.50 1.46 1.31 1.05 2.52 1.22 0.57 1.93 HC8 1.63 1.21 1.48 1.56 2.09 1.62 1.62 1.31 1.69 0.89 0.70 1.62 SB1 0.21 0.31 0.66 0.53 0.33 0.34 0.32 0.21 0.25 0.09 0.14 0.16 SB2 1.86 1.21 1.45 1.40 1.80 1.33 1.39 1.55 0.61 0.98 0.95 1.43 SB3 1.56 0.77 1.57 1.37 1.38 1.36 1.19 0.73 0.94 0.57 0.44 1.34 SB4 1.39 0.87 1.56 1.55 1.43 1.47 1.02 0.73 0.88 0.63 0.57 1.31 SB5 1.20 0.58 1.27 1.27 1.11 1.05 1.04 0.47 0.87 0.35 0.39 1.22 MW1 0.91 1.11 0.78 1.14 2.31 2.46 1.17 0.67 0.70 0.55 0.23 0.79 MW2 1.47 0.68 1.10 1.06 1.66 2.70 1.58 1.60 1.18 0.83 0.35 0.89
REFERENCES
Anonymous. 2007. A Plan for the Management of the Otsego Lake Watershed. Otsego County Water Quality Coordinating Committee. Otsego County. New York
Bueche, C. J. 2008. Water Quality Monitoring of Five Major Tributaries in the Otsego Lake Watershed, summer 2007. In 40th Ann. Rept. (2007). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Denby, J. 2009. Water quality monitoring of five major tributaries in the Otsego lake watershed, summer 2008. In 41st Ann. Rept. (2008). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Ebina, J., T. Tsutsui, and T. Shirai. 1983. Simultaneous determination of total nitrogen and total phosphorus in water using peroxodisulfate oxidation. Water Res. 17(12): 1721-1726.
- 41 - Harman, W.N., L.P. Sohacki, M.R. Albright, and D.L. Rosen. 1997. The State of Otsego Lake, 1936-1996. Occasional Paper #30. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta.,SUNY Oneonta.
Heavy, K.F. 1996. Water quality monitoring in the Otsego Lake watershed. In 28th Annual Report. (1995). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Hewett, B. 1997. Water quality monitoring and the benthic community in the Otsego Lake watershed. In 29th Annual Report (1996). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Liao, N. 2001. Determination of ammonia by flow injection analysis. QuikChem®Method 10-115-01-1-F. Lachat Instruments. Loveland, Colorado.
Laio, N. and S. Marten. 2001. Determination of total phosphorus by flow injection analysis colorimetry (acid persulfate digestion method). QuikChem®Method 10- 115-01-1-F. Lachat Instruments. Loveland, Colorado.
Pritzlaff, D. 2003. Determination of nitrate-nitrite in surface and wastewaters by flow injection analysis. QuikChem®Method 10-115-01-1-F. Lachat Instruments. Loveland, Colorado.
- 42 - Susquehanna River Water Quality Monitoring:
Monitoring the water quality and fecal coliform bacteria in the upper Susquehanna River, summer 20091
Liam Heiland2
INTRODUCTION The Susquehanna River is a river located in the northeast United States. It is the longest river on the American East Coast (about 444 miles long) and is divided into two branches: The North Branch (originating at Otsego Lake) and the shorter West Branch (originating in Pennsylvania). Together, the branches drain a watershed of approximately 27,500 sq. miles. The branches join near Northumberland and empty in the Chesapeake Bay, providing half of the fresh water of Chesapeake Bay (Susquehanna River Basin Commission 2006). For the summer of 2009, the Upper Susquehanna was monitored for physical water characteristics, nutrient levels, and fecal coliform concentrations as part of an ongoing study. Cooperstown lies directly at the start of the North Branch and depends on the river for discharge of waste water. Therefore, it is important to gather information on the quality of the river. Weekly samples and measurements were taken at nine sites between the river’s source on Otsego Lake and its confluence with Oak Creek (Figure 1) from 8 July to 19 August. The nature of this study allows for conclusions to be drawn regarding the effectiveness of the Cooperstown Sewage Treatment Plant (which hosts approximately 3,000 permanent residents, Bassett Hospital, and a significant tourist population through the summer) and for conclusions regarding the river’s ecosystem. Excess nutrient loading endangers an ecosystem’s pristine state, and thus impact the diversity of aquatic life present in the system. For example, inadequate wastewater treatment can lead to an overall increase in fecal coliform bacteria and can cause a decrease in the water’s dissolved oxygen concentration. Such an event can make life for certain aquatic life forms difficult or impossible, and is directly tied in with excess nutrient loading that contributes to increase algal populations. Continued loading would put the quality of game fishing as well as the recreational value of the Susquehanna in jeopardy. Fecal coliforms are a group of bacteria found in human and animal feces (APHA 1992). Coliforms aid in the digestive processes of all warm blooded animals. They are elevated in ecosystems where such waste discharge or agricultural runoff goes untreated and enters a waterway. Although most tend to have no effect on the health of a human being, they can reveal
1 Funding provided by the OCCA and the Village of Cooperstown.
2 F.H.V. Mecklenburg Conservation Fellow, summer 2009. Present affiliation: Hartwick College.
- 43 - instances of nutrient loading as well as possible pathogenic contamination (APHA 1992). Therefore, data comparison from year to year can yield important information regarding the safety and condition of the water.
METHODS
The Upper Susquehanna was monitored weekly at nine sites between its outlet at Otsego Lake and its confluence with Oak Creek. The sites are shown in Figure 1 and described in Table 1. Historically, two sites above these have been monitored by boat, but in 2009, boat unavailability at the south end of the lake precluded monitoring there.
Figure 1. The Upper Susquehanna and the nine sampling sites for summer 2009.
- 44 - Table 1. Locations and descriptions of sampling sites located along the Upper Susquehanna River.
Susquehanna River 3: 144 m from source. Under the Main Street Bridge; accessed via slope beside the bridge.
Susquehanna River 6a: 1012 m from source. Below the dam at Bassett Hospital; accessed from the north corner of the lower parking lot of Bassett Hospital.
Susquehanna River 7: 1533 m from source. Below the dam at Bassett Hospital; accessed from the southern corner of the lower parking lot of Bassett Hospital.
Susquehanna River 8: 1724 m from source. Under the Susquehanna Ave. bridge west of the Clark Sports Center; accessed via the slope beside the bridge.
Susquehanna River 12: 4119m from source. Just above the sewage discharge of the Cooperstown Wastewater Treatment Plant, nearby Cooperstown High School. Accessed by an opening in the fence.
Susquehanna River 16: 5460 m from source. Small bridge perpendicular to the road on Clark Property. Accessed by crossing a gated bovine grazing area (cow field).
Susquehanna River 16a: 5939 m from source. Distinct bend in river alongside road on Clark property, in field directly across from large house with hayrolls in front. Accessed by long path found on the right side of the field.
Susquehanna River 17: 8143 m from source. Abandoned bridge on Phoenix Mill Rd.
Susquehanna River 18: 9867 m from source. Railroad trestle about 200 m north of the railroad crossing on Rt. 11 going out of Hyde Park, accessed by walking on the railroad tracks. Trains occasionally come through, so caution is necessary.
All sites were accessed by car by a team of two or three people. A Hydrolab Scout 2® or Eureka® multiprobe digital microprocessor was used to measure temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, and specific conductivity. Before use, the device was calibrated, as per its manufacturer’s instructions, to ensure accuracy (Hydrolab Corp 1993, Eureka Environmental 2004).
- 45 - A 125 ml sample of the site water, contained in acid-washed nalgene bottles, was collected for nutrient analyses and a 500 mL sample was collected for fecal coliform analysis. Samples were iced until return to lab. After collection and return to the Field Station, the samples for nutrient anlaysis were preserved with sulfuric acid to prevent any changes to the sample. Samples were tested for nitrate+nitrite, ammonia, total nitrogen, and total phosphorus levels using a Lachat QwikChem FIA+ Water Analyzer®. Bacteria levels were tested using the membrane filter technique (APHA 1992). Predetermined volumes of sample (20 ml and 100 ml) were measured in sterile graduated cylinders, and were then passed through a pre-sterilized filter using a low pressure vacuum. The filters were then placed on a pre-sterilized Millipore® dish containing nutrient broth. Each volume was run in triplicate to increase accuracy. A control of 100 ml dilution water was run before each sample to check for background contamination. Between sample sites, filtration equipment was dipped in 70% ethanol and washed in hot tap water, then rinsed in dilution water. Between each filtration, forceps used to transport filter pads to dishes were dipped in Ethanol and then passed through a flame to ensure sterility. After all samples were filtered, all plates were incubated for 24 hours at 44.5 degrees Celsius in a circulatory water bath. Coliform colonies, which appear as a bright blue dot on the filter, were counted and reported as colonies/100 ml. Fecal coliform processing on 30 July was incomplete due to a lack of materials.
RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS
When considering nutrient inputs from point sources of pollution, as is the municipal wastewater input, results have to be considered with all other factors in the system. For example, high measurements of a nutrient can mean two very different things depending on the level of water. Lower water levels would mean higher concentrations of the nutrient, while higher levels equal diluted concentrations. For much of the sample period, higher than normal rain (Blechman, 2009) led to elevated flows, often paralleled by lower nutrient concentrations.
Temperature
Temperature of any aquatic body is very important to what lives in the water. From microbes to fish, each species has a temperature where it can thrive. Higher temperatures from a discharge can have significant impact on species that prefer cooler water. Temperature also plays a role in the way all the other data can be interpreted. Water of lower temperature will have more dissolved oxygen, other things being equal. Figure 2 summarizes the dissolved oxygen concentrations over the summer of 2009. This year’s temperature readings were fairly steady, but a little low for the Susquehanna, with a high of 23.12 C at site 6A on 18 August, and a low of 18.62 C at site 18 on 15 July. Considering the wet and cool summer the area experienced, these lower temperatures can be regarded as normal for this year. Figure 3 compares the mean concentration at each site over the summers of 2004-2009.
- 46 - 24 2009 23
22
21
20
Temperature (Degrees C) 19
18 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Distance from source (M)
Figure 2. A profile of water temperature along the Susquehanna with standard error, Summer 2009.
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 24
23
22
21
20
19 Temperature (Degrees C)
18 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Distance from source (M)
Figure 3. A profile of mean tmperature along the Susquehanna, summers 2004 (Hill 2005), 2005 (Bauer 2006), 2006 (Zurmuhlen 2007), 2007 (Coyle 2008), 2008 (Matus 2009), and 2009.
pH
pH is a measure of a solution’s relative acidity or alkalinity. If pH is low (acidic), it can affect biological processes, and influence reaction rates. pH also plays an important role, as sudden changes in pH can indicate nutrient or chemical runoff. pH this year was a little on the higher side of recent years, but still fell close to a neutral pH. Figure 4 summarizes pH over the summer of 2009. Figure 5 summarizes mean pH at each site over the summers of 2004-2009.
- 47 - 8.5 2009 8.4 8.3 8.2 8.1 8 pH 7.9 7.8 7.7 7.6 7.5 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Distance from source (M)
Figure 4. Mean pH distribution along the Susquehanna with standard error bars, Summer 2009.
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 9 8 8 8 8 8 pH 8 8 8 8 8 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Distance from source (M)
Figure 5. Mean pH along the Susquehanna, summers 2004 (Hill 2005), 2005 (Bauer 2006), 2006 (Zurmuhlen 2007), 2007 (Coyle 2008), 2008 (Matus 2009), and 2009.
Conductivity
Conductivity is a measure of how well water conducts electricity. This is indicative of ion concentrations, often dissolved salts. This year saw very steady conductivity levels, much more so than in previous years, likely due to high flows. Figure 6 summarizes conductivity over the summer of 2009. Figure 7 summarizes mean conductivity at each site over the summers of 2004- 2009. .
- 48 -
0.4 2009
0.35
0.3
0.25 Conductivity (mmho/cm) Conductivity
0.2 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Distance from source (M)
Figure 6. Summer 2009’s mean conductivity, with standard error bars.
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25 Conductivity (mmho/cm) Conductivity
0.20 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Distance from source (M)
Figure 7. The mean conductivities for summers 2004 (Hill 2005), 2005 (Bauer 2006), 2006 (Zurmuhlen 2007), 2007 (Coyle 2008), 2008 (Matus 2009), and 2009.
Dissolved Oxygen
The amount of dissolved oxygen depends on the temperature, how the water moves, what’s living in the water, and what’s being introduced into the environment. Organic inputs into a waterway will, upon decomposition, deplete oxygen levels. This year, we saw steady, higher than average oxygen content across the sites at a level sufficient to sustain a healthy aerobic population within the river system. This would imply adequate treatment by the wastewater
- 49 - treatment plant. Figure 8 summarizes dissolved oxygen concentrations over the summer of 2009. Figure 9 summarizes mean dissolved oxygen at each site over the summers of 2004-2009.
10 2009
9
8
7
Dissolved Oxygen (mg/l) Oxygen Dissolved 6
5 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Distance from source (M)
Figure 8. Mean dissolved oxygen content along the Susquehanna with standard error,for summer 2009.
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 10.00
9.00
8.00
7.00
Dissolved Oxygen (mg/l) 6.00
5.00 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Distance from source (M)
Figure 9. Mean dissolved oxygen for summers 2004 (Hill 2005), 2005 (Bauer 2006), 2006 (Zurmuhlen 2007), 2007 (Coyle 2008), 2008 (Matus 2009), and 2009.
- 50 - Total Phosphorus
Phosphorus is often the limiting nutrient to algae. High levels of phosphorus can facilitate blooms and growth in general. This leads to an overall decrease in dissolved oxygen, as the algae are decomposed after death by aerobic bacteria. Phosphorus introduction can come from agricultural and urban runoff, as well as sewage outfalls. This year’s phosphorus was on the lower side of the yearly readings, increasing at SR 16 as was expected since this is the first site downstream from the wastewater treatment plant (which currently is not required to remove phosphorus). Figure 10 summarizes total phosphorus concentrations over the summer of 2009. Figure 11 summarizes mean total phosphorus at each site over the summers of 2004-2009.
250 2009
200
150
100
Total Phosphorus (ug/l) Phosphorus Total 50
0 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Distance from source (M)
Figure 10. Mean Phosphorus levels for Summer 2009 with standard error bars.
- 51 - 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 250
200
150
100
Total Phosphorus (ug/l) Phosphorus Total 50
0 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Distance from source (M)
Figure 11. Mean Phosphorus levels for 2004 (Hill 2005), 2005 (Bauer 2006), 2006 (Zurmuhlen 2007), 2007 (Coyle 2008), 2008 (Matus 2009), and 2009.
Nitrate, Nitrite, and Ammonia
Nitrates, nitrites, and ammonia are all inorganic sources of nitrogen, another nutrient that algae thrive on. Sources of these inorganic compounds are often similar to the phosphorus sources. Nitrates and nitrites are grouped together, and ammonia is measured separately. Total nitrogen includes the abovementioned compounds as well as nitrogen contained in organic compounds.
As with the other readings, this year’s nitrite+nitrate and total nitrogen levels were spatially consistent and somewhat lower than most previous years’ readings. Ammonia readings also appear to be on the lower side of previous years. However, ammonia sampling has only gone on for three years now, so it is unclear what the normal trend should be at this time. Figure 12 summarizes nitrite+nitrate concentrations over the summer of 2009. Figure 13 summarizes mean nitrite+nitrate at each site over the summers of 2004-2009. Figure 14 summarizes ammonia concentrations over the summer of 2009. Figure 15 summarizes mean ammonia at each site over the summers of 2004-2009. Figure 16 summarizes total nitrogen concentrations over the summer of 2009. Figure 17 summarizes mean total nitrogen at each site over the summers of 2004-2009.
- 52 -
1 2009
0.8
0.6
0.4 Nitrite+Nitrate (mg/l) 0.2
0 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Distance from source (M)
Figure 12. Mean Nitrite and Nitrate levels for Summer 2009, with standard error bars.
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
Nitrite+Nitrate (mg/l) Nitrite+Nitrate 0.2
0.0 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Distance from source (M)
Figure 13. Mean Nitrite and Nitrate levels for summers 2004 (Hill 2005), 2005 (Bauer 2006), 2006 (Zurmuhlen 2007), 2007 (Coyle 2008), 2008 (Matus 2009), and 2009.
- 53 - 0.30 2009 0.25
0.20
0.15
Ammonia (mg/l) 0.10
0.05
0.00 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Distance from source (M)
Figure 14. Mean ammonia readings for summer 2009 with standard error bars. No error bars are present on points 144 and 1724 due to ammonia readings below detection levels (< .04 mg/L) on all sampling dates save one.
2007 2008 2009 0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.10 Ammonia (mg/l) 0.05
0.00 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Distance from source (M)
Figure 15. Mean ammonia readings for summers 2004 (Hill 2005), 2005 (Bauer 2006), 2006 (Zurmuhlen 2007), 2007 (Coyle 2008), 2008 (Matus 2009), and 2009.
- 54 - 2.00 2009
1.50
1.00
Total NitrogenTotal (mg/l) 0.50
0.00 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Distance from source (M)
Figure 16. Mean total nitrogen levels for summer 2009, with standard error bars.
2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5 Total NitrogenTotal (mg/l)
0.0 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Distance from source (M)
Figure 17. Mean total nitrogen readings for summers 2004 (Hill 2005), 2005 (Bauer 2006), 2006 (Zurmuhlen 2007), 2007 (Coyle 2008), 2008 (Matus 2009), and 2009.
Fecal Coliform
Aforementioned, fecal coliforms are a type of bacteria found in human and animal feces. Coliforms aid in the digestive processes of all mammals. They are present in ecosystems where such waste discharge goes untreated and enters a waterway. Although they tend to have no effect on the health of a human being, they can reveal instances of nutrient loading as well as possible pathogenic contamination (APHA 1992).
- 55 - Figure 18 summarizes total nitrogen concentrations over the summer of 2009. Figure 19 summarizes mean total nitrogen at each site over the summers of 2004-2009. Fecal coliform concentrations over 2010 were among the lowest of any summer since 2005.
2000 2009
1500
1000
500 Fecal Coiform (col./100 ml) (col./100 Coiform Fecal
0 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Distance from source (M)
Figure 18. Mean fecal coliform colonies per 100 mL for the 2009 summer season, with standard error bars. Scale of the y axis is different than the following graph in order to show the standard error bars.
2004 2005 2006 2007 2009 2000
1500
1000
500 Fecal Coliform (col./100 Coliform ml) Fecal 0 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000
Distance from source (M)
Figure 19. Mean colony counts for summers 2004 (Hill 2005), 2005 (Bauer 2006), 2006 (Zurmuhlen 2007), 2007 (Coyle 2008), 2008 (Matus 2009), and 2009.
- 56 - REFERENCES
APHA, AWWA, WPCF. 1992. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. 17th Ed. American Public Health Association, Washington D.C.
Bauer, E. 2006. Monitoring the water quality and fecal coliform in the upper Susquehanna River, summer 2005. In 38th Ann. Rept. (2005). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Blechman, A. 2009. National weather observer. Cooperstown, NY.
Coyle, O.L. 2008. Monitoring water quality and fecal coliform bacteria in the Upper Susquehanna River, summer 2007. In 40th Annual Report (2007), SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld Sta., SUNY College at Oneonta.
Ebina, J.T. Tsutsui, and T. Shirai. 1983. Simultaneous determination of total nitrogen and total phosphorus in water using peroxodisulfate oxidation. Water Res. 17(12):1712-1726.
Eureka Environmental Engineering. 2004. Manta water quality probe startup guide. Austin, TX.
Hill, J.2005. Monitoring the water quality and fecal coliform in the upper Susquehanna River, summer 2004. In 37th Ann. Rept. (2004). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld Sta., SUNY College at Oneonta.
Hydrolab Corporation, 1993. Scout 2 operating manual. Hydrolab Corp. Austin, TX.
Liao, N. 2001. Determination of ammonia by flow injection analysis. QwikChem® Method 10- 115-01-0-F. Lachat Instruments. Loveland, Colorado.
Liao, N. and S. Marten. 2001. Determination of total phosphorus by flow injection analysis chloriometry (acid persulfate digestion method). QwikChem® Method 10-115-01-1-F. Lachat Instruments. Loveland, Colorado.
Matus, J.E. 2009. Monitoring water quality and fecal coliform bacteria in the upper Susquehanna River, summer 2008. In 41st Ann. Rept. (2008). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta/
Pritzlaff, D. 2003. Determination of nitrate+nitrite in surface and wastewaters by flow injection analysis. QwikChem® Method 10-115-01-1-F. Lachat Instruments. Loveland, Colorado.
Susquehanna River Basin Commision. 2009. http://www.srbc.net/about/index.htm.
Zurmuhlen, S. J. 2007. Monitoring water quality and fecal coliform bacteria in the upper Susquehanna River, summer 2006. In 39th Annual Report (2006), SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY College at Oneonta.
- 57 -
Otsego County baseline water quality monitoring1
Scott Fickbohm2
INTRODUCTION
The following is a preliminary report of water quality data collected between May 2009 and December 2010 at the outflow of Otsego County’s fourteen 11-digit Hydrologic Unit Codes watersheds (HUC’s). While extensive water quality monitoring is currently taking place in the County in specific waterbodies, this effort is meant to be a first step towards being able to characterize baseline water quality across Otsego County by means of direct measurement.
Otsego County is 1,007 square miles in area. Estimates of land use are 71% forest, 27% in agriculture and 2% other (urban/developed). From the 11-digit HUC perspective, that area is divided between 14 distinct watersheds. The boundaries of these watersheds extend beyond the County borders and total an area of 1,390 square miles that all drain to the Susquehanna River and, ultimately, to the Chesapeake Bay. Approximately 27 square miles (5%) of Otsego County drains to the Mohawk River Basin through Canajoharie Creek and Cobleskill Creek. These Creeks were not sampled.
An exception to the 11-digit HUC approach is the Butternut Creek & Lower Unadilla watersheds. At the 11 HUC level, the Butternut is limited to the area above Morris, NY with the lower portion being considered part of the Lower Unadilla watershed. In order to capture watershed specific data to the greatest extent possible, the Butternut was sampled just north of its confluence with the Unadilla River. The area for each of these watersheds was recalculated based on this sampling point.
The names of each watershed sampled, along with their HUC number and area, are provided in the Table 1. The Otsego County divided by watershed, and the sample locations, is shown in Map 1.
1 Funded by the Otsego County Water Quality Coordinating Committee, Cooperstown, NY. 2 District Manager, Otsego County Soil and Water Conservation District, 967 County Highway 33, Cooperstown, NY 13326.
- 58 -
Otsego County Watersheds: 11-Digit Hydrologic Unit Code
11 Digit HUC Watershed Name Area (square miles)
2050101140 Upper Unadilla 172 2050101150 Wharton Creek 93 2050101160 Butternut Creek 130* 2050101180 Lower Unadilla 108* 2050101120 Middle Susquehanna River 109 2050101080 Otsdawa Creek 20 2050101070 Otego Creek 109 2050101060 Charlotte Creek 176 2050101040 Elk Creek 33 2050101050 Schenevus Creek 86 2050101030 Upper Susquehanna River 82 2050101020 Cherry Valley Creek 92 2050101010 Oaks Creek 102 2050101035 Otsego Lake 78
Table 1. Code, Name and Area of Otsego County’s fourteen 11-digit HUCS’s. * Area adjusted to reflect sampling points.
METHODOLOGY
Sampling Protocol Grab samples were retrieved with a plastic bucket from the road bridges nearest the outflow of each watershed (Map 1). The samples were then transferred to a 250 ml, acid washed high density polyethylene bottle, transported back to the SUNY Oneonta Biological Field Station (BFS) and refrigerated immediately. Samples were acidified with 0.2 % H2SO4 until analysis could be performed. Additionally, a 1L sample was collected from each site for TSS analysis during July, August and September.
The parameters measured were: ammonium (NH3), nitrite + nitrate (NOx), total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP). Total suspended sediments (TSS) were measured for three of the eight months and the results are also reported here.
Lab analysis Nitrate+nitrite (NOx) analysis was performed using a Lachat Auto Analyzer (QuickChem® method 10- 107-04-1-C; Pritzlaff 2003). Ammonium (NH4) analysis was performed using a Lachat Auto Analyzer (QuickChem® method 10- 107-06-1-J; Liao 2001). Total nitrogen (TN) analysis was performed by determining NO3, as described above, after Persulfate digestion (Ebina et al., 1983). Total phosphorus analysis was performed by persulfate digestion (APHA, 1992). Total suspended solids (TSS) were determined using the gravimetric method (APHA 1992).
- 59 -
Map 1. Sample locations, HUC number and watershed name of the 14 11-digit HUCs sampled in Otsego County, NY.
- 60 - RESULTS
Results are expressed in concentrations (mg/L or ug/L in the case of TP). All data are provided in Appendix 1.
Nitrogen Ammonium samples were mostly below detection (0.02 mg/L). The Upper Susquehanna watershed had one the highest concentration of 0.23 mg/L, the remaining samples that were not below detection averaged below 0.1 mg/L. Only raw data for ammonium are reported (Appendix 1).
Descending mean NOx concentrations and standard deviations (n=8 months) are show below in Table 1. NOx concentrations for each watershed over time are shown in Graph 1. TN data are similarly shown in Table & Graph 2.
All NOx samples collected were • 1.00 mg/L. Except for the Upper Unadilla and Elk Creek watersheds, most values were below 0.6 mg/L. The Upper Unadilla had the highest concentrations for 6 of the 8 months monitored. (avg 0.73 ± 0.19). The Elk Creek watershed had the highest concentrations in July and August and had concentrations near or above the 0.6 mg level in 4 other months.
Three NOx samples collected were below detection (0.02 mg/L). These samples were taken from the Butternut, Otsdawa and Oaks Creek watersheds on 7/22, 5/25 and 5/25 respectively.
Due to lab error, TN data for the August sampling date are not reported. Most TN samples collected were • 1.00 mg/L. Similar to NOx concentrations, the Upper Unadilla and Elk Creek watersheds had the highest mean concentrations (1.14 ± 0.59 and 1.12 ± 0.71 respectively) and were the only watersheds to consistently approach or exceed 1.00 mg/L over time.
The ranking of watersheds from highest to lowest for mean NOx and TN concentrations matches the 5 highest ranking watersheds and the 5 lowest. For most of the samples collected NOx represents over 50% of the TN in the sample.
- 61 -
Nitrate+Nitrite (mg/L)
Watershed (11 Digit HUC) Mean (n= 8 mo) STDV Upper Unadilla 0.74 0.19 Elk Creek 0.67 0.24 Schenevus Creek 0.51 0.14 Lower Unadilla 0.47 0.16 Wharton Creek 0.42 0.10 Butternut Creek 0.37 0.07 Otego Creek 0.31 0.11 Upper Susquehanna River 0.31 0.11 Otsego Lake 0.30 0.09 Middle Susquehanna River 0.28 0.13 Cherry Valley Creek 0.25 0.12 Charlotte Creek 0.19 0.10 Oaks Creek 0.19 0.15 Otsdawa Creek 0.16 0.08
Table 1. Descending mean NOx concentrations and standard deviations (n=8 months) for fourteen 11-Digit HUC watersheds in Otsego County, NY.
Total Nitrogen (mg/L) Watershed (11 Digit HUC) Mean (n=8) STDV Upper Unadilla 0.94 0.21 Elk Creek 0.89 0.37 Schenevus Creek 0.65 0.21 Lower Unadilla 0.65 0.17 Middle Susquehanna River 0.61 0.33 Wharton Creek 0.59 0.15 Upper Susquehanna River 0.54 0.24 Otsego Lake 0.53 0.12 Cherry Valley Creek 0.53 0.24 Butternut Creek 0.51 0.13 Otego Creek 0.49 0.18 Oaks Creek 0.42 0.20 Charlotte Creek 0.38 0.17 Otsdawa Creek 0.25 0.15
Table 2. Descending mean TN concentrations and standard deviations (n=7 months) for fourteen 11-Digit HUC watersheds in Otsego County, NY.
- 62 -
NOx Over Time for 14 Watersheds 1.20 Upper Unadilla
1.00 Wharton Creek Butternut Creek 0.80 Lower Unadilla Middle Susquehanna River
0.60 Otsdawa Creek - Axis Title mg/l Otego Creek 63 0.40 - Charlotte Creek Elk Creek 0.20 Schenevus Creek Upper Susquehanna River 0.00 Cherry Valley Creek Oaks Creek
6/8/2009 7/6/2009 8/3/2009 Otsego Lake 5/25/2009 8/17/2009 9/28/2009 11/9/2009 12/7/2009 6/22/2009 7/20/2009 8/31/2009 9/14/2009 10/12/2009 10/26/2009 11/23/2009
Graph 1. Monthly NOx concentrations from fourteen 11-Digit HUC watersheds in Otsego County, NY.
TN Over Time for 14 Watersheds Upper Unadilla Wharton Creek 1.60 Butternut Creek 1.40 Lower Unadilla 1.20 Middle Susquehanna River 1.00 Otsdawa Creek Otego Creek 0.80 Charlotte Creek mg/L 0.60 Elk Creek 0.40 Schenevus Creek
- Upper Susquehanna River 0.20 64 Cherry Valley Creek - 0.00 Oaks Creek Otsego Lake 6/8/2009 7/6/2009 8/3/2009 5/25/2009 6/22/2009 7/20/2009 8/17/2009 8/31/2009 9/14/2009 9/28/2009 11/9/2009 12/7/2009 10/12/2009 10/26/2009 11/23/2009
Graph 2. Monthly TN concentrations from fourteen 11-Digit HUC watersheds in Otsego County, NY.
Phosphorus Descending mean TP concentrations and standard deviations (n=8 months) are show below in Table 3. TP concentrations for each watershed over time are shown in Graph 3.
Total Phosphorus (ug/L)
Watershed (11 Digit HUC) Mean (n= 8mo) STDV Upper Unadilla 27.45 16.48 Elk Creek 27.30 26.42 Middle Susquehanna River 23.98 5.06 Lower Unadilla 20.66 7.72 Oaks Creek 19.70 12.33 Cherry Valley Creek 18.58 8.73 Butternut Creek 17.99 6.88 Charlotte Creek 15.90 7.95 Upper Susquehanna River 15.70 5.94 Otego Creek 15.33 4.44 Schenevus Creek 14.97 7.16 Wharton Creek 14.05 5.63 Otsego Lake 12.89 8.04 Otsdawa Creek 10.14 4.86
Table 3. Descending mean TP concentrations and standard deviations (n=8 months) for fourteen 11- Digit HUC watersheds in Otsego County, NY.
All but three samples collected over the eight month period had TP concentrations less than 40 ug/L. Elk Creek had the highest single concentration (87 ug/L) but was otherwise at or below 30 ug/L. The Upper Unadilla River watershed had the two other concentrations above 40ug/L but otherwise was below 30 ug/L for the remaining 6 months sampled. The Otsego Lake and Otsdawa Creek watersheds had the lowest concentrations over time neither watershed exceeding 25 ug/L in any month.
- 65 -
TP Over Time for 14 Watersheds Upper Unadilla Wharton Creek 100.0 Butternut Creek 90.0 Lower Unadilla 80.0 Middle Susquehanna River 70.0 Otsdawa Creek 60.0 Otego Creek 50.0 Charlotte Creek ug/L 40.0 Elk Creek 30.0 Schenevus Creek 20.0
- Upper Susquehanna River 66 10.0 Cherry Valley Creek - 0.0 Oaks Creek Otsego Lake 6/8/2009 7/6/2009 8/3/2009 5/25/2009 6/22/2009 7/20/2009 8/17/2009 8/31/2009 9/14/2009 9/28/2009 11/9/2009 12/7/2009 10/12/2009 10/26/2009 11/23/2009
Graph 3. Monthly TP concentrations from fourteen 11-Digit HUC watersheds in Otsego County, NY.
Sediment
Descending mean TSS concentrations and standard deviations are show below in Table 4. TP concentrations for each watershed over time are shown in Graph 4.
Sampling for sediment occurred in August, September and October. With two exceptions, all watersheds were measured below 13mg/L for each month. Most samples measured were below 10mg/L.
The Oaks Creek watershed recorded the highest single concentration of 39mg/L in August and the Lower Unadilla recorded the second highest at 28mg/L in October.
Total Suspended Sediment. (mg/l)
Watershed (11 Digit HUC) Mean (n=3mo) STDV Oaks Creek 15.34 20.54 Lower Unadilla 14.58 11.63 Upper Unadilla 8.50 2.63 Charlotte Creek 7.19 6.33 Otego Creek 5.90 2.63 Schenevus Creek 5.75 4.44 Butternut Creek 4.96 3.42 Elk Creek 4.83 3.12 Wharton Creek 4.77 2.07 Cherry Valley Creek 3.80 2.50 Middle Susquehanna River 4.40 1.95 Upper Susquehanna River 3.80 2.50 Otsdawa Creek 3.35 2.83 Otsego Lake 2.83 0.67
Table 4. Descending mean TSS concentrations and standard deviations (n=3 months) for fourteen 11- Digit HUC watersheds in Otsego County, NY.
- 67 -
TSS Over Time in 14 Watersheds Upper Unadilla 45.0 Wharton Creek 40.0 Butternut Creek
35.0 Lower Unadilla Middle Susquehanna 30.0 River Otsdawa Creek
25.0 Otego Creek
Charlotte Creek mg/L - 20.0 68 Elk Creek - 15.0 Schenevus Creek
Upper Susquehanna River 10.0 Cherry Valley Creek 5.0 Oaks Creek
0.0 Otsego Lake Aug-09 Sep-09 Oct-09
Graph 4. Monthly TSS concentrations from fourteen 11-Digit HUC watersheds in Otsego County, NY.
DISCUSSION
The data presented here reflect baseline conditions. When sample dates are compared with precipitation data recorded locally in Cooperstown (data not shown), all dates but August (0.55 inches) had no precipitation on that date and often for the several preceding days. Considering that all but 4 of the 14 watersheds are headwaters (the Middle and Upper Susquehanna and Lower and Upper Unadilla receive waters from other watersheds) and the nature of the land use throughout the County (primarily forest and agriculture) the low concentrations recorded for all the parameters measured should be expected.
While nutrient concentrations are a reflection of inputs, they are also a function of volume which makes comparisons of water quality between watersheds difficult. Larger volumes from larger watersheds will dilute nutrients given equal inputs but can have higher total export as a function of volume. Even smaller watersheds with relatively high concentrations will still have lower total export when compared to larger watersheds with lower concentrations because of volume; large watersheds with relatively high concentrations can be expected to also have the highest export.
As noted above, the Middle and Upper Susquehanna and Lower and Upper Unadilla all receive waters from other watersheds. As such, the concentrations are a reflection of the all the watersheds that drain into those watersheds in addition to the land within their own specific watershed. For example, the Upper Susquehanna River sampled in Colliersville is representative of the area within the Upper Susquehanna watershed, but it also includes water from Otsego Lake, Oaks Creek, Cherry Valley Creek, Elk Creek and Schenevus Creek.
Additionally, most water in a given year will pass through a watershed during rain events and the first flush of spring runoff. Concentrations of some parameters (TP & TSS in particular) typically increase at the beginning of such events as flow increases.
The cost associated with directly measuring both flow and sampling rain events is greater than what is currently available. However, real-time flow data is collected locally at the USGS flow station located in Rockdale on the Unadilla River. This station captures 520 square miles of the Upper and Lower Unadilla River watershed.
There are 3 USGS flow stations in the Upper Susquehanna in NY that capture flow data before the inclusion of water from the Chemung River – Rockdale, Conklin and Waverly, NY. When the cubic feet per second are compared for each of these sites over time (Graph 5), it can be observed that each hydrograph is similar.
This is due to the nested nature of watersheds with the smaller watersheds being within the larger. The Rockdale site captures 520 square miles of of the Upper Susquehanna watershed. Further west, the Conklin site captures the area captured at the Rockdale site and an additional 1,712 square miles of watershed and further west still, the Waverly site includes both areas and an additional 2,541 square miles of watershed.
- 69 -
Hydrograph for 3 USGS Sites Recorded in 2005
120000
100000
80000 4773 smithboro
60000 2232 conklin 520 rockdale 40000 - 70
20000 -
0 1/1/2005 4/9/2005 5/7/2005 6/4/2005 7/2/2005 1/15/2005 1/29/2005 2/26/2005 3/12/2005 3/26/2005 4/23/2005 6/18/2005 7/16/2005 7/30/2005 8/27/2005 9/10/2005 9/24/2005 10/8/2005 12/3/2005 2/12/2005 5/21/2005 8/13/2005 11/5/2005 10/22/2005 11/19/2005 12/17/2005 12/31/2005
Graph 5. Daily flow measurements (cubic feet per second) for the Smithboro, Conklin and Rockdale USGS flow stations recorded in 2005.
Aside from concentrations, it is often useful to consider total export (mass) as a measurement of water quality. In other words, knowing how many tons of N, P and TSS are moving out of a particular watershed as erosion and leaching take place on the landscape.
Estimates of total export for each watershed are possible given available data; those reported above and discharge data as recorded at Rockdale during the sampling timeframe (not reported here).
By dividing the cubic feet of water passing by the Rockdale site per day by the square miles of the area captured, cubic feet of water per square mile is calculated. This number can then be multiplied by the number of square miles in any watershed to represent flow in those watersheds. The result is an estimate of daily flow of water in each watershed sampled.
Also, by assuming linearity in concentration between sample dates, concentrations can be estimated for all days within the sample period. Further, multiplying volume (daily flow) by daily concentration calculates mass for that day and daily mass can be summed to produce an estimate of total export of the parameters measured. Load estimates for the 14 11-digit HUC’s sampled are provided in Graphs 6, 7, 8 & 9 (TN, NOx, TP and TSS respectively). Nutrient estimates reflect the load during the 8 month sampling period and the TSS estimate if for the 3 month period sampled.
Total Nitrogen (tons) 180 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Total Nitrogen Export … … (tons) Upper Middle Elk Creek Elk Oaks Creek Oaks Otsego Lake Otsego Otego Creek Otego Lower Unadilla Upper Unadilla Otsdawa Creek Wharton CreekWharton Charlotte Creek Charlotte Butternut Creek Schenevus Creek Schenevus Cherry Valley Creek Valley Cherry
Graph 6. Estimated TN load (for 8 months and in tons) exported from the fourteen 11- digit HUC’s in Otsego County, NY.
- 71 -
Nitrate Export (tons) 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Nitrate Export (tons) … … Elk Creek Elk Oaks Creek Oaks Otsego Lake Otsego Otego Creek Otego Lower Unadilla Upper Unadilla Otsdawa Creek Wharton CreekWharton Charlotte Creek Charlotte Butternut Creek Schenevus Creek Schenevus Cherry Valley Creek Valley Cherry Upper Susquehanna Upper Susquehanna Middle Susquehanna Susquehanna Middle
Graph 7. Estimated NOx load (for 8 months and in tons) exported from the fourteen 11- digit HUC’s in Otsego County, NY.
Total Phosphorus Export (tons) 4.00 3.50 3.00 2.50 2.00 1.50 1.00 0.50 Total Phosphorus Export 0.00 (tons) … … Elk Creek Elk Oaks Creek Oaks Otsego Lake Otsego Otego Creek Otego Lower Unadilla Upper Unadilla Otsdawa Creek Wharton CreekWharton Charlotte Creek Charlotte Butternut Creek Schenevus Creek Schenevus Cherry Valley Creek Valley Cherry Upper Susquehanna Upper Susquehanna Middle Susquehanna Susquehanna Middle
Graph 8. Estimated TP load (for 8 months and in tons) exported from the fourteen 11- digit HUC’s in Otsego County, NY.
- 72 - Total Suspended Sediment Export (tons) 300 250 200 150 100 50 Total Suspended 0 Sediment Export (tons) … … Elk Creek Elk Oaks Creek Oaks Otsego Lake Otsego Otego Creek Otego Lower Unadilla Upper Unadilla Otsdawa Creek Wharton CreekWharton Charlotte Creek Charlotte Butternut Creek Schenevus Creek Schenevus Cherry Valley Creek Valley Cherry Upper Susquehanna Upper Susquehanna Middle Susquehanna Susquehanna Middle
Graph 9. Estimated TSS load (for 3 months and in tons) exported from the fourteen 11- digit HUC’s in Otsego County, NY.
These calculations have several serious caveats that should be considered when interpreting the resulting estimates. First is the assumption that rain events recorded at the USGS Rockdale site also occurred throughout the County. As described above, this assumption is valid when comparing watersheds at an increasing scale, but may not be as valid as watersheds are compared at a decreasing scale. For example, a rain event over the Unadilla watershed (as recorded in Rockdale) may not occur over the Schenevus watershed. Conversely, it is possible that a rain event over the Schenevus watershed may not occur over the Unadilla.
Secondly, water samples were not collected in conjunction with rain events. Typically, rain events are sampled 3 times; once as the flow is increasing, again near peak flow and again as the flow decreases. Some parameter concentrations, such as TSS and TP, are likely to increase during rain events as soil is eroded from the landscape and stream banks. Otghers, such as N, are like to be lower as leaching is diluted. While the hydrology for rain events is included in the estimate, the estimates for TP & TSS are likely to be low and those for N are likely to be high, because they do not include the event specific concentrations.
Lastly, in order to make the export estimate calculation, NOx and TP samples that were below detection (0.02 mg/L and 0.3ug/L respectively) were assigned values of 0.01 mg/L for NOx and 0.3 ug/L for TP.
- 73 - It is suggested that future efforts attempt to sample a number of rain events in each watershed, include recording of pH and conductivity, make TSS a regular part of the sampling regime and exclude ammonium analysis.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thanks go to the Otsego County Water Quality Coordinating Committee for funding the lab analysis, the SUNY Oneonta Biological Field Station for performing the lab analysis and to the Otsego County Soil and Water Conservation District for collecting the samples.
REFERENCES
APHA, AWWA, WPCF. 1992. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 17th ed. American Public Health Association. Washington, DC.
Ebina, J., T. Tsutsi, and T. Shirai. 1983. Simultaneous determination of total nitrogen and total phosphorus in water using peroxodisulfate oxidation. Water Res. 7(12):1721-1726.
Liao, N. 2001. Determination of ammonia by flow injection analysis. QuikChem ® Method 10-107-06-1-J. Lachat Instruments, Loveland, CO.
Liao, N. and S. Marten. 2001. Determination of total phosphorus by flow injection analysis colorimetry (acid persulfate digestion method). QuikChem ® Method 10- 115-01-1-F. Lachat Instruments, Loveland, CO.
Pritzlaff, D. 2003. Determination of nitrate/nitrite in surface and wastewaters by flow injection analysis. QuikChem ® Method 10-107-04-1-C. Lachat Instruments, Loveland, CO.
- 74 -
APPENDIX 1: All data from all sites. Total Total Total Suspended ammonia Nitrate+Nitrite Nitrogen Phosphorus Solids Date Watershed (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (ug/L) (mg/l) 5/25/2009 HUC 1 bd 0.47 0.52 17.8 6/15/2009 HUC 1 bd 0.77 0.99 28.5 7/22/2009 HUC1 0.05 0.68 0.87 27.4 11.5 8/18/2009 HUC1 bd 0.48 N/A 43.9 7.4 9/15/2009 HUC1 0.04 0.80 1.20 22.0 6.6 10/20/2009 HUC1 0.04 0.83 1.08 11.6 11/19/2009 HUC1 0.07 1.00 1.01 10.1 12/17/2009 HUC1 bd 0.93 0.9 58.3 avg 0.05 0.74 1.14 27.45 8.50 stdev 0.01 0.19 0.59 16.48 2.63 min 0.04 0.47 0.52 10.08 6.60 max 0.07 1.00 2.53 58.30 11.50
5/25/2009 HUC2 bd 0.24 0.29 11.6 6/15/2009 HUC2 bd 0.45 0.71 18.6 7/22/2009 HUC2 0.04 0.42 0.55 18.7 6.7 8/18/2009 HUC2 bd 0.38 N/A 20.8 5.0 9/15/2009 HUC2 bd 0.34 0.62 11.8 2.6 10/20/2009 HUC2 0.04 0.43 0.582 6.3 11/19/2009 HUC2 0.04 0.54 0.608 7.0 12/17/2009 HUC2 bd 0.53 0.781 17.6 avg 0.04 0.42 0.75 14.05 4.77 stdev 0.00 0.10 0.48 5.63 2.07 min 0.04 0.24 0.29 6.32 2.60 max 0.04 0.54 1.90 20.84 6.72
5/25/2009 HUC3 bd 0.25 0.26 14.8 6/15/2009 HUC3 bd 0.38 0.70 19.6 7/22/2009 HUC3 0.02 bd 0.55 24.2 8.9 8/18/2009 HUC3 bd 0.33 N/A 26.8 3.4 9/15/2009 HUC3 0.03 0.36 0.55 13.0 2.6 10/20/2009 HUC3 0.03 0.33 0.48 7.0 11/19/2009 HUC3 0.08 0.46 0.491 14.1 12/17/2009 HUC3 bd 0.45 0.569 24.4 avg 0.04 0.37 0.64 17.99 4.96 stdev 0.03 0.07 0.38 6.88 3.42 min 0.02 0.25 0.26 6.98 2.60 max 0.08 0.46 1.53 26.84 8.89 bd - below detection
- 75 -
APPENDIX 1 (continued) : All data from all sites. Total Total Total Suspended ammonia Nitrate+Nitrite Nitrogen Phosphorus Solids Date Watershed (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (ug/L) (mg/l) 5/25/2009 HUC4 bd 0.31 0.42 17.7 6/15/2009 HUC4 bd 0.56 0.72 25.7 7/22/2009 HUC4 0.02 0.35 0.41 25.7 8.3 8/18/2009 HUC4 bd 0.27 N/A 32.3 7.4 9/15/2009 HUC4 0.12 0.41 0.73 16.7 28.0 10/20/2009 HUC4 0.03 0.51 0.702 8.3 11/19/2009 HUC4 0.04 0.72 0.79 14.5 12/17/2009 HUC4 bd 0.64 0.778 24.4 avg 0.05 0.47 0.78 20.66 14.58 stdev 0.05 0.16 0.40 7.72 11.63 min 0.02 0.27 0.41 8.26 7.40 max 0.12 0.72 1.71 32.34 28.00
5/25/2009 HUC5 bd 0.13 0.23 bd 6/15/2009 HUC5 bd 0.36 0.64 31.2 7/22/2009 HUC5 0.02 0.31 0.41 22.4 6.3 8/18/2009 HUC5 bd 0.28 N/A 30.5 4.4 9/15/2009 HUC5 bd 0.29 0.54 19.3 2.4 10/20/2009 HUC5 0.04 0.07 0.445 19.5 11/19/2009 HUC5 0.11 0.40 0.625 20.4 12/17/2009 HUC5 bd 0.43 0.62 24.5 avg 0.06 0.28 0.61 23.98 4.40 stdev 0.05 0.13 0.33 5.06 1.95 min 0.02 0.07 0.23 19.30 2.44 max 0.11 0.43 1.35 31.24 6.35
5/25/2009 HUC6 bd bd 0.02 5.6 6/15/2009 HUC6 bd 0.28 0.43 8.1 7/22/2009 HUC6 0.02 0.15 0.19 15.2 6.3 8/18/2009 HUC6 bd 0.16 N/A 18.4 3.2 9/15/2009 HUC6 bd 0.08 0.23 4.3 0.6 10/20/2009 HUC6 bd 0.06 0.133 8.4 11/19/2009 HUC6 0.05 0.16 0.344 8.5 12/17/2009 HUC6 bd 0.27 0.42 12.7 avg 0.04 0.16 0.33 10.14 3.35 stdev 0.02 0.08 0.27 4.86 2.83 min 0.02 0.06 0.02 4.25 0.60 max 0.05 0.28 0.92 18.44 6.25 bd - below detection
- 76 -
APPENDIX 1 (continued) : All data from all sites. Total Total Total Suspended ammonia Nitrate+Nitrite Nitrogen Phosphorus Solids Date Watershed (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (ug/L) (mg/l) 5/25/2009 HUC7 bd 0.13 0.14 11.1 6/15/2009 HUC7 bd 0.30 0.52 16.1 7/22/2009 HUC7 bd 0.33 0.43 18.4 8.9 8/18/2009 HUC7 bd 0.22 N/A 23.3 4.8 9/15/2009 HUC7 0.15 0.29 0.66 10.9 4.0 10/20/2009 HUC7 0.03 0.31 0.487 11.9 11/19/2009 HUC7 0.11 0.48 0.691 12.7 12/17/2009 HUC7 bd 0.44 0.536 18.2 avg 0.09 0.31 0.55 15.33 5.90 stdev 0.06 0.11 0.24 4.44 2.63 min 0.03 0.13 0.14 10.90 4.00 max 0.15 0.48 0.97 23.34 8.91
5/25/2009 HUC8 bd 0.10 0.10 bd 6/15/2009 HUC8 bd 0.16 0.39 14.9 7/22/2009 HUC8 bd 0.16 0.29 19.6 8.1 8/18/2009 HUC8 bd 0.13 N/A 27.4 13.0 9/15/2009 HUC8 0.15 0.15 0.49 7.4 0.4 10/20/2009 HUC8 0.03 0.17 0.244 20.0 11/19/2009 HUC8 0.08 0.28 0.554 4.1 12/17/2009 HUC8 bd 0.40 0.561 17.9 avg 0.09 0.19 0.57 15.90 7.19 stdev 0.06 0.10 0.57 7.95 6.33 min 0.03 0.10 0.10 4.10 0.44 max 0.15 0.40 1.94 27.44 13.00
5/25/2009 HUC9 bd 0.20 0.19 1.3 6/15/2009 HUC9 bd 0.51 0.69 18.2 7/22/2009 HUC9 0.03 0.85 0.95 25.6 7.5 8/18/2009 HUC9 bd 0.83 N/A 23.4 5.6 9/15/2009 HUC9 0.11 0.64 0.99 6.9 1.4 10/20/2009 HUC9 bd 0.59 1.01 30.8 11/19/2009 HUC9 0.06 0.89 1.38 87.9 12/17/2009 HUC9 0.13 0.85 1.06 24.2 avg 0.08 0.67 1.12 27.30 4.83 stdev 0.04 0.24 0.71 26.42 3.12 min 0.03 0.20 0.19 1.35 1.40 max 0.13 0.89 2.67 87.90 7.50 bd - below detection
- 77 -
APPENDIX 1 (continued) : All data from all sites. Total Total Total Suspended ammonia Nitrate+Nitrite Nitrogen Phosphorus Solids Date Watershed (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (ug/L) (mg/l) 5/25/2009 HUC10 bd 0.24 0.23 4.4 6/15/2009 HUC10 0.06 0.42 0.68 8.8 7/22/2009 HUC10 0.03 0.56 0.59 19.2 6.5 8/18/2009 HUC10 bd 0.52 N/A 13.7 9.8 9/15/2009 HUC10 0.08 0.49 0.78 14.2 1.0 10/20/2009 HUC10 0.03 0.57 0.659 20.6 11/19/2009 HUC10 0.05 0.70 0.871 11.8 12/17/2009 HUC10 bd 0.61 0.76 27.1 avg 0.05 0.51 0.81 14.97 5.75 stdev 0.02 0.14 0.49 7.16 4.44 min 0.03 0.24 0.23 4.40 1.00 max 0.08 0.70 1.92 27.10 9.80
5/25/2009 HUC11 0.02 0.18 0.23 7.2 6/15/2009 HUC11 bd 0.27 0.51 16.1 7/22/2009 HUC11 0.03 0.31 0.45 20.4 6.2 8/18/2009 HUC11 bd 0.21 N/A 23.4 4.0 9/15/2009 HUC11 0.23 0.49 1.03 8.7 1.2 10/20/2009 HUC11 0.06 0.24 0.474 19.7 11/19/2009 HUC11 0.06 0.34 0.51 11.3 12/17/2009 HUC11 bd 0.43 0.587 18.7 avg 0.08 0.31 0.62 15.70 3.80 stdev 0.08 0.11 0.32 5.94 2.50 min 0.02 0.18 0.23 7.23 1.20 max 0.23 0.49 1.18 23.44 6.19
5/25/2009 HUC12 bd 0.12 0.17 11.9 6/15/2009 HUC12 bd 0.31 0.79 31.0 7/22/2009 HUC12 bd 0.27 0.35 23.8 8.9 8/18/2009 HUC12 bd 0.17 N/A 28.4 3.4 9/15/2009 HUC12 0.10 0.22 0.85 11.8 2.0 10/20/2009 HUC12 0.03 0.10 0.428 10.0 11/19/2009 HUC12 0.07 0.37 0.546 9.7 12/17/2009 HUC12 bd 0.42 0.59 22.0 avg 0.07 0.25 0.59 18.58 4.76 stdev 0.04 0.12 0.27 8.73 3.64 min 0.03 0.10 0.17 9.72 2.00 max 0.10 0.42 0.95 31.04 8.89 bd - below detection
- 78 - APPENDIX 1 (continued) : All data from all sites. Total Total Total Suspended ammonia Nitrate+Nitrite Nitrogen Phosphorus Solids Date Watershed (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (ug/L) (mg/l) 5/25/2009 HUC13 bd 0.07 1.3 6/15/2009 HUC13 0.09 0.55 26.1 7/22/2009 HUC13 0.11 0.27 26.2 39.0 8/18/2009 HUC13 0.06 N/A 39.2 4.6 9/15/2009 HUC13 0.22 0.59 13.2 2.4 10/20/2009 HUC13 0.52 0.609 bd 11/19/2009 HUC13 0.14 0.346 11.6 12/17/2009 HUC13 0.20 0.517 20.3 avg 0.19 0.48 19.70 15.34 stdev 0.15 0.26 12.33 20.54 min 0.06 0.07 1.28 2.40 max 0.52 0.94 39.24 39.03
5/25/2009 HUC14 0.44 0.63 4.5 6/15/2009 HUC14 0.39 0.71 bd 7/22/2009 HUC14 0.28 0.52 25.9 2.1 8/18/2009 HUC14 0.24 N/A 5.9 3.0 9/15/2009 HUC14 0.21 0.59 16.8 3.4 10/20/2009 HUC14 0.32 0.404 10.6 11/19/2009 HUC14 0.35 0.422 6.9 12/17/2009 HUC14 0.19 0.438 19.6 avg 0.30 0.60 12.89 2.83 stdev 0.09 0.22 8.04 0.67 min 0.19 0.40 4.49 2.10 max 0.44 1.09 25.85 3.40 bd - below detection
- 79 - Monitoring the water chemistry of the Upper Susquehanna River in Otsego County, New York, June - October 2009
Zsuzsanna Balogh-Brunstad1
INTRODUCTION
The Susquehanna River is a significant contributor to the water budget and the water quality of the Chesapeake Bay Estuary. The river flows from Otsego Lake in Cooperstown, NY to the Chesapeake Bay and travels 444 miles through three different states, New York, Pennsylvania, and Maryland (Zurmuhlen 2006). It provides water for agriculture, industry, municipality consumption, recreation and it is a vital part of the surrounding ecosystems. These various applications of the river system could potentially introduce contamination that would affect both human and the ecosystem. Surface runoff from surrounding farms and urban areas, leaky septic systems, and wastewater treatment plant discharges could contribute to increased metal, nutrient and emerging contaminant (such as pesticides, herbicides, pharmaceuticals) concentrations (Focazio et al. 2008, Goodale et al., 2009). Most common pollutants are nitrogen and phosphorus compounds in the Susquehanna River (Reed 2008). It is important to continue a monitoring effort of the water quality in the Upper Susquehanna watershed to be able to detect changes due to human activity, such as land use changes caused by farming, industry, or recreation. In addition, the EPA has specified total maximum annual loads for nitrogen, phosphorous and land-based sediment measured at the New York/Pennsylvania boarder which New York State must comply with by 2011 in order to improve the water quality of the Chesapeake Bay. The goal of our study was to monitor the water chemistry of a 60 km stretch of the Susquehanna River between Cooperstown and Unadilla, NY. We selected 14 sites (Figure 1), 11 of them are sites that were monitored during 2008 summer by Reed (2008) to continue building a long term data base. Field and laboratory based approaches were applied to measure and analyze for various parameters that can determine water quality and locate any problems, allowing for the development of more effective management strategies.
METHODS
Ten sites out of 14 along the Susquehanna River were sampled between 8 June and 3 August 2009 every other week (5 times) and four additional sites were added at end of August. All 14 sites were sampled three times, at end of August, September and October. Sampling efforts will continue through the winter and spring months to evaluate seasonal variations. The site locations and descriptions are found in Table 1 and illustrated on Figure 1. The sites were selected based on the work of Reed (2008) and SR1, SR2 and SR12 were added for better coverage of the river basin, but only the main river water was sampled due to financial and time constrains. Many sites are located just below the confluences with the tributary streams (Figure 1 & Table 1). At every site temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, electrical conductivity, and turbidity were measured by various field probes and portable instrumentation (see Table 2).
1 Assistant Professor of Chemistry and Geological and Environmental Sciences, Hartwick College, Oneonta, NY.
- 80 - Each of the probes and instruments were calibrated every time at the beginning of the sampling day and check standards were measured along the samples at each site to ensure quality control.
Water was collected in one liter size acid washed Nalgene bottles from the fastest flowing part of the river if that was accessible via three methods. In the shallower section of the river (SR1 to SR4), samples were obtained via wading in to the main stream of the river, then from SR5 to SR14 samples were collected by a Nalgene bottle tied to a rope and tossed in about 5 meters from bank with the exception of SR7 and SR9 that were collected by lowering the Nalgene bottles from a bridge. The bottles were rinsed with the river water three times at each site before they were filled for collection. The samples were kept on ice in a cooler until the arrival to Hartwick College’s geochemistry laboratory.
Each sample was well shaken after transport and divided in to two aliquots for cation and nutrient analytical work. The aliquots for cation analysis were filtered with a 0.45 µm nylon membrane filter and acidified below a pH of 2 with concentrated nitric acid to keep metals/cations in solution. The aliquots for nutrient analysis were preserved with 0.8 ml of 5.76 M sulfuric acid per 125 ml of sample. All preserved samples were kept in the refrigerator at 4oC at Hartwick College until further processing.
Cation concentrations were determined via an Inductively Coupled Plasma Atomic Emission Spectrophotometer (ICP-AES) at the Chemistry department of SUNY Oneonta, and recorded in mg/L following standard analytical methods for standards, calibration and quality control (Martin et al. 1994). Total nitrogen, total phosphorus, nitrates, and ammonia were measured in mg/L through the use of a Lachat QuickChem FIA+ Water Analyzer® following methods summarized by Meehan (2005) at the Biological Field Station of SUNY Oneonta.
- 81 -
Figure 1. Sample location map of the Upper Susquehanna River study sites between Cooperstown and Oneonta, in Otsego County, NY showing 13 sites. Site - SR14 is at Unadilla, NY, 20 miles SW from Oneonta. (Map from USGS.gov; scale 1:24,000).
- 82 - Table 1. Description and coordinates of sites sampled on the Susquehanna River, 2009.
Sites Description GPS Coordinates SR1 Otsego Lake Outflow - Just above the Main Street N 42o41.983’; W 74o55.213’ Bridge in Cooperstown, sample collected by wading in ±24ft to the river SR2 Under the Susquehanna Ave. Bridge in Cooperstown, N 42o41.544’; W 74o55.648’ sample collected by wading in to the river ±48ft SR3 Under an unused bridge in Phoenix Mills on Phoenix N 42o40.021’; W 74o56.713’ Road, sample collected by wading in to the river ±22ft SR4 Downstream from the convergence with Oaks Creek N 42o39.683’: W 74o57.012’ on Hyde Park Road, surrounded by railroad tracks, ±20ft bridge, and fields, sample collected by wading in to the river SR5 Clintonville – under an old bridge location, dead end N 42o36.953’; W 74o57.242’ street, slow moving water, collected by a Nalgene ±44ft bottle tied to a rope and tossed in about 5 m from bank SR6 Downstream from the convergence with Cherry Valley N 42o35.392’; W 74o55.949’ Creek, surrounded by fields, slow moving water ±22ft collected by a Nalgene bottle tied to a rope and tossed in about 5 m from bank SR7 Portlandville – above Goodyear Lake, in residential N 42o31.749’; W 74o58.092’ area, collected by lowering a Nalgene bottle from a ±36ft bridge SR8 Just before the intake of Colliersville dam on Goodyear N 42o30.220’; W lake, zebra mussels, collected by a Nalgene bottle tied 74o59.108’±24ft to a rope and tossed in about 5 m from bank SR9 Downstream from the convergence with Schenevus N 42o29.133’; W 74o59.346’ Creek, in Colliersville, on County Road 58, collected ±37ft by lowering a Nalgene bottle from a bridge SR10 Just upstream from the Mill Race Dam, across from N 42o26.956’: W 75o02.682’ South Side Mall, collected by a Nalgene bottle tied to a ±22ft rope and tossed in about 5 m from bank SR11 Upstream from Oneonta’s Waste Water Treatment N 42°26.483’; W 75°05.980’ Plant, fishing access, collected by a Nalgene bottle tied ±22ft to a rope and tossed in about 5 m from bank SR12 At the effluent pipe of Oneonta’s Waste Water N 42°26.301’; W 74°06.051’ Treatment Plant, dark colored plume entering the river, ±22ft no mixing with river for several 100s of meters SR13 Downstream from Oneonta’s Waste Water Treatment N 42°26.147’; W 75°06.100’ Plant, about 500 meters, collected by a Nalgene bottle ±22ft tied to a rope and tossed in about 5 m from bank SR14 Unadilla, NY, at the USGS gauging station, on Bridge N 42°19.301’; W 75°18.977’ Street, collected by a Nalgene bottle tied to a rope and ±26ft tossed in about 5 m from bank
- 83 - Table 2. Instruments that were used to measure field parameters.
Parameter Temperature Dissolved pH Electrical Turbidity Oxygen Conductivity Instrument YSI 55 Dissolved Oxygen HACH HACH CO150 HACH and Temperature Portable HQ40d Conductivity 2100P robe Multi Meter Meter Turbidimeter
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Temperature The measurements were taken about 5 cm below the water surface at every location. The summer mean temperatures follow a typical pattern of previous years (Matus 2008), averaging around 20oC with the coolest temperatures right above the Mill Race Dam (Figure 2a). Fall temperatures have not been recorded in previous reports and they show about a 10 degree drop by end of October. Notice the warming effect of Oneonta’s waste water treatment plant effluent pipe, which is 4-5 degrees warmer than the rest of the river in October. However, this warming effect disseminate quickly as the effluent mixes with the river water by about 500 meter below the pipe at SR13 (Figure 2b). a) 25 20 C)
o Summer 15 10 Fall 5
Temperature ( Temperature 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Distance (km) from Otsego Lake
b) 25 06/08/09
C) 20 06/23/09 o
15 07/06/09 07/20/09 10 08/03/09
5 08/30/09 Temperature ( Temperature 09/24/09 0 10/26/09 SR1 SR2 SR3 SR4 SR5 SR6 SR7 SR8 SR9 SR11 SR10 SR12 SR13 SR14 Figure 2. Temperature profile of the Susquehanna River that shows a) seasonal mean temperatures with error bars representing standard deviation; b) temperature variations by sampling times.
- 84 - pH Acids and bases play an important role in environmental and geochemical processes. Acids are substances that produce hydrogen ions in aqueous solutions and they increase the effective concentration (activity) of the hydrogen ion (Ritz and Collins 2008). Acidity is indicated by a pH value below 7. Bases are substances that produce hydroxide ions in aqueous solutions and they decrease the effective concentration (activity) of the hydrogen ion (Ritz and Collins 2008). Basic solutions have a pH value above 7. If the activities of hydrogen and hydroxide ions are the same the solution has a pH of 7. Overall, the pH of the Susquehanna River is slightly basic, normally between 7.5 and 8.5, which is seen on Figure 3a. A decreasing pH trend can be observed through the course of the river with Oneonta’s waste water treatment effluent being the lowest, close to neutral (Figure 3b). There are no significant differences found among the sampling times at most of the locations, but SR4 site had the largest variation which might be due to the incoming Oaks creek (Figure 3b). a) 8.5
8.0 pH 7.5
7.0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Distance (km) from Otsego Lake
b) 8.5 06/08/09
06/23/09 8.0 07/06/09
7.5 07/20/09 pH 08/03/09
7.0 08/30/09
09/24/09 6.5 10/26/09 SR5 SR6 SR1 SR2 SR3 SR4 SR7 SR8 SR9 SR11 SR10 SR12 SR13 SR14
Figure 3. The pH profile of the Susquehanna River that shows a) mean pH values with error bars representing standard deviation; b) variations by sampling times.
Electrical Conductivity This is a measure of the capacity of water (or other media) to conduct electrical current (Radtke et al. 2005). It is a function of the types and quantities of dissolved substances in water, but there is no universal linear relationship between total dissolved solids and electrical conductivity. However, electrical conductivity is a good approximation for total dissolved solids; it is temperature dependent. The average measurement is about 220 µS/cm with a decreasing trend from Cooperstown to Unadilla (Figure 4a). Again, Oneonta’s waste water treatment plant releases a high concentration of dissolved solids (Figure 4a&b), but the river still
- 85 - has a capacity to dilute the effluent to background concentrations within 500 m. The 20 July and 3 August data are missing from Figure 4b because of instrument failure. a) 500 400 300
S/cm) 200 µ ( 100 0 Electrical Conductivity 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Distance (km) from Otsego Lake
b) 700 06/08/09 600 500 06/23/09 400 07/06/09
S/cm) 300 08/30/09 µ ( 200 09/24/09 100 10/26/09
Electrical Conductivity 0 SR1 SR2 SR3 SR4 SR5 SR6 SR7 SR8 SR9 SR11 SR10 SR14 SR12 SR13
Figure 4. The electrical conductivity profile of the Susquehanna River a) mean EC values with error bars representing standard deviation; b) variations by sampling times.
Turbidity
Turbidity is an expression of the optical properties of a liquid that causes light to be scattered and absorbed rather than transmitted in straight lines through a sample (Anderson 2005). All small suspended matter contributes to turbidity including clays, silt, plankton and other microorganisms and generally caused by waste discharge, runoff, algae, humic acids and high iron concentration. It is an indicator of the environmental health of water bodies because high turbidity water can transmit disease causing pathogens, heavy metals and pesticides by encasing these materials. High turbidity could also increase the temperature of water, which can be lethal for certain organisms, lower photosynthetic rate and settling to the bottom will fill lakes over time and could suffocate organisms at the bottom. It is measured in NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity Unit) which is equal to 0.6 to 1 mg/L total suspended solid depending on the particle size and scattering properties, so it is a cheap and easy estimation of total suspended solids (Anderson 2005).
Turbidity was one of the most variable parameter through the studied period because it was greatly influenced by rain events that provided a substantial sediment load to the river and
- 86 - 2009 had a wet summer. The averages (Figure 5a) were high and increased from source; however differences were not significant by distance due to the high variability in measurements (Figure 5b). a) 30
20
10 Turbidity (NTU) Turbidity 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Distance (km) from Otsego Lake b) 30 06/08/09 25 06/23/09
20 07/06/09
15 07/20/09
10 08/03/09
Turbidity (NTU) Turbidity 5 08/30/09 09/24/09 0 10/26/09 SR1 SR2 SR3 SR4 SR5 SR6 SR7 SR8 SR9 SR11 SR10 SR12 SR13 SR14
Figure 5. The turbidity profile of the Susquehanna River a) mean turbidity values with error bars representing standard deviation; b) variations by sampling times.
Dissolved oxygen Dissolved oxygen is an indicator of the health of the aquatic environment and used in determination of water quality (Lewis 2006). For example, it can indicate discharge of organic matter to water from waste water, manure etc sources; thermal pollution from industrial cooling towers; and excess nutrient release (accelerated eutrophication). When dissolved oxygen levels fall below 5 mg/L concentration, the water cannot support the majority of fish or other aquatic animal populations. New York State Department of Environmental Conservation requires all waste water treatment plants to maintain a minimum of 5 mg/L dissolved oxygen concentration below the effluent introduction (Polus 2003). Dissolved oxygen levels mainly fluctuated due to the conditions at the sampling sites such as slow versus fast flowing water (see descriptions in Table 1; Figure 6a) and they also varied by season, weather and temperature (Figure 6b). Overall, dissolved oxygen levels were the highest in October when the water temperatures were the lowest, so the water was able to hold larger amount of dissolved gases. The SR5 and SR6 sites had slowly flowing water with low concentration of dissolved oxygen and Oneonta’s waste water treatment plant released consistently lower dissolved oxygen concentrations than the background levels. However, the river conditions always provided above 5 mg/L dissolved oxygen levels (Figure 6b).
- 87 - a) 14 12 10 8 6 (mg/L) 4 2 Dissolved Oxygen Oxygen Dissolved 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Distance (km) from Otsego Lake b) 14 06/08/09
12 06/23/09
07/06/09 10 07/20/09
8 08/03/09
6 08/30/09 09/24/09 4 Dissolved Oxygen Oxygen Dissolved (mg/L) 10/26/09 SR1 SR2 SR3 SR4 SR5 SR6 SR7 SR8 SR9 SR11 SR10 SR12 SR13 SR14
Figure 6. The dissolved oxygen profile of the Susquehanna River a) mean DO values with error bars representing standard deviation; b) variations by sampling times.
Total Phosphorus This measurement contains both inorganic and organic forms of phosphorus in the river water. The phosphorus is either dissolved in water or in a form of small particulates that are digested through preservation and preparation of the water samples following an established analytical method (Ebina 1983). The summer average total phosphorus concentrations are shown on Figure 7a and without SR12 on Figure 7b. Unfortunately, the summer samples were filtered before analyzing for nutrients, so they are not directly comparable to last year’s results and averaged around 12 µg/L (Figure 7a&b). The SR13 site (Reed’s SR19 site, 2008) exhibited a high concentration of 72 µg/L on summer average due to the municipal sewage effluent of the City of Oneonta after 500 m of mixing with river water (Figure 7b). The SR12 site which is directly at the effluent pipe of Oneonta’s waste water treatment plant contributed water to the river having 1550 µg/L phosphorus, on summer average (Figure 7a). The fall samples that were prepared unfiltered (same method as Reed 2008) showed higher concentration of total phosphorus than the summer samples for most of the sites, between 20 and 70 µg/L (Figure 7c). Oneonta’s waste water treatment plant (SR12) released a large amount of phosphorus in September, so after 500 m river mixing (SR13) the concentrations were still around 300 µg/L (Figure 7c). According to current regulations the waste water treatment plants are not mandated to remove phosphorus from the effluent and there are no regulations on the maximum
- 88 - contamination levels for phosphorus (EPA 2009). According to EPA recommendations in our region total phosphorus levels above 80 µg/L could trigger eutrophication of surface water (EPA 2000). a) b) 2500 Total P 80 Total P 2000 60 1500 40 1000 500 20 0 0 Concentration (ug/L) Concentration Concentration (ug/L) Concentration 0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 Distance (km) from Otsego Lake Distance (km) from Otsego Lake c) 350 Total P 300 09/24/09 250 10/26/09 200 SR12 4060 µg/L - Sept 150 1908 µg/L - Oct 100 50 Concentration (ug/L) Concentration 0 SR1 SR2 SR3 SR4 SR5 SR6 SR7 SR8 SR9 SR11 SR10 SR13 SR14
Figure 7. Total phosphorus concentrations along the Susquehanna River with error bars representing standard deviation; a) mean values for all sites summer 2009; b) mean values without SR12 summer 2009; c) fall measurements, SR12 values added without scale.
Ammonia Results for ammonia testing followed similar trends than the total phosphorus (Figure 8a&b). Overall, concentrations were low and many samples were below the laboratory detection limit (0.02 mg/L). For graphing purposes all below detection limit samples were considered as 0 mg/L. The only summer samples that were above detection limit were SR12 and SR13, at and below Oneonta’s waste water treatment plant (Figure 8a). Ammonia is a volatile compound, so filtration must have released most the ammonia from the samples. Half of the fall samples were below detection limit as well and all site had a concentration below 0.07 mg/L ammonia with the exception of SR12 (6 to 18 mg/L) and SR13 (0.2 to 1.4 mg/L), which represent the effect of Oneonta’s waste water treatment plant (Figure 8b). The results are consistent with findings of Reed (2008); however Oneonta’s waste water treatment plant released a significantly higher concentration of ammonia in summer 2009 (3.2 mg/L) than in summer 2008 (0.18 mg/L) comparing the average values at the site 500 m downstream from the effluent pipe.
- 89 -
a) 6 Ammonia 5 4 3 2 1 0 Concentration (mg/L) Concentration 0 20 40 60 Distance (km) from Otsego Lake b) 25 Ammonia
20 09/24/09
10/26/09 15
10
5 Concentration (mg/L) Concentration
0 SR1 SR2 SR3 SR4 SR5 SR6 SR7 SR8 SR9 SR11 SR10 SR12 SR13 SR14
Figure 8. Ammonia concentrations along the Susquehanna River with error bars representing standard deviation; a) mean values for all sites summer 2009; b) fall measurements.
Nitrate and Nitrite The major sources of nitrate and nitrite are acid deposition, runoff from animal feed lots and fertilizers used on agricultural fields, golf courses and other sport fields in the Upper Susquehanna Basin. The concentrations were mostly below 0.35 mg/L at every site throughout the sampling period (Figure 9a&b), which is well below the EPA secondary maximum contaminant level for nitrate (EPA 2009). Most of the results are comparable to Reed (2008) and lower than the concentrations in Otsego Lake (Albright 2008). Oneonta’s waste water treatment plant complies with the EPA regulations by releasing less than 10 mg/L nitrate at the pipe (Figure 9b).
- 90 -
a) 8 Nitrate + 6 Nitrite
4
2
0 Concentration (mg/L) Concentration 0 20 40 60 Distance (km) from Otsego Lake b) 8 Nitrate 7 09/24/09 6 10/26/09 5 4 3 2
Concentration (mg/L) Concentration 1 0 SR1 SR2 SR3 SR4 SR5 SR6 SR7 SR8 SR9 SR11 SR10 SR12 SR13 SR14
Figure 9. Nitrate and nitrite concentrations along the Susquehanna River with error bars representing standard deviation; a) mean values for all sites summer 2009; b) fall measurements.
Total Nitrogen This measures both inorganic and organic sources of nitrogen in the water, which are either dissolved or particulate matter in unfiltered samples. The patterns are similar to total phosphorus values (Figure 7&10). The highest concentrations are released at Oneonta’s waste water treatment plant, but disseminate quickly due to the large volume of the river. During the summer total nitrogen concentrations were 6.8 mg/L and in the fall 19 to 20 mg/L at site SR12. These values are higher than the EPA recommendations for our region, which is maximum 1.88 mg/L to avoid eutrophication of aquatic ecosystems (EPA 2000). Most of the sites exhibited concentrations below 0.7 mg/L similarly to the results of 2008 summer (Figure 10a). Summer and fall values had a little or no difference (Figure 10a&b), indicating that nitrogen sources are dissolved nitrogen species or particulates that are smaller than 0.45 µm because the summer samples were filtered and the fall samples were not.
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a) 12 Total N 10 8 6 4 2 0 Concentration (mg/L) Concentration 0 20 40 60 Distance (km) from Otsego Lake b) 25 Total N
20 09/24/09
10/26/09 15
10
5 Concentration (mg/L) Concentration
0 SR1 SR2 SR3 SR4 SR5 SR6 SR7 SR8 SR9 SR11 SR10 SR12 SR13 SR14
Figure 10. Total nitrogen concentrations along the Susquehanna River with error bars representing standard deviation; a) mean values for all sites summer 2009; b) fall measurements.
Base Cations The base cation chemistry of the Susquehanna River mainly reflects the local geology of shale and limestone in the basin. The calcium levels are high, 40-45 mg/L at the origin, and then gradually decrease to Oneonta, NY. The decrease could be caused by dilution effect of tributary stream with lower calcium concentrations. Other base cations, magnesium, potassium and sodium are naturally low, below about 5 mg/L and these concentrations do not change significantly through the river path that was studied. Oneonta’s waste water treatment plant introduces high concentrations (60 mg/L on average) of sodium and elevates both potassium and magnesium concentrations. However, these higher concentrations are diluted quickly due to the large volume of the river water compared to the effluent volume.
- 92 - 50 Calcium 5 Potassium 40 4 30 3 20 2 10 1 0 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Concentration (mg/L) Concentration Concentration (mg/L) Concentration Distance (km) from Otsego Lake Distance (km) from Otsego Lake a) c)
5 Magnesium 80 Sodium 4 60 3 40 2 1 20 0 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Concentration (mg/L) Concentration Concentration (mg/L) Concentration Distance (km) from Otsego Lake Distance (km) from Otsego Lake b) d)
Metals The samples were analyzed for eleven metals and most of them were below instrumental detections limit (20 µg/L) and those data are not shown. Iron, aluminum, zinc and manganese were the only metals that were found in low detectable amounts, in the low µg/L range (Figure 12). These findings also agree with the high pH values (Figure 2) because most of the metals precipitate out of solution above pH of 4. The EPA only regulates maximum contaminant levels for few metals for drinking water and those were not found in detectable amounts in the river. However, secondary standards recommended for several elements and compounds for drinking water, 300 µg/L for iron, between 50 and 200 µg/L for aluminum, 50 µg/L for manganese, and 5 mg/L for Zinc (EPA 2009). Overall, all metal concentrations are below the EPA recommendations for drinking water standards (Figure 12). Criteria have not been developed for ecosystem maximum contaminations levels, there are a few for aquatic life, but no regulations and enforcement are in place. The graphs below show that Oneonta’s waste water treatment plant releases some dissolved metals in to the river which is consistent with the higher electrical conductivity (Figure 4). These higher than background concentrations are not a concern at normal operation, but might cause a problem at overflow stage.
- 93 - 200 Iron 40 Zinc 150 30
100 20
50 10
0 0 Concentration (ug/L) Concentration Concentration (ug/L) Concentration 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Distance (km) from Otsego Lake Distance (km) from Otsego Lake a) b)
40 Aluminum 140 Manganese 120 30 100 80 20 60 10 40 20 0 0 Concentration (ug/L) Concentration Concentration (ug/L) Concentration 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 Distance (km) from Otsego Lake Distance (km) from Otsego Lake c) d)
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Among the sites sampled only Oneonta’s waste water treatment plant caused elevated ion concentrations, both nutrients and metals, but the high concentrations were diluted by 500 m downstream from the effluent pipe due to mixing with large volume of river water. No evidence was found that dairy farming, agricultural runoff and tourism of the baseball fields had a significant contribution to the nutrient budget. The waste water treatment plant is important to clean Oneonta’s waste water, but it is over 30 years old and it has a hard time to keep up with the demand. It has compiled with the federal and EPA regulations during normal operation and all of our samples were collected during normal operation. This plant processes both sewage and surface runoff from the City of Oneonta, so during rain storm events it is close to or over its capacity. When over capacity situation occurs the waste water is only minimally (physically) treated and potentially more contaminants enter the river. It could be important to study such events to better understand the impact of the plant on the river. Further monitoring of the water quality of the Upper Susquehanna River is needed to ensure a clean ecosystem.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I thank Matt Albright and Holly Waterfield at the Biological Field Station of SUNY Oneonta, NY for analyzing the samples for nutrients, John Schaumloffel at the Department of Chemistry of SUNY Oneonta for helping with cation/metal analytical work, Kyle Armstrong, Brian Terbush and Andrew Parisi Hartwick College, Oneonta, NY for sampling and preparation of samples throughout the summer months, Keith Brunstad for driving the students to the sampling sites during July and August, Devin Castendyk for introducing me to this research project and helping to build connections. Thanks to The Otsego County Conservation
- 94 - Association and Hartwick College Faculty Research Grant and Milne Family Fund Award for sponsoring this research.
REFERENCES
Albright, M.F. 2008. Otsego Lake limnological monitoring, 2007. In 40th Ann. Rept. (2007). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Anderson, C. W. 2005. Turbidity: U.S. Geological Survey Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations, book 9, chap. A6., section 6.7, accessed May 31 2009 from http://water.usgs.gov/owq/FieldManual/Chapter6/Section6.7_v2.1.pdf
Ebina, J., T. Tsutsui, and T. Shirai. 1983. Simultaneous determination of total nitrogen and total phosphorus in water using peroxodisulfate oxidation. Water Res. 17(12): 1721-1726.
EPA 2000. Ambient Water Quality Criteria Recommendations, Information Supporting the Development of State and Tribal Nutrient Criteria, Rivers and Streams in Nutrient Ecoregion VII, EPA 822-B-00-018, December 2000.
EPA 2009. National Drinking Water Regulations EPA 816-F-09-004, May 2009.
Focazio, M. J., Kolpin, D. W., Barnes, K. K., Furlong, E. T., Meyer, M. T., Zaugg, S. D., Barber, L. B. and Thurman, M. E. 2008. A national reconnaissance for pharmaceuticals and other organic wastewater contaminants in the United States -II) Untreated drinking water sources. Science of the Total Environment, 402: 201-216.
Goodale, C. L., Thomas, S. A., Fredriksen, G., Elliott, E. M., Flinn, K. M., Butler, T. J. and M.T. Walter. 2009. Unusual seasonal patterns and inferred processes of nitrogen retention in forested headwaters of the Upper Susquehanna River. Biogeochemistry, 93:197–218, DOI 10.1007/s10533-009-9298-8.
Lewis, M. E. 2006. Dissolved Oxygen: U.S. Geological Survey Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations, book 9, chap. A6., section 6.2, accessed May 31 2009 from http://water.usgs.gov/owq/FieldManual/Chapter6/6.2_v2.1.pdf
Martin, T.D., Brockhoff, C.A., Creed, J.T. 1994. Method 200.15, Determination of metals and trace elements in water by ultrasonic nebulizations inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrometry. Revision 1.2, EMMC Version, EPA.
Matus, J. E. 2009. Monitoring water quality and fecal coliform bacteria in the upper Susquehanna River, summer 2008. In 41st Ann. Rept. (2008). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Meehan, H. 2006. Procedural overview of Lachat QuikChem FIA+® autoanalyzer. In 38th Ann. Rept. (2005). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
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Polus, M. 2003. Monitoring the water quality and fecal coliform bacteria in the Upper Susquehanna River, summer 2003 In 36th Ann. Rept. (2003). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Radtke, D. B., Davis, J. V., Wilde, F. D. 2005. Specific electrical conductance: U.S. Geological Survey Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations, book 9, chap. A6., section 6.3, accessed May 31 2009 from http://water.usgs.gov/owq/FieldManual/Chapter6/Final508Chapter6.3.pdf
Reed, M. 2009. Water quality monitoring in the headwaters of the Susquehanna River, Otsego County, New York, summer, 2008. In 41st Ann. Rept. (2008). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Ritz, G.F., Collins, J. A. 2008. pH (version 2.0): U.S. Geological Survey Techniques of Water- Resources Investigations, book 9, chap. A6., section 6.4, October, accessed May 31 2009 from http://water.usgs.gov/owq/FieldManual/Chapter6/6.4_ver2.0.pdf
Zurmuhlen, S. 2007. Susquehanna River Quality Monitoring. In 39th Ann. Rept. (2006). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
- 96 - Arthropod monitoring
Mosquito Study – Thayer Farm
William L. Butts1
Due to the collection in 2008 of a single, adult female specimen which fit the morphological characteristics of Anopheles perplexens Ludlow, sampling activities in the summer of 2009 were concentrated on two sites of larval development in an attempt to collect additional specimens. Controversy concerning the ability to separate adults of the species from Anopheles punctipennis (Say) and the apparent highly restrictive larval habitat of the former species is a matter of some concern. The ability to distinguish between adult female mosquitoes is a matter of considerable importance in coordinating control activities in which estimates of local populations are based largely on passive collection by various trapping methods which are much less labor-intensive than larval sampling and alighting/biting counts.
Series of dipper collection for larval specimens and with light and CO2 traps for adults were conducted adjacent to the small pond below the sap bush and the two step ponds below the spring houses.
Dipper collections were attempted in the sap bush pond on the follow dates: 11, 19 Mar; 1, 8, 15, 24, 29 Apr; 13 May; and 3,16 June. Collections were attempted at the step ponds on 19 March, 8 April and on the above listed remaining dates in April through June. No larval specimens were collected.
CDC miniature light traps combined with CO2 generated by fermentation (yeast and sucrose) were set on the evening of the following dates and retrieved on the following mornings. A trap was set on the bank adjacent to the inflow to the sap bush pond and on the embankment separating the step ponds: 23, 30 Jun; 7, 14, 22, 28 Jul; 18, 25Aug; and 15 Sept. Larval samplings on the above series of dates were also negative. Specimens collected and retained in collection are listed in Table 1.
1 Professor emeritus, SUNY Oneonta Biological Field Station.
- 97 - Table 1. Adult female mosquitoes collected in light and CO2 traps set on bank adjacent to sap bush pond and on embankment between step ponds.
Site Date Species Number of individuals
Sap Bush VI-24- 09 Coquillettidia perturbans (Walker) (6) Ochlerotatus trivittatus (Coquillett) (1) VII-1-09 Coquillettidia perturbans (Walker) (11)1 VII-15-09 Anopheles punctipennis (Say) (1) Coquillettidia perturbans (Walker) (1) VII-29-09 Coquillettidia perturbans (Walker) (3)
Step Pond VII-1-09 Coquillettidea perturbans (Walker) (5) VII-8-09 Ochlerotatus trivittatus (Coquillett) (13) Anopheles punctipennis (Say) (2) VII-15-09 Ochlerotatus trivittatus (Coquillett) (3)2 VII-29-09 Coquillettidea perturbans (Walker) (6) Ochlerotatus trivittatus (Coquillett) (1) Culex restuans Theobald (1) VIII-19-09 Coquillettidea perturbans (Walker) (1) Ochlerotatus trivittatus (Coquillett) (2) IX-1-09 Ochlerotatus trivittatus (Coquillett) (1)
1. Additional specimens sorted but not retained in collection. 2. Two additional individuals taken while attempting to feed.
No additional specimens attributable to Anopheles perplexens Ludlow were collected. Results of this study suggest that the step ponds support a significant population of Coquillettidia perturbans (Walker) and could provide a site for collection and study of immature stages thereof.
- 98 - Mosquito Survey – Goodyear Swamp
William L. Butts1
Studies to date in Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary indicate that the nature of the substrate, patterns of seasonal change in water level, and dominant inshore wave action combine to render the shoreline relatively inhospitable to larval development. However, the fact that at least one tree hole is present on the wooded slope and that other broken stumps might retain sufficient water to maintain suitable habitat for mosquito larvae was the basis for conducting a trapping sequence on the slope.
A CDC miniature light trap was suspended from a steel “shepherd’s hook” at a distance of ca. 1/2 meter above ground level. The trap was activated during the afternoon and picked up on the morning of the following day. On 16 July the trap was used in the “light only” mode of operation. Subsequent settings on 30July; 5, 13, 20, 26 August; and 5, 12 September were in
conjunction with a flow of CO2 generated by fermentation adjacent to the trap.
On 31July, four specimens of Coquillettidia perturbans (Walker) were collected. No mosquitoes were trapped on any other date.
The results of this study along with those of previous summers indicate that, absent some change in topography, alteration of adjacent properties or changes in substrate in the swamp, this area is not likely to support substantial populations of pest mosquitoes.
The unique pattern of larval development of Cq. perturbans (Walker) in which the respiratory siphon is inserted into air cells of stems of emergent, rooted aquatic plants will likely foster development of a small population of this species early in the spring. However, the previously noted changes in the condition along the shore line would present an impediment to further larval development after maturation of the overwintering larvae.
1 Professor emeritus, SUNY Oneonta Biological Field Station.
- 99 - Apparent increased local incidence of Ixodes scapularis Say
William L. Butts1
Since the demonstrated involvement of the Black-legged tick, Ixodes scapularis Say (= Ixodes dammini) in transmission of the causal agent of Lyme Disease more than 20 years ago, tick specimens have been submitted to the BFS for determination. Until recently, representatives of the genus Ixodes submitted were Ixodes cookei Packard, a common parasite of the woodchuck(Marmota monax) and other medium sized mammals (foxes, skunks, raccoons, etc.). It is not known to be involved as a vector of Lyme Disease.
Although the number of specimens submitted have been small so that statistical significance may be questionable, all specimens submitted in the summers of 2008-2009 are Ixodes scapularis Say, suggesting that this species may now be endemic in the area and that use of personal repellent compounds should be recommended.
1 Professor emeritus, SUNY Oneonta Biological Field Station.
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REPORTS
Continued monitoring of Canadarago Lake and its tributaries, 2009 (interim report)1
C. Bailey2 and M.F. Albright3
INTRODUCTION
Canadarago Lake (N42˚48.9’, W75˚00.4’); 390 m (1280ft) above sea level (Harr et al. 1980) is a dimictic lake of glacial origin located in the Towns of Richfield, Otsego and Exeter, Otsego County, NY. It has a maximum depth of 13 m (43 ft), a surface area of 760 ha (1,877 ac) and a watershed of 175 km2 (43,240 ac). Together with its sister lake, Otsego, they form the headwaters of the Susquehanna River. The drainage basin of the Canadarago watershed is largely agricultural in nature, with some wooded hill tops and wetlands. This, along with its shallow depth, is believed responsible for Canadarago’s eutrophic character. The Richfield Springs wastewater treatment plant is located on Ocquionis Creek, discharging treated effluent 0.8 km (0.5 mi) upstream of the lake (Figure 1). Alum precipitation has been instituted since 1973 for phosphorus removal (Harr et al. 1980).
Concerted efforts to manage Canadarago Lake and its watershed have been limited, as have the availability of funds to meet that end, largely due to the lack of a scientifically-based management plan. Funds have recently been committed for the development of a “State of the Lake” report, which is intended to serve as the basis for the development of a management plan. A pilot study was conducted in summer 2008 (Bailey and Albright 2009). Monitoring continued in January 2009 and will continue through 2010. This 2009 summer survey was intended to provide further insight into the nature of the lake and its watershed. The work summarized here includes results from summer 2009 related to monitoring temperature, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, pH, nutrients, and fecal coliform in the lake, its tributaries and outlet (Oaks Creek). Suspended sediment samples were also collected from the tributaries and the outlet. During a June 2009 runoff event, discharge rates for the tributaries and outlet were measured concurrent with sampling for nutrient and sediment concentration so that export rates could be calculated. Secchi disk transparency was measured and surveys of aquatic plants were conducted on the lake as well. Concurrent work evaluated the zooplanktonic (Gillespie 2010) and algal (Primmer 2010) communities.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Canadarago Lake and the corresponding tributary sites were sampled biweekly from 1 June to 11 August 2009. A summary of the sampling sites is given in Table 1. Tributary and lake sampling sites are shown in Figure 1. The lake was sampled in profile at the deepest spot
1 Funding for this work was a multi-sponsored contract administered through the Otsego County Soil and Water District, Cooperstown, NY. 2 Canadarago Lake Improvement Association Assistantship. Current affiliation: SUNY ESF. 3 Assistant to the Director, BFS.
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encountered (approximately 12 m; 40 ft) (Figure 1). Transparency was measured with a standard Secchi disk. Temperature, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, and pH was measured in 2 m intervals on the lake and once at each tributary sampling spot using a Eureka Amphibian/Manta® or a Hydrolab® Scout 2 multiporobe digital microprocessor which had been calibrated according to manufacturer’s instruction immediately prior to use (Eureka Environmental Engineering 2004, Hydrolab Corp. 1993). Lake samples were collected for nutrients (ammonia, nitrite+nitrate, total nitrogen and total phosphorus) in 3 m depth intervals using a Kemmerer water sampler from the surface to just off bottom. Samples for nutrient analysis were also collected from seven tributary sites using 125 mL bottles. Where appropriate, sampling involved using a bucket and rope in a tossing fashion in order to gather a sample from the middle of the creek, where the water was less stagnant. Samples were preserved to pH< 1 with sulfuric acid. A summary of methodologies employed for chemical analyses are given in Table 2.
Fecal coliform samples were collected using 1 L Pyrex® glass bottles from each of the tributary and near-shore lake sites (Table 1, Figure 1). The three lake sampling sites were shifted from Canadarago Lake (C.L.) sites 1-3 to C.L. sites 1a-3a on 14 July. This was done following consistently low fecal coliform levels from the initial sites in an effort to get multiple series of near-shore data from around the lake. Samples were iced during transportation until analysis. Laboratory analysis followed the membrane filter technique (APAHA 1989). Sample volumes were selected in attempt to produce 20-80 fecal coliform colonies per filter. These set volumes, ranging from 5-200 mL, were low-pressure vacuum filtered through 0.45-micron membrane filters. Filters were then placed and seated inside sterile petri dishes on absorbent pads saturated in F C Base by Bacto® growth media. All cultures were incubated in a water bath at 44.5°C for 24±2 hours. Colonies were counted after incubation period and reported as colonies per 100 mL.
Sediment samples were collected along with fecal coliform using the same 1 L Pyrex® glass bottle per tributary site. Total suspended and inorganic sediment samples were run according to standard methods (APAHA 1989). Prior to sample processing, Whatman® GF/C 47mm filters were prepared by low-pressure vacuum filtering distilled water through them and then placing in numbered aluminum planchets. These filters where then dried in an oven at 105°C for 24±2 hours. After cooling, the filters were massed and recorded. A recorded volume of water sample (500-900 mL) was passed through each filter, which was then dried in an oven at 105°C for 24±2 hours. The mass was recorded, allowing for the calculation of total suspended sediment. All sediment data were reported in mg/L.
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Tributary & Outlet Sampling Sites Oaks Creek Abbreviation: OK. C. East of the Village of Schuyler Lake on County Route 22; sampled north of bridge. Herkimer Creek Abbreviation: HK. C. North of the Village of Schuyler Lake on State Route 28; sampled east of bridge. Hyder Creek Abbreviation: HY. C. South of Dennison Road (NYSP boat launch access road) on State Route 28; sampled west of bridge. Trout Brook (Mink Creek) Abbreviation: T.B. Just north of Canadarago Lake on Elm Street Extension; sampled east of bridge. Ocquionis Creek North Abbreviation: O.C. 1 The beginning of Elm Street Extension, just south of Bronner Street; sampled south of bridge. Ocquionis Creek South Abbreviation: O.C. 2 End of Bloomfield Drive, through the rear gate of the waste treatment plant; sampled downstream of effluent discharge. Waste Treatment Plant Abbreviation: W.T. End of Bloomfield Drive, through gate and into plant, sampled from effluent pipe
Lake Sampling Sites Lake Profiling Site Abbreviation: None Deepest spot encountered (11.48-12.45 m; 37.5-41 ft). (N 42° 49.339’ W 75° 00.032’) Canadarago 1: Abbreviation: C.L. 1 West side of Lake, north of boat launch. (N 42° 49.776’ W 75° 00.398’) Canadarago 2: Abbreviation: C.L. 2 West side of Lake, south of boat launch. (N 42° 49.788’ W 75° 00.414’) Canadarago 3: Abbreviation: C.L. 3 West side of Lake, southern most lake sampling spot. (N 42° 48.870’ W 75° 00.901’) Canadarago 1a: Abbreviation: C.L. 1a West side of Lake, northern most lake sampling spot. (N 42°50.323' W 74°59.941') Canadarago 2a: Abbreviation: C.L. 2a East side of Lake, south of Deowongo Island. (N 42°48.00' W 75°00.112') Canadarago 3a: Abbreviation: C.L. 3a East side of Lake, east of Deowongo Island. (N 42°48.456' W 74°59.947')
Table 1. Descriptions and locations of sampling sites on Canadarago Lake and its tributaries and outlet.
- 103 -
C.L.1a
C.L.3a
C.L.2a
Figure 1. Canadarago Lake, New York, showing location of sites sampled over summer 2009.
Parameter Sample Preservation Method Reference volume Total Phosphorus-P 10 ml H2SO4 to pH<2 Persulfate Liao and digestion followed Marten 2001 by single reagent ascorbic acid Total Nitrogen-N 5 ml H2SO4 to pH<2 Cadmium Pritzlaff 2003; reduction method Ebina et. al following 1983 peroxodisulfate digestion Nitrite+Nitrate-N 10 ml H2SO4 to pH<2 Cadmium Pritzlaff 2003 reduction Ammonia-N 10 ml H2SO4 to pH<2 Phenolate Liao 2001
Table 2. Summary of laboratory methodologies employed.
- 104 -
The Point Intercept Rake Toss Relative Abundance Method (PIRTRAM) (Lord et al. 2006) was used to evaluate plant species collected from eleven sites around the lake (Figure 2). Two garden rake heads were attached by weld in a back-to-back fashion to form a double sided rake. This was connected to a 10 m (33 ft) long nylon cord. At each of the eleven sites the rake apparatus was tossed into the water and then retrieved after it had settled at or below submergent plant level. Plant species present at each site were recorded according to 5 abundance categories: “no plants” (denoted by “Z”), “fingerful” (“T”= trace), “handful” (“S” = sparse), rakeful (“M” =medium), and “can’t bring into the boat” (“D” = dense). Sampling was done in triplicate for each site. Table 3 provides biomass range estimates (g/m2) for each of the above abundance categories.
Figure 2. Canadarago Lake, New York, showing sites sampled for aquatic plants, summer 2009.
- 105 -
Abundance Categories Field Measure Total Dry Weight (g/m^2) mid low high "Z" = no plants Nothing 0 0 0 0 "T" = trace plants Fingerful .0001 - 2.000 1.00005 0.0001 2 "S" = sparse plants Handful 2.001 - 140.000 71.0005 2.001 140 "M" = medium plants Rakeful 140.001 - 230.000 185.0005 140.001 230 "D" = dense plants Can't bring in boat 230.001 - 450.000+ 340.0005 230.001 450
Table 3. Biomass range estimates of plants, by species, utilized in the rake toss (PIRTRAM) method.
A runoff event was monitored at each tributary and the outlet over the course of a rain storm which spanned from 17 through 19 June. A Marsh-McBirney 201 portable flow meter was used to measure flow rates using the six-tenths depth method, using the appropriate wading rod, as outlined in Buchanan and Somers (1969). Velocities were collected at intervals across the stream channels. Discharge rates were calculated, as m3/min, by the sum of each segment’s cross sectional area times its velocity at six-tenths the stream depth. Sediment and nutrient samples were collected concurrent with the discharge measurements. Discharge was measured, and samples collected, five times at each site over the course of the event. Export rates of each constituent were calculated by multiplying discharge (m3/min) by concentrations (mg/l), giving loading rates (g/min), which was converted to kg/day. The total loading over the storm (the duration of which was 1.8 days) was calculated by plotting the loading rate verses days and integrating the area under the curve. Upper-sum integration (integration by parts) was used and data were reported in kg. To normalize data between the streams, loading rates were converted to export rates by dividing by the stream drainage basin area (in ha), giving kg/ha/day.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Lake Temperature
Figure 3 shows temperature profiles for Canadarago Lake over the course of the study. Thermal stratification was well evident at the onset of sampling. The warmest temperature recorded (21.97 C) was observed at the surface through on 28 July. The coldest temperature recorded (12.47 C) occurred 16 June just off bottom.
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Temperature (°C) 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 0 2 4 6 8
10 (m) Depth 12 14 6/1/2009 6/16/2009 6/29/2009 7/14/2009 7/28/2009
Figure 3. Canadarago Lake summer 2009 temperature data shown in depth profile, by date.
Dissolved Oxygen
Figure 4 shows dissolved oxygen profiles over the summer. Hypolimnetic concentrations were substantially depressed by mid June and gradually declined further by late July. Near bottom conditions were anoxic by 10 July. These conditions are consistent with eutrophic conditions, with hypolimnetic oxygen being depleted as a result of algal respiration and/or decomposition.
Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L) 024681012 0 2 4 6 8 Depth (m) 10 12 14 6/1/2009 6/16/2009 6/29/2009 7/14/2009 7/28/2009
Figure 4. Canadarago Lake summer 2009 dissolved oxygen data shown in depth profile, by date.
Conductivity
Conductivity (an indirect measure of ions in solution) values ranged from 0.320 ms/cm from a surface sample on 11 June to 0.386 ms/cm in the bottom waters on 16 July (Figure 5).
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The increase in conductivity with depth is likely due to byproducts of bacterial decomposition and/or the release of ions from the sediments resultant of a reducing (anoxic) environment (Figure 4).
Conductivity (mS/cm) 0.320 0.330 0.340 0.350 0.360 0.370 0.380 0.390 0 2 4 6 8
10 (m) Depth 12 14 6/1/2009 6/16/2009 6/29/2009 7/14/2009 7/28/2009
Figure 5. Canadarago Lake summer 2009 conductivity data shown in depth profile, by date. pH pH levels of the lake ranged from 7.04 at 8-10 m on 14 June to 9.22 at 8 m on 28 July. A reduction in pH in hypolimnetic waters is common, as decomposition results in the addition of carbonic acid (Wetzel, 2001). The lake’s basic nature (pH> 7) is a function of its limestone rich watershed (Harr et al.1980), and as a result the lake is well buffered against acid deposition and accompanied pH swings.
pH 7.00 7.50 8.00 8.50 9.00 9.50 0 2 4 6 8
10Depth (m) 12 14 6/1/2009 6/16/2009 6/29/2009 7/14/2009 7/28/2009
Figure 6. Canadarago Lake summer 2009 pH data shown in depth profile, by date.
Nutrients Profiles of total phosphorus are provided in Figure 7. Internal loading of phosphorus was evident, being somewhat modest at the onset of the monitoring program and becoming more pronounced over the course of stratification. This situation is typically encountered in lakes
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where oxygen-deprived waters overlie sediments. The resultant reducing environment brings about the release of phosphorus and iron associated complexes (i.e., Marsden et al. 1989). Generally, the dynamics of phosphorus observed in 2008 was similar to that described in 1968 (Harr et al. 1980), in 2001 (Harman et al. 2002) and in 2008 (Bailey and Albright 2009). Mean total phosphorus documented in epilimnetic waters (surface to 4 m) during this study averaged 14.8 ug/l. During summer 2008, the epilimnetic concentrations averaged 9.5 ug/l; in 2001, the average was 19 ug/l.
Total Phosphorus (ug/l) 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 0 2 4 6 8
Depth (m) Depth 10 12 14 6/2/2009 6/29/2009 7/14/2009 7/28/2009 8/11/2009
Figure 7. Canadarago Lake summer 2009 total phosphorus data shown in depth profile, by date.
Ammonia profiles, presented in Figure 8, follow trends similar to those of total phosphorus. Concentrations are comparatively low in epilimnetic waters and increase below the thermocline; deep water concentrations likewise increased over the course of the summer. This is expected, as nitrates, the soluble oxidized fraction, reduce to ammonia concurrent with the decline of oxygen (Figure 4).
Ammonia (mg/l) 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0 2 4 6 8
Depth (m) 10 12 14 6/2/2009 6/16/2009 6/29/2009 7/14/2009 7/28/2009 8/11/2009
Figure 8. Canadarago Lake summer 2009 ammonia data shown in depth profile, by date.
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Profiles of nitrate+nitrate are given in Figure 9. On each given sampling date, concentrations were homogeneous through the epilimnion, increase below the thermocline, then decline near the bottom. A temporal decline of mean column-wide concentrations was evident.
Nitrite+Nitrate (mg/l) 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0 2 4 6 8
Depth (m) 10 12 14
6/2/2009 6/16/2009 6/29/2009 7/14/2009 7/28/2009 8/11/2009
Figure 9. Canadarago Lake summer 2009 nitrate+nitrite data shown in depth profile, by date.
Profiles of total nitrogen, the sum of ammonia, nitrite+nitrate and organic nitrogen, are given in Figure 10. Concentrations were relatively homogeneous through the water column at the onset of the study. Over time, concentrations declined in the epilimnion and increased in the hypolimnion, probably related to the settling of nitrogen bound in organic particles, namely dead and senescent algal cells.
Total Nitrogen (mg/l) 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 0 2 4 6 8
Depth (m) Depth 10 12 14 6/2/2009 6/16/2009 6/29/2009 7/14/2009 7/28/2009 8/11/2009
Figure 10. Canadarago Lake summer 2009 total nitrogen data shown in depth profile, by date.
Past studies have been conflicting as to whether algal production is limited by phosphorus or nitrogen. Harr et al. (1980) suggested phosphorus limitation. The total nitrogen:total phosphorous (TN:TP) ratio in algal biomass is generally 7-10 (Vallentyne, 1974). Phosphorus limitation is expected when in-lake concentrations exceed that ratio. Work
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conducted in 2001 revealed a nitrite+nitrate:total phosphorus ratio of about 5 (Harman et al. 2002), suggesting nitrogen limitation (though ammonia and organic nitrogen were not considered). Work in 2008 revealed a TN:TP of about 30, suggesting phosphorus limitation. (This difference from previous data results not only from the inclusion of ammonia and organic nitrogen, but also from a marked decrease in total phosphorus in the epilimnion). Internal loading of phosphorus, due to the deoxygenation of waters overlying sediments (Marsden et al. 1980), was evident throughout the sampling dates, as it was in 1968 (Harr et al. 1980), and 2001 (Harman et al. 2002). However, the loss of bioavailable nitrogen (namely, nitrate) over the course of the summer would imply limitation by that nutrient.
Secchi disk transparency Figure 11 illustrates Secchi transparencies recorded over the summer of 2009. Values ranged from 2.8 m to 6.0 m and averaged 4.0 m. During the summer of 2008, the mean transparency was 6.4 m (Bailey and Albright 2009). The increased transparencies since 2001, when Secchi transparency averaged 2.5 m (Harman et al. 2002), are most likely due to the introduction and establishment of a zebra mussel (Driessena polymorpha) population in the lake. The introduction is estimated to have occurred between 2000 and 2001, based on the size of the largest individuals collected in 2002 (Horvath and Lord 2002). Filtration by zebra mussels has long been recognized to lead to increased clarity (D’Itri, 1997).
6/1 6/16 6/29 7/14 7/28 8/11 0.00
1.00
2.00
3.00
4.00 Depth (m) Depth 5.00
6.00
7.00
Figure 11. Canadarago Lake summer 2009 Secchi transparencies collected at lake profiling site.
Fecal coliform Figure 12 summarizes fecal coliform densities at the lake sites C.L.1, C.L.2 and C.L.3, including standard error bars. The densities of fecal coliform were about half those at the same sites collected in summer 2008 (Bailey and Albright 2009). (see Figure 1 for site locations). Data on the additional sites C.L.1a, C.L.2a and C.L.3a are summarized in Figure 13. Note that this graph summarizes only two collection dates. Potential sources of coliform bacteria are wildlife (such as waterfowl), agricultural runoff or inadequately treated household sewage. The water is well below 200 colonies per 100 mL, which is the standard for safe swimming or any other full-body contact activities (Kaufmann & Cleveland 2008). More vigorous testing, including that associated with high lake level conditions, will be conducted.
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10 C.L. 1 C.L. 2 C.L. 3 8
6
4
Colonies/100mL 2
0
Figure 12. Average number of fecal coliform colonies (+/- 1 standard error) at sites C.L.1, C.L.2 and C.L.3 on Canadarago Lake from 25 June to 23 July 2008 (see Figure 1 for site locations).
10 C.L. 1a C.L. 2a C.L. 3a 8
6
4
Colonies/100mL 2
0
Figure 13. Average number of fecal coliform colonies (+/- 1 standard error) at sites C.L.1, C.L.2 and C.L.3 on Canadarago Lake from 25 June to 23 July 2008 (see Figure 1 for site locations).
Plants The plant surveys conducted on 16 July yielded 10 plant species, including both submergent and emergent, from 11 different sampling sites around the lake (see Figure 2 for collection sites). Current plant diversity is lower than reported in a 1935 survey, when 21 submergent species were considered abundant, common or frequent (Muenscher 1936), though that survey was more intense and was extended over more scope of time than that conducted during this study. The three most abundant species noted in 1935 (Muenscher 1936), Potamogeton pectinatus, Zosterella dubia, and Ceratophyllum demersum, are still dominant. In the 2008 pilot study by Bailey and Albright (2009), 17 aquatic macrophyte species were collected. In both the 2008 and 2009 surveys, only two non-native species were encountered, Potamogeton crispus and Myriophyllum spicatum. The former of these was collected only at one site (Site 2, at the north end of the lake); the later species was not collected with the rake toss, only being observed in the vicinity of Site 3(also at the northern end of the lake). Most
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sites were dominated by one or two species contributing more than 50 g/m2, but those species varied considerable across sites. Table 4 provides estimates of the mean biomass estimate of each species encountered at each site; Table 5 more broadly summarizes this information.
Anecdotal evidence suggests that plant densities have increased in recent years. If so, this probably is related to higher water clarity resultant of the establishment of zebra mussels.
Site 1 1 2 3 Mean mid-point Observed Ceratophyllum demersum 0.0 1.0 0.0 0.3 Typha latafolia Chara vulgaris 185.0 71.0 1.0 85.7 Elodea canadensis 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 Ranunclulus aquatilis 0.0 1.0 0.0 0.3 Ranunclulus trichophyllus 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 Zosterella dubia 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.3
Site 2 1.0 2.0 3.0 Mean mid-point Observed Ceratophyllum demersum 71.0 71.0 1.0 47.7 Potamogeton amplifolius Elodea canadensis 185.0 185.0 71.0 147.0 Potamogeton Illinoensis 0.0 1.0 0.0 0.3 Ranunclulus aquatilis 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.3 Vallisneria americana 71.0 1.0 1.0 24.3
Site 3 1.0 2.0 3.0 Mean mid-point Observed Elodea canadensis 185.0 1.0 71.0 85.7 Myriophyllum spicatum Potamogeton Crispus 0.0 0.0 185.0 61.7 Nuphar variegatum Vallisneria americana 71.0 71.0 1.0 47.7
Site 4 1.0 2.0 3.0 Mean mid-point Observed Chara vulgaris 185.0 185.0 185.0 185.0 Vallisneria americana 0.0 0.0 71.0 23.7
Site 5 1.0 2.0 3.0 Mean mid-point Observed Ceratophyllum demersum 185.0 185.0 185.0 185.0 Pontederia cordata
Site 6 1.0 2.0 3.0 Mean mid-point Observed Ceratophyllum demersum 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Nuphar variegatum Chara vulgaris 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.3 Elodea canadensis 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 Ranunclulus aquatilis 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.3 Vallisneria americana 0.0 1.0 0.0 0.3 Zosterella dubia 71.0 71.0 71.0 71.0
Site 7 1.0 2.0 3.0 Mean mid-point Observed Chara vulgaris 185.0 1.0 1.0 62.3 Typha latifolia Elodea canadensis 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.3 Vallisneria americana 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.3 Zosterella dubia 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.3
Table 4. Estimated biomass (g/m2) of submergent and emergent aquatic macrophytes collected using the PIRTRAM rake toss method in July 2009. See Figure 2 for site locations.
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Site 8 1.0 2.0 3.0 Mean mid-point Observed Chara vulgaris 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.3 Najas spp. 1.0 1.0 0.0 0.7
Site 9 1.0 2.0 3.0 Mean mid-point Observed Ceratophyllum demersum 0.0 1.0 1.0 0.7 Chara vulgaris 185.0 1.0 1.0 62.3 Elodea canadensis 0.0 71.0 0.0 23.7 Najas spp. 0.0 1.0 1.0 0.7 Zosterella dubia 0.0 0.0 1.0 0.3
Site 10 1.0 2.0 3.0 Mean mid-point Observed Chara vulgaris 185.0 185.0 185.0 185.0
Site 11 1.0 2.0 3.0 Mean mid-point Observed Ceratophyllum demersum 1.0 1.0 71.0 24.3 Nuphar variegatum Elodea canadensis 1.0 0.0 71.0 24.0 Najas spp. 1.0 0.0 1.0 0.7 Vallisneria americana 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 Zosterella dubia 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.3
Table 4 (cont.). Estimated biomass (g/m2) of submergent and emergent aquatic macrophytes collected using the PIRTRAM rake toss method in July 2009. See Figure 2 for site locations.
Mean mid-point Total Dry Weight (g/m2) Site Site Site Site Site Site Site Site Site Site Site Species: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Ceratophyllum demersum 0.3 47.7 185.0 1.0 62.3 0.7 24.3 Chara vulgaris 85.7 85.7 0.3 0.3 62.3 185.0 Elodea canadensis 0.3 147.0 85.7 1.0 0.3 23.7 24.0 Najas spp. 0.7 0.7 0.7 Potamogeton Crispus 61.7 Potamogeton Illinoensis 0.3 Ranunclulus aquatilis 0.3 0.3 0.3 Ranunclulus trichophyllus 0.3 Vallisneria americana 0.3 24.3 47.7 24.1 0.3 0.3 0.3 Zosterella dubia 71.0 0.3 0.3 0.3 Total Estimated Biomass 87.3 219.7 195.0 109.8 185.0 74.0 63.3 1.0 87.7 185.0 49.7
Table 5. Summary of estimated biomass (g/m2) of submergent and emergent aquatic macrophytes collected using the PIRTRAM rake toss method in July 2009. See Figure 2 for site locations.
Tributaries & Outlet Temperature Mean temperature of the tributary sites are given in Figure 14. Colder water temperatures tend to contain high levels of oxygen due to the exothermic nature of the dissolution, and hold fewer nutrients in solution (Kaufmann & Cleveland 2008). Mean temperatures ranged from 19.04ºC at Oaks Creek (OK. C.) to 15.85ºC at Ocquionis Creek North (O.C. 1). Mean temperatures were approximately 2 ºC cooler than those reported in 2008 (Bailey and Albright 2009).
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25.00
20.00
15.00
10.00
Temperature (°C) 5.00
0.00 OK.C. HK. C. HY. C. T.B. O.C. 1 O.C. 2
Figure 14. Mean temperatures for sampling sites of the Canadarago Lake watershed, summer 2009.
Dissolved Oxygen Mean dissolved oxygen is graphed in Figure 15. Concentrations were markedly higher than those reported on 2008 (Bailey and Albright 2009) and ranged from 8.5 mg/L at Ocquionis Creek South (O.C. 2) to 9.8 mg/L at Hyder Creek (HY. C.). In 2008, a trend of decreased dissolved oxygen was apparent between sites O.C. 1 and O.C. 2, with the downstream site containing little more than half of the dissolved oxygen of the initial sampling. This was not evident in 2009, when differences between the sites were minimal. The Village of Richfield Springs wastewater treatment facility discharges between these sites.
12.00
10.00
8.00
6.00
4.00
2.00
Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L) 0.00 OK.C. HK. C. HY. C. T.B. O.C. 1 O.C. 2
Figure 15. Mean concentrations of dissolved oxygen at each sampling site of the Canadarago Lake watershed, summer 2009.
Specific Conductance and pH Mean specific conductance and pH for the tributaries are given in Figures 16 and 17, respectively. Both datasets imply relatively hard, well buffered waters.
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0.600
0.500
0.400
0.300
0.200
0.100 Conductivity (mS/cm) Conductivity 0.000 OK.C. HK. C. HY. C. T.B. O.C. 1 O.C. 2
Figure 16. Mean specific conductance (mS/cm) at each sampling site of the Canadarago Lake watershed, summer 2009.
8.20
8.10
8.00
7.90
pH 7.80
7.70
7.60
7.50 OK.C. HK. C. HY. C. T.B. O.C. 1 O.C. 2
Figure 17. Mean pH at each sampling site of the Canadarago Lake watershed, summer 2009.
Nutrients The mean concentrations of ammonia, nitrite+nitrate, total nitrogen and total phosphorus are given in Figures 18 through 21, respectively. The outlet of Ocquionis Creek has the highest concentrations of all nitrogen fractions evaluated, though the differences between these, as well as total phosphorus, was much less than in 2008.
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0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
Ammonia (mg/l) 0.01
0.00 OK.C. HK. C. HY. C. T.B. O.C. 1 O.C. 2
Figure 18. Mean ammonia concentrations at each sampling site of the Canadarago Lake watershed, summer 2009.
1.20
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40 Nitrite+nitrate (mg/l) 0.20
0.00 OK.C. HK. C. HY. C. T.B. O.C. 1 O.C. 2
Figure 19. Mean nitrate + nitrite concentrations at each sampling site of the Canadarago Lake watershed, summer 2009.
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1.20
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20 Total nitrogen nitrogen Total (mg/l) 0.00 OK.C. HK. C. HY. C. T.B. O.C. 1 O.C. 2
Figure 20. Mean total nitrogen concentrations at each sampling site of the Canadarago Lake watershed, summer 2009.
50.0
40.0
30.0
20.0
10.0
Total phosphorus phosphorus (ug/l)Total 0.0 OK.C. HK. C. HY. C. T.B. O.C. 1 O.C. 2
Figure 21. Mean total phosphorus concentrations at each sampling site of the Canadarago Lake watershed, summer 2009.
Fecal Coliform Mean fecal coliform concentrations are given in Figure 22. Trout Brook (T.B.) contained the highest levels, with an average of 680 colonies per 100 mL and Oaks Creek (OK. C.) contained the lowest concentrations with an average of 100 colonies per 100 mL. There was slight decrease in fecal coliform from Ocquionis Creek North (O.C. 1) to Ocquionis Creek South (O.C. 2), implying adequate disinfection of effluent by the Richfield Springs waste treatment plant (which discharges between these sites). Increases in coliform bacteria counts did correspond to days following large rainstorms, linking fecal coliform levels (at least in part) to the agricultural nature of the surrounding watershed. Overall, fecal coliform levels were roughly 60-70% that of 2008 (Bailey and Albright 2009).
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900 800 700 600 500 400 300 Colonies/100mL 200 100 0 OK. C HK. C. HY. C. T.B. O.C. 1 O.C. 2
Figure 22. Average number of fecal coliform colonies from 16 June to 28 July 2009, collected from the corresponding Canadarago watershed sites.
Sediment Figure 23 summarizes the baseline concentrations of total suspended sediment at the tributary sites. Concentrations were comparable to those of 2008 (Bailey and Albright 2009).
16.00
14.00
12.00
10.00
8.00
6.00
4.00
Suspendd sediment sediment Suspendd (mg/l) 2.00
0.00 OK.C. HK. C. HY. C. T.B. O.C. 1 O.C. 2
Figure 23. Total suspended sediment from each Canadarago watershed site, by date, summer 2009.
Storm event monitoring Over the course of the rain event occurring between 17 and 19 June, loading rates of total phosphorus, total nitrogen, nitrite+nitrate and ammonia were calculated as the product of discharge and nutrient concentration over the duration of the event. An example of this process is given below, using the relationship between discharge and total phosphorus concentrations in Herkimer Creek (Figure 24). Time “0” represents pre-storm conditions; the duration of the events was 1.9 days. Figure 25 illustrates the loading rates of total phosphorus over the event.
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The total loading rate of total phosphorus was determined by integrating the area under the curve.
200 200
150 150 /min) 3
100 100
50 50 Total Phosphorus (ug/L) Phosphorus Total Total Discharge(m 0 0 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 Time (days) Discharge Total Phosphorus
Figure 24. Discharge and total phosphorus concentrations in Herkimer Creek over the course of the 17 and 19 June rain event.
40 35 34.608 30 25 20 19.040 15 13.818 10
Total Phosphorus (kg/day) Phosphorus Total 5 2.950 0 0.275 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 Days
Figure 25. Loading rates of total phosphorus over the course of the 17 and 19 June rain event.
Table 6 summarizes discharge values and the concentrations of ammonia, nitrite+nitrate, total nitrogen and total phosphorus, as well as the loading rates of the same, for each tributary, and Oaks Creek (the lake’s outlet), over the course of the 17 to 19 June rain event. Time “0” represents baseline conditions prior to the storm.
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Relative NH4 N+N TN TP Disch. TP TN N+N NH4 SITE date Time (mg/L) (mg/L) (mg/L) (ug/L) m3/min(kg/day)(kg/day)(kg/day) (kg/day TRIBUTARIES Herkimer Cr. 6/16 0.0 0.00 0.09 0.31 15.20 12.55 0.27 5.55 1.66 0.00 Herkimer Cr. 6/17 0.8 0.01 0.24 0.42 71.17 134.84 13.82 81.16 47.18 1.15 Herkimer Cr. 6/18 1.1 0.01 0.34 0.48 173.87 138.23 34.61 96.14 67.88 2.83 Herkimer Cr. 6/18 1.3 0.04 0.47 0.72 113.87 116.12 19.04 120.90 78.09 6.13 Herkimer Cr. 6/19 1.9 0.01 0.23 0.33 26.57 77.11 2.95 36.86 25.32 0.81
Hyder Cr. 6/16 0.0 0.00 0.45 0.75 10.59 5.63 0.09 6.10 3.67 0.00 Hyder Cr. 6/17 0.8 0.02 0.29 0.48 69.77 52.69 5.29 36.42 22.15 1.81 Hyder Cr. 6/18 1.1 0.02 0.65 0.70 100.87 93.27 13.55 94.15 87.30 3.08 Hyder Cr. 6/18 1.3 0.01 0.31 0.51 72.27 101.95 10.61 74.58 44.92 1.51 Hyder Cr. 6/19 1.9 0.03 0.40 0.53 35.57 51.29 2.63 39.22 29.18 1.92
Trout Br. 6/17 0.0 0.05 0.28 0.47 8.12 9.10 0.11 6.17 3.62 0.65 Trout Br. 6/18 0.8 0.02 0.53 0.68 104.87 79.48 12.00 78.17 60.32 2.77 Trout Br. 6/18 1.1 0.04 0.40 0.71 103.87 94.04 14.06 96.14 53.49 5.95 Trout Br. 6/18 1.3 0.03 0.49 0.71 148.87 115.19 24.69 118.27 81.78 5.56 Trout Br. 6/19 1.9 0.05 0.53 0.76 60.37 92.96 8.08 101.06 70.27 7.12
Ocquionis Cr. 6/16 0.0 0.00 0.28 0.86 29.30 24.03 1.01 29.90 9.73 0.00 Ocquionis Cr. 6/17 0.9 0.04 0.42 0.60 63.47 62.07 5.67 53.98 37.45 3.58 Ocquionis Cr. 6/18 1.1 0.03 0.47 0.74 71.47 73.65 7.58 78.27 49.85 3.36 Ocquionis Cr. 6/18 1.3 0.02 0.56 0.59 97.57 103.03 14.47 87.53 82.78 2.61 Ocquionis Cr. 6/19 2.0 0.03 0.55 0.72 61.87 103.65 9.23 107.02 82.24 4.90
OUTLET Oaks Cr. 6/16 0.0 0.00 0.03 0.36 0.00 105.02 0.00 53.69 3.86 0.00 Oaks Cr. 6/17 0.8 0.00 0.12 0.38 33.97 129.21 6.32 70.70 22.89 0.91 Oaks Cr. 6/18 1.1 0.02 0.06 0.23 22.77 140.05 4.59 45.58 11.41 4.94 Oaks Cr. 6/18 1.3 0.02 0.14 0.41 42.87 149.46 9.23 87.38 29.70 4.69 Oaks Cr. 6/19 1.9 0.03 0.11 0.36 26.37 183.24 6.96 94.73 30.08 9.09
Table 6. A summary of discharge values and the concentrations of ammonia, nitrite+nitrate, total nitrogen and total phosphorus, as well as the loading rates of the same, for each tributary, and Oaks Creek (the lake’s outlet, over the course of the 17 to 19 June rain event. Time “0” represents baseline conditions prior to the storm.
A final summary of the total loadings of sediment, total phosphorus, ammonia, nitrite+nitrate and total nitrogen, in kg, for each tributary and Oaks Creek, over the course of the 17 to 19 June runoff event, is given in Table 7. In order to more easily compare the streams’ response to the runoff conditions, Table 8 provides the daily export rates, in g/ha/day.
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Sediment Total Phosphorus Ammonia Nitrate+Nitrite Total Nitrogen Site (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) Herkimer Creek 17421.65 24.75 4.07 82.37 130.38 Hyder Creek 4927.15 11.19 2.90 60.77 86.17 Trout Brook 8189.16 22.14 7.44 114.97 144.70 Ocquionis Creek 5374.94 14.65 5.70 101.04 136.67 Total inflow: 35912.90 72.73 20.11 359.15 497.92 Oaks Creek (outlet) 1901.76 10.42 6.34 37.79 134.72
Table 7. Final summary of the total loadings of sediment, total phosphorus, ammonia, nitrite+nitrate and total nitrogen, in kg, for each tributary, and the outlet, over the course of the 17 to 19 June runoff event.
Sediment Total Phosphorus Ammonia Nitrate+Nitrite Total Nitrogen Site (g/ha/day) (g/ha/day) (g/ha/day) (g/ha/day) (g/ha/day) Herkimer Creek 2559.82 3.64 0.60 12.10 19.16 Hyder Creek 871.97 1.98 0.51 10.75 15.25 Trout Brook 1416.86 3.83 1.29 19.89 25.04 Ocquionis Creek 573.24 1.56 0.61 10.78 14.58
Table 8. Export rates (g/ha/day) of sediment, total phosphorus, ammonia, nitrite+nitrate and total nitrogen for each tributary over the course of the 17 to 19 June runoff event.
CONCLUSION
One of the most obvious changes in Canadarago Lake since 2001 (Harman et al. 2002) is the water clarity. The average Secchi disk reading that year was 2.6 m (Harman et al. 2002) compared to 6.8 m in 2008 and 4.0 m in 2009. This is likely the result of the establishment of zebra mussels, highly efficient filter feeders (D’Itri 1997). Although clarity has increased the lake still exhibits a eutrophic nature, similar to that described in 1968 (Harr et al. 1980). Bottom waters become anoxic by mid-summer, and the resultant reducing environment leads to the conversion of nitrates to ammonia as well as the release of phosphorus from bottom sediments (known as internal phosphorus loading). Redistribution of that nutrient during periods of turnover will likely stimulate algal growth.
External sources of nutrient could include agricultural activities and near-shore development. The Richfield Springs waste treatment plant effluent is below the regulated concentration of 0.5 mg/L phosphorus, with an average concentration being approximately 0.2 mg/L. Concentrations of nitrogenous compounds are substantial (with mean TN approximately 10.0 mg/l), as total nitrogen is not regulated (though ammonia is). Agricultural activities are also suspected to have contributed to the observed fecal coliform levels of the lake tributaries, mainly Trout Brook (T.B.). Baseline suspended sediment levels were consistently low (<20 mg/l) across all tributaries. Herkimer Creek (HK. C.), which enters into the south end of the lake, contributed the lowest concentrations of suspended sediments and all fractions of nutrients during baseline conditions.
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When comparing export rates of nutrients and sediments over the course of a significant runoff event, however, the situation is practically the opposite of baseline conditions. Herkimer Creek exported by far the most sediments over the event, and its export of total phosphorus was over twice that of Ocquionis Creek. Trout Brook was similarly high in its phosphorus export, and this tributary had the highest export rates of ammonia, nitrite+nitrate and total nitrogen.
Aquatic plant species observed were generally similar to those recorded by Muenscher (1936). Two nonnative species currently present are curly leaved pondweed and Eurasian milfoil, both exotic nuisance species. While reported as being common in 2008 (bailey 2009), they were a minor component of the plant community during the July survey in 2009. Water chestnut (Trapa natans) was not recorded, despite its presence in other water bodies of Otsego County.
The establishment of zebra mussel and alewife, both nuisance exotic animals, have had detrimental effects on the lake. The extent to which they will impact the lake’s ecology and recreational is yet to be known.
REFERENCES
Anonymous. Modified by Lord, P.H. & R.L. Johnson, 2006. Aquatic plant monitoring guidelines. http://www.dec.ny.gov/docs/water_pdf/aquatic06.pdf
APHA, AWWA, WPCF. 1989. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. 12th ed. American Public Health Association. Washington, D.C.
Bailey, C. and M.F. Albright. 2009. Pilot survey of Canadarago Lake and its tributaries, 2008. In 41st Ann. Rept. (2008). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
D’Itri, F.M. 1997. Zebra mussels and aquatic nuisance species. Ann Arbor Press, Inc. Chelsea, Michigan.
Eureka Environmental Engineering. 2004. Manta water quality probe, startup guide. Austin, TX.
Harman, W.N., Albright, M.F., Horvath, T. 2002. Limnological investigations of Canadarago Lake, Otsego County, NY. In 34th Annual Report. (2001). SUNY Oneonta Biological Field Station, SUNY College at Oneonta.
Harr, T.E., G.W. Fuhs, D.M. Green, L.J. Helting, S.B. Smith and S.P. Allen. 1980. Limnology of Canadarago Lake. In Bloomfield, J.A. (ed.) Lakes of New York State , Vol. III. Ecology of East-Central NY lakes. Academic Press, Inc., New York City, NY. Pp. 129-264.
Horvath, T., Lord, P.H. 2002. First report of zebra mussels (Driessena polymorpha) in
- 123 -
Canadarago Lake. In 35th Annual Report. (2002). SUNY Oneonta Biological Field Station, SUNY College at Oneonta.
Hydrolab Corp. 1993. Scout 3 operating manual. Austin, TX.
Kaufmann, R.K., & Cleveland C.J. 2008. Environmental Science. McGraw-Hill. New York City, NY . Pp. 373-396.
Lord, P.H. 2005. Pers. Comm. PIRTRAM plant survey method.
Marsden, M.W. 1989. Lake restoration by reducing external phosphorus loading: The influence of sediment phosphorus release. Freshwater Biology 21 Pp. 139-162.
Muenscher, W.C. 1936. Aquatic vegetation of the Susquehanna and Delaware areas. In A biological survey of the Delaware and Susquehanna watersheds. Pp. 205-221. NY State Department of Environmental Conservation, Albany, NY.
United States Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service. Plant Database. Retrieved June 24, 2008. from
Vallentyne, J.R. 1974. The algal bowl. Can. Fish. Mar. Serv. Misc. Spec. Publ. 22.
Wetzel, R.G. 2001. Limnology: Lake and river ecosystems. Academic Press. San Diego.
- 124 - A survey of Canadarago Lake’s zooplankton community, summer 20091
Shawn Gillespie2
INTRODUCTION
All lakes are characterized by a complex web of relationships between biotic and abiotic elements. Zooplankton fulfill a crucial role in the natural cycling of nutrients and flow of energy throughout a lake ecosystem. Canadarago Lake is characterized by such a web and is home to a diverse and abundant zooplankton community. The lake is dimictic in nature and glacial in origin. It has a maximum depth of 13 m (43 ft), a surface area of 760 ha (1,877 ac) and a watershed of 175 km2 (43,240 ac). Canadarago and Otsego Lakes form the headwaters of the Susquehanna River. The drainage basin of the Canadarago watershed is largely agricultural in nature, with wooded hilltops and wetlands. The Richfield Springs wastewater treatment plant is located on Ocquionis Creek and discharges treated effluent 0.8 km (0.5 mi) upstream of the lake (Figure 1). These cultural sources of nutrients, coupled with the lake’s shallow depth and extensive phototrophic zone contribute to its eutrophic state. One mitigating factor for the acceleration of the eutrophication process has been alum precipitation instituted since 1973 for phosphorus removal (Harr et al. 1980).
This study expanded upon a component of a pilot qualitative survey conducted by Bailey and Albright (2009) throughout June of 2008. That preliminary investigation of numerous biotic and abiotic characters provided baseline information intended for the formulation of a state of the lake report. This study, conducted from June to July 2009, built upon those initial findings and provided a more detailed analysis of Canadarago Lake’s zooplankton community.
Zooplankton perform several vital functions within lake ecosystems including the transference of energy and nutrients from producers to secondary consumers, the sequestration of nutrients, and the removal of phytoplankton from the water column. The filtering capacity of zooplankton has significant implications for the eutrophic state of a lake. From a management perspective, a diverse and plentiful zooplankton community is desirable for the maintenance of a lake’s aesthetics.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Samples were collected from three sites throughout the lake (Figure 1). Zooplankton samples were collected using a 20 cm diameter plankton net with a 63 µm mesh. The net was lowered to a depth of 6m and retrieved. A G.O. ™ mechanical flow meter mounted across the net opening allowed for the determination of the volume of lake water filtered. The samples were placed in 125mL bottles on site. The concentrated samples were diluted and preserved at twice the original volume with 95% ethanol upon return to the field station. Aliquots of 1.0mL were placed on Sedgwick-Rafter cells and analyzed using a compound microscope with digital imaging and analysis capabilities. Zooplankton were identified, measured and enumerated using
1 Funding for this work was a multi-sponsored contract administered through the Otsego County Soil and Water District, Cooperstown, NY. 2 SUNY Oneonta Intern, summer 2009.
- 125 - the SPOT ADVANCEDTM software program. Microscopic analysis of each water sample was performed in triplicate.
CL1
CL2
CL3
Figure 1. Canadarago Lake, New York, showing locations of sites sampled over summer 2009 (from Primer 2010).
- 126 - Mean densities and lengths for cladocerans, copepods and rotifers were used to calculate dry weight (Peters and Downing 1984), daily filtering rate (Knoechel and Holtby 1986) and phosphorus regeneration (Esjmon-Karabin 1983) at each sampling site. The equations are given in Table 1.
Dry Weight: D.W. =9.86*(length in mm) ^2.1 Filtering Rate: F.R. =11.695*(length in mm) ^2.48 Phosphorous regeneration: -.023 0.039 Cladocerans: P.R. =0.519*(dry weight in µg) *e *(° C of H2O) -.645 0.039 Copepods: P.R. =0.229*(dry weight in µg) *e *(°C of H2O) -1.27 0.096 Rotifers: P.R. =0.0514*(dry weight in µg) *e *(°C of H2O)
Table 1. Equations used to determine zooplankton dry weight, filtering rate, and phosphorus regeneration.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 2 provides a summary of all data collected throughout the study. These include values for mean epilimnetic temperature, numbers of each taxon per liter, average length, mean dry weight per individual and per liter, phosphorus regeneration rates per individual and per liter, filtering rates and the percentage of the epilimnion filtered per day.
The composition and relative abundance of the zooplankton population differed appreciably in some respects to Bailey and Albright’s (2009) preliminary (qualitative) investigation. They reported that Daphnia pulex accounted for only 1% of the total zooplankton sample. According to the present data, Daphnia pulex accounted, on average, for 7.3% of the zooplankton community and 61% of the cladacerans. This significant discrepancy may be explained by seasonal variation in population abundance and composition and/or differences in sampling methodology between the two studies. Similarly, Bailey and Albright (2009) reported the abundance of Bosmina sp. as ~1%. The present study found that 4.7% of the total population consisted of Bosmina sp. The relative abundances of copepods and rotifers did not differ appreciably between the two studies. Copepods accounted for 21% of Bailey and Albright (2009) sample and 17% of the present data set. The percent abundance of rotifers was reported by Bailey and Albright (2009) to be 75% and by the present study to be 71%.
The differences in these studies might be due largely in the timing of peak abundances of the different taxonomic groups. Canadarago Lake’s zooplankton was evaluated in the early 1970s; results are provided in Harr et. al (1980). That work showed substantial seasonal variability in abundances. Highest abundances typically occurred in May to June, but often lasted for only a few weeks, so that a study of short duration, or having infrequent samplings, might miss the peaks, implying that some groups contributed less than they did. During the 1970 monitoring, cladocerans occasionally exceeded 100 per liter during the summer, but were usually not more than 50 per liter. Similarly, copepods were usually present at abundances approaching 50 per liter. Rotifers were variable in number, but during the summers they generally were present at 30-60 per liter. During this 2009 work, the mean abundances of cladocerans, copepods and rotifers were 69, 105 and 415 per liter, respectively.
- 127 - The difference in the relative abundances of cladocera reported by Bailey and Albright (2009) and the present author has implications for the management of Canadarago Lake. The cladocera provide several unique services amongst the zooplankton. It is evident from Table 2 that cladocerans are responsible for the majority of epilimnetic filtering. When aesthetics are prioritized in a lake management plan, it is critical that large-bodied cladocerans play a central role. In addition to substantial filtering capacity, cladocerans also sequester phosphorus more efficiently than the copepods or rotifers (Warner 1999). The phosphorus regeneration rates of all three types of zooplankton are described in Table 2. Per unit biomass, cladocerans regenerate less phosphorus than either copepods or rotifers. This is especially significant for a lake such as Canadarago because nutrient availability is associated with eutrophication. If phosphorus is sequestered in the bodies of cladocerans, then it is not available for use by other organisms such as phytoplankton. Similar to the mitigating effect of alum precipitation, the presence of large- bodied cladocerans inhibits the acceleration of the eutrophication process. Cladocerans are invaluable in terms of delaying eutrophication and preserving the aesthetic qualities of a lake, as well as providing ideal forage for planktivorous fish.
Phos. Phos. Mean Dry Regen. Regen. Filtering % Date-site Avg Te mp #/L Avg length Wt Dry Wt Rate Rate Rates Epilimnion (°C) (mm) (µg) (µg/L) mg drywt1*in(ug/l/day) ml/ind/day filtered/day 6/16/2009-1 16.02 Cladocera 165 0.563 3.763 620.58 0.715 10.645 2.809 46.33 Copepoda 159 0.229 0.649 102.89 1.071 2.644 0.302 4.8 Rotifers 311 0.174 0.543 168.92 1.115 4.522 0.153 4.74 Total 892.39 17.811 55.87 6/16/2009-2 Cladocera 134 0.642 4.865 652.57 0.674 10.551 3.892 52.2 Copepoda 319 0.347 1.515 482.61 0.881 10.205 0.847 26.99 Rotifers 1509 0.17 0.467 705.22 1.155 19.544 0.144 21.73 Total 1840.41 40.301 100.92 6/16/2009-3 Cladocera 162 0.791 6.74 1094.77 0.625 16.423 6.539 106.2 Copepoda 83 0.371 1.508 125.79 0.882 2.663 0.998 8.33 Rotifers 917 0.155 0.348 319.14 1.236 9.466 0.115 10.54 Total 1539.70 28.552 125.07 6/16 MEAN 16.02 Cladocera 154 0.665 5.123 789.31 0.671 12.540 4.413 68.24 Copepoda 187 0.316 1.224 237.10 0.945 5.171 0.716 13.37 Rotifers 912 0.166 0.453 397.76 1.169 11.177 0.137 12.34 Total 1424.16 5.266
Table 2. Summary of mean epilimnetic temperature, zooplankton densities and mean length per taxa, as well as derived values for mean weight per individual and per liter, phosphorus regeneration per individual and per liter, filtering rates per individual and the percentage of the epilimnion filtered per day.
- 128 - Phos. Phos. Mean Dry Regen. Regen. Filtering % Date-site Avg Te mp #/L Avg length Wt Dry Wt Rate Rate Rates Epilimnion (°C) (mm) (µg) (µg/L) mg drywt1*in(ug/l/day) ml/ind/day filtered/day 6/29/2009-1 18.09 Cladocera 41 0.434 2.814 116.35 0.828 2.313 1.479 6.11 Copepoda 74 0.289 1.018 74.85 1.047 1.88 0.537 3.95 Rotifers 326 0.094 0.083 27.05 1.863 1.21 0.033 1.09 Total 218.25 5.403 11.15 6/29/2009-2 Cladocera 45 0.444 2.544 115.29 0.848 2.346 1.558 7.06 Copepoda 74 0.216 0.51 37.97 1.227 1.118 0.262 1.95 Rotifers 317 0.125 0.139 44.17 1.654 1.753 0.068 2.15 Total 197.43 5.217 11.16 6/29/2009-3 Cladocera 9 0.47 2.219 19.49 0.875 0.409 1.798 1.58 Copepoda 103 0.38 1.628 167.95 0.939 3.787 1.059 10.92 Rotifers 180 0.102 0.083 15.00 1.861 0.67 0.04 0.73 Total 202.43 4.866 13.23 6/29 MEAN 18.09 Cladocera 32 0.449 2.526 83.71 0.850 1.689 1.612 4.92 Copepoda 84 0.295 1.052 93.59 1.071 2.262 0.619 5.61 Rotifers 274 0.107 0.102 28.74 1.793 1.211 0.047 1.32 Total 206.04 2.278 7/14/2009-1 20.39 Cladocera 25 0.687 7.905 201.02 0.715 3.447 4.612 11.73 Copepoda 34 0.221 0.548 18.77 1.32 0.595 0.278 0.95 Rotifers 71 0.108 0.094 6.65 1.98 0.316 0.047 0.33 Total 226.44 4.358 13.01 7/14/2009-2 Cladocera 20 1.058 11.66 238.69 0.653 3.743 13.458 27.55 Copepoda 53 0.306 1.205 64.42 1.101 1.703 0.62 3.31 Rotifers 43 0.101 0.082 3.54 2.043 0.174 0.04 0.17 Total 306.65 5.619 31.03 7/14 MEAN 20.39 Cladocera 23 0.873 9.783 219.86 0.684 3.595 9.035 19.64 Copepoda 44 0.264 0.877 41.60 1.211 1.149 0.449 2.13 Rotifers 57 0.105 0.088 5.10 2.012 0.245 0.044 0.25 Total 266.55 9.528
Table 2 (cont). Summary of mean epilimnetic temperature, zooplankton densities and mean length per taxa, as well as derived values for mean weight per individual and per liter, phosphorus regeneration per individual and per liter, filtering rates per individual and the percentage of the epilimnion filtered per day.
- 129 - CONCLUSION
Further inquiry must be made into the precise composition of Candarago Lake’s zooplankton community. The use of three sampling sites instead of one appears to have provided a more representative description of the population. Further sampling is needed to determine whether three sites are sufficient to garner a representative sample. More accurate assessments of the abundance and composition of the community will provide better estimates of the role that zooplankton play in nutrient cycling within Canadarago Lake.
REFERENCES
Bailey, C. and M.F. Albright. 2009. Pilot survey of Canadarago Lake and its tributaries, 2008. In 41st Ann. Rept. (2008). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Esjmont-Karabin, J. 1984. Phosphorus and nitrogen excretion by lake zooplankton (rotifers and crustaceans) in relation to the individual body weights of the animals, ambient temperature, and presence of food. Ekologia Polska 32:3-42.
Harr, T.E., G.W. Fuhs, D.M. Green, L.J. Hetling, S.B. Smith and S.P. Allen. 1980. Limnology of Canadarago Lake. In J.A. Bloomfield (ed.). lakes of New York State, Vol. III. Ecology of the lakes of East-Central New York. Academic Press, Inc. New York City.
Knoechel, R. and B. Holtbly.1986 Construction of body length model for the prediction of cladoceran community filtering rates. Limnol. Oceanogr. 31(1):1-16.
Peters, R.H. and Downing, J.A. 1984 Empirical analysis of zooplankton filtering and feeding rates. Limnology and Oceanography, 29 (4). pp. 763-784.
Warner, D.M. 1999. Alewives in Otsego Lake, NY: A comparison of their direct and indirect mechanisms of impact on transparency and chlorophyll a. Occas. Pap. No. 32. SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
- 130 - Chlorophyll a and phytoplankton survey, Canadarago Lake, 20091
Irene Primmer2
INTRODUCTION
As summarized by Bailey and Albright (2009), Canadarago Lake (N42°48.9’, W75°00.4’) is a dimictic lake of glacial origin located in the Towns of Richfield, Otsego and Exeter, Otsego County, NY. It has a maximum depth of 13 m (43 ft), a surface area of 760 ha (1,877 ac) and a watershed of 175 km2 (43,240 ac). Together with its sister lake, Otsego, they form the headwaters of the Susquehanna River. The drainage basin of the Canadarago watershed is largely agricultural in nature, with some wooded hill tops and wetlands. This, along with its shallow depth, is believed responsible for Canadarago’s eutrophic character (Harr et al. 1980). The Richfield Springs wastewater treatment plant is located on Ocquionis Creek, discharging treated effluent 0.8 km (0.5 mi) upstream of the lake (Figure 1). Alum precipitation has been instituted since 1973 for phosphorus removal (Harr et al. 1980) (Bailey and Albright 2009).
Algae are non-embryonic, non-vascular, oxygenic photoautotrophs whose primary photoreceptive pigment is chlorophyll a (Dillard 1999). Aquatic algae inhabit a variety of environments, occupying various niches in a body of water. Phytoplanktonic algae, which are suspended or swim freely in open water, are the focus of this study. The type of algae present and their abundance in an aquatic system can reflect a lake’s trophic status and may be indicative of contamination from the addition of nutrients from agriculture run-off or sewage (Prescott 1964). Conditions of salinity, size, depth, transparency, nutrient conditions, pH, and pollution effect the composition and abundance of algae present in a body of water (Sheath and Wehr 2003), thus the algal composition is, to some degree, a reflection of the condition of a body of water.
Most phytoplankton are microscopic, making it difficult to quantify the population in terms of absolute numbers of individual algal cells. To get around this, photosynthetic pigments present in such organisms can be quantified in order to estimate the abundance of organisms present within a body of water. All photosynthetic organisms contain pigments that are employed to help absorb specific wavelengths of light from the sun’s color spectrum. These wavelengths provide energy to assist in the electron transport aspect of photosynthesis. This aids in the production of energy for the specific organisms. Chlorophyll a is a pigment that is found in most photosynthetic organisms, thus its quantification is used as an indicator of the amount of photosynthetic material in water bodies. Sampling conducted by Bailey and Albright (2009) included Chlorophyll a analyses.
1 Funding for this work was a multi-sponsored contract administered through the Otsego County Soil and Water District, Cooperstown, NY.
2 Peterson Family Conservation Trust Fellow, 2009. Current Affiliation: Mansfield University, Mansfield, PA.
- 131 -
As described by Stevenson and Smol (2003), surveys to determine the taxonomic composition of algae in the phytoplankton community are a useful means by which to assess biotic integrity and begin to diagnose causes of environmental problems. Changes in assemblage should reflect physical and chemical changes caused by perturbations of the system, whether caused by human actions or changes in the trophic composition. Species presence and success in community assemblages are ultimately constrained by environmental conditions and interactions with other species in the habitat (i.e. grazing by zooplankton and zebra mussels, trophic cascades that impact grazing populations, etc.).
Surveys of the phytoplankton community have not been performed regularly on Canadarago Lake. The most recent algal composition surveys were done by Allen and Lyon in 1968 and 1969 (Fuhs 1972).
In the summer of 2009 Canadarago Lake was surveyed for both algal composition and chlorophyll a concentration. The purpose of the research was to assess the temporal and spatial variability of algal abundance and community composition in Canadarago Lake. Chlorophyll a concentration was also analyzed to assess the relationship between the amount of Chlorophyll a present, algal abundance, and the taxonomic composition of the community.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Samples were collected at 3 sites on Canadarago Lake on 6, 16, and 29 June, 14 and 28 July 2009 (Figure 1 and Table 1). A Van Dorn sampler was used to collect about 250 mL of water from 1 meter, 2 meter, and 3 meter depths. Samples were immediately split into subsamples for chlorophyll a and phytoplankton analyses; the methods of sample preservation, storage, and analysis are given in the following sections.
Chlorophyll a Samples were processed for chlorophyll a analysis on 9, 16, and 29 June, 14 and 28 July 2009. Samples were kept on ice immediately following collection and during transport. In the lab, two 100mL portions of each sample were run through Whatman GF-A filters in a vacuum assembly. The filters were frozen until further processing. On the day of analysis, the filters were cut into small pieces and placed in a glass tube to which 10 mL of a buffered acetone solution were added. This mixture was ground to a homogeneous slurry using a power drill with a teflon bit. The slurry was centrifuged at 2,100 rpm for 10 minutes to separate the solution from the filter paper. A fluorometer was used to determine the fluorescence of the supernatant according to the methods of Welschmyer (1994). Reported concentrations for samples run in duplicate represent the average of the concentrations determined for each replicate.
Phytoplankton Samples were collected for phytoplankton analysis on 16 and 29 June, and 14 July 2009. In the field, equal volumes of each discrete depth sample were combined into a single 1-3m composite sample. After mixing, 100 mL were poured into a separate container and preserved with Lugol’s solution. In the lab, the samples were set aside to settle for at least 24 hours. A total of 5 mL from the settled portion of each sample were surveyed for the following
- 132 -
phytoplankton taxa according to Prescott (1954): Chlorophyta, Cyanophyta, Chrysophyta, and Pyrrophyta. For each sample, 1 mL of the settled portion of sample was added to a Palmer- Maloney slide and examined in entirety using a digital compound microscope. This was repeated 5 times so that a total of 5 mL was examined.
CL-1
CL-2
CL-3
Figure 1. Canadarago Lake, Otsego County, New York showing locations of summer 2009 sample sites.
- 133 -
Table 1. The site names and corresponding GPS Coordinates for Canadarago Lake samples (WGS 84 Degrees Decimal Minutes).
Site Name GPS Coordinates (D mm.mmm) CL-1 N 42 49.946’, W 74 59.843’ CL-2 N 42 49.339’, W 75 00.032’ CL-3 N 42 48.260’, W 75 00.032’
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Chlorophyll a concentrations Chlorophyll a concentrations for 0-3m composite samples are presented in Figure 2 and Table 2. Site CL-1 consistently produced the highest chlorophyll a concentration, with a season average of 4.8 ppb. Across all three sites, concentrations reached the maximum on 29 June (average of 6.1 ppb); the greatest concentration of the sampling period, 6.3 ppb, was observed at CL-3. CL-3 also yielded the lowest concentration of the sampling period, 1.0 ppb, on 14 July (Figure 2, Table 2). Temporal variation was evident (ANOVA p < 0.05), though spatial variation was not apparent. More robust sampling efforts would more decisively and accurately determine variation on such gradients; ideally, additional analyses for nutrients, major ions, and environmental factors should also be conducted to assess the spatial distribution of the community. Interestingly, samples with high chlorophyll a concentrations did not correspond to those having high individual cell counts (Table 3). This highlights the complexity of estimating communities with a single metric, such as chlorophyll a, as the amount of chlorophyll a within a single cell varies among taxonomic groups (Sheath and Wehr 2003).
2009 Chlorophyll a Concentrations
7 6 5 4 CL-1 3 CL-2 2 CL-3 Concentration (ppb) 1 0 6-Jun 16-Jun 29-Jun 14-Jul 28-Jul Date Sampled
Figure 2. Chlorophyll a (ppb) 0-3 meter composite for Canadarago Lake, New York, sample sites CL-1, CL-2, and CL-3 for samples collected 6, 16, 29 June and 14, 28 July 2009.
- 134 -
Table 2. Average chlorophyll a (ppb) 1-3 meter composite for Canadarago Lake, New York, sample sites CL-1, CL-2, and CL-3.
Date CL-1 CL-2 CL-3 Average 6/9/2009 4.05 2.9 2.1 3.0 6/16/2009 5.3 3.2 2.7 3.7 6/29/2009 6.1 6 6.3 6.1 7/14/2009 4.4 2.2 1 2.5 7/28/2009 4.2 2.5 3.9 3.5 Average 4.81 3.36 3.2
Phytoplankton Figure 3 illustrates the composition of each sample in terms of the relative abundance of each of the four taxonomic groups for each sample date and site. Chlorophyta was the dominant taxon in the community at each site for all sample dates, generally comprising greater than 75% of algal cells counted (Figure 3, Table 3). On two dates at site CL-2, Chlorophyta made up about 60% of algal cells, corresponding to a more substantial presence of Pyrrophyta on 29 June and Chrysophyta on 14 July. On average, Cyanophyta was the second-most common group in the algal community, comprising over 11% of algal cells on average. The community composition varied between sample sites, most notably on 29 June and 14 July as seen in Figure 3 below.
Phytoplankton Community Percent Composition of Taxa 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% 16-Jun 29-Jun 14-Jul 16-Jun 29-Jun 14-Jul 16-Jun 29-Jun 14-Jul
CL 1 CL 2 CL 3
Chlorophyta Cyanophyta Pyrrophyta Chrysophyta
Figure 3. Composition of four different algal groups; Chlorophyta, Cyanophyta, Pyrrophyta and Chrysophyta for a 5ml, 0-3meter depth sample for Canadarago Lake, sample sites CL-1, CL-2, and CL-3.
- 135 -
Table 3. Percent composition of four algal groups; Chlorophyta, Cyanophyta, Pyrrophyta and Chrysophyta for a 5ml, 0-3meter depth sample for Canadarago Lake, sample sites CL-1, CL-2, and CL-3.
Taxonomic CL 1 CL 2 CL 3 Group 16-Jun 29-Jun 14-Jul 16-Jun 29-Jun 14-Jul 16-Jun 29-Jun 14-Jul
Chlorophyta 89.7 89.8 75.7 92.6 58.3 63.6 86.9 79.6 86.2 Cyanophyta 8.5 8.8 15.8 7.4 15.0 17.7 12.7 18.7 1.4 Pyrrophyta 1.8 1.3 3.6 0.0 24.2 0.0 0.3 1.7 11.9
Chrysophyta 0.0 0.0 4.9 0.0 2.5 18.6 0.0 0.0 0.6 No. of Organisms 271 226 387 121 314 220 620 230 354 Counted
Historical Comparison Most years between 1968 and 1976 cyanophytes comprised greater than 50% of phytoplankton, with Oscillatoria generally the dominant cyanophyte (Harr et al. 1980). Relative contributions by other divisions were variable. Some years, a particular division was virtually absent, but in no year did any one (aside from cyanophytes) comprise more than half the total (annual) community. As described previously, the current community is dominated by chlorophytes, though the assemblages were only observed on three dates in 2009. Cyanophytes are consistently present in the community, but at their greatest relative abundance comprised less than 20% of algal cells.
CONCLUSIONS Samples containing the highest chlorophyll a concentration and phytoplankton count were not strongly correlated. This demonstrates that chlorophyll a concentration and phytoplankton abundance may not always be directly related. There was also no apparent relationship between the concentrations of chlorophyll a and taxonomic composition of the phytoplankton community. Further research may provide additional insights into short-term community dynamics and changes since the original surveys conducted in the late 1960’s.
REFERENCES
APHA, AWWA, WPCF. 1989. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 17th ed. American Public Health Associon. Washington DC.
Bailey, C., M.F. Albright. 2009. Pilot survey of Canadarago Lake and its tributaries, summer 2008. In 41st Ann. Rept. (2008). SUNY Oneonta Bio Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Dillard, G.E. 1999. Common freshwater algae of the United States. Berlin: Gebruder Borntraeger.
- 136 -
Fuhs,W.G. 1972. Canadarago Lake eutrophication study lake and tributary surveys 1968-1970 methodology and data. NYS Department of Environmental Conservation.
Harr, T.E., G.W. Fuhs, D.M. Green, L.J. Helting, S.B. Smith and S.P. Allen. 1980. limnology of Canadarago Lake. In Bloomfield, J.A. (ed.) Lakes of New York State , Vol. III. Ecology of east-central NY lakes. Academic Press, Inc., New York City, NY. Pp. 129-264.
Prescott, G. W. 1954. The fresh-water algae. WM. C. Brown Company. Dubuque.
Sheath, R.G., J.D. Wehr. 2003. Introduction to freshwater algae. In: Freshwater algae of North America. Elsevier. San Diego.
Stevenson, R.J., J.P. Smol. 2003. Use of algae in environmental assessments. In: Wehr, J.D. and R.G. Sheath (Ed.). Freshwater Algae of North America. Elsevier. San Diego.
Welschmyer, N.A. 1994. Fluorometric analysis of chlorophyll a in the presence of chlorophyll b and pheopigments. Limnol. Oceanogr. 39:1985-1992.
- 137 - Walleye (Sander vitreus) seasonal activity and habitat utilization in Otsego Lake, New York
Justin Potter1, John M. Byrne2, Daniel S. Stich2 and John R. Foster3
Abstract: Ultrasonic telemetry was used to characterize seasonal distribution, activity, and habitat utilization of 7 Oneida Lake strain, adult walleye in Otsego Lake, New York. Comparisons of cumulative distance traveled from 24-hour surveys conducted from 2007 to 2009 were evaluated to determine the differences in activity from summer (n = 14) and fall (n = 11). Distance traveled in a diel cycle was significantly different between the summer (µ = 4684 m) and the fall (µ = 7390 m). Although tagged walleye were located predominately in the northern region of the lake in late July through November, hourly position data collected over entire 24-hour cycles determined seasonal differences in habitat utilization with increased activity in the fall.
INTRODUCTION
Research on walleye activity and habitat utilization have been documented for riverine systems (Paragamian 1989; Fago and Meegan 2000); reservoirs (Prophet et al. 1989; DePhilip et al. 2004); and lakes using mark-recapture techniques (Forney 1963) and sonic and radio telemetry (Foust and Haynes 2007; Holt et al. 1977; Palmer et al. 2005; Hanson 2006). In Otsego Lake, telemetry studies have indicated substantial differences with these earlier studies. Much greater variability in habitat utilization, distance travelled and activity occurred when observed throughout a 24-h period (Byrne et al. 2009; Stich et al. 2008). Knowledge of seasonal distribution, habitat utilization and activity of game fish are critical components in fisheries research and management. Sonic and radio tagged walleye have exhibited seasonally specific activity ranges in complex systems that offered both lake and riverine habitats (Paragarmian 1989, Palmer et al. 2005; Hanson 2006). However, these previous studies have been conducted in relatively shallow lakes, reservoirs and rivers, using naturally reproducing walleye populations. Otsego Lake, a deep, elongated, steep sided, cold-water lake has a very different hydrography and ecology. Further, Otsego Lake’s walleye population is made up of stocked Oneida Lake strain fish. Walleye telemetry studies in Otsego Lake by Golding et al. (2007) and Decker et al. (2008) indicate possible seasonal differences in habitat utilization, activity patterns and distribution than what have previously been reported elsewhere. However, the extent of available data prevented these earlier researchers from applying statistical analysis to seasonal comparisons of activity patterns and habitat utilization in Otsego Lake walleye. In this study, ultrasonic telemetry techniques were used to assess seasonal distribution, habitat utilization, and diel movements of Oneida Lake strain walleye stocked into Otsego Lake, New York. In order to maximize the number of observations, previous data collected by Golding et al. (2007), Stich et
1R. C. MacWatters Intern in Aquatic Sciences, 2009. Fisheries & Wildlife Dept., SUNY Cobleskill. 2 2008, 2007 R.C. MacWatters Interns in Aquatic Sciences, Fisheries & Wildlife Dept., SUNY Cobleskill. 3 Prof. & Chair, Fisheries & Wildlife Dept., SUNY Cobleskill.
- 138 - al. (2008), Decker et al. (2008) and Byrne et al. (2009) on Otsego Lake walleye were combined with the data collected in this study.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Otsego Lake (42º40’N-70º00’W) is a long, narrow lake with a surface area of 1,711 ha, a length of 13.28 km, and a mean width of 1.28 km. The lake is deep and steep sided with a maximum depth of 50.5 m and a mean depth of 24.9 m (MacWatters et al. 1980). Otsego Lake is dimictic with physical characteristics of an oligotrophic lake and a water chemistry of a mesotrophic lake (Harman et al. 1997). In April 2009, three walleye from Shadow Brook and one walleye from Cripple Creek (Figure 1) were implanted with Sonotronics model CT-83-I temperature coded transmitters following Paragamian (1989) and Hart & Summerfelt (1975). This model of transmitter has a life expectancy of 36 months. Fish tagged by Stich et al. (2007) and Byrne et al. (2008) were also used in this study (Table 1). Transmitters were calibrated for an accuracy of ± 0.5 ºC. Pinger pattern, pulse interval, tag year, gender, and tag frequency of individual fish are provided in Table 1.
Table 1. Tag year, fish gender, frequency, ping pattern, pulse intervals, current status for walleye studied in Otsego Lake, 2009.
I.D. Pulse Ping Year Sex Frequency Interval Status Pattern (ms) 2007 Female 74D 3 3 4 4 960 Active 2007 Female 77D 5 7 8 7 1230 *EFF 2007 Male 75D 3 4 4 870 *EFF 2008 Male 69J 5 5 7 7 1210 Active 2008 Male 70J 5 5 7 8 1200 Active 2008 Female 71J 5 7 6 7 1230 Active 2009 Female 74P 3 4 7 4 1020 *EFF 2009 Male 75P 3 4 7 5 1030 Active 2009 Male 76P 3 5 5 7 1040 Active 2009 Female 77P 3 5 5 8 1050 Harvested 11/09 (*EFF- Stationary tag, indicating death or expulsion from fish, 2009 data was omitted.)
Data for each walleye included, position, time of day, water temperature at fish location, water depth, and habitat characteristics. Walleye were located by boat using a Sonotronics DH-4 directional hydrophone and USR-96 receiver. Position data were recorded for each transmitter by
- 139 - maneuvering the boat toward the direction of the greatest pinger volume detected by the hydrophone. Fish were located when the hydrophone could be rotated 360º without attenuating the signal strength. A Garmin GPS unit was used to collect coordinates on each fish’s horizontal location within ± 5 m. Water depth was measured with a Vexilar FL-18 flasher. ArcMap 9.3 GIS and Microsoft Excel were used to analyze data. Including previous seasonal diel observations, there were a total of 14 twenty-four hour summer tracks and 11 twenty-four hour fall tracks used in this study.
Cripple Creek
Sunken Is.
Hyde Shadow Brook Bay
Pegg’s Pt.
Gravelly Pt.
Five Mile Pt.
Three Mile Pt.
Leatherstocking Creek
Point Judith Kingfisher Tower
Susquehanna R.
Figure 1. Bathymetric map of Otsego Lake, New York.
- 140 - RESULTS Seasonal Activity Levels
Hourly position data collected over 24-hour periods from 2007 to 2009 were compiled to compare total mean daily distances traveled per month (Figure 2). The average total distance during an hourly monitored diel cycle was greatest in June = 10,604 m followed by November = 8689 m. However, the number of samples was too small to test for significance; therefore summer months (June-August) were combined (N = 14), as were, fall (September-November) months (N = 11). Distance traveled in a diel cycle was significantly lower in the summer (mean = 4684 m) than the fall (mean = 7390 m; Wilcoxon two-sample test, P < 0.05).
12,000
10,000
8,000
6,000
4,000
Distance traveled traveled (m) Distance 2,000
0 June July August October November
(N = 2) (N = 5) (N = 9) (N = 9) (N = 2) Month & Number Sampled
Figure 2. Total mean traveled distance over diel cycles (June- November, 2007-2009).
Seasonal changes in activity shown by individual fish followed a similar pattern (Figure 3). Individual walleye observed hourly over a diel cycle in 2009 were more active in the fall in comparison to the individual’s summer activity level. The activity of fish 74D was the exception. Its July 24-hour activity was not significantly different from that observed in the fall (t-test, P > 0.05). This walleye showed habitat fidelity between summer and fall (see Figure 15).
- 141 - 10000 8000 6000 4000
Distance (m) 2000 0 JulyAug.Oct. JulyOct.Nov. JulyAug.Oct. JulyOct. JulyAug.Oct.Nov. Oct.
75P 70J 77P 74D 76P 71J Fish ID
Figure 3. Total distance traveled during seasonal diel cycles for individual walleye, July- November 2009.
The differences in summer and fall activity levels of individual walleye are illustrated in their 24-hour tracks (Figure 4-6). In the summer, the activity of walleyes tracked hourly over a diel cycle increased primarily at night. Movements were either carried out in short bursts or over extended periods. The activity of fish 76P was minimal and concentrated within the rocky shelf along Sunken Island (Figure 4), whereas fish 75P (Figure 5) remained highly active between 2000hrs and 0440hrs—utilizing a range of habitats including the deepest portions of the lake.
28-29 July 2009 6-7 November 2009
Sunken Is.
Sunken Island
Figure 4. Movement of Fish 76P in July (Total Distance Traveled = 1,881 m) and November 2009 (Total Distance Traveled = 6,372 m).
- 142 - 24- 25August 2009 11-12 October 2009
Figure 5. Movement of Fish 75P in August (Total Distance Traveled = 7,349 m) and October 2009 (Total Distance Traveled = 9,688 m).
28-29 July 2009 11-12 October 2009
Sunken Island
Figure 6. Movement of Fish 70J in July (Total Distance Traveled = 3,518 m) and October 2009 (Total Distance Traveled = 8,392 m).
Fall activity of fish 76P and 70J in a 24-hour period significantly increased. Walleyes remained active and in pelagic waters throughout the day and night. In October, fish 70J had vacated Gravelly Point and moved north. During the afternoon and evening of 11 October fish 75P and 70J utilized similar habitats between Clarke Point and Sunken Island (Figure 4 & 6).
- 143 - Seasonal Temperature Utilization
Monthly temperature profiles collected by Biological Field Station staff in the deepest area of the lake were used to provide a framework of temperature utilization by walleye. In the summer walleye often utilized either shallow inshore waters or in surface waters. For example, in July all walleye but 74P and in August all walleye, but 77P, occurred at mean temperatures exceeding those in off-shore surface waters. These fish were utilizing shallow inshore waters which were warmer than offshore surface waters (Table 2).
The average temperature utilized by walleye during the summer of 2009 was 22.0ºC with a maximum temperature of 26.0 ºC and a minimum temperature of 12.0ºC. Walleyes observed hourly throughout diel cycle occurred temperatures that rarely deviated beyond ± 4º (Table 2). The mean temperature selected by walleye was 15.2ºC in early to mid-October, 11.7ºC in late October, and 9.6ºC in November. Surface water temperatures decreased in the fall from 19.5°C in September to 9.6°C in November.
Table 2. Mean and range of temperature utilized in a 24-hour cycle, summer and fall 2009.
July August October November Tag Mean Temp. Mean Temp. Mean Temp. Mean Temp. Temp. Range Temp. Range Temp. Range Temp. Range °C °C °C °C 70J 22.4 2.0 14.7 1.5 9.9 1.0 71J 15.9 1.0 74D 21.5 1.0 15.4 2.0 75P 23.8 3.5 24.0 6.5 15.0 0.5 76P 22.9 0.5 24.9 0.5 16.2 4.0 10.1 0.5 77P 23.0 1.5 22.4 12.5 14.5 3.5 Temp./Depth 22.4-12.8°C 22.5-20.9°C 16.1-14.9°C 10.3-9.0°C Surface - 12 m 8 m 12 m 18 m Thermocline
Seasonal Depth Utilization
Seasonal depth utilization collected from 2007-2009 indicated monthly differences (Figure 7). Except for the month of November, walleye consistently occurred over deeper water at night than they did during daylight hours (t-test, P < 0.05). Walleye were found in relatively shallow water in May and July through September, but were found over deeper water in June, October, and November.
- 144 - 30
25
20
15
10 Water Depth (m)
5
0 Day Day May Oct. July Day Day Day Day Day Day Day Day Nov. Aug. June Sept. Night Night Night Night Night Night Night
Figure 7. Comparison of average monthly water depth (May-November, 2007-2009) where walleye were observed during the day and night.
Seasonal differences in water depth throughout a 24-hour period were evident in fish 76P (Figure 8), 75P (Figure 9), and 70J (Figure 10). Note that these are the total water depths at which the walleye were located, not the depth at which the fish were suspended. In a diel cycle, walleye were located in shallower water depths in the summer compared to fall. However, in August, fish 75P utilized pelagic waters in the deepest portion of the lake during the night.
Hour of Day
123456789101112131415161718192021222324 0.0
20.0
40.0 Water Depth (m) 76-P (28-29 July) 76-P (24-25 Aug.) 76-P (3-4 Oct.) 76-P (6-7 Nov.)
Figure 8. Water depths at which Fish 76P was observed over a diel cycle during the summer and fall, 2009.
- 145 - Hour of Day 123456789101112131415161718192021222324 0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 Water Depth (m) 75-P (28-29 July) 75-P (24-25 Aug.) 75-P (11-12 Oct.)
Figure 9. Water depths at which Fish 75P was observed over a diel cycle during the summer and fall, 2009.
Hour of Day 123456789101112131415161718192021222324 0.0 10.0 20.0 30.0 40.0 50.0 Water Depth (m) 70-J (28-29 July) 70-J (11-12 Oct.) 70-J (6-7 Nov.)
Figure 10. Water depths at which Fish 70P was observed over a diel cycle during the summer and fall, 2009.
Seasonal Habitat Utilization
Seasonal habitat utilization varied among individual walleye. Several walleye exhibited habitat fidelity in the summer (Figure 11 & 12). However, 76P was more active in the fall, traveling south and returning to previously occupied habitat in the north (Figure 11), while 74D remained along the shoals north of Five Mile Point (Figure 12). Fish 70J moved south from Hyde Bay in mid-June then utilized shoals and steep drop offs throughout the summer in a portion of the lake that differed from its fall positions (Figure 13). Walleyes 77P (Figure 14), 75P (Figure 15), and 71J (Figure 16) were the only tagged fish known to move south of Three Mile Point in the summer. In the fall, the majority of tagged walleye selected pelagic waters and were seldom located in littoral zones.
- 146 -
Figure 11. Habitat utilization of walleye 76P Figure 12. Habitat utilization of walleye 74D in the summer (N = 102) and fall (N = 64), the summer (N = 67) and fall (N = 37), 2009. 2009.
Figure 13. Habitat utilization of walleye 70J Figure 14. Habitat utilization of walleye 77P in the summer (N = 81) and fall (N = 79), the summer (N = 95) and fall (N = 39), 2009. 2009.
- 147 -
Figure 15. Habitat utilization of walleye 75P Figure 16. Habitat utilization of walleye 71J in the summer (N = 91) and fall (N = 50), the summer (N = 31) and fall (N = 23), 2009. 2009.
DISCUSSION
Biotelemetry studies of walleye in Otsego Lake have been conducted to evaluate spawning migrations (Decker et al. 2008), movement and distribution (Golding et al. 2007), and diel habitat utilization and activity (Stich et al. 2008; Byrne et al. 2009). This study is the first examination of walleye seasonal activity and habitat utilization in Otsego Lake.
Sonic and radio tagged walleye have exhibited seasonally specific activity ranges in complex systems that offered both lake and riverine habitats (Paragarmian 1989, Palmer et al. 2005; Hanson 2006). In Otsego Lake walleye activity also varied with season. Position data collected hourly over diel cycles from 2007 to 2009 indicated that average movement over a 24 hour period was greatest in June (10,604 m), followed by November (8,689 m). Walleye were least active in July (3,132 m). Distance traveled in a 24-hour period was significantly greater in the fall compared to the summer. Decreased activity of walleye during summer months also occurred in riverine systems (Paragarmian 1989) and shallow lakes (Holt et al. 1977). Hanson (2006) evaluated the seasonal activity levels of walleye in three stages; where post-spawning migrations (April-June) were significantly greater than summer movements (July-August), and that walleye movements increased during the fall (September-February) due to increased foraging and decreases in the daily photoperiod.
- 148 -
Although significant increases in the total distance traveled during a 24-hour observation were detected from July through November in Otsego Lake, tagged walleye utilized a smaller portion of the lake (north of Five Mile Point) and these fish were less spatially separated from each other from September to November. Similarly, Golding et al. (2007) noted that walleye were most often located at the north end of Otsego Lake, when tracked randomly between May and November. The convergence onto a selected region of the lake during the fall with increased movement and activity in pelagic waters, was also described by Johnson et al. (1988). Mark and recapture studies in Oneida Lake, a relatively shallow, mesotrophic, cool-water lake, also indicated that post-spawning walleye were widely distributed during late summer and then converged into a limited region in the fall (Forney 1963).
Palmer et al. (2005) described the vertical distribution of walleye in Claytor Lake, Virginia as being strongly fixed just above the thermocline. Stich et al. (2008) noted that the summer temperature/depth preference were the primary factors determining walleye position in the water column of Otsego Lake. Analysis of seasonal temperature utilization of walleye in Otsego Lake from 2007-2009 illustrated a mean water temperature preference of 22.0ºC during the summer and a mean fall temperature selection of 13.7ºC. These findings suggest that walleye occur much closer to the surface and seldom go below 7-10 m in the summer or fall. This analysis agrees with Byrne et al. (2009) who suggested that the temperature and depth utilized by alewives (Brooking and Cornwell 2005, 2008) was correlated to the depth and temperatures selected by walleye.
The mean depth over which walleye were located showed a decrease from June (18.5 m) to July (9.6 m) and consecutive increases from August (9.5 m) through November (27.2 m). Further comparisons of depth illustrated that walleye remained over deeper portions of the lake throughout the entire fall diel cycles; 18 m during the day and 24.7 m at night, respectively. In the summer, walleye were found over a mean depth of 8.9 m during the day and over a mean depth of 15.6 m at night.
Tagged walleye in Otsego Lake were distributed throughout the lake during the summer of 2009. Nomadic behavior was observed in several walleye over the course of this study and previous Otsego Lake studies (Stich et al. 2008; Byrne et al. 2009). However whether individuals roam in search of suitable habitat or to follow prey items could not be determined. Palmer et al. (2005) affirmed that walleye tracked from winter through post-spawning seasons migrated back to their winter locations and that walleye developed home ranges. Some walleye studied in Otsego Lake also appeared to have ranges of central activity. For example, in August 75P showed strong evidence of homing, moving across the lake and returning to the spot where it started 24 hours earlier period. The distribution data also indicated that at least some fish confined their activity to a limited area and these home ranges may have seasonal differences. However, the fish that appeared to have home ranges in Otsego Lake generally occurred over a much larger area than those observed in Honoeye Lake, a nearby shallow, eutrophic warm-water lake (Foust and Haynes 2006). These same Oneida strain walleye only moved 31 m a day in the summer.
- 149 - Seasonal differences in habitat utilization, distribution and movement patterns of Oneida Lake strain walleye in Otsego Lake appear to be strongly influenced by lake hydrography, thermocline depth, diversity in habitat types, and prey availability. While this is the most comprehensive study of walleye seasonal habitat utilization and movements in Otsego Lake, much more research is needed. To date, very little data has been collected from December to May. Collecting that information should be the focus of future studies.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
SUNY Cobleskill’s Fisheries and Wildlife Technician Kevin Poole provided considerable effort in the field and guidance throughout this project; furnishing the map of Otsego Lake used to analyze movement and position data. Henry Whitbeck also provided support in developing the GIS models. Interns at the Biological Field Station and SUNY Cobleskill Fisheries and Wildlife students assisted during surveys. Special thanks to SUNY Cobleskill Fisheries and Wildlife students Ian Sutherland, Corey Tizzio, Kristen Wokanick, and John Byrne; and SUNY ESF’s Carter Bailey for their help during individual 24-hour surveys. Dr. Willard Harman, Matt Albright and Holly Waterfield of the SUNY Oneonta Biological Field Station provided valuable insight and technical support throughout the duration of the field work.
REFERENCES
Brooking, T.E. and M.D. Cornwell. 2008. Hydroacoustic surveys of Otsego Lake, 2007. In 40th Ann. Rept. (2007). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Stat., SUNY Oneonta.
Byrne J.M., D.S. Stich, and J.R. Foster. 2009. Diel movements and habitat utilization of walleye (Sander vitreus) in Otsego Lake. In 41st Ann. Rept. (2008). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Stat., SUNY Oneonta.
Cornwell, Mark D. & N.D. McBride. 2007. Walleye (Sander vitreus) reintroduction update: Walleye stocking, gill netting, and diet analysis. In 39th Ann. Rept. (2006). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta.
Decker, B.F., D.S. Stich, M.A. DiSarno, and J.R. Foster. 2008. Walleye Spawning movements in Otsego Lake, NY. In 40th Ann. Rept. (2007). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Stat., SUNY Oneonta.
DePhilip, M.M., J.S. Diana, and D. Smith. 2005. Movement of walleye in an impounded reach of the Au Sable River, Michigan, USA. Environmental Biology of Fishes. Springer Netherlands. 72 (4) 455-463.
Fago, D. and S. Meegan. 2000. Migrational Patterns and Trends of Movement on Walleye Populations of Lower Wisconsin River. Wisconsin Dept. of Natural Resources. Bureau of Integrated Science Services: Fish & Habitat Research Section.
Forney, J.L. 1963. Distribution and movement of marked walleye in Oneida Lake, New York. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society. 92: 47-52.
- 150 - Foust, J.C. and J.M. Haynes. 2007. Failure of walleye recruitment in a lake with little suitable Spawning habitat is probably exacerbated by restricted home ranges. Journal of Freshwater Ecology. 22 (2) 297-304.
Golding, I.T., E. Reineke, and J.R. Foster. 2007. Distribution and movements of walleye (Sander vitreum) in Otsego Lake, NY. In 39th Ann. Rept. (2006). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Stat., SUNY Oneonta.
Hanson, J.R. 2006. Seasonal Movement Patterns of Walleye (Sander vitreus) in Muskegon River and Muskegon Lake, Michigan. School of Natural Resources and Environment: The University of Michigan. 1-36.
Harman, W.N., L.P. Sohacki, M.F. Albright and D.L. Rosen. 1997. The state of Otsego Lake 1936-1996. Occass. Pap. No. 30. SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Stat., SUNY Oneonta.
Hart, L.G., and R.C. Summerfelt. 1975. Surgical procedures for implanting ultrasonic Transmitters into flathead catfish (Plyodictis olivaris). Transactions of the American Fisheries Society. 104: 56-59.
Holt, C.S., G.S.D. Grant, G.P. Oberstar, C.C. Oakes, and D.W. Bradt. 1977. Movement of Walleye, Stizostedion vitreum, Lake Benmidji, Minnesota as determined by radio- biotelemetry. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society. 106: 163-169.
Johnson, B.L., D.L. Smith, and R.F. Carline. 1988. Habitat preferences, survival, growth, foods, and harvests of walleye and walleye x sauger hybrids. North American Journal of Fisheries Management. 8: 292-304.
Kelso, J.R.M. (1978). Diel Rhythm of walleye, Stizostedion, vitreum, vitreum. Journal of Fish Biology Vol. 12 (593-599).
MacWatters R., T. Sioussat, and C. Sohacki. 1980. The Distribution of Selected Fishes of the Littoral Zone of Otsego Lake with Remarks on Associations with Major Macrophytes and Bottom Types. In 13th Ann. Rept. (1979). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Stat., SUNY Oneonta.
Palmer, G.C., B.R. Murphy, and E.M. Hallerman. 2005. Movements of walleye in Claytor Lake and the Upper New River, which indicate two distinct lake and river populations. North American Journal of Fisheries Management. 25: 1448-1455.
Paragamian, V.L. 1989. Seasonal habitat use by walleye in a warmwater river system, as determined by radio telemetry, and implications for management. 9: 392-401.
Prophet, C.W., T.B. Brungardt, and N.K. Prophet. 1989. Diel Behavior and Seasonal Distribution of Walleye, Stizostedion vitreum Mitchill, in Marion Reservoir, Based on Ultrasonic Telemetry. Journal of Freshwater Ecology. 5: 177-185.
Stich, D.S., B. Decker, J. Lydon, J. Byrne, J.R. Foster. 2008. Summer, diel habitat utilization of walleye in Otsego Lake, NY. In 40th Ann. Rept. (2007). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Stat., SUNY Oneonta.
- 151 - The efficacy of jaw tag, visual implant elastomer, fin clip, and fin punch in Otsego Lake, NY walleye (Sander vitreus) studies
William T. Crawley1, Joseph C. Lydon4, John R. Foster3, David Johns1, Kevin J. Poole4 and Mark D. Cornwell3
Abstract: Retention and impacts of jaw tags, visual implant elastomer (VIE) tags, fin clips, and fin punches were studied in Otsego Lake walleye to determine the most effective method for long term marking and tagging. Walleye were captured on their spawning migration, marked and tagged, and recaptured one year later in the same streams or in the lake. The one year retention of dorsal spine punches (98.6%) was significantly higher than jaw tags (75.4%) or VIE tags (84.9%). Jaw tags negatively impacted growth and survival and fin clips reduced growth in male walleye. While dorsal spine punch had disadvantages that limited its usefulness in some studies, it appeared to be the most effective method of marking walleye for abundance and homing studies.
INTRODUCTION
Effective methods of marking and tagging fish are critical for determining population abundance, exploitation rates, population dynamics and fish movements and migrations (Hilborn et al. 1990; Guy et al. 1996). The efficacy of marking and tagging systems are dependent upon four factors: ease/cost of application and detection, tag retention, impact on growth, and impact on survival. If tag retention is poor, or mortality of tagged fish is increased, then fisheries managers cannot accurately develop the data necessary to effectively manage the fishery (Ricker 1975), such as determinations of fish abundance or the stocking densities necessary for a body of water like Otsego Lake.
Studies of marking and tagging efficacy on various fishes have shown conflicting results. For example, fin clipping has been shown to reduce survival in smallmouth bass (Coble 1971), largemouth bass (Ricker 1949) and brook trout (Mears and Hatch 1976) and reduce growth rates in largemouth bass (Ricker 1949), but not in walleye (Churchill 1963) and smallmouth bass (Coble 1971). Similarly, the retention or visibility of VIE tags have been shown to vary greatly by species (Close 2000; Goldsmith et al. 2003), tagging location (Olsen et al. 2004; Thompson et al. 2005), and study duration (Close and Jones 2002).
Fisheries biologists and managers have frequently tagged walleye to determine size limits, exploitation rates, and creel limits (Bandow et al. 1993; Newman and Hoff 1998). Walleye fingerlings stocked into Otsego Lake frequently receive fin clips to evaluate year-class strength and stocking parameters. In 2008 adult walleye received jaw tags in order to gather information on exploitation rates, elastomer tags to study homing, and fin punches to determine population size (Lydon 2008.) In this paper the efficacy of these marking and tagging methods were evaluated to determine the best approach for future walleye studies in Otsego Lake.
1 Fisheries & Aquaculture Student, Fisheries & Wildlife Dept., SUNY Cobleskill. 2 R. C. MacWatters Intern in Aquatic Sciences, 2007. Fisheries & Wildlife Dept., SUNY Cobleskill. 3 BFS Visiting Researcher, Fisheries & Wildlife Dept., SUNY Cobleskill. 4 Fisheries & Wildlife Dept., SUNY Cobleskill.
- 152 - MATERIALS AND METHODS Otsego Lake is a young glacially formed oligotrophic lake located in Otsego County, New York (42.7832°N 74.8892°W). The lake has an average depth of 25 m, a maximum depth of 50.5 m, a surface area of 1,711 ha and an elevation of 364.2 m (Figure 1; Harman et al. 1997).
Walleye were captured in six foot Oneida trap nets set on Sunken Island, and in the mouths of Shadow Brook, and Hayden, Cripple, and Leatherstocking Creeks from 9-25 April 2008 (Figure 1). Walleye were removed from the nets daily, measured, marked and returned to the opposite side of the net from which they were captured.
Figure 1. Trap net locations (black dots) in Otsego Lake, NY.
- 153 - A total of 628 walleye were marked with a hole-punch at the base of the third dorsal fin spine and injected with a visible implant elastomer (VIE) behind the left eye. VIE marks were color coded to indicate capture site. Within this group of 628 marked walleye, 490 fish also received a NYSDEC numerically coded jaw-tag.
After one year in the lake, three techniques were used to recapture walleye to examine for tag loss. On 3, 4, 9, 16 June 2009 a Smith-Root SR-16 boat electro-fisher was used to sample Otsego Lake’s entire shoreline plus Sunken Island shoal. A different section of the lake was shocked each night. From 2 April to 2 May 2009 Oneida trap nets were used to recapture walleye returning to Cripple Creek, Hayden Creek, and Shadow Brook. Trap nets were used from 7 April to 2 May at Leatherstocking Creek (Figure 1). On 16, 17, 18 April 2009 Smith-Root and Halltech backpack electro-shockers were also used in Cripple Creek (below Clarke Pond, Shadow Brook (at Mill Road) and Hayden Creek (County Road-53) to recapture walleye.
All walleye captured were examined for VIE tags, (using an ultraviolet handheld light), jaw tags, fin clips, dorsal hole punches and anal hole punches. If there was evidence of any one mark type, the other mark types had been applied and should be evident. If they were not, that mark was reported as “not retained”. Once a walleye was examined for marks, each fish was sexed, a VIE tag was implanted in the isthmus of the fish and a hole was punched in the anal fin.
RESULTS & DISCUSSION Fin Punch Fin punches are often used to determine population size and short-term identification (Guy et al. 1996). The one year retention rate of a hole punch to the 3rd dorsal spine was 98.7%, the highest of the three tags applied to the walleye in 2008. The occurrence of dorsal spine punches was significantly better than the jaw tag (75.4%) or VIE tag (83.8%; Chi square test P < 0.001). While the fin punch to the dorsal spine was easy to detect the subsequent punch to the anal fin ray required a very close examination to detect. Visual Implant Elastomer
Elastomer is a colored viscous fluid that is injected into tissue beneath the skin. The material cures shortly after injection leaving a pliable, solid tag imbedded in subcutaneous tissue. With multiple color combinations and injection sites, VIE tags are an alternative to jaw tags, although they do not allow the identification of individual fish with a unique number.
In most cases, a black light was required to observe elastomer tags on walleye. In many cases, only a tiny speck of the elastomer remained from the ¼-inch streak that had been implanted initially. Very careful inspection was required to distinguish yellow and green elastomer.
In this study the one year retention rate of visual implant elastomer (VIE) tags was 83.8%, significantly poorer than the dorsal spine punches (Chi square test P < 0.001). The retention rate for VIE tags found here was consistent with retention rates for walleye (82.5%
- 154 - Thompson et al. 2005), Atlantic salmon (90% over 17 months; Fitzgerald 2004) and Coho salmon with a long term retention of 72% (Bailey et al. 1998).
Rough handling and netting impacted tag retention. For example, after walleye were processed from a gill net sampling in the fall of 2008, a few elastomer tags were found in the bottom of the tote. Close inspection of the netted walleye revealed which ones had lost their elastomer. In this study, or previous studies, there was no evidence that elastomer marking decreased survival (Dewey and Zigler 1996; Bailey et al. 1998; Thompson et al 2005) or growth (Bailey et al. 1998; Olsen and Vollestad 2001).
Fin Clip
Fin clips are frequently used to determine walleye population size (Olsen et al. 2008). They have a distinct advantage in that they are very easy to detect. Their disadvantage is that there are a limited number of fins, thus there are limited opportunities to vary the clips. Fin clips have been reported to have a high retention rates: 98.0% in steelheads (Bumgarner et al. 2009) and 100% for black crappie (Conover 1999). Fin clipping has been shown to reduce growth and survival of many species (Ricker 1949; Coble 1971; Mears and Hatch 1976). The question asked here was whether it impacts walleye growth. In order to answer that question, walleye scales collected in 2008 were used to back calculate growth of unclipped and untagged walleye. These back calculations were used to develop an equation to predict one year’s growth from any sized walleye (Figure 2).
Annulus
Growth Between Annuli Length (mm) at Age N + N Age 1 at (mm) Length
Length (mm) at Age N
Figure 2. Back calculation growth of 1-year growth based on scales captured from non-tagged walleye.
- 155 - The equation presented in Figure 2 was used to examine the average growth of fall fingerlings (15,000 stocked) which received a right ventral fin clip in 2003 (Table 1). Between 2008 and 2009 right ventral fin clipped male walleye grew an average of 37mm. This was significantly slower than the 43mm expected growth of the same sized walleye (t-test, P < 0.01). However, ventral fin clipping did not negatively impact the growth of female walleyes (t-test , P > .05), which grew an average of 39mm compared to an expected growth of 38 mm (Table 1). While fin clipping has been shown not to reduce walleye growth in some studies (Thompson et al. 2005; Churchill 1963) it appears to have impacted male walleye growth in this study.
Table 1. Growth of male and female walleye with a right ventral fin clip.
Average Length Average Length Expected Length Sex 2008 2009 2009
Male 435mm (n=62) 472mm (n=58) 478mm
Female 484mm (n= 13) 523mm (n=18) 522mm
Jaw Tag
Fisheries managers frequently utilize jaw tags on walleye to determine exploitation rates, since the tags are easy to observe, are frequently returned by fisherman and the numerical coding provide information on individual fish (Newman and Hoff 1998). Besides these positive attributes, jaw tags appeared to have some negative features as well. Between 2008 and 2009 there was a proportional decrease in walleye with jaw tags relative to the number of walleye with dorsal fin punches. In 2008, 78% of the 628 fish fin punched received jaw tags. However, in 2009 only 60% of the fin punched fish recaptured had jaw tags (Chi Square Test, P < .001). At least in some walleye there was evidence of scaring on the jaw indicating tag loss. Similar retention rates of 72.2% - 82.4% were observed by Newman & Hoff’s (1998) study, although Isermann’s (2005) 49-50% retention rate was much lower. Whitney (1958) found a lifetime retention rate of 40-60%. Newman & Hoff (1998) also suggested that the fyke nets may cause the walleye to lose their jaw tags due to getting tangled in the nets. This phenomenon was also observed during this study. At least two walleye were observed to lose their jaw tags when they became entangled in the nets. Increase mortality of jaw tagged fish is also a possibility of the proportional decrease in walleye in the recapture sample. Between 2008 and 2009, 29.3% of the jaw tagged walleye had either no growth or negative growth (Figure 3), indicating that at least some jaw tagged walleye were starving. In fact, jaw tags appeared to greatly hinder walleye growth (Figure 3). The average growth of jaw tagged walleye between 2008 and 2009 was only 12 mm. The averaged expected
- 156 - growth of these same walleye if they had not received a jaw tag was 39 mm (t-test, P < 0.01). In a similar study, jaw tags were found to inhibit growth of lake trout (DeRoche 1963).
Figure 3. Observed 1-year growth of jaw tagged walleye between 2008 and 2009 compared to expected growth of non-tagged walleye.
CONCLUSION From a cost-benefit perspective, fin clipping appears to have disadvantages of reduction of growth, increase mortality and limited opportunities for unique marking combinations. Elastomer marking and jaw tagging do not appear to be an effective method of marking walleyes when compared with punching a specific spine. The cost disparity is relatively minor for the purchase of jaw tags or elastomer and VIE injection equipment, but the increased time and manpower needed for these techniques is considerable, when compared to spine punching or clipping. This is because in order to use VIE tags or jaw tags, walleye had to be anesthetized, and since the spawning run was close to their harvest season, CO2 had to be used as the anesthetic instead of Tricaine (MS-222) Finquel.
- 157 - The conclusion of this study is that punching the dorsal spines is the best method of marking walleye. However, there is still a significant need to improve our knowledge of long term tag retention (or visibility) and the impact of tagging on population dynamics. The lack of definitive research evaluating tag-induced mortality and impacts on growth necessitate additional research. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
SUNY Cobleskill students volunteered much of their time checking trap nets and electro- shocking, especially Douglas Peck and Justin Potter. The gear for this study was provided by SUNY Cobleskill and SUNY Oneonta Biological Field Station. Advice on field work and assistance was provided by Matt Albright and Dr. Willard Harman from SUNY Oneonta BFS, and Fred Linhardt and Norm McBride from NYSDEC.
LITERATURE CITED
Bailey, R. E., J. R. Irvine, F. C. Dalziel, and T. C. Nelson.1998. Evaluations of visible implant fluorescent tags for marking Coho salmon smolts. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 18:191–196.
Bandow, F., K.J. KcKeag, M.F. Cook, C.L. Nixon and B.G Parsons.1993. Population Dynamics and Harvest of Maintained Walleye Population in Two Lakes of the Southern Minnesota Agricultural Region. Minnesota Department of Natural Resources. 1-26.
Bumgarner, J.D., M.L. Schuck, H.L. Blankenship. 2009. Returns of Hatchery Steelhead with Different Fin Clips and Coded Wire Tag Lengths. Washington Department of Fish and Wildlife North American Journal of Fisheries Management 29:903-913.
Churchill, W. S. 1963. The effect of fin removal on survival, growth, and vulnerability to capture of stocked walleye fingerlings. Transactions of the Am. Fisheries Society 92:298–300.
Close, T. L. 2000. Detection and retention of postocular visible implant elastomer in fingerling rainbow trout. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 20:542–545.
Close, T. C., and T. S. Jones. 2002. Detection of visible implant elastomer in fingerling and yearling rainbow trout. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 22:961–964.
Conover, G.A., Sheehan. R.J. 1999. Survival, Growth, and Mark Persistence in Juvenila Black Crappies Marked with Fin Clips, Freeze Brands, or Oxytetracycline. Department of Zoology, Southern Illinois University, Cardondale, Illinois. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 19:824-827
DeRoche. S. E. 1963. Slowed growth of lake trout following tagging. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society. Vol. 92:185-186.
- 158 - Ellison,D.G.,and W.G. Franzin. 1992. Overview of the Symposium on walleye stocks and stocking. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 12:271-275.
Fitzgerald, J.L., T.F. Sheehan, J.F. Kocik. 2004. Visibility of Visual Implant Elastomer Tags in Atlantic Salmon Reared for Two Years in Marine Net-Pens. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 24:1,222-227. Goldsmith, R. J., G. P. Closs, and H. Steen. 2003. Evaluation of visible implant elastomer for individual marking of small perch and common bully. Journal of Fish Biology 63:631– 636.
Guy, C.S., H.L. Blankenship and L.A. Nielsen. 1996. Tagging and Marking. Pages 353-383 in B. R. Murphy and D.W. Willis, editors. Fisheries techniques, 2nd edition. American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, Maryland.
Harman, W.N., L.P. Sohacki, M.F. Albright and D.L. Rosen. 1997. The state of Otsego Lake 1936-1996. Occas. Pap. #30. SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld Stat., SUNY Oneonta.
Hilborn. R.. C. J. Walters, and D. B. Jester. Jr. 1990. Value of fish marking in fisheries management. Pages 5-7 in N. C. Parker and five coeditors. Fishmarking techniques. American Fisheries Society. Symposium 7. Bethesda. Maryland.
Isermann D.A. C.T. Knight, 2005 Potential Effects of Jaw Tag Loss on Exploitation Estimates for Lake Erie Walleyes. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 25: 557-562
Lydon, J.C., M.D. Cornwell, J.R. Foster, T.E. Brooking, S. Cavaliere. 2008. Mark-recapture and catch per unit effort measures of walleye (Sander vitreus) abundance in Otsego Lake, NY. In 2008 Annual Report (2007). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Stat., SUNY Oneonta.
Newman, S.P. and M.H. Hoff. 1998. Estimates of Loss Rates of Jaw Tags on Walleyes. American Fisheries Society. 18:202-205. Olsen, E. M., J. Gjøsæter, and N. C. Stenseth. 2004. Evaluation of the use of visible implant tags in age-0 Atlantic cod. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 24:282–286.
Ricker, W. E. 1949. Effects of removal of fins upon the growth and survival of spiny-rayed fishes. Journal of Wildlife Management 13(1):29–40.
Ricker, W. E. 1975. Computation and interpretation of biological statistics of fish populations. Fisheries Research Board of Canada Bulletin 191.
Stich, D.S., B.F. Decker, J.C. Lydon, J.M. Byrne, and J.R. Foster. 2007. Diel habitat utilization of walleye (Sander vitreum) in Otsego Lake. In 40th Ann. Rept. SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
- 159 - Thompson, J. M., P. S. Hirethota, and B. T. Eggold. 2005. A comparison of elastomer marks and fin clips as marking techniques for walleye. North American Journal of Fisheries Management. 25:308–315.
VanDeValk, A. J., L. G. Rudstam, J. R. Jackson, T. E. Brooking, S. D. Krueger, J. L. Forney, W. W. Fetzer, R. DeBruyne, and E. L. Mills. 2008. Walleye stock assessment and population projections for Oneida Lake, 2007-2010. NY Federal Aid Study VII, Job 103. February 2008. NYSDEC, Albany, NY. 65 pp
Whitney, R. R. 1958. Numbers of mature walleyes in Clear Lake, Iowa, 1952–53, as estimated by tagging. Iowa State Journal of Science 33:55–79.
Zerrenner. W. N., D. C. Josephson, and C. C. Krueger. 1997. The growth, mortality, and mark retention of hatchery brook trout marked with visible implant tags, jaw tags, and adipose fin clips. Progressive Fish Culturist. Vol. 59:241
- 160 - The effectiveness of spring stream electro-fishing, trap netting and lake electro-fishing for determining walleye (Sander vitreus) abundance in Otsego Lake, NY
Douglas J. Peck1, John R. Foster2, Joseph C. Lydon3, Kevin J. Poole and Mark D. Cornwell2
Abstract: This study was conducted to determine an efficient and accurate method of monitoring walleye populations in Otsego Lake. Catch per unit effort and mark and recapture data were collected using trap nets, stream electro-fishing, spring and fall boat electro-fishing, and fall gill netting. All sampling methods had flaws that limited their usefulness in monitoring walleye abundance. While electro-fishing samples of walleye in their spawning streams were strongly biased toward males, stream electro-fishing to conduct mark and recapture determinations of walleye abundance appear to be the most efficient way of monitoring walleye populations in Otsego Lake.
INTRODUCTION
Walleye (Sander vitreus) is an apex predator that is a critical component of the fisheries and ecology of many New York lakes and reservoirs (Festa et al. 1987). In order to monitor the populations of this important game fish, fisheries managers and researchers require accurate measures of abundance. Direct measures of walleye abundance, such as mark and recapture population estimations, are time consuming and expensive (Rogers et al. 2005). More often relative measures of abundance, such as angler success, netting, or electro-fishing indices of catch per unit effort are utilized (Hansen et. al 2000; Irwin et al. 2008; VanDeValk et al. 2008). In New York walleye population estimates follow the Percid Sampling Manual (Forney et al. 1994) developed by Cornell’s Warm-water Fisheries Unit and the NYS Department of Environmental Conservation. This approach, which has been applied to many walleye lakes and reservoirs, makes use of catch per unit effort data from night boat electro-fishing, gill netting, trawling as well as mark and recapture studies (Brooking et al. 2002, 2004; VanDeValk et al. 2008).
The Percid Sampling Manual was utilized to determine the relative abundance of Otsego Lake’s walleye population using catch per unit effort data from boat electro-fishing, gillnetting (Cornwell & McBride 2007) and from mark and recapture studies (Lydon et al. 2008). The population estimates calculated by Lydon et al. (2008) were significantly less than the number of walleye indicated by electro-fishing and gillnet catches (Cornwell and McBride 2007). The discrepancy may be due to the highly mobile character of Otsego Lake walleye, differences in their habitat utilization, or catchability compared to that found in shallow weedy lakes and reservoirs utilized in previous studies of walleye abundance (Stich et al. 2007; Byrne et al. 2008).
1 Fisheries & Aquaculture Student, Fisheries & Wildlife Dept., SUNY Cobleskill, NY. 2 Fisheries & Wildlife Dept., SUNY Cobleskill, NY. 3 Robert C. MacWatters Intern in Aquatic Sciences BFS/Fisheries (1997) & Wildlife Dept., SUNY Cobleskill, NY.
- 161 - In order to provide a critical measure of the success of past and future walleye stocking efforts in Otsego Lake an efficient and accurate measure of walleye population abundance was needed. Thus, the primary goal of this study was to evaluate different approaches for measuring the abundance of adult walleye in Otsego Lake. In order to meet this goal, walleye populations were surveyed in the lake using spring and fall boat electro-fishing, fall gill netting, spring trap netting along with stream electro-fishing.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
This study was conducted on Otsego Lake, Otsego County, New York (42.40⁰ N, 74.55⁰ W). Otsego lake has a surface area of 1,711 ha., a maximum depth of 50.5 m and an elevation of 364.2 m (Harman et al. 1997).
Marked Sample
The marked sample of walleye were captured in six foot Oneida trap nets set on Sunken Island, and in the mouths of Shadow Brook, and Hayden, Cripple, and Leatherstocking Creeks from 9-25 April 2008 (Figure 1). Walleye were removed from the nets daily, measured, marked and returned to the opposite side of the net from which they were captured.
In 2008 a total of 628 walleye were marked with a hole-punch at the base of the third dorsal fin spine and injected with a visible implant elastomer (VIE) behind the left eye. VIE marks were color coded to indicate capture site. Within this group of 628 marked walleye, 490 fish also received a NYSDEC numerically coded jaw-tag.
In April 2009, 320 walleye were marked after capture in six foot Oneida trap nets set at the mouth of Cripple Creek, Hayden Creek, Shadow Brook, and Leatherstocking Creek (Figure 1). In 2008, hundreds of walleye were observed upstream of the blocking trap nets. These fish had moved past the trap nets in the stream mouths without being captured. The same phenomena occurred in 2009. Consequently backpack shocking was conducted upstream of the trap nets to increase the number of the walleye marked in 2009. Smith-Root and Halltech backpack shockers were utilized to capture and mark 179 walleye upstream of the traps in Cripple Creek (below Clarke Pond), Shadow Brook (at Mill Road) and Hayden Creek (County Road-53). All walleye captured in 2009 were checked for previous marks, measured, hole-punched in the anal fin and injected with a color coded elastomer tag on the isthmus.
Walleye that were > 300mm were marked. In Otsego Lake a walleye of that size was approximately three years of age.
Recapture Samples
Three recapture samples were made in Otsego Lake using a Smith-Root SR-16 boat electro-fisher. Otsego Lake’s entire shoreline plus Sunken Island shoal were boat electro-fished in the spring of 2008 and 2009, and in the fall 2009. Electro-fishing occurred at night on 9, 10, 15, 31 of May 2008; 3, 4, 9, 16 June 2009 and 21, 22, 26, 27 October 2009. A different section
- 162 - of the lake was shocked each night. Boat electro-fishing effort expended was 16 hours in the spring of 2008, 11 hours in spring of 2009 and 9 hours in the fall of 2009.
Figure 1. Trap net (black dots) and gill net locations (Stars) in Otsego Lake, NY (from Cornwell and McBride 2008.
In the September 2008 a recapture sample was collected during NYSDEC’s warm-water gillnet survey. Monofiliment gill nets (150 ft) consisting of six 25 foot panels of 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, and 4.0” stretch mesh were set overnight at 10 different locations. Nets were set on the east shore 0.5 miles north of Clarke Point, off the west edge of sunken island, west shore just north of six mile point, center of Hyde Bay, west shore 0.2 miles south of five mile point, east shore 0.8 miles south of five mile point, west shore 0.1 mile south of three mile point, east shore 0.2 miles south of kingfisher tower, west side in rat cove, and east shore 0.3 miles north of lake outlet (Figure 1).
In 2009 recapture samples were collected in Cripple Creek, Hayden Creek, and Shadow Brook from trap nets set on 2 April 2009. Leatherstocking Creek’s net was set on 7 April 2009. All of the nets were removed on 2 May 2009 at the end of the spawning run.
- 163 - Walleye were removed from the trap nets every 24-48 hours. Captured walleye were examined for tags, measured, hole-punched in the anal fin, and injected with a color-coded elastomer tag on the isthmus before being returned to the opposite side of the net.
Smith-Root and Halltech backpack electro-shockers were used in Cripple Creek (below Clarke Pond, Shadow Brook (at Mill Road) and Hayden Creek (County Road-53) to collect a recapture sample. Sampling locations were upstream of the trap nets. Electrofishing surveys for recaptured fish occurred from 8 pm to midnight on 16, 17, 18 April 2009. All walleye were checked for marks, measured, hole-punched in the anal fin, and injected with a color-coded elastomer tag on the isthmus.
Petersen mark-recapture population estimates were calculated using Bailey’s (1951) modification. The minimum size for recaptured walleye included in the fall gill net or spring trap net samples was 367 mm. This figure is based on the expected 60mm annual growth of a 300 mm walleye.
RESULTS Mark Sample
The sex of the walleye in the marked sample differed significantly from 1:1 ratio (Table 1, P < .001). Males dominated in both the downstream trap nets and in the upstream backpack collections. Further, the per cent of females captured upstream in the electro-fishing sample was significantly lower than the per cent captured in the trap net sample (chi square test P < .001).
Table 1. The occurrence of male and female walleye in marked samples.
Sampling Per Cent Sample Year Males Females Method/Location Females
Trap Net 2008 439 189 30.1% Downstream
Trap Net 2009 249 71 22.2% Downstream
Electro-fisher 2009 173 6 3.4% Upstream
Collecting and processing walleye for marking in trap nets set in the mouth of four streams required a minimum of four hours per day. Further, in most locations a boat was needed to access the nets. In 2008 and 2009, approximately 64 and 62 hours of team effort were utilized, respectively, to sample trap nets. This resulted in the capture of 10.6 and 5.8 walleye per team hour. In contrast, only 12 hours of effort was expended in 2009 on stream electro-fishing over 3 nights, resulting in the capture and processing of 14.9 walleye per team hour.
- 164 - Stream Recapture Sample
A stream recapture sample was made by trap net and backpack shocking to see if the walleye population spawning in a particular stream could be estimated. Overall, the 2009 trap net recapture sample contained a much smaller per cent (2.9%) of the 628 walleye marked in 2008 than expected (Table 2). In 2009, the per cent of recaptured walleye (that were marked in 2008) was lower in the trap net catch (18/330 – 5.5%) than in the electro-fishing (25/179 - 13.9%) catch further upstream.
Table 2. Statistics for 2009 stream recapture of 2008 marked walleye.
Location Recapture Number Number* # Marked % Marked Walleye 95% Recapture Method- Marked Walleye Walleye Fish Population Confidence Year Location Walleye Recaptured Recaptured Recaptured Estimate interval
Shadow Trap Net 142 83 1 0.7% ------Brook 2009 Downstream
Cripple Trap Net 127 7 1 0.8% ------Creek 2009 Downstream
Hayden Trap Net 256 222 12 5.6% 4392 3981-4898 Creek 2009 Downstream
Leatherstoc Trap Net king Creek 72 15 4 5.6% 231 222-241 Downstream 2009
Shadow Electro-fisher 142 73 12 7.8% 809 793-826 Brook 2009 Upstream
Cripple Electro-fisher 127 99 12 9.5% 977 938-1019 Creek 2009 Upstream
Hayden Electro-fisher 256 0 0 0.0% ------Creek 2009 Upstream
Leatherstoc Electro-fisher king Creek 72 2 1 1.4% ------Upstream 2009 *Denotes recapture sample adjusted for one-year growth.
For many individual streams the data collected for population estimates were inadequate (Table 2). Consolidating the stream electro-fishing and trap netting data from the four sample streams was used to develop the overall population estimates for 2008 given in Table 3.
- 165 -
Table 3. Stream recapture of 2008 marked walleye.
Number Number* # Marked Walleye 95% Recapture Recapture Per Cent of Marked Walleye Fish Population Confidence Year Method Recaptured Walleye Recaptured Recaptured Estimate interval
Trap 2009 597 327 18 3.1% 10,307 10015-10617 Net
Electro- 2009 597 174 25 4.2% 4,019 4006-4032 fishing *Denotes recapture sample adjusted for one-year growth
Lake Recapture Sample
Boat electro-fishing and gill netting was used to collect lake recapture samples for walleye marked in 2008 (Table 4). Boat electro-fishing in the spring of 2008 and 2009 resulted in adequate samples of marked and unmarked walleye. However, fall gill netting resulted in much lower capture rates of marked and unmarked fish. Gill net samples also resulted in a high mortality.
Table 4. Otsego Lake recapture of 2008 marked walleye.
Number # Marked Walleye 95% Recapture Recapture Walleye Fish Per Cent Population Confidence Year Method Captured Recaptured Recaptured Estimate interval
Spring Boat 2008 Electro- 237 27 11.4% 5338 5315-5362 fishing
2008 Fall Gill 110 7 6.4% 8714 8302-9169 Net
Spring Boat 2009 Electro- 266* 33 12.4% 4118 4108-4129 fishing *Denotes recapture sample adjusted for one-year growth.
Fall and spring boat electro-fishing was utilized to collect a recapture sample of walleye tagged in 2009 (Table 5). So few walleye were captured in the fall electro-fishing sample that population estimates could not be made (Table 5).
- 166 - Table 5. Otsego Lake recapture of 2009 marked walleye.
Number* # Marked Walleye 95% Recapture Recapture Per Cent Walleye Fish Population Confidence Year Method Recaptured Captured Recaptured Estimate interval
Fall Boat 2009 Electro- 5 0 0.0% ------fishing
Spring Boat 2009 Electro- 266 16 7.4% 7995 7737-8271 fishing
Males dominated the boat electro-fisher recapture samples (Table 6). However, the per cent of females was significantly higher (Chi square test, P < .01) than in the stream samples (Table 1).
Table 6. Occurrence of male and female walleye in boat electro-fisher recapture samples.
Sampling Per Cent Sample Year Males Females Method/Location Females
2008 Boat Electro-fisher 113 60 35.7%
2009 Boat Electro-fisher 166 99 37.4%
Population Estimate
Petersen Mark and Recapture formula with Bailey’s modification (Bailey 1951), was used to estimate adult walleye population size. When trap nets were used to collect marked samples and spring boat electro-fishing was used to collect recapture samples 5338 adult walleye were estimated to occur in Otsego Lake in 2008 (Table 4) and 7995 in 2009 (Table 4). However, different data combinations gave widely different predictions. When recapture data was collected in the fall using gill nets (Table 3), 8714 fish were estimated to make up the adult walleye population in 2008. But, when 2009 boat electro-fishing data was used, the adult walleye population was estimated to be 4118 adult fish in 2008. In 2009, stream electro-fishing and trap netting recapture samples, indicated that the adult walleye population in 2008 was 4019 and 10307 fish, respectively (Table 3).
Changes in Population Abundance 2008-2009
Catch per unit effort measures of population abundance of walleye indicate that the walleye population decreased in 2009 compared to 2008 (Table 7). Trap netting in the different
- 167 - streams showed widely varying levels of decline (Table 7), with the total number caught over the entire season declining by 47.1% (Table 8). If trap net CPUE is measured by the number of walleye captured per trap day, the decline from 2008 (8.1 walleye/trap day) to 2009 (2.4 walleye/trap day) was 71.8%.
Table 7. Per cent change between 2008 and 2009 walleye trap net catches during the spawning runs of four streams on Otsego Lake.
Number Number Per Cent Sample Location Captured Captured Change 2008 2009
Shadow Brook 156 85 -45.5%
Cripple Creek 120 7 -94.2%
Hayden Creek 326 223 -31.6%
Leatherstocking 79 45 -43.0%
Similarly, CPUE based on boat electro-fishing gave inconsistent results (Table 8). The number of fish caught based on a survey of the entire lake indicated an increase of 12.2% between 2008 and 2009. However, when the same data were examined in terms of the number of fish caught per hour of electro-fishing, the CPUE indicated an increase of 63.4% in 2009 (Table 8).
Population estimates using mark & recapture data taken from spring electro-fishing surveys indicate a 49.8% increase in walleye population between 2008 and 2009 (Tables 4 & 5).
- 168 - Table 8. Per cent change between 2008 and 2009 walleye catches in trap nets and boat electro- fisher samples.
CPUE Per Cent Sample Method 2008 2009 Measure Change
Stream # new fish 681 360 -47.1% Trap Net per season
Stream # new fish 8.5 2.4 -71.8% Trap Net per trap day
# fish per Boat Lake 237 266 +12.2% Electro-fisher Sample
Boat # fish per 14.8 24.2 +63.4% Electro-fisher hour
DISCUSSION
A major advantage of using standard techniques, such as the Percid Sampling Manual, to monitor walleye populations is that it provides repeatable and comparable data. It has been utilized in sampling a number of New York lakes, such as Canadarago, Cayuta, and Oneida Lakes (Brooking et al. 2007; Van DeValk et al. 2008). However, the data presented by Lydon et al. (2008) indicated a poor correlation between gill net and electro-fishing CPUE and walleye population density. Further, there was no correlation between gill net CPUE and electro-fishing CPUE in New York Lakes (Lydon et al. 2008), which should both be measures of walleye abundance. In this study, changes in walleye population abundance between 2008 and 2009 as indicated by trap net CPUE were opposite of the indications from spring electro-fishing CPUE and mark and recapture data.
Other concerns with the application of the Percid Sampling Manual to Otsego Lake’s walleye population were raised in this study. Using gill nets to collect CPUE data or recapture tagged walleye requires a lot of effort and ultimately results in the destruction of a portion of the very population under study. In order to recapture enough walleye for adequate statistical analysis in mark and recapture studies (Robson & Regier 1965), substantially more effort was needed in Otsego Lake. Similarly, fall boat electro-fishing covering the entire shoreline also required tremendous effort and provided poor results (5 walleye). Such data is grossly inadequate for developing CPUE data or collecting a recapture sample for mark and recapture studies. In Otsego Lake only spring boat electro-fishing data should be used for CPUE studies or mark and recapture studies. Spring electro-fishing also has the advantage over fall electro-fishing because walleye marked during the spawning period are allowed adequate time to disperse around the lake, but inadequate time for juvenile walleye to recruit (grow) into the adult class that was being analyzed.
- 169 - This study and others (Beverton and Holt 1957; Lydon et al. 2008) indicate that repeated measures of CPUE may not accurately reflect changes in population abundance. The data collected so far indicate that mark and recapture studies are the best way of monitoring walleye populations in Otsego Lake. However, the accuracy of the mark and recapture method in estimating the size of a population rests on a number of assumptions (Ricker 1975). One assumption violated in this study is that there is an equal chance for individual adult walleye in Otsego Lake to be caught during the initial marking period and the recapture period. Both mark and recapture samples had a strong bias toward males. There were significantly more males than females in the recapture sample and in the sample of marked fish. The stream electro-fishing data had the most male bias, which may be because the electro-fishing sample was collected toward the end of the spawning run. In 2010, stream electro-fishing will occur earlier in the spawning run to determine if the catchability of female walleye does not increase.
In spite of the problems with male sampling bias in Otsego Lake, capturing walleye on their spring spawning run is the most efficient way to conduct population studies. An efficient electro-fishing crew can capture, measure, sex, and fin punch 50 walleye per hour. The utilization of stream electro-fishing to collect both the mark and recapture sample is both fast and easy. These data could be used to estimate the population size of spawning fish for each of Otsego Lake’s tributaries. Thus, using mark and recapture data to track changes in the number of spawning walleye in each tributary may be the most efficient way of monitoring the walleye population in Otsego Lake.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
SUNY Cobleskill students volunteered many hours trap netting and electro-fishing, especially David Johns, William Crawley, and Justin Potter. Equipment for this study was supplied by SUNY Cobleskill, SUNY Oneonta Biological Field Station, and Cornell Biological Field Station. Advice on the field work was provided by Matt Albright and Dr. Willard Harman from SUNY Oneonta BFS and Tom Brooking of the Cornell Biological Field Station.
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Brooking, T. E., J. R. Jackson, and D. M. Green. 2004. Surveys of fish and limnology at Canadarago Lake, NY in 2002-03. New York State Department of Environmental Conservation. Albany, NY. 25 pp.
Brooking, T. E., J. R. Jackson, A. J. VanDeValk, and L. G. Rudstam. 2002. Factors affecting survival of stocked walleye in New York lakes: The final year of stocking. Performance report 1991-2001. NY Federal Aid Study VII, Job 102. New York State Department of Environmental Conservation. Albany, NY.
- 170 - Byrne, J. M., D. S. Stich, and J. R. Foster. 2009. Diel movements and habitat utilization of walleye (Sander vitreus) in Otsego Lake, New York. In 41th Ann. Rept., SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., Cooperstown, NY.
Cornwell, M.D., and N.D. McBride. 2007. Walleye (Sander vitreum) reintroduction update: Walleye stocking, gill netting and diet analysis 2007. In 40th Ann. Rept. (2007). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Cornwell, M.D. and N.D. McBride. 2009. Walleye Re-introduction Update: Walleye stocking, gill netting 2008. In 41th Ann. Rept. ( 2008). SUNY Oneonta SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Festa, P.J., J.L Forney and R.T. Colesente. 1987. Walleye management in New York State. NYSDEC Bureau of Fisheries. 104p.
Forney, J.L., L.G. Rudstam, D.M. Green and D.L. Stang. 1994. Percid sampling manual. Warmwater Fisheries Unit, Cornell Biological Field Station, Bridgeport, NY & NYS Department of Env. Cons., Albany, NY.
Hansen, M. J., T. D. Beard, Jr, and S. W. Hewett. 2000. Catch rates and catchability of walleyes in angling and spearing fisheries in northern Wisconsin lakes. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 20:109–118.
Harman, W.N., L.P. Sohacki, M.F. Albright and D.L. Rosen. 1997. The state of Otsego Lake 1936-1996. Occas. Pap. No. 30. SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Irwin, B. J., T. J. Treska, L. G. Rudstam, P. J. Sullivan, J. R. Jackson, A. J. VanDeValk, and J. L. Forney. 2008. Estimating walleye density, gear catchability, and mortality using three fishery-independent data sets for Oneida Lake, New York. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 65:1366- 1378.
Lydon, J.C., M.D. Cornwell, J.R. Foster, T.E. Brooking, and S. Cavaliere. 2009. A mark- recapture walleye population estimate of Otsego Lake, NY, 2008, with indications of overestimates based on catch per unit effort. In 41th Annual Report (2008). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Ricker, W.E. 1975. Computation and interpretation of biological statistics of fish populations. Fisheries Research Board of Canada Bulletin 191, Ottawa, Canada, 382 pp.
Robson, D.S. and H.A. Regier. 1964. Sample size in Petersen mark-recapture experiments. Trans. American Fish. Society 93: 215-226.
Rogers M. W., M.J. Hansen, T. D. Beard Jr. 2005. Relationships between recapture rates from different gears for estimating walleye abundance in northern Wisconsin Lakes. North American Journal of Fisheries Management 25:1, 195-202.
- 171 - Seber, G.A.F. 1982 The Estimation of Animal Abundance. Edward Arnold, 2nd edition, Griffin, London.
Stich, D.S., B.F. Decker, J.C. Lydon, J.M. Byrne, and J.R. Foster. 2007. Diel habitat utilization of walleye (Sander vitreum) in Otsego Lake. In 40th Ann. Rept. SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
VanDeValk, A. J., L. G. Rudstam, J. R. Jackson, T. E. Brooking, S. D. Krueger, J. L. Forney, W. W. Fetzer, R. DeBruyne, and E. L. Mills. 2008. Walleye stock assessment and population projections for Oneida Lake, 2007-2010. NY Federal Aid Study VII, Job 103. February 2008. NYSDEC, Albany, NY. 65 pp.
- 172 - Littoral fish community survey of Rat Cove & Brookwood Point, summer 2009
Justin Potter 1
INTRODUCTION Monitoring the littoral zone fish communities of Rat Cove and Brookwood Point was continued during the summer of 2009. A variety of sampling methods have been employed to study the weedy embayment of Rat Cove along the southwestern shore of Otsego Lake, beginning with age and growth evaluations of fishes in 1979 by MacWatters (1980). Following the introduction of the alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus) (Foster 1989) and their rapid rise to become the dominant fish population of Otsego Lake (Foster and Gallup 1990), summer trap netting of Rat Cove has been a component in creating a long term data set (Cornwell 2005). To provide a habitat comparison of inshore movements and spawning activity of the alewife, summer trap netting protocol was expanded in 2002 to include Brookwood Point, a rocky shoal habitat with abrupt depth increases (Wayman 2003). Other methods used to assess yearly and seasonal alewife population dynamics have included trawls, gill netting and hydroacoustics (Cornwell 2005). The alewife is an anadromous fish species. Mature, ocean inhabitants are capable of reaching 381 mm (15 inches), while landlocked populations average 152 mm (6 in) (Palmer and Fowler 1975). Alewife are eplimnetic planktivores that school during daylight hours while dispersing inshore over night (Smith 1985), where they often compete with warm-water fishes for reproduction and nursery purposes in the summer. Shifts in tropic relationships have been associated with alewife proliferation in Otsego Lake. Research has indicated an increase in algal production as the zooplankton community has shifted from large, effective-grazing cladocerans, (Daphnia spp.) to smaller (Bosmina spp.) causing reduced water transparency and increased total phosphorus loading (Harman et. al. 2002; Warner 1999). Historically important cold-water game fish, such as, the lake whitefish, (Coregonus clupeaformis) and cisco (C. artedii) are in decline (Harman et al. 2002). Although lake trout (Salvelinus namaycush) have experienced faster growth rates in response to the alewife introduction (McBride and Sanford 1997), declines in hypolimnetic oxygen during summer stratification, caused indirectly by the alewife population, would likely diminish the lake’s future ability to sustain a cold-water fishery (Harman et al. 2002). The walleye (Sander vitreus) reintroduction program that began in 2000 continues to date. It has enhanced the game fish diversity in Otsego Lake, while providing a significant predator of alewife and presumed ecological balance on their future populations (Cornwell 2005). In 1989, Lehman et al. (1990) were not able to document any walleye during a spring block-net tributary survey. The loss of walleye from the lake’s food chain has been linked to alewife proliferation (Foster and Gallup 1990). Annual studies conducted by the BFS evaluate abiotic and biotic responses to alewife density fluctuations. Walleye stocking in Otsego Lake has been deemed successful, however further research will be required to support evidence of trophic cascade improvements (Cornwell 2005).
1 Robert C. MacWatters Internship in the Aquatic Sciences, summer 2009. Present affiliation: Department of Fisheries & Wildlife Technology, SUNY Cobleskill.
- 173 - MATERIALS & METHODS A standard Pennsylvania trap net with a 45ft lead was set at each survey location from 3 June to 7 August 2009. Trap nets were deployed perpendicular to shore and fished for 24-hour intervals Monday through Friday. Captured fish were placed into totes and transported to the BFS dock for processing. Fish were weighted in grams on a digital scale; a measuring board was used to collect total length measurements, taken in millimeters. All collected species were returned to the lake. Nets were pulled each Friday. Repairs were made in the field when necessary.
Figure 1. Bathymetric contour map of Otsego Lake, NY. Trap nets were set perpendicular to the shore at Brookwood Point and Rat Cove.
RESULTS Details of mean catch per week of alewife during summer trap netting of Rat Cove and Brookwood Point 2000-2009 are given in Figure 2. A continued decrease in mean weekly capture of alewife has been indicated, while total length of alewife has been increasing since 2007, represented in Figure 3. Tables 1 and 2 present the mean catch per week of all collected species, respectively for Rat Cove and Brookwood Point, 2000-2009.
- 174 -
Figure 2. Mean weekly catch of alewife in Rat Cove and Brookwood Point trap nets 2000-2009.
Figure 3. Mean total length of alewife captured during summer trap netting 2000-2009.
- 175 - Table 1. Total mean weekly catch at Rat Cove and catch contributed by each species, 2000-2009 (modified from Byrne 2008).
Rat Cove; Mean Catch per Week (2000-2009) Species 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Alewife 120.1 67.8 8 45.2 2.4 0.4 0 3.18 1.14 0.5 Golden Shiner 0.6 0.3 0.4 0.7 0.5 0.3 0 0.09 0.38 0.2 Pumpkinseed 9.7 20.8 15.1 32.8 12.9 4.6 2 2.18 4.38 5.1 Blue Gill 2 2.9 3.7 1.7 1.5 1.4 0.8 3.18 5.9 6.6 Redbreast Sunfish 0.8 0.6 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.1 0 0 0.125 0.1 Rock Bass 1.6 1.5 3.8 1 1.8 0.5 0.5 0.55 0.88 1.0 Largemouth Bass 0.1 0.6 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.1 0 0.64 0.25 0.2 Chain Pickerel 0.6 0.5 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.1 0.1 0.27 0.75 0.4 Atlantic Salmon 0 0.1 0 0.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 Yellow Perch 2.5 0.5 1.3 0.3 1.2 0.3 0.6 0.18 0.25 0 White Sucker 1.1 0.2 1.1 0.1 1.9 0.2 0.5 0 0 0 Common Carp 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.5 0.3 0.7 0.1 0 0 0 Brown Bullhead 1.7 0.1 6.4 2.6 1.6 0.1 0 0.09 0 0.1 Spottail Shiner 0 0 0.1 0 0 0 0 0.18 0 0 Smallmouth Bass 0 0 0.1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Emerald Shiner 0 0 0 0 0.4 0 0 0.09 0 0 European Rudd 0.1 0 0.3 0.7 0.2 0 0.1 0 0.375 0.7 Total 141 96 41 87 25 9 5 11 14 15
Table 2. Total mean weekly catch at Brookwood Point and catch contributed by each species, 2000-2009 (modified from Byrne 2008).
Brookwood Point: Mean Catch per Week 2000-2009 Species 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 Alewife 224.2 137.3 77.4 94.7 12.6 5.7 1.4 5.45 0.25 0.3 Golden Shiner 0.3 0.3 1.1 1.8 1.6 0.3 0.1 0 0 0 Pumpkinseed 3.1 7.4 12 13.1 12.2 1.1 0.8 1 1.75 1.9 Blue Gill 6.5 0.9 0.9 1 0.8 0.5 0.3 0.27 0.88 0.1 Redbreast Sunfish 0.3 0 0.9 0.2 0.7 0.1 0.1 0.18 0 0.3 Rock Bass 7.7 3.5 4 3.8 3 1.1 0.3 0.27 0.63 2.3 Largemouth Bass 0.3 0.3 0.7 0.8 0 0.1 0 0.09 0.25 0.1 Chain Pickerel 0.3 0 0.3 0.2 0.2 0.2 0 0.18 0.125 0 Atlantic Salmon 0 0.3 0 0 0 0.1 0 0 0 0 Yellow Perch 1.8 0.3 0.2 0 0.6 0.1 0.2 0 0.125 0.3 Walleye 0 0 0 0.1 0 0 0 0.09 0 0.1 White Sucker 4.9 0 1.7 0.7 0.6 0.2 0.3 0 0 0 Common Carp 2.1 0.3 0.6 0.1 0.3 0 0.2 0 0 0 Bluntnose Minnow 0.3 0 0 0 0 0.1 0 0 0 0 Brown Bullhead 6.7 0 1 3.6 4.2 0 0.1 0 0 0 Spottail Shiner 0 0.6 0 0 0 0 0 0.18 0 0 Smallmouth Bass 0 0 0 0.6 0.2 0 0 0 0.125 0 European Rudd 0 0.3 0 0.1 0.2 0 0.1 0.09 0.125 0 Common Shiner 0 0 0 0 0 0.1 0 0 0 0 Total 259 152 101 121 37 10 4 8.0 4.4 5.4
- 176 - DISCUSSION A total of eight alewives were collected during the summer 2009 trap netting survey. All five alewife collected in Rat Cove occurred within a 24-hour set between 9 and 10 June. The last alewife observed was taken from Brookwood Point during mid-June. There were fifty-four total fish collected from the rocky shoal habitat of Brookwood Point, representing eight species. Length and weight measurements (unpublished data) indicated the majority of fish taken to be adult. A total of one-hundred and fifty fish were collected in Rat Cove, with eleven species representing the overall catch. During the last week of the survey, a large increase in bluegill (Lepomis macrochirus) captured in Rat Cove was observed. This corresponds with data collected by Byrne (2009) in 2008. Evidence suggests successful year classes for bluegill over two consecutive years. An increase in mean total length of collected alewife was observed in the summer of 2009 (see Figure 2). Future summer trap netting surveys are recommended for the purpose of evaluating the population dynamics of littoral zone fishes, and the interactions of non- native alewife within the represented habitats.
REFERENCES Cornwell, M.D. 2005. Re-introduction of walleye to Otsego Lake: Re-establishing a fishery and subsequent influences of a top predator. Occas. pap. #40 SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Foster, J.R. 1989. Introduction of the alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus) into Otsego Lake. In 22nd Ann. Rept. (1988). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Foster, J.R. and S. Gallup. 1991. Irruption of the alewife population in Otsego Lake. In 23rd Ann. Rept. (1990). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Harman, W.N., L.P. Sohacki, M.F. Albright, and D.L. Rosen. 1997. The State of Otsego Lake 1936-1996. Occas. pap. #30. SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Harman, W.N., M.F. Albright, and D.M. Warner. 2002. Trophic changes in Otsego Lake following the introduction of the alewife (Alosa pseudoharengus). Lake Reserv. Manage. Vol 18, no. 3: 215-226.
Lehman, K., W. Williams, and J. Foster. 1991. Extinction of the walleye (Stizostidion vitreum) in Otsego Lake, NY. In 23rd Ann. Rept. (1990). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Palmer E.L. and H.S. Fowler. 1975. Fieldbook of Natural History. McGraw-Hill, NY. 2nd Ed.
Smith, C.L. 1985. The inland fishes of New York State. NYSDEC, Albany, NY.
McBride and Sanford, 1996. In Harman et al., 1997. The State of Otsego Lake 1936-1996. Occas. pap. #30 SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
- 177 - Warner, D.M. 2000. Alewives in Otsego Lake, NY: A comparison of their direct and indirect mechanisms of impact on transparency and chlorophyll a. Occas. pap. #32. SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta
Wayman, K. 2003. Rat Cove and Brookwood Point littoral fish survey, 2002. In 35th Ann. Rept. (2002). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
- 178 - Treatment performance of advanced onsite wastewater treatment systems in the Otsego Lake watershed, 2009 results update1
Holly Waterfield2
INTRODUCTION This report serves to document the treatment performance monitored for four systems installed in the Otsego Lake watershed, three of which were installed as part of a NYS DEC grant to demonstrate the use of advanced onsite wastewater treatment systems. These include two systems, OWTS 1 and 2, funded by the grant, and the UIC system (serving BFS Upland Interpretive Center), which have been monitored since 2008 (Waterfield and Kessler 2009). Another system, also funded by the grant, was installed in the spring of 2009 at the BFS Thayer Farm. This system serves three buildings; the Hop House, Boat House, and a rented residence. Treatment performance was assessed based on the following analyses: biochemical oxygen demand (BOD or CBOD), nitrate (NO3), ammonia (NH3), and total phosphorus (TP). An historical overview of Otsego Lake’s nutrient loading and onsite wastewater treatment is provided in Waterfield and Kessler’s 2008 results report (2009).
METHODS AND MATERIALS Four onsite wastewater treatment systems (OWTS) were monitored in this study and are illustrated and described in Figure 1; these include the systems serving the SUNY Oneonta BFS Thayer Farm Upland Interpretive Center (UIC) and Hop House (HH) and two homeowner systems, which for the purpose of this study will be called OWTS 1 and 2. The UIC system has relatively high treatment capacity, as the UIC was built to accommodate large groups. However, water usage is relatively low due to the short duration of most events (<4 hours); actual flow has not been measured. The system was installed and use commenced in fall of 2005. The system has been in continuous operation, though the main tank was initially not sealed appropriately and as a result proper function did not begin until fall of 2007. Use of this facility increased during the summer of 2009, when typical BFS operations were moved temporarily to the Thayer Farm. OWTS1 and OWTS2 are located within 100 feet of the western shore of Otsego Lake off of State Highway 80, and are used mainly on weekends during the summer. Each system is shared by two adjacent residences and they are designed to receive daily flows of 440 gallons and 550 gallons respectively. Actual flow for OWTS1 was not measured. Flow through OWTS2 was measured by the service provider. OWTS1 has been in use since 1 June 2006. OWTS2 has been in use since 1 June 2007. The HH system installed at the BFS Thayer Farm to serve the Hop House (BFS temporary main offices and labs), the Thayer Boat House, and the Thayer Farm House (a residential rental) and operation began in April 2009 with waste from the Hop House and Farm House. Flow from the Boat House began in August 2009. The system receives consistent domestic flow from the Farm House, which is anticipated to be beneficial to the treatment system especially during the winter months, which is a low-occupancy period at the
1 Funding provided by NYSDEC grant #49298. 2 Research Support Specialist, Biological Field Station.
- 179 -
Figure 1. Onsite wastewater treatment system schematics. “S#” indicates a sampling point.
A) The UIC system is comprised of a 2-compartment tank, a phosphorus removal unit, a pump tank, and gravel bed drainfield. Wastewater is circulated and aerated in the first chamber (UIC1 and 2), and settles in the clarification chamber for final solids settling (UIC3). It then flows through the phosphorus removal unit, on to a pump chamber (UIC4), from which it is pumped in to the drain field. B) OWTS1 provides primary treatment in a septic tank and processing tank (PTE) which flow into an equalization tank, then to a pump tank where the wastewater is pumped and sprayed over an open-cell foam media filter (BFE). In this case the foam media filter aerates the wastewater and provides surface area for beneficial bacteria, increasing organic digestion. 25% of flow is returned to the headworks of the processing tank to facilitate the removal of nitrogen from the waste stream, and 50% flows to the P removal unit (PRE) and on to the drainfield via gravity. C) OWTS2 provides primary treatment in 2 septic tanks which flow to a two-compartment processing tank. Effluent flows from the processing tank to a pump tank which periodically doses a textile media filter. Filter-effluent (AXE) is split between the processing tank (PTE) and the P removal unit (PRE). A portion of effluent from the textile media filter is returned to the processing tank to facilitate the removal of nitrogen from the waste stream. D) HH provides primary treatment in 2 septic tanks (STE) which flow to a two-compartment processing tank (PTE). Effluent is pumped from the processing tank to a textile media filter. Filter-effluent (AXE) is split between the processing tank (PTE) and the P removal unit (PRE). A portion of effluent from the textile media filter is returned to the processing tank to facilitate the removal of nitrogen from the waste stream.
- 180 - BFS. The system is configured so that Boat House waste flows to a septic tank, then flows to a processing tank, where it mixes with treated effluent from a textile filter. Wastewater is pumped from the end of the processing tank to the textile filter. Following a final pass through the textile filter, effluent flows via gravity to a nutrient removal unit (primarily phosphorus) containing a commercially-available iron-oxide based reactive media and is then pumped to the drainfield. Preliminary sampling efforts were conducted during the summer of 2007 in order to assess the concentrations of various chemical and nutrient parameters. Regular grab samples were collected between May and August 2008, and were collected in 2009 on a bi-weekly basis from 10 June through 2 September. During each sampling event, approximately 600 mL of wastewater were taken following each treatment component of all systems. Each sample site is shown in Figure 1 as “S#”. Samples were tested for BOD5 using methods summarized by Green (2004). This method involves determining initial dissolved oxygen (DO) concentration of the sample and nutrient buffer followed by incubation at 20°C for five days and determination of the final DO concentration. Samples were diluted to obtain target DO values such that the 5-day DO concentration would be lower than the initial by at least 2 mg/L but with a final concentration greater than 1 mg/L. These conditions were not always achieved, thus valid BOD values were not obtained for every sample collected. Because a nitrification inhibitor is used during incubation, results are presented as values of CBOD, as they are associated with the carbonaceous oxygen demand rather than the total oxygen demand (APHA 1992). Overall CBOD reduction rates for each secondary treatment unit (OWTS 1 and 2 and HH filters, UIC 1- 3) were calculated based on the average CBOD concentrations observed over the monitoring period, presented in Table 1. Total phosphorus concentrations were determined using the ascorbic acid following persulfate digestion method run on a Lachat QuikChem FIA+ Water Analyzer (Laio and Marten 2001). Nitrate and ammonia concentrations were also determined for each sample, using Lachat- approved methods (Pritzlaff 2003, Liao 2001). All reduction and transformation rates are calculated based on average concentrations observed over the monitoring period. Total nitrogen concentrations were not determined and are not presented here due to incomplete oxidation of ammonia to nitrate during the digestion process, which results in underestimation of TN concentrations.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (Carbonaceous)
Table 1 summarizes CBOD and TP concentrations at each sampled stage of the treatment process for each system monitored. The overall performance of the systems can be assessed by comparing the first stage with the last. These values are demonstrated graphically in Figure 2. Typical CBOD concentrations associated with raw wastewater vary greatly (100 – 600 mg/L) depending on per capita water usage and inputs of solids to the system (i.e. garbage grinder waste) (Crites and Tchobanoglous 1998).
The average CBOD concentrations observed in the UIC system (Table 1; Figure 2) are substantially lower than those generally encountered in raw wastewater, and the reduction rates averaged 57% (Table 2). It is likely that the system would achieve greater rates of reduction if
- 181 - the incoming wastewater were of a higher strength. OWTS 1 also has initial CBOD concentrations (prior to aerobic treatment) that are at the low end of the typical range. Following aerobic treatment CBOD concentrations ranged from 5.66 mg/L at HH to 57.34 mg/L at OWTS 2. This average concentration for OWTS 2 reflects all samples collected throughout the monitoring period, which included a discrete episode of poor performance which required system maintenance; prior to said episode, CBOD concentration was less than 10mg/L (with 95% CBOD reduction).
OWTS 1 foam filter reduced CBOD by 59% across all samples, which is an increase over the 2008 average of 34%, though the final concentrations are still higher and more variable than the manufacturer considers typical for the treatment unit, based on monitoring of the systems at the Massachusetts Alternative Septic System Testing Center, during which the systems averaged 94.7% BOD removal, with an average effluent BOD concentration of 9.3 mg/L (Jowett personal communication 2010, MASSTC 2004). However, the system installed here (OWTS 1) differs from the norm in terms of usage and configuration, making it difficult to directly compare the results obtained here; OWTS 1 experiences only seasonal, mainly weekend use from late May through September. More than half of this relatively short period of operation is comprised of the start-up period; results documented here correspond with those observed during the “start-up” period at the MASS Testing Center, which lasted about 8 weeks (MASSTC 2004). In terms of configuration, OWTS 1 does not include a sump to capture filtrate beneath the foam filter unit, making it difficult to collect a representative sample without manipulating the operation of the system to induce flow. A sample was collected on June 25 by the manufacturer indicating a BOD concentration of 14 mg/L; lower than any sample result during BFS monitoring. Results prior (25 mg/L) and subsequent (87 mg/L) to this sample indicate the variability encountered. Issues surrounding sampling protocol are addressed further in the conclusions at the end of this report.
Initial CBOD loading and overall CBOD reduction are greatest in OWTS 2, at 238 mg/L and 74%, respectively. This system is receiving wastewater of typical strength for US households, and is generally producing wastewater of high quality, though there was an episode between July and September where high CBOD and ammonia concentrations were observed in textile filter effluent (CBOD >110mg/L, NH3 > 60mg/L). During periods of typical performance, this system achieved about 95% reduction of CBOD, as is typical for textile filters of this design. 2010 monitoring will document the effectiveness of the maintenance provided by the manufacturer’s certified service provider. The system at the HH achieved 97% reduction in CBOD over the monitoring period, producing effluent containing 5.66 mg/L CBOD on average.
Total Phosphorus Total phosphorus concentrations at each sampled stage of the treatment process for each system are summarized in Table 1 and presented graphically in Figure 3. TP removal rates are summarized in Table 2. Average total phosphorus concentrations in untreated wastewater ranged from 9.4 mg/L at HH to 15.9 mg/L at OWTS 1, which is similar to the range typically seen in residential wastewater (Crites and Tchobanoglous 1998). Final effluent concentrations at OWTS 1 and 2 averaged 0.89 and 0.61 mg/L respectively (Table 1; Figure 3). In terms of phosphorus removal rates, OWTS 1 and 2 each achieved 95% removal over the course of the monitoring period (Table 2). This removal rate is above the manufacturer’s performance claim
- 182 - Table 1. Average Biochemical Oxygen Demand (CBOD) in mg/L, and Total Phosphorus in mg/L with standard error (SE) and sample size (n) for samples collected from June through September 2009, grouped by treatment system.
CBOD Total Phosphorus Site Avg mg/L SE n Avg mg/L SE n
UIC1 22.16 6.90 7 10.18 1.49 6
UIC2 8.31 2.46 6 9.98 1.57 6
UIC3 9.43 2.30 5 10.64 1.91 6 UIC4 n/a - - 5.25 1.37 6 OWTS1 PTE 109.76 19.86 6 15.96 1.99 6 OWTS1 BFE 44.68 8.82 7 18.80 1.69 6 OWTS1 PRE 24.78 9.02 4 0.89 0.14 6 OWTS2 PTE 237.84 17.57 7 11.64 1.96 6 OWTS2 AXE 57.34 19.33 5 12.73 1.81 6 OWTS2 PRE 7.16 4.22 6 0.61 0.23 6 HH STE 185.88 20.59 6 6.28 2.21 4
HH PTE 21.74 5.60 6 7.49 2.10 5
HH AXE 5.66 2.35 7 9.59 2.55 5
HH PRE 3.35 1.10 3 6.55 1.96 5
Carbonaceous Biochemical Oxygen Demand
250 200 150 100 50
CBOD (mg/L) 0
UIC OWTS1 OWTS2 HH
Site Figure 2. Average CBOD in mg/L across all sampling sites and dates. Error bars indicate standard error, as presented in Table 1.
- 183 - of 50% removal and produces effluent with an average concentration below the claimed final concentration of less than 2 mg/L (Noga 2007). The media canister within each of these units was replaced in late September 2008 and provided sufficient removal of phosphorus through the treatment season. Contrary to the OWTS 1 and 2 systems, the phosphorus removal unit in the UIC system produced final effluent of 5.2 mg/L, removing 50% of the phosphorus on average. The reactive media component in the phosphorus removal unit of the UIC system has not been replaced since system operation began; this sampling indicates that the media has reached its capacity to reduce final phosphorus concentrations to acceptable levels and needs replacement. Phosphorus removal within the HH system changed drastically between 2 July (87% reduction) and 17 July (24% reduction) leading to an average reduction of 31% (7.9 mg/L final concentration) over the course of the monitoring period. It should be recognized that this system likely receives higher flows than the other systems monitored, as such, the total load of phosphorus was likely greater and has exhausted the removal capacity of the media. Actual flow through this system is monitored by the manufacturer, and will be taken into consideration when it becomes available.
Total Phosphorus 25
20
15
10 TP (mg/L) 5
0
UIC OWTS1 OWTS2 HH Site Figure 3. Average total phosphorus concentrations in mg/L for all sampling sites across all sample dates. Error bars indicate the standard error, as presented in Table 1.
Table 2. Average percent reduction and sample size (n) of biochemical oxygen demand (CBOD), total phosphorus (TP), percent of ammonia reduced (NH4 reduction), and percent of nitrogen removed (N reduction) from the waste stream for each treatment system sampled from June through September 2009. Sample sizes “n/n” indicate sample numbers of influent and effluent.
CBOD TP NH Reduction N Reduction Site 4 % n % n % n % n UIC 57 6/5 51 6 80 5/4 2 5/4
OWTS 1 59 6/7 95 6 63 6/6 36 6/6 OWTS 2 76 6/7 95 6 61 6/6 50 9/7 HH 97 6/7 32 6 99 5/3 37 5/3
- 184 - It is important to consider that the quality of influent to any treatment unit directly affects the treatment performance of that unit. The concentration of wastewater constituents (alkalinity, CBOD, pH, available carbon, etc.) may inhibit or decrease the efficiency of treatment processes within a given unit. In terms of the phosphorus removal units, high concentrations of incoming CBOD may cause growth of a biofilm on the media in the treatment unit, thus coating the reactive surfaces. Theoretically, this could greatly reduce the treatment capacity of the unit, as it isolates the adsorptive surfaces from the wastewater. Another factor that influences the treatment performance of the unit is the life-expectancy of the media canister. Given that adsorption of P onto active sites of the media is the mechanism for P removal from the waste stream, the length of time the unit has been in service and the loading that it receives determine its effectiveness at a given point in time. Because of this characteristic, the media’s performance decreases over time as active adsorption sites become occupied by phosphorus compounds. The rate at which this decrease occurs is dependent on the use of each system and must be determined on a case-by-case basis. For these reasons, additional research efforts have been focused on P removal capacity of various media (Albright 2010) in hopes of developing a cost- effective long-lasting solution to phosphorus removal in onsite systems.
Nitrate and Ammonia Nitrate and Ammonia concentrations are summarized in Table 3. Figure 4 provides a graphical comparison of average ammonia and nitrate concentrations for each sampling site. Nitrate concentrations in OWTS 1 and 2 primary-treated effluent were very low (Table 3), as would be expected for raw wastewater; nitrogen enters the system in the ammonium form (NH4) and bound in organic compounds (Crites and Tchobanoglous 1998). UIC nitrate concentrations were much higher in the first chamber, with 97% of nitrogen occurring in the nitrate form. This difference is due to the configuration of the UIC system; the chambers of the tank are not hydraulically isolated, and so water can circulate between the first two sampling points, resulting in aeration and thus nitrification of ammonia. The secondary treatment steps of OWTS 1and 2 reduced incoming ammonia by 63 and 61%, and reduced nitrogen overall by 36 and 50%, respectively (Table 2). Final effluent from OWTS 1 contained an average of 32.3 mg/L of nitrate and 26.9 mg/L of ammonia (Table 3), which is a decrease in ammonia concentration from 2008 averages (Waterfield and Kessler 2009). Final effluent from OWTS 2 contained 7.5mg/L of nitrate and 24.5 mg/L of ammonia on average, which is a lower average nitrate concentration than observed in 2008 (22 mg/L). The HH system reduced ammonia almost entirely, with final effluent containing only 0.24mg/L. Of the total nitrate+ammonia in the treatment unit effluent, 93% was in the form of nitrate, indicating exceptional nitrification during the aerobic treatment step. Overall, N was reduced by 37% in the HH treatment system. Environmental Technology Verification (ETV) testing was conducted by the US EPA and National Sanitation Foundation (NSF) on the type of foam filter unit incorporated in the OWTS 1 system (ETV 2003). Similar to issues documented in the Verification Report, start-up period performance issues were encountered during the 2008 start-up period. The ETV report associates poor nitrification rates following a cold-weather start-up test with settling of the foam media, which seemed to inhibit growth of the nitrifying bacterial community. Following adjustment of the media during spring 2009 maintenance performed by the manufacturer, nitrification and CBOD reduction rates improved dramatically, though still not to rates observed
- 185 - during MASSTC’s evaluation of the system (ETV 2003). Such maintenance has proved effective in improving the treatment performance of the unit. Table 3. Average nitrate and ammonia concentrations in mg/L with standard error (SE) and sample size (n) for samples collected from June through September 2009, grouped by treatment system. Nitrate (mg/L) A mmonia (mg/L) Sample average +\- SE n average +\- SE n UIC1 43.81 6.30 6 1.05 0.44 5 UIC2 38.81 6.86 6 0.97 0.49 5 UIC3 38.44 6.61 6 1.02 0.55 5 UIC4 35.13 5.50 6 8.53 4.14 4 OWTS1 PTE 22.46 1.14 4 73.47 6.10 6 OWTS1 BFE 54.28 10.37 6 46.16 4.40 6 OWTS1 PRE 32.31 4.71 6 26.87 7.00 6 OWTS2 PTE 0.46 0.16 6 63.27 7.03 6 OWTS2 AXE 24.63 8.83 5 50.44 9.74 6 OWTS2 PRE 7.52 1.35 6 24.53 4.20 6
HH STE 0.15 0.04 5 63.99 9.96 5 HH PTE 32.82 5.36 6 16.12 2.08 6 HH AXE 39.17 3.51 6 3.00 1.79 3 HH PRE 39.97 3.61 5 0.24 0.06 2
Nitrogen Concentration as Ammonia and Nitrate
100
80
60
40
20 Concentration mg N/L
0
Ammonia (mg/L) Site Nitrate (mg/L)
Figure 4. Proportion of the average nitrogen concentration reported as ammonia and nitrate. Error bars indicate standard error, as presented in Table 3.
- 186 - CONCLUSIONS Treatment performance in 2009 showed variation from that observed in 2008. OWTS 1 increased in BOD reduction and nitrification efficiency while OWTS 2 had an episode of less- than-ideal treatment. TP removal increased dramatically in OWTS1 and 2 following the fall 2008 replacement of the reactive media. Treatment performance of the phosphorus removal units in UIC and HH systems is outside acceptable criteria, suggesting that the media canisters are in need of replacement. Overall, the onsite treatment systems are producing high-quality effluent with a portion of the total phosphorus removed, though some final TP concentrations remain within the range expected from primary treated residential wastewater. Additional research on phosphorus removal media are presented in Albright and Waterfield 2010.
Sampling protocols can influence the observed treatment performance; this influence varies with the type and configuration of each system. Samples are either collected to represent the performance at a single point in time, referred to as a “grab” sample, or to represent treatment over the course of a period of time (typically 24 hours), referred to as a “composite” sample. Treatment performance assessments based on grab samples are more likely to incorporate error if the quality of effluent is variable over the course of a day; composite samples capture the range of conditions encountered throughout the day, providing flow-weighted results of effluent quality produced by the system. The potential for sampling protocol to influence results will vary with the configuration of the system; some systems, such as UIC, continuously mix wastewater and yield more consistent results over the course of a 24-hour period, whereas a system with discrete treatment components will experience variation over the course of a day, depending on use of the system, in which case a grab sample may yield non-representative results if such factors are not considered. The timing of a sampling event may coincide with dosing of the filter unit, allowing one to obtain a sample without manipulating the cycling of wastewater within the system. However, in the case that the system is between dosing events, flow must be induced in order to capture water between the treatment components; in the case of an absorbent media (becomes saturated during dosing), induced wastewater may displace that previously saturating the media or may short-circuit the media; in either case, the effluent leaving the treatment unit is partially treated at best. Sufficient sample size should allow for a range of conditions to be encountered, providing an average that is representative of the effluent quality that typically leaves the system, though this cannot be guaranteed. Comparisons between monitoring and assessment efforts must acknowledge such details.
Communications with service providers and manufacturers resulted in remedied issues and increased treatment performance. Vigilance in the maintenance of advanced treatment systems is of the utmost importance if these systems are to be relied upon to reduce human impacts to sensitive environments, especially considering that the vast majority of systems are not monitored once they are installed, as they are with this project.
REFERENCES Albright, M.F. and H.A. Waterfield. 2010. Evaluation of phosphorus removal media for use in onsite wastewater treatment. In: 42nd Ann. Rept. (2009). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta. Cooperstown, NY.
- 187 - APHA, AWWA, WPCF. 1989. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 17th ed. American Public Health Association. Washington, DC.
Crites, R. and G. Tchobanoglous. 1998. Small and Decentralized Wastewater Management Systems. McGraw-Hill, p183
Environmental Technology Verification Program (ETV). 2003. ETV Joint Verification Statement: Waterloo Biofilter® Model 4-Bedroom. National Sanitation Foundation and US Environmental Protection Agency.
Green, L. 2004. Standard Operating Procedure 011: Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Procedure. University of Rhode Island Watershed Watch.
Jowett, C. 2010. Personal Communication. February 2010.
Liao, N. 2001. Determination of ammonia by flow injection analysis. QuikChem®Method 10- 107-06-1-J. Lachat Instruments. Loveland, Colorado.
Liao, N. and S. Marten. 2001. Determination of total phosphorus by flow injection analysis (colorimetry acid persulfate digestion method). QuikChem®Method 10-115-01-1-F. Lachat Instruments. Loveland, Colorado.
MASSTC. 2004. US EPA Environmental Technology Initiative Onsite Wastewater Technology Testing Report: Waterloo Biofilter®. Massachusetts Alternative Septic System Test Center, Cape Cod, MA.
Noga, M. 2007. The knight nutrient removal device. Knight Treatment Systems. http://www.knighttreatmentsystems.com. Accessed October 2009.
Pritzlaff, D. 2003. Determination of nitrate/nitrite in surface and wastewaters by flow injection analysis.QuikChem®Method 10-107-04-1-C. Lachat Instruments, Loveland, Colorado.
Waterfield, H.A. and S. Kessler. 2009. Treatment performance of advanced onsite wastewater treatment systems in the Otsego Lake watershed, 2008 results. In: 41st Ann. Rept. SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta. Cooperstown, NY.
- 188 - Evaluating phosphorus-removal media for use in onsite wastewater treatment systems (interim report)1
M.F. Albright2 and H.A. Waterfield3
BACKGROUND
Primary production in Otsego Lake, as in most inland water bodies, is limited by phosphorus (Harman et al. 1996); increases in that nutrient will lead to excessive algal growth, reducing water clarity and dissolved oxygen (jeopardizing its cold-water fishery) and reducing the value of the lake as a potable supply. Previous Biological Field Station (BFS) research has implicated near-lake onsite wastewater treatment (“septic”) systems as a meaningful source of phosphorus (Meehan 2004). While phosphorus removal units are commercially available, few are geared for residential use, they are costly, and BFS monitoring suggests that they are short lived. The current DEC-funded work entails the evaluation of various media which may yield cost-effective promise for phosphorus removal from domestic wastewater. pH of the module effluent was evaluated as well. This work was concurrent with field monitoring of “demonstration” advanced treatment systems installed around Otsego Lake (Waterfield in prep.).
METHODS
The primary intention of this work is to evaluate bench-scale modules packed with various media having the capacity to intercept phosphorus from onsite wastewater treatment system effluent. Some media are commercially manufactured, some are naturally occurring and some are waste products from other processes.
Media description
Six different media were evaluated. The first three are developmental aluminum oxide- coated waste aggregate. The first batch tested was in the 0.85-2.00 mm size range, the second was 2.00-4.75 mm, and the third was pretreated with proprietary processes to reduce its pH effects on water. The fourth is a marketed iron oxide bearing media designed for the removal of arsenic from water. It has also been demonstrated to be effective at phosphorus removal. Unlike other iron oxide media, this is not calcite-rich and works by adsorption rather than mineralization. The fifth material, Polonite®, is produced by heat-treating opoka rock, a calcium silicate based material marketed by BioptechTM. An overview of the chemistry related to phosphorus removal by aluminum oxides and Polonite® is provided in Gustafsson et al. (2008) and Westholm (2006). The last material evaluated, termed “Media X”, is a byproduct of drinking water treatment processes. It consists mainly of the precipitated hydroxides or
1 Funding provided by NYSDEC grant #49298. 2 Assistant to the Director, Biological Field Station. 3 Research Support Specialist, Biological Field Station.
- 189 - carbonates of the coagulant along with other treatment additives such as polymers and materials removed from the raw water (sand, silt, clay, algae, color-forming compounds). In this case the water treatment residuals are composed primarily of alum and a cationic polymer.
Lab setup
The body of each module was constructed from standard 300 ml BOD bottles, the bottom having been removed with a glass saw. Size #2 rubber stoppers were bored to accommodate 5 mm OD glass tubing, which was~ 8 cm and bent to 90o at its mid point. One end was inserted through the stopper and mesh (a 1 X 1 cm piece of paint strainer) was glued across the stopper to prevent media fines from clogging the tube. The stopper assembly was glued into the BOD bottle opening and ~ 20 cm of 4 mm ID (6 mm OD) TygonTM tubing was attached to the exterior end of the glass tubing. The assembled units were secured to ring stands and the TygonTM tubing was secured to the outside of the BOD bottle with rubber bands. Paper clips were used to create a “goose neck” such that the end of the tubing was ~ 2 cm below the level of the top of the assembled unit. Figure 1 demonstrates the unit design. Alternatively, some units were modified to represent “unsaturated flow”. These were as above, without the vertical tubing so that the waste flowed vertically downward. All units were situated over plastic tubs which drained into a waste holding vessel.
For each media used, the mass and pore volume of 200 cm3 was determined (Table 1). This amount was added to the modules. The “influent” to the modules was secondarily treated municipal sewage from the Village of Cooperstown which had been augmented, with potassium phosphate, to ~10 mg/l-P to better reflect total phosphorus concentrations in local onsite systems (Waterfield 2009). (The TP content in the municipal effluent is generally ~3 mg/l-P). The rationale for using influent was that the chemical constituency would likely reflect that by local septic waste. Other negative ions have, in some instances, been shown to compete with phosphorus for binding (Adam et al. 2007). The solution was stored in a large drum, augmented as needed, and constant aeration was applied to mimic conditions in typical treatment systems.
- 190 -
Figure 1. Photo of three phosphorous removal modules.
Bulk Density Media Vol. (cm3) Wt (g) (g/cm3) Pore Vol. (ml) Aluminum oxide 0.85-2.00 mm (“fine”) 200 183 0.92 116 Aluminum oxide 2.00-4.75 mm (“coarse”) 200 207 1.04 115 Aluminum oxide “treated” 200 240 1.20 120 Iron oxide 200 125 0.63 143 Polonite® 200 178 0.89 160 “Media X” 200 160 0.80 160
Table 1. Weight, density and pore volumes of 200 cm3 of each media tested.
TygonTM tubing (2 mm ID, 3 mm OD) was used to deliver the waste from the storage drum to each module. At the drum end, the tubes were bundled, covered with a strainer and weighted so that they would reach the bottom of the vessel. The tubes were suspended over each module by inserting them into a pre-drilled plastic Petri dish which was placed over the units. A TechniconTM peristaltic pump was installed in-line; pump tubing of varying diameters allowed for the selection of different flow rates.
The pump ran more or less continuously. Two prolonged episodes (~ 1 week) without flow were encountered due to equipment failure. This was accounted for when the data were processed. On numerous occasions, individual modules were off line due to tube blockages by biological growth in the lines or because of pump tube failure. These were of short duration and were not addressed during data processing. Outflow samples were collected 2-3 times per week by placing beakers under the module outlets. Inflow (high-P wastewater) samples were collected concurrently so that removal efficiencies of the modules could be calculated. Several ml of each were transferred to labeled vials for later analysis. pH on “fresh” samples were
- 191 - intermittently measured (more frequently in the latter stages of this study) because of some concerns were raised regarding elevated pH values for some types of media. Total phosphorus was measured on all samples collected. On 5 consecutive series of samples, ammonia and nitrite+nitrate were also determined to evaluate any potential denitrification occurring in the modules.
The start and stop dates of the units varied. Some were discontinued due to hydraulic failures (clogging) of the modules. Others were stopped, or flow rates were modified, so that new media or rates could be evaluated (the peristaltic pump only permitted up to 9 pump tubes). Because phosphorous removal efficiencies were higher than anticipated, slower flow rates were terminated so that new media could be tested as they became available. Alternatively, some higher flow rates yielded low removal rates, believed to be a function of inadequate contact time. In one case, rates were modified to check the effect on P removal efficiency. Table 2 summarizes each media evaluated thus far, including start and stop dates, flow rates, and saturated vs. unsaturated flow. The reasons for terminating the modules are also given.
Media Flow type Bed Vol./day (ml) Start date End date Reason ended Aluminum oxide fine Saturated 1.2 2/23/2009 7/2/2009 Inappropriate Flow Aluminum oxide fine Saturated 3.6, 13.8, 5.1 2/23/2009 Ongoing Aluminum oxide fine Saturated 5.1 2/23/2009 9/18/2009 Hydraulic failure Aluminum oxide coarse Saturated 1.2 2/23/2009 4/8/2009 Inappropriate Flow Aluminum oxide coarse Saturated 3.6, 13.8, 5.1 2/23/2009 9/18/2009 Hydraulic failure Aluminum oxide coarse Saturated 5.1 2/23/2009 9/18/2009 Hydraulic failure Aluminum oxide pH treated Saturated 5.1 7/16/2009 Ongoing Aluminum oxide pH treated Saturated 13.8 7/16/2009 10/5/2009 Inappropriate Flow1 Iron oxide Saturated 1.2 2/23/2009 7/2/2009 Inappropriate Flow Iron oxide Saturated 3.6, 13.8, 5.1 2/23/2009 9/17/2009 Hydraulic failure Iron oxide Saturated 5.1 2/23/2009 9/17/2009 Hydraulic failure Polonite® Saturated 5.1 7/10/2009 Ongoing Polonite® Saturated 13.8 7/10/2009 10/5/2009 Inappropriate Flow1 Polonite® Saturated 3.6 9/25/2009 Ongoing Polonite® Unaturated 3.6 9/25/2009 Ongoing “Media X” Saturated 3.6 10/2/2009 Ongoing “Media X” Unaturated 3.6 10/2/2009 Ongoing 1coupled with reduced performance
Table 2. Summary of module characteristics, including flow type and rate, the start and stop dates and reason for terminating them.
- 192 - Lab Analysis
Nutrient analyses used a Lachat QuikChem FIA+ Water Analyzer. Samples were analyzed for total phosphorus using ascorbic acid following persulfate digestion (Liao and Martin 2001), for ammonia using the phenolate method (Liao 2001), and for nitrate+nitrite nitrogen using the cadmium reduction method (Pritzlaff 2003). pH determinations were conducted on fresh samples using an Accumet® 50 pH meter, calibrated at least weekly and checked at pH= 8.00 prior to use. A buffer of pH=12.4 was used to validate the meter’s accuracy in that range.
RESULTS AND DISCUSION
Phosphorus Removal
The percent phosphorus removed is plotted versus module bed volumes in Figures 2-7. (Note that the X axis for figures vary.) All of the media performed well (>90% phosphorus removed) during the initial stages of the evaluation. At the slowest flow rate (1.2 bed volumes/day; not shown), both aluminum oxide products and the iron oxide removed virtually all the phosphorous. They were discontinued so that the limited space in the pump set-up could be utilized for other media and rates in the interest of collecting data in a more timely manner. At a flow rate of 5.1 bed volumes/day, removal was near or above 80% for over 1,000 bed volumes (Figure 2). Hydraulic failure (clogging) necessitated the premature termination of these units. For these same media, some minimum contact time seems required for effective phosphorus removal (Figure 3). When the flow rate was increased from 3.6 to 13.8 bed volumes/day, P removal efficiencies declined immediately and markedly. Following a reduction in flow rate, to 5.1 bed volumes/day, removal efficiency increased (though hydraulic failure in two of the units occurred soon thereafter). Interestingly, both Polonite® and the aluminum oxide pH treated media preformed somewhat less efficiently at the slower flow rate of 5.1 bed volumes/day (Figure 4) than at 13.8 bed volumes/day (Figure 5). The aluminum oxide media which had been not been treated for pH control (Figure 2) removed phosphorus more effectively for more bed volumes than did the pH-treated aluminum oxide (Figure 4). The untreated aluminum oxide media run at varying flow regimes (Figure 3) has experienced the most bed volumes. It effectively removed >%70 of the inflowing phosphorus for about 1,500 volumes, after which removal declined markedly. That corresponds to the removal of about 8 g P/kg media (see Figure 9).
Figure 6 compares the Polonite® saturated and unsaturated removal efficiencies at 3.6 bed volumes/day. Generally, saturated conditions performed better, likely due to preferential flow through the (relatively coarse) media which would reduce contact time and not utilize all the available media. Conversely, “Media X” performed similarly under both regimes (Figure 7). This material seemed relatively absorbent and flow seemed less preferential. Figures 6 and 7, while indicating promising performance, are somewhat preliminary, as these units have experienced fewer bed volumes to date than the other modules.
- 193 - 5.1 Bed Volumes per Day
100 90 80 70 60 50 40
% P Removal Al oxide fine 30 Al oxide coarse 20 Fe oxide 10 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 Bed Volumes
Figure 2. Percent phosphorus removal for aluminum oxide fine, aluminum oxide coarse and iron oxide at flow rates of 5.1 bed volumes/day (terminated 9/18/2009).
3.6 to 13.8 to 5.1 Bed Volumes per Day
100 90 80 70 60 Switched from 3.6 to 13.8 b.v./day 50 40 % P Removal 30 Switched from 13.8 to 5.1 b.v./day Al oxide fine 20 Al oxide coarse 10 Fe oxide 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800 Bed Volumes
Figure 3. Percent phosphorus removal for aluminum oxide fine, aluminum oxide coarse and iron oxide at flow rates of 3.6, then 13.8, then 5.1 bed volumes/day (terminated 9/18/2009 for Al oxide coarse and Fe oxide; ongoing for Al oxide fine).
- 194 - 5.1 Bed Volumes per Day
100 90 80 70 60 50
40 Polonite® % P Removal 30 Al oxide treated 20 10 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 Bed Volumes
Figure 4. Percent phosphorus removal for Polonite® and aluminum oxide pH treated at flow rates of 5.1 bed volumes/day (ongoing).
13.8 Bed Volumes per Day
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 Polonite® % P Removal 30 Al oxide treated 20 10 0 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 Bed Volumes
Figure 5. Percent phosphorus removal for Polonite® and aluminum oxide pH treated at flow rates of 13.8 bed volumes/day (terminated 7/10/09 for Polonite®; 7/16/09 for aluminum oxide pH treated).
- 195 -
Figure 6. Percent phosphorus removal for Polonite® in a saturated (conventional) and unsaturated flow regime at flow rates of 3.6 bed volumes/day (ongoing).
Figure 7. Percent phosphorus removal for “Media X” in a saturated (conventional) and unsaturated flow regime at flow rates of 3.6 bed volumes/day (ongoing).
- 196 - Figures 8 through 13 illustrate cumulative phosphorus retention of each module over time (indicated by bed volumes). Note that the X axis vary. Figures 8 and 9 would imply that the iron oxide media outperformed the aluminum oxide media. This is partly a function of how the data are reported here. The iron oxide media is less dense that the others (see Table 1); since 200 cm3 of each media were used in each module, reporting removal rates on a per- weight basis (P/kg media) would result in greater retention, even at similar percent removal rates. “Media X” can’t yet be fully evaluated, as those modules have not experienced as many bed volumes as have the other media. However, the preliminary results appear promising. At the end of 300 bed volumes (Figure 12), this media, at both the saturated and unsaturated regimes, removed more phosphorus/kg than any other except the iron oxide.
5.1 Bed Volumes per Day
12
10 Al oxide fine Al oxide coarse 8 Fe oxide
6
4
2 Cumulative P removed, g/kg media g/kg removed, P Cumulative
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 Bed Volumes
Figure 8. Cumulative phosphorus removed, in g/kg media, vs. bed volumes for aluminum oxide fine, coarse and iron oxide at a flow rate of 5.1 bed volumes/day.
- 197 - 3.6 to 13.8 to 5.1 Bed Volumes per Day
12 Switched from 3.6 Switched from 13.8 to to 13.8 b.v./day 5.1 b.v./day 10
8 Al oxide fine Al oxide coarse 6 Fe oxide
4
2 Cumulaltive P removed, g/kg media g/kg removed, P Cumulaltive
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 Bed Volumes
Figure 9. Cumulative phosphorus removed, in g/kg media, vs. bed volumes for aluminum oxide fine, coarse and iron oxide at a flow rates of 3.6, then 13.8, then 5.1 bed volumes/day.
5.1 Bed Volumes per Day
12
10
Polonite 8 Al oxide treated
6
4
2 Cumulative P removed, g/kg media g/kg removed, P Cumulative
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 Bed Volumes
Figure 10. Cumulative phosphorus removed, in g/kg media, vs. bed volumes for Polonite® and aluminum oxide pH treated at a flow rate of 5.1 bed volumes/day.
- 198 - 13.8 Bed Volumes per Day
12
10
Polonite 8 Al oxide treated
6
4
2 Cumulative P removed, g/kg media g/kg removed, P Cumulative
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 Bed Volumes
Figure 11. Cumulative phosphorus removed, in g/kg media, vs. bed volumes for Polonite® and aluminum oxide pH treated at a flow rate of 13.8 bed volumes/day.
Figure 12. Cumulative phosphorus removed, in g/kg media, vs. bed volumes for Polonite® saturated (conventional) and unsaturated at a flow rate of 3.6 bed volumes/day.
- 199 -
Figure 13. Cumulative phosphorus removed, in g/kg media, vs. bed volumes for “Media X” saturated (conventional) and unsaturated at a flow rate of 3.6 bed volumes/day.
pH
The effluent of the modules containing some media had markedly elevated pH values, particularly at the onset of the evaluation. This is an issue of concern, as NYS regulations require that onsite effluent be in the pH range of 6.5-8.5; anything outside that range would require further treatment to meet compliance (O’Connor 2010). Figure 14 provides the pH of the module effluent for the aluminum oxide and iron oxide media running at 5.1 bed volumes/day; Figure 15 likewise displays that of the Polonite® and “Media X”, saturated and unsaturated, modules running at 3.6 bed volumes/day (note different X axis scale). The untreated aluminum oxide and Polonite® were pH>12.0 and 11.0, respectively, for the first several days of operation. The aluminum oxide media that had been “pH treated” had substantially lower pH, though its phosphorus removing efficiency was somewhat lower than that which was not treated (see Figures 4,5,10).
Figure 16 plots percent phosphorus removal along with pH over bed volume for the untreated aluminum oxide media at 5.1 bed volumes/day. Table 17 does the same for the saturated Polonite® module at 3.6 bed volume/day (note different X axis scale). These comparisons were made as they relate to the media most affecting pH. While phosphorus retention and pH both decline over time for these media, there is no clear relationship related to a particular pH value that correlates to a loss of phosphorus retention capacity.
- 200 -
Figure 14. pH of module effluent for aluminum oxide fine, aluminum oxide coarse, aluminum oxide pH treated and iron oxide media over time (bed volumes) at 5.1 bed volumes/day.
Figure 15. pH of module effluent for Polonite® saturated and unsaturated and “Media X” saturated and unsaturated over time (bed volumes) at 3.6 bed volumes/day.
- 201 - 5.1 Bed Volumes per Day
100 13 90 80 12 70 P removal 60 11 pH 50 pH 40 10
% P Removal 30 20 9 10 0 8
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 Bed Volumes
Figure 16. A comparison of percent phosphorus removal and pH of module effluent for aluminum oxide, untreated, over time at 5.1 bed volumes/day.
3.6 Bed Volumes per Day
100 13 90 80 12 70 P removal 60 11 pH 50 pH 40 10
% P Removal 30 20 9 10 0 8
0 100 200 300 400 Bed Volumes
Figure 17. A comparison of percent phosphorus removal and pH of module effluent for Polonite® saturated over time at 3.6 bed volumes/day.
- 202 - Nitrate and ammonia
Nitrate and ammonia concentrations of inflowing wastewater, as well as the module effluents, were sampled on five consecutive sampling dates (11/19/09 to 1/4/2010). This was done to investigate any potential denitrification occurring in the modules. All ammonia concentrations were below detection (< 0.04 mg/l). Nitrate concentrations, as well as the means and standard deviations, are provided in Table 3. None of the module effluents were significantly less than the inflowing wastewater. Further investigations seem appropriate once full scale modules are developed for residential use, as the cyclic use (rather than constant flow as in the lab) and larger scale might lead to aerobic/anaerobic cycles that might promote denitrification.
Nitrate mg/l (11/19/09 (12/11/09)(12/17/09)(12/22/09)(12/29/09) (1/4/10) mean st dev effluent (wastewater) 11.23 15.20 14.98 14.38 14.38 13.45 13.93 1.46 Polonite sat.(5.1 b.v./day) 10.73 15.00 15.28 15.00 13.85 13.25 13.85 1.72 Al oxide sat. (3.6, 13.8, 5.1 b.v./day) 10.58 14.38 14.55 14.73 13.85 14.40 13.75 1.58 Polonite sat. (3.6 b.v./day) 8.95 11.95 15.65 15.20 14.25 10.40 12.73 2.73 Polonite unsat. (3.6 b.v./day) 9.80 14.95 14.13 14.00 13.63 12.38 13.15 1.84 "Media X" sat. 3.6 b.v./day) 7.88 1.15 14.00 14.65 13.33 11.90 10.48 5.17 "Media X" unsat. (3.6 b.v./day) 11.25 12.90 15.15 14.88 13.65 12.15 13.33 1.53 Al oxide sat. (5.1 b.v./day) 10.40 11.60 14.65 14.48 13.40 12.73 12.88 1.66
Table 3. Summary of nitrate concentrations on effluent and modules samples collected 11/19/09 to 1/4/10, as well as mean and standard deviations. Ammonia concentrations were all below detection(< 0.04 mg/l).
CONCLUSIONS
As this work is ongoing, it is difficult to fairly compare all the media tested to date; the evaluation of some commenced at later dates, and therefore the longevity of those is not known. But, all of those evaluated show promise for removing phosphorus from onsite wastewater. Removal rates averaged 80% or better for the first 400 bed volumes for all media at all flow rates tested. The fastest flow rate (13.8 bed volumes/day) tended to remove phosphorus less efficiently, and for a shorter duration, implying that contact time is an important consideration. For those that have been tested the longest (~1,000 bed volumes), total phosphorus removed was ~5-11 g/kg media. This is comparable to values reported for other media tested for similar purposes (Gustafsson et al. 2008; Westholm 2006).
The criteria considered for the most promising media include phosphorus-removal efficiency and longevity, pH influences on the wastewater, and cost of the material. (Costs are not reviewed here, though need consideration as there is apt to be considerable variability among them.). The iron oxide material removed the most phosphorus per kg through the first ~1,000 bed volumes. Unfortunately, clogging of those modules prevented evaluations beyond
- 203 - that point. This media has been used in a commercially available form, apparently without having any such hydraulic problems.
Neither the iron oxide nor the “Media X” materials had meaningful influences on pH, the former being less than pH 8.5 for all but the first week of use, the latter having a pH of less than 8.0 throughout. The effluent from the untreated aluminum oxides and the Polonite® were, initially, over pH of 12 and 11, respectively. While this issue does not preclude these media from being pursued, it would necessitate some form of final treatment to bring the effluent into compliance (pH = 6.5-8.5; (O’Connor 2010)). The pH treated aluminum oxide did moderate the pH of the effluent from that module, though the tradeoff was somewhat less effective phosphorus removal. It should be noted that the marketers of these aluminum oxide compounds are striving to advance these materials to enhance performance while minimizing pH issues. Field testing of the media appearing to have the most promise as a cost effective means of phosphorus removal will commence following the finalization of this lab-scale evaluation.
REFERENCES
Adam, K., T. Krogstad, L. Vrale, A.K. Sovik and P. D. Jenssen. 2007. Phosphorus retention in the filter materials shellsand and Filralite P®- Batch and column experiment with synthetic P solution and secondary wastewater. Ecol. Engin. 29 (2007) 200-208.
Gustafsson, J.P., A. Renman, G. Renman and K. Poll. 2008. Phosphate removal by mineral-based sorbents used in filters for small-scale wastewater treatment. Water Res. 42 (1-2), 189-197.
Harman, W.N., L.P. Sohacki, M.F. Albright, and D.L. Rosen. 1997. The state of Otsego Lake, 1936-1996. Occasional Paper #30, SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Liao, N. 2001. Determination of ammonia by flow injection analysis. QuikChem® Method 10-107-06-1-J. Lachet Instruments, Loveland, Co.
Liao, N. and S. Marten 2001. Determination of total phosphorus by flow injection analysis (acid persulfate digestion method). QuikChem® Method 10-115-01-1-F. Lachet Instruments, Loveland, Co.
Meehan, H.A. 2004. Phosphorus migration from a near-lake septic system in the Otsego lake watershed, summer 2003. In 36th Ann. Rept. (2003). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
O’Connor, F. 2010. Personal communication. Environmental engineer, Division of Water, Region 4. NYS Dept. Env. Conserv.
- 204 - Pritzlaff, D. 2003. Determination of nitrite+nitrate in surface and wastewaters by flow injection analysis. QuikChem® Method 10-107-04-1-C. Lachet Instruments, Loveland, Co.
Waterfield, H.A. 2010. Treatment performance of advanced onsite wastewater treatment systems in the Otsego lake watershed, 2009 results update. In 42nd Ann. Rept. (2009). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Waterfield, H.A. and S. Kessler. 2009. Treatment performance of advanced onsite wastewater treatment systems in the Otsego lake watershed, 2008 results. In 41st Ann. Rept., SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Westholm, L.J. 2006. Substrates for phosphorus removal- Potential benefits for on-site wastewater treatment? Water Res. 40 (1), 23-36.
- 205 - Historical archaeology at the Thayer homestead: progress report of the 2008 and 2009 investigations
David P. Staley1
ABSTRACT
Excavations continued during 2008 and 2009 seasons at the Thayer Homestead Site. The uncellared section of the house was investigated exposing the outer foundation and an associated door stoop. The cellar floor was also sampled finding the builders and occupants used the natural shale bedrock for the cellar floor. Yard areas where sampled with systematic shovel tests in a search for midden or dump deposits and a second barn foundation reported in oral history. Midden deposits were located downslope and west of the house. Nearly 6,000 artifacts have been recovered to date with 60% being architecturally related. Ceramics constitute 11% with 58 varieties of tablewares and storage containers. A cluster of reconstructable bottles in one area of the house may be the remains of a former window display. A second human tooth was recovered. Like the first one, analysis of the tooth revealed age, wear patterns, plaque, caries, and fractures suggestive of mechanical extraction. The tooth is plausibly from the same individual.
INTRODUCTION
The Thayer Homestead is one of several apparently well-preserved 19th century historic farmstead sites located on SUNY Oneonta Biological Field Station’s Rum Hill property in the Town of Springfield, Otsego County, New York (Figure 1). This investigation comprises part of a multi-year, multi-site, cooperative archaeological and historical research effort that will provide basic interpretive data about the sites for the Biological Field Station’s ongoing ecological educational program, contribute knowledge regarding historical agricultural practices, human ecological adaptations, illustrate to visitors the methods, techniques, and utility of archaeology and historical research, and will also provide educational opportunities for local primary and secondary school children.
1 Archaeologist, Project Manager. New York State Museum, Cultural Resource Survey Program, Albany, New York.
- 206 -
Figure 1: Approximate Location of Thayer Site.
The overall history, context, and research goals for the Thayer Homestead project have been outlined previously (Staley 2006, 2007, 2008). In brief, the Thayer Homestead site consists of a house foundation, several barn foundations, chicken coop, and other outbuildings (Figure 2). A variety of historic artifacts such as glass, ceramics, metals, and farm machinery parts can be observed across the site. Based on historic maps, census materials, and oral history the Thayer homestead property was purchased in 1807, the house built in 1814, and used throughout the century by generations of the Thayer family (Reed 2006). Typical of post-Revolutionary War settlers of New York, the Thayers had emigrated from Massachusetts as an extended family to settle on the rocky,
- 207 - - 208 -
Figure 2: Site Map.
steep, upland locations similar to the lands they had left behind (VanWagenen 1963; Ryan 1981; Parkerson 1995). The Thayers were also typical in their balance of agricultural production and the sequence of agricultural adaptations and choices (McMurry 1995). Wood products supported the farm’s establishment however, the Thayer’s broad balance of production shifted through time with an emphasis on grain, sheep and wool, and then to hops, and then dairying and the production of butter and cheese (U.S. Federal Census 1850, 1870; Reed 2006). These transitions were typical of agriculture in this part of New York. At some point in the early 20th century, agricultural emphasis was shifted to lands at lower elevations closer to the more developed roadways and lake. Christiana (Dingman) Thayer, wife of Marcena Thayer and the last occupant of the house, died in 1914. The fields surrounding the site and various agricultural structures on the property were used after this date. The house stood until the 1930s, the hop house/barn until at least 1940 (Reed 2006, 2009).
RESEARCH GOALS
Some of the larger, broader research questions approachable from the perspective of the Thayer site regard the evolution of farming in Otsego County and in New York. What was the nature of the agricultural and cultural adaptations on these upland properties? Can the relative involvement in the emerging marketplace be traced at both the Thayer and neighboring sites? What are the archaeological differences between the Thayer and the neighboring properties and do these provide clues as to the greater longevity, continuity, and success of the Thayer property? Can the archaeological record at the Thayer site reveal anything about the transition of agricultural practices and ultimately provide clues as to why this portion of the property was abandoned?
The excavations of the past two years have several lesser, more focused research goals. Detailed mapping has refined the shape and size of the house and its cellar as well as the arrangement of piers used for an assumed chicken coop. Oral history about the site, particularly the structural layout, arrangement, and individual building orientation have been partially incongruous with preliminary findings and interpretations. Archaeological investigations hoped to contribute to a correlation of oral history, historic photographs, and physical remains. Particularly, we wanted to define and orient the house, find the location of the second barn at the site, and identify midden or dump areas on the compound. The exploration of household refuse areas and artifacts in those features would inform us about Thayer family consumer choices and economics.
METHODOLOGY
Over the past two years, students from a Cherry Valley-Springfield (CVS) Archaeology elective class, under the direction of this author and social studies teacher Melissa Jaquay, have conducted the majority of investigations. Teams of SUNY Oneonta Anthropology Department students under the direction of Dr. Renee Walker have assisted by providing direct guidance to the younger students regarding the finer points of
- 209 - archaeological field methods. Jessie Pellerin of the New York State Museum’s Cultural Resource Survey Program has significantly contributed to the overall effort with GIS and mapping expertise.
The locations of excavation units and shovel tests are presented along with their date of excavation in Figure 2. In the spring of 2008, the CVS students finished two 1 x 1 meter units initiated by the previous class and completed an additional five units in the uncellared portion of the house. These units were positioned to follow the low stone footer and sample the interior of the structure in an attempt to clarify the house outline, orientation, and room function. Another 1 x 1 m unit located south of the cellar entrance, initiated by SUNY students in 2007, continued in 2008 and finished in 2009. Six shovel test pits (STPs) measuring approximately 50 x 50 cm were excavated in the lower area to the west of the house and a possible feature marked by a cluster of rocks. These were excavated to define the function of this possible feature and prospect for refuse areas. A systematic array of STPs was excavated during fall of 2008 in the relatively flat area to the east of the house. These tests were also prospecting for midden deposits but also searching for remains of the second barn structure. In spring of 2009, three units extended our operations in the uncellared part of the house, three more were placed down slope to the southwest of the house further prospecting for midden, one (TU 22) was placed to investigate a possible pier for the house or an addition, and one 1 x 1 meter unit was excavated in the base of the cellar. Our sketch maps of the house foundation and the possible feature located to the west were refined through triangulation from locations on the site grid. Weather conditions and scheduling difficulties prevented any substantive fieldwork at the site during the fall semester of 2009. The test units were all dug to sterile soil, and students recorded artifacts recovered in situ, positions of rocks, and variations in soil strata. All sediments were screened with ¼ inch mesh.
RESULTS
Excavations in and around the uncellared portion of the house have found the outer foundation to consist of unmortared fieldstones two or three courses thick (Figure 3; Photo 1). Stone alignments made of generally less massive stones and varying between one and three courses create internal joist supports spaced 1.5 m (5 ft). The discovery of two possible masonry piers west of the house suggests the house extended further west than previously assumed (Figure 4). The extension and the recollections of Mr. William Reed throw into question our original interpretation of a kitchen room function in area surrounded with the footer wall. Artifact analysis is on going but preliminarily suggests a more generalized room function. A section of iron piping near TU 22 leads us to hypothesize this western extension functioned as the kitchen but the orientation and layout are at odds with recollections (Reed 2006, 2009). An area of flat stones projecting north from the wall alignment in TUs 15 and 21 may represent a door stoop but the units have contained numerous small cast iron stove fragments (51; .86%) so it is plausible these stones may have supported an exterior chimney or stove pipe. Excavations continued to find a nearly ubiquitous layer of wall plaster, nails, and window glass bounded by the foundation representing the dismantling and lumber salvage of the house in the 1930s.
- 210 - Piers
Figure 3: Detail of Site Map and House Foundations.
Photo 1: View of Northern Wall looking East with Possible Stoop in Foreground.
- 211 - - 212 -
Figure 4: Hypothesized Structure Placement.
The single test in the cellar recovered a modern beer bottle near the surface and historic crockery, bottle glass and shoe leather in buried contexts. The test revealed that the builder’s excavated the cellar to shale bedrock. Based on our experiences, this cellar floor was likely often wet and flooded, and the room probably required some form of engineered drainage system to be functional. A small lump of sulfur cake was recovered from this unit. This product was used in the hops industry to combat powdery mildew and as a bleaching agent. It was also used as a household fumigant insecticide/fungicide like modern day “bug bombs” and used to clean a house after sickness. Sulfur was also used medicinally for skin diseases (Bjorness and Wiewiorowski 2010).
Although no dense midden or barn remains were isolated to the east, a small midden area was identified in TU 17, down slope and west of the house. A concentration of a great variety of artifacts was recovered from a rich, charcoal filled, organic soil. Many artifacts from this unit were burned or melted and were typically highly fragmented.
Further west, an area earlier identified or described as a rock cluster was mapped in detail and tested. Four fieldstone piers or rock piles and a flat area dug into the hill slope mark the location of a chicken coop and/or pig sty as reported in oral history (Figures 2 and 4).
Throughout the site, artifacts are typically recovered from the upper 35 cm (14 in) of soil. Basic artifactual cataloguing has kept pace with excavation and a basic collective description or characterization can be offered at this time. To date, excavations have recovered 5,903 items. The vast majority of artifacts recovered (65%) would generally be classified as architectural such as flat glass (1074; 19%), cut nails (1262; 21%), wire nails (555; 9.4%), wrought nails (15; .25%), a selected sample of brick (676; 11%), and plaster (125; 2%). Domestic artifacts include bone fragments (72; 1%), bottle and jar glass (410; 7%), lamp glass (18; .3%), glass tableware (2), metal cutlery (6) and ceramics (662; 11%). It is notable that within the category of ceramic vessels we have 58 varieties of stoneware crockery, coarse redware, creamware, pearlware, whiteware, and yellowware representing storage containers, serving containers, and tableware. Personal items include a glass bead, buttons made of metal (4), bone (1), glass (1), and ceramic (2), fragments of Kaolin smoking pipes (6), a jackknife, and a jaw harp (Photo 2). Previous reports had noted the complete absence of tobacco pipes and tin can fragments, these six pipe fragments represent only three pipes and the items are still notably sparse compared to other 19th century sites. Metal can fragments remain extremely rare.
After recognizing that numerous bottle fragments were being recovered from three adjacent units (TUs 7, 8, and 16), the CVS elective class initiated a cross-mending study that brought the fragments together and largely reconstructed four late 19th century bottles from these units plus several others (Photo 3). As a result, it was noted this grouping of bottles displayed a high degree of variability in color, size, and shape. This
- 213 -
Ceramics
Jaw harp Pocketknife
Buttons Cutlery
Photo 2: Various Artifacts from the Thayer Homestead Site.
- 214 -
Photo 3: Reconstructed Bottles.
led the class to devise and undertake an ethnoarchaeological/experimental study measuring the statistical variability of color, size, closure, and shape for jars and bottles used in four household settings; static displays, pantry storage, wine racks, and liquor cabinets. The Thayer assemblage best matched other modern static displays suggesting that was the behavior that produced this association of bottles.
Of special note, a second human tooth was found during archaeological excavations at the Thayer Homestead. This tooth was recovered from TU 16, the unit adjacent to the previous tooth found in TU 7, with both found at approximately the same 20 cm depth. The tooth is a right, first premolar from the maxilla or upper jaw. Fully erupted when it was lost, it came from an adult individual. It had been in occlusion for at least several years based on the appearance of a very small dot of wear on the buccal cusp and very small flat area on the mesial surface where the enamel was worn from contact with the adjacent canine tooth. The extent of the tooth wear is minimal and indicates the individual was relatively young when the tooth was lost although rates of attrition can vary widely based on a number of factors. The tooth is complete with the exception of a large carious lesion on the side of the crown where the tooth would have touched the second premolar. The cavity appears to have affected much of the tissue under the enamel crown and probably extended into the pulp chamber where it would have caused significant discomfort and pain. There is also a smaller cavity on the other side of the
- 215 - crown on the surface that was adjacent to the canine. Much like the molar found in previous excavations at the site, this tooth has several fractures in the enamel that extend from the top of the crown down towards the root. If the tooth had been removed during life, it is possible that the fractures occurred as a result of force applied during extraction. This tooth and the one previously recovered are plausibly from the same individual (Anderson 2009).
Analysis of the artifacts and their distributions continues. The collection and catalog are actively used in lab analyses and educational exercises. The world of historical archaeology, local history, and the Thayer Homestead have been presented by CVS students and their instructor through guiding tours and giving demonstrations to various adult organizations and school groups.
FUTURE WORK
Oral history of the Thayer Homestead (Reed 2006, 2009) suggested the house was configured with an uncellared central ell extending toward the creek. The long axis of the house fronted by a porch was to parallel the road up to Rum Hill. The discovery of two piers now suggest a long axis that does parallel the road however there is a large hardwood tree growing within the outline. Further excavations around the house, as well as more thorough artifact analysis, may clarify this possible contradiction. Ultimately, we should be able to define the function of this portion of the house when compared deposits from other parts of the house. The central tree will be cored for a dendrochronology sample to ascertain its maximum age and evaluate the plausibility this area was within the house outline in 1930. We will continue to add detail to the site map with more precise locations of stream boundaries, trails, and former roads.
Oral history also notes a second, larger barn was once positioned north of the Rum Hill road between the house and the hops barn. Surface surveys to date have not identified any stone pilings or foundation nor has shovel testing provided any clues. Our search for this structure will continue through extending our grid of shovel tests. There is the promise SUNY Oneonta Anthropology could assist with a Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) study of the area searching for stratigraphic anomalies.
Despite several seasons of fieldwork, we remain short of conclusions regarding any of our agricultural adaptations or economics related research questions. These sorts of conclusions may await us only after patient and diligent work and when ultimately compared and contrasted with other similar deposits. We have gained some information about the house and the hops barn and have opened several portals on to historic life at the Thayer Homestead. Life was not the sepia tone or black and white of 19th century photography but brightly splattered with colors and patterns as illustrated by the variety of Thayer household ceramics. People had horrible toothaches and painful extractions but they also enjoyed the pleasures of their music as played on a jaw harp.
- 216 - REFERENCES CITED
Anderson, L. 2009. Bioanthropological Analysis of the Thayer Homestead Tooth. Manuscript and notes on file with the Author. New York State Museum, Department of Research and Collections-Bioanthropology/NAGPRA division. Albany, N.Y.
Bjorness, R. A., and T. K. Wiewiorowski. 2010. "Sulfur." Encyclopedia Americana. Grolier Online. 21 Mar. 2010
McMurry, S. 1995. Transforming Rural Life: Dairying Families and Agricultural Change, 1820-1885. John Hopkins University Press. Baltimore.
Parkerson, D. H. 1995. The Agricultural Transition in New York State: Markets and Migration in Mid-Nineteenth century America. Iowa State University Press. Ames.
Reed, W. 2006. Personal communications with the author. September 24, October 6, and October 20, 2006.
Reed, W. 2009. Personal communications with the author. October 28, October 29, November 16, November 27, 2009.
Ryan, M. P. 1981. Cradle of the Middle Class: the Family in Oneida County, New York, 1790-1865. Cambridge University Press. New York.
Staley, D. P. 2006. Preliminary Archaeological Investigations at the Thayer Homestead. In 2005 Annual Report of the Biological Field Station. State University of New York-College at Oneonta, Biological Field Station, Cooperstown, N.Y.
Staley, D. P. 2007. Further Archaeological Investigations at the Thayer Homestead: Excavations at the Hop House/Barn. In 2006 Annual Report of the Biological Field Station. State University of New York-College at Oneonta, Biological Field Station, Cooperstown, N.Y.
Staley, D. P. 2008. Report on 2007 Archaeological Investigations at the Thayer Homestead: Excavations at the Thayer House. In 2007 Annual Report of the Biological Field Station. State University of New York-College at Oneonta, Biological Field Station, Cooperstown, N.Y.
U.S. Federal Census. 1850.Agricultural Schedules of the Seventh Census of the United States. New York State, Otsego County, Town of Springfield. Microcopy 432, Roll 562. 1963 National Archives and Record Service. General Services Administration.
- 217 - U.S. Federal Census. 1870. Agricultural Schedules of the Ninth Census of the United States. New York State, Otsego County, Town of Springfield. Microcopy 593, Roll 1059, Vol. 77. 1965 National Archives Microfilm Publication.
VanWagenen, J. 1963..Golden Age of Homespun. Hill and Wang. New York.
- 218 - Preliminary investigation of biotic and abiotic factors involved in carbon biogeochemical cycling in open water areas at Greenwoods Conservancy and Thayer Farm, NY
Nicola A. McEnroe1 & Zachary Burriss2
INTRODUCTION Most carbon (C) biogeochemical studies and detailed limnological studies have been carried out in boreal, temperate and tropical lakes, which are much larger and deeper than open water areas commonly found on most wetlands. Studies show that within most temperate lakes the net transfer is usually of C into the lake to support net algal productivity (Cole et al., 1994; Cole, 1999, Riera et al., 1999; Sobek et al., 2005). Whereas for many boreal and arctic lakes, C is released continually as carbon dioxide (CO2) throughout the year, most being “net heterotrophic” with allochthonous C suggested to be the primary driver of productivity (Striegl et al., 2001; Sobek et al., 2003; Hanson et al., 2004; Kritzberg et al., 2005). A recent study showed that a number of relatively small, shallow (< 1 m) open water pools on a northern peatland were sources of both CO2 and methane (CH4) (McEnroe et al., 2009). It was also demonstrated, that this same series of pools were supersaturated with CO2 and CH4 with respect to atmospheric equivalent values (McEnroe et al., submitted), similar to findings for other freshwater systems (Cole et al., 1994).
Limnological factors related to water column depth, such as light penetration and temperature, and abiotic factors such as dissolved oxygen (DO) and dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentrations are essential components of C biogeochemical cycling in freshwater ecosystems. In many wetlands, these relationships between C (CO2, CH4, DOC), water column physico-chemical and biological parameters have not yet been fully explored. Dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) and DO are commonly measured to establish changes in metabolism within freshwater systems, however changing concentrations are not only dependent on metabolism but also on factors such as water temperature, exchange with atmosphere, abiotic reactions and inputs from precipitation and groundwater (Hanson et al., 2006). Constructing these C budgets is an important component in understanding wetland metabolism and biogeochemistry, as well as the assessment of gradients of DIC and DOC, profiles of temperature, light, DO and sediment characteristics. Such measurements can be used to monitor changing C dynamics over time and changing aquatic metabolic status. Results can also shed insight into questions about responses to climate driven environmental change. The objectives of this study were to establish the baseline conditions against which net changes in C biogeochemical cycling due to land-use and climate driven environmental change can be assessed and to establish the key biotic and abiotic factors involved. This study is a preliminary investigation towards establishing permanent sampling sites for C biogeochemical cycling in local wetland ecosystems.
1 Assistant Professor, Environmental Sciences Program, SUNY Oneonta, NY, 2009 recipient of Greenwoods Faculty research stipend 2 Undergraduate student, Environmental Sciences Program, SUNY Oneonta.
- 219 - STUDY SITES
Cranberry Bog is located within Greenwoods Conservancy in Burlington, NY. The Conservancy is owned by the Petersen Family Trust and is a 1200+ acre nature preserve protected by conservation easements held by the Otsego Land Trust. Cranberry Bog is approximately 70 acres and has characteristics of both a bog and fen, with large open water areas and a floating Sphagnum spp. dominated mat (Figure 1). A series of small vernal pools were created in summer 2008 just north of the main entrance to the bog, along Seldom Seen Trail.
In Cranberry Bog, the major vegetation species found are Acer rubrum (red maple), Alnus incana (speckled alder), Andromeda glaucophylla (bog rosemary), Aronia melanocarpa (black chokeberry), Chamaedaphne calyculata (leather-leaf), Drosera rotundifolia (roundleaf sundew), Eriophorum virginicum (cotton grass), Juncus stygius (moor rush), Pinus strobes (white pine), Rhyncospora alba (white beak-rush), Sarracina purpurea (pitcher plant), Spirea alba (meadowsweet), Thelypteris palustris (eastern marsh fern), Triadenum fraseri (marsh St. Johnswort), Vaccinium oxycoccos (small cranberry) (after Saba, 2002), with Nuphar lutea (yellow pond-lily) found in open water areas. Leather-leaf (Chamaedaphne calyculata) and speckled alder (Alnus incana), both native to Cranberry Bog, have formed dense thickets on the Sphagnum spp. dominated mats (Saba, 2002). These two species have tended to reduce the diversity of other bog plants such as Pogonia ophioglossoides (Rose pogonia) (O’Dea, pers.comm.). A wetland plant survey was undertaken at Zachow Road wetland in 2002 (Gray, 2003), a leather-leaf and speckled alder survey in 2002 (Harman, 2003), a deer browsing survey in 2003 (Burgess, 2004), a fish survey of Cranberry Bog in 2006 (Scorzafava, 2007) and a floral survey of Big Meadow in 2008 (Searles & Ryburn, 2009). No data were found on Cranberry Bog open water physico-chemical properties.
- 220 - Figure 1: Map of Greenwoods Conservancy, showing location of Cranberry Bog and Seldom Seen Trail (the approximate location of man-made vernal pools).
In contrast, Thayer Farm is located in Springfield, NY and is a 100-acre area of former active farmland surrounded by 164 acres of woodland and1.6 acres of lake- front property (Meehan, 2003). Approximately eleven man-made ponds are scattered throughout the property (Figure 2). Many of the ponds lie in close proximity to each other, and small streams connect ponds #1 and 2. Ponds # 3-8 collectively are known as the “chain-ponds” and can be hydrologically connected in times of high water (Meehan, 2003).
Sixteen different vegetation species are found within the ponds, with pond #11 showing the highest diversity, with 7 different species present (Payne & Butler, 2007). The major species found are Chara vulgaris (common stonewort), Eleocharis sp. (spikerush), Elodea canadiensis (Canadian waterweed), Juncus sp. (rush), Lemna minor (common duckweed), Nymphaea odorata (American white water-lily), Potamogeton pectinatus (fennel-leaf pondweed), P. crispus (curly-leaf pondweed), P natans (broad-leaf pondweed), P. zoseriformis (flat-stem pondweed), Sagittaria sp.(arrowhead), Utricularia sp. (bladderwort), and Vallisneria americana (American eelgrass) (after Payne & Butler, 2007). A study during summer 2002 (i.e. Meehan, 2003) began a baseline physico-chemical survey of the Thayer Farm ponds, and this was continued in summer 2006 and expanded to include sampling for fish, plants and zooplankton species’ abundance and diversity (Payne & Butler, 2007).
- 221 -
Figure 2. Map of Thayer Farm including the pond system.
METHODS
At Cranberry bog, three man-made vernal pools along Seldom Seen Trail were randomly selected for water sampling and four locations within the open water area of the bog itself. At Thayer Farm, four ponds were selected for sampling (pond #’s 5, 7, 9, 11). Sampling was carried out between 19 June and 30 July 2009. Water column profiles of dissolved oxygen and temperature (YSI Model 54 Oxygen Meter, Yellow Springs Instrument Co., Yellow Springs, Ohio), light (Li-Cor L-250), conductivity and pH (Oakton 10 (PC10), Cole Palmer Instruments Co. USA) were taken at 10 cm intervals from the water surface to the sediment-water interface. Samples were also collected from the water surface and analysed for total phosphorus (persulfate digestion), total nitrogen (cadmium reduction), nitrite + nitrate (cadmium reduction) and ammonia (phenolate) (Lachat QuickChem 8000 System Flow Injection Analyser, Zellweger Analytics, Milwaukee, WI), after sample filtration (0.45 µm) and preservation with sulphuric acid. Surface water samples collected for DOC analyses were refrigerated until analysed using a TOC Analyser (Shimazdu TOC-Vcsh, TMN- 1 Analyser, Shimazdu, Japan) after sample filtration (0.45 µm) and acidification with 2-N hydrochloric acid.
- 222 - RESULTS & DISCUSSION
Physico-chemical characteristics The average water column temperature of Cranberry Bog during June to July 2009 was 19.08 ± 0.87 ºC (mean ± SD), and the range was 17.1-20.5 ºC. For the Greenwoods Conservancy vernal ponds, the average water column temperature was 14.49 ± 1.18 ºC and the range was 12.4-17.4 ºC. At Thayer Farm ponds the average water column temperature was 19.21 ± 2.75 ºC, and the range was 7.72-25.2 ºC. Water columns were not thermally stratified at the times of sampling, with a small difference seen in Thayer Farm Ponds, between June and July water surface temperatures (Figure 3). 15 Average water column temperature (oC) 25 0
10
20
30
40
Bog_Jun09
Depth from water column surface (cm) 50 Bog_Jul09 TF_Jun09
60 TF_Jul09
Figure 3: Average water column temperature profiles in Cranberry Bog and Thayer Farm Ponds during June and July 2009.
The lack of thermal stratification implies that the water bodies were relatively well mixed at the times of sampling. Average dissolved oxygen concentrations ranged from 4.96 to 7.54 mg L-1, with the lowest levels found in Cranberry Bog open water areas (Figure 4). Low dissolved oxygen concentrations can be related to high nutrient loadings, which promote excessive algal growth, and also due to die-off and decomposition of aquatic plants in the water column. Vegetation patterns can control major aspects of wetland biogeochemistry, and water temperature and dissolved oxygen concentrations have been shown to be lower in densely vegetated areas, with values close to anoxia in the water column (i.e. Rose & Crumpton, 1996). Differences in nutrient concentrations, hence productivity, and the widespread occurrence of emergent macrophytes Cranberry Bog could explain the low dissolved oxygen concentrations observed.
- 223 -
Figure 4: Average water column temperature (ºC) and average dissolved oxygen concentrations (mg/L) in Cranberry Bog, Greenwood Conservancy vernal pools and Thayer Farm Ponds during June to July 2009.
Overall, average June concentrations were higher in both Cranberry Bog and Thayer Farm ponds, with levels in the bog open water areas close to anoxia (4 mgL-1). There was some water column stratification > 20-30 cm deep in the bog open water areas in July 2009 and in the Thayer Farm ponds during both June and July 2009 with regards to dissolved oxygen concentrations (Figure 5). Average dissolved oxygen (mg/L) 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0
10
20
30
40
Bog_Jun09 50 Bog_Jul09 Depth from water column surface (cm) TF_Jun09
60 TF_Jul09
Figure 5: Average dissolved oxygen profiles in Cranberry Bog and Thayer Farm Ponds during June and July 2009.
- 224 - Average conductivity in these open water areas ranged from 58.43 to 178.49 µs cm-1, with the lowest conductivity found in the Cranberry Bog and the highest in the Thayer Farm ponds. The range of pH did not vary greatly during June and July, with Cranberry Bog open water areas at approximately pH 6, and the Greenwood Conservancy vernal pools and Thayer Farm ponds at approximately pH 7 (Table 1).
Table 1: Average water column conductivity and pH between June and July 2009 (mean ± SD, range).
Site Conductivity (us cm-1) pH (pH units) n Cranberry Bog 58.43 ± 77.04 (26-321) 6.64 ± 0.33 (6.1-7.32) 15 Greenwood 72.39 ± 18.49 (7.15-97.4) 7.02 ± 0.31 (6.46-7.57) 20 Conservancy ponds Thayer Farm ponds 178.49 ± 83.86 (14.7-347) 7.26 ± 0.42 (6.56-8.24) 20
Nutrients and dissolved organic carbon The average ammonia concentration in Cranberry Bog during June and July 2009 was 0.03 ± 0.02 mg L-1 (mean ± SD) and the range was 0.02-0.07 mgL-1. For nitrate plus nitrite concentrations, values were 0.046 ± 0.01 mgL-1 (0.03-0.07 mgL-1), average total nitrogen concentrations were 0.51 ± 0.06 mgL-1 (0.4-0.6 mgL-1) and average total phosphorous concentrations were 23.10 ± 75 µgL-1 (15.36-42.96 µgL-1).
For Greenwoods Conservancy vernal pools, average ammonia concentrations were 0.03 ± 0.01 mgL-1 (0.02-0.05 mgL-1), average nitrate plus nitrite concentrations were 0.045 ± 0.009 mgL-1 (0.03-0.06 mgL-1), average total nitrogen concentrations were 0.44 ± 0.21 mgL-1 (0.2-0.8 mgL-1) and average total phosphorous concentrations were 102.7 ± 198.3 µgL-1 (26-758 µgL-1).
In Thayer Farm ponds, average ammonia concentrations were 0.03 ± 0.01 mgL-1 (0.02-0.06 mgL-1), average nitrate plus nitrite concentrations were 0.06 ± 0.03 mgL-1 (0.03-0.1 mgL-1), average total nitrogen concentrations were 0.49 ± 0.14 mgL-1 (0.2-0.7 mgL-1) and average total phosphorous concentrations were 161.8 ± 578 µgL-1 (14.36-3217 µgL-1) (Figures 6 & 7).
- 225 -
bd
Figure 6: Average concentrations of ammonia, nitrate plus nitrite and total nitrogen in Cranberry Bog, Greenwood Conservancy vernal pools and Thayer Farm Ponds during June and July 2009.
For all parameters average July concentrations were higher than in June 2009 and were also higher in Thayer Farm Ponds, except for total nitrogen concentrations, which were higher in Cranberry Bog during June and higher in Greenwoods Conservancy vernal pools during July. During the sampling times Greenwoods Conservancy vernal pools and Thayer Farm Ponds could be considered to be hyper- eutrophic) with regards to total phosphorous concentrations (> 100 µg TP L-1) and Cranberry Bog could be considered as mesotrophic (< 30 µg TP L-1).
The higher nutrient concentrations (total nitrogen) observed in Cranberry Bog could explain the lower dissolved oxygen concentrations that were also observed in the bog open water areas, if the data area supported by higher primary production rates. A preliminary investigation into the algal populations present in Cranberry bog, in comparison with Goodyear Lake and other freshwater ecosystems in the local area (Goodyear Swamp) was also completed during summer 2009 (see Primmer, this report). Plant and soil nutrients at Cranberry Bog were also sampled during summer 2009 (see Rubenstein, this report).
- 226 -
Hyper-eutrophic
Figure 7: Average total phosphorous concentrations in Cranberry Bog, Greenwood Conservancy vernal pools and Thayer Farm Ponds during June and July 2009.
Dissolved organic carbon concentrations in July ranged from 5.3 to 19.17 mg L-1, with the highest concentrations found in Greenwoods Conservancy vernal pools. Average concentrations in Cranberry Bog were 10.68 ± 0.53 mgL-1 (10.07-11.36 mgL-1), in Greenwoods Conservancy vernal pools 17.59 ± 1.42 mgL-1 (16.38-19.17 mgL-1) and in Thayer Farm ponds 7.45 ± 0.8 mgL-1 (5.3-8.11 mgL-1). All concentrations were above the value where freshwater ecosystems are suggested to be “net heterotrophic” (> 5 mgL-1).
Comparing past and present values for Thayer Farm ponds, there does not appear to have been any major changes in basic water column physico-chemical characteristics since a baseline study in 2006 (water temperature, dissolved oxygen and conductivity) (Figure 8). However, average total nitrogen concentrations were higher in June 2009 compared to June 2006 and total phosphorous concentrations were lower in June 2009 compared to June 2006 (Table 2).
- 227 -
Figure 8: Comparison of some physico-chemical characteristics of Thayer Farm ponds during summer sampling 2002-2009 (2002 and 2006 data is taken from Meehan, 2003 & Payne & Butler, 2007)
Table 2: Average total nitrogen and total phosphorous concentrations during June 2006 and June 2009 (mean ± SD, range).
Site Average total nitrogen Average total phosphorous (µgL-1) n (mgL-1) Thayer Farm Ponds: June 2006 0.16 ± 0.05 (0.05-0.26) 67.3 ± 50.2 (11.7-163) 11 June 2009 0.44 ± 0.15 (0.27-0.74) 47.6 ± 15.45 (24.86-74.76) 10
FURTHER WORK Continued collection of seasonal data relating to gradients of dissolved oxygen, temperature and light availability in Cranberry Bog open water areas and relating this data to vegetation patterns within the bog and also to primary productivity by sampling and analyses of algal populations would enable further interpretations of the interesting findings of this preliminary study. Continued sampling of water column, bog vegetation and soil nutrients, especially for nitrogen species would be of great interest to establish whether the bog is retaining or losing nitrogen (as nitrate through denitrification), as well as changing DOC concentrations as they might relate to water column saturation with CO2. Data from Thayer Farm shows that total nitrogen concentrations in the ponds have increased, whereas total phosphorous concentrations have decreased between 2006 and 2009. No comparable data exists for Cranberry Bog. Establishing permanent sampling sites would greatly
- 228 - enhance the interpretation and explanation of future results relating to the biotic and abiotic factors involved in C biogeochemical cycling.
REFERENCES Burgess, H. 2004. Management of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virinianus) at Greenwoods Conservancy, Burlington, NY. In 36th Annual Report (2003), SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Cole J.J., Caraco N.F., Kling G.W. and Kratz T.K. 1994. Carbon dioxide supersaturation in the surface waters of lakes. Science 265: 1568-1570.
Cole, J.J. 1999. Aquatic microbiology for ecosystem scientists: New and recycled paradigms in ecological microbiology. Ecosystems, 2: 215-225.
Gray, M.S. 2003. Zackow Road Wetland Project: Wetland Plant identification and delineation. In 35th Annual Report (2002), SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Hanson P.C., Pollard A.I., Bade D.L., Predick K., Carpenter S.R. and Foley J.A. 2004. A model of carbon evasion and sedimentation in temperate lakes. Global Change Biology, 10: 1285-1298.
Hanson, P.C., Carpenter, S.R., Armstrong, D.E., Stanley, E.H. and Kratz, T.K. 2006. Lake dissolved inorganic carbon and dissolved oxygen: Changing drivers from days to decades. Ecological Monographs, 76(3): 343-363
Harman, J. 2003. Third year monitoring of leather-leaf (Chamaedaphne calyculata) and speckeled alder (Alnus rugosa) cutting regime on plant biodiversity at Cranberry Bog. In 35th Annual Report (2002), SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta
Kritzberg, E.S., Cole, J.J., Pace, M.M. and Graneli, W. 2005. Does autochthonous primary production drive variability in bacterial metabolism and growth efficiency in lakes dominated by terrestrial C inputs? Aquatic Microbial Ecology, 38: 103-111.
McEnroe N.A., Roulet N.T., Moore T.R. and Garneau M. 2009. Do pool surface area and depth control CO2 and CH4 fluxes from an ombrotrophic raised bog, James Bay, Canada? Journal of Geophysical Research – Biogeosciences, 114; GO1001, doi:10.1029/2007JG000639.
McEnroe N.A., Moore T.R and Roulet N.T. 2009. Spatial and temporal dynamics of CO2 and CH4 in open water pools on an ombrotrophic raised bog, James Bay, Canada (submitted)
Meehan, H. 2003. Physiochemical survey of Thayer Farm Ponds. In 35th Annual Report (2002), SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta
- 229 - Payne, A. & Butler, B. 2007. Water quality and species diversity survey of Thayer Farm ponds, summer 2006. In 39th Annual Report (2006), SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Riera J.L., Schindler J.E. and Kratz T.K. 1999. Seasonal dynamics of carbon dioxide and methane in two clear water lakes and two bog lakes in northern Wisconsin, USA. Canadian Journal of Fisheries & Aquatic Science, 56: 265- 274.
Rose, C. & Crumpton, W.G. 1996. Effects of emergent macrophytes on dissolved oxygen dynamics in a prairie pothole wetland. Wetlands, 16(4): 495-502.
Saba, A. 2002. The effects of leather-leaf (Chamaedaphne calyculata) and speckled alder (Alnus rugosa) on plant biodiversity on Cranberry Bog. In 34th Annual Report 2001), SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Scorzafava, A. 2007. Fisheries surveys of Greenwoods Conservancy, 2006. In 39th Annual Report (2006), SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Searles, R. & Ryburn, A., 2009. Floristic Survey of Big Meadow, Greenwoods Conservancy, summer 2008. In 41st Annual Report (2008), SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta.
Sobek S.G.A., Algesten G., Bergstom A-K., Jansson M. and Tranvik L.J. 2003. The catchment and climate regulation of pCO2 in boreal lakes. Global Change Biology, 9: 630-641.
Sobek S.G.A., Tranvik L.J. and Cole J.J. 2005. Temperature independence of carbon dioxide supersaturation in global lakes. Global Biogeochemical Cycles, 19: GB2003.
Striegl R.G., Kortelainen P., Chanton J.P., Wickland K.P., Bugna G.C. and Rantakari M. 2001. Carbon dioxide and partial pressure and 13C content of north temperate and boreal lakes at spring ice melt. Limnology & Oceanography, 46: 941-945.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work was supported in part by a Faculty Research Grant (2009-2010) and a Greenwoods Conservancy Research Stipend Award (Summer 2009) to Nicola A. McEnroe. Matt Albright and Holly Waterfield provided laboratory assistance. DOC samples were analysed at McGill University, Department of Geography, Montréal, Canada. Zachary Burris, Maribeth Rubenstien & Irene Primmer provided field assistance.
- 230 -
Delineation of the Niedzialkowski wetland, Hartwick NY
J. Clements1, D. Vogler2 and N. McEnroe 2
INTRODUCTION
The Niedzialkowski wetland is a 3-acre shallow marsh located in the drainage of the Otego Creek in Hartwick, NY. The owners, John and Carol Niedzialkowski intend to construct recreational cabins to the west of this area, and in the summer of 2009 were seeking an exemption permit from the Army Corps of Engineers to convert a portion of the wetland into a set of fishing ponds. The three of us named on this report agreed to delineate the wetland on their behalf, with the understanding that our classes or other conservation professionals may view the process and return for monitoring over the next few years. We were assisted by two student interns from the SUNY Oneonta Biological Field Station in Cooperstown: Maribeth Rubenstein and Carter Bailey.
The source water for the wetland is a perennial stream that enters the property at the North from a heavily wooded area, meanders southward, then turns sharply west, and the southern edge of the wetland becomes a small creek bordered by agricultural and recreational land and turning left (southwesterly) before entering the Otego Creek (Figure 1). The water flow was constant during the months of July and August, and despite the high rainfall of 2009, the stream was never observed to exceed its banks.
The area covered by this report includes the wetlands that border the stream from the treeline at the north end, to the region where the waterflow turns west at the southern end. The area lies in a shallow depression of the Red Hook silt loam (shown as Re on Figure 2), which is reported to have a seasonal water table to 0.5 to 1.5 ft during the spring season. To the east of Red Hook soils is a section of Howard soil on the slope where a spring originates and feeds into the wetland. To the west are Valois soils on steep (> 30%) slopes with large incursions of shales and cobble beds typical of glacial outwash. At the southern end is a baseball field on leveled soil.
METHODS
The delineation process
The three criteria to delineate a point as at the wetland border are 1) vegetation, 2) soils and 3) hydrology according to the laws of both federal (Sipple 1988) and state
1 Otsego County Soil and Water Conservation District. 2 SUNY Oneonta.
- 231 -
Figure 1. Aerial map of the Niedzialkowski wetland and surrounding region from a 1937 Aerial map (compiled by Otsego County Soil and Water Conservation District). Note that the southern border has already been altered by the time of this photo.
- 232 -
Figure 2. Soil Map that includes the Niedzialkowski wetland. The region marked Re are Redhook soils and include the wetland in its borders. This soil type is indicative of poorly drained soils overlaying shale deposits. (taken from: www.fws.gov/nwi/maps.htm)
- 233 -
Figure 3. The Niedzialkowski wetland delineated by 185 waypoints. Total area within the waypoints is 2.4 acres.
- 234 - (Browne et al. 1995) legislation. We used Tiner’s (1993) PIMET method of relying heavily on the primary indicators of wetland condition to guide our delineations, but also documented conditions of all three criteria at each established point. The original data sheets recorded in the field were given to Mr. Niedzialkowski, with copies retained by J.C. and D.V.
Fieldwork began on 2 July 2009 at the SE corner. Flags were placed beginning at the SE edge of the wetland and proceeding westward along the southern border at 5 M intervals. Our method was to arbitrarily place a blue flag at the likely wetland edge 5M from a previous flag. The initial placement was guided by vegetation. The list of Facultative (FAC), Facultative Wet (FACW) and wetland Obligate (OBL) designations (U.S. F.W.S. 1996) was used to determine if more than 50% of the dominants were at least FAC and the point indicated wetland vegetation. A pair of additional (orange) flags were placed flanking the edge flag; one that was 2M towards the wetland (which we designated with a W), and the other 2 M to the upland side (designated by a U). At the center delineation flag we used the wetland criteria (see Data at Each Point, below) to determine if the flagged spot qualified as wetland. If the original waypoint did not reveal convincing wetland indicators on one or more of the criteria of vegetation, hydrology, or soils, then we selected a point 2M towards the wetland for a second plot. For example at waypoint 107 we completed three datasheets, one for waypoint 107 which was field marked with a blue flag, as well as points 107W and 107U but those flags were subsequently removed. At other waypoints, we may have completed only one additional reference point (Wetland or Upland side), depending on the clarity of the point established at the original waypoint.
Soil pits (8-12” deep, as needed) were dug at one or two of these flag sites, and sometimes at all three. Based on the Army Corps of Engineers criteria listed on the datasheet (Environmental Technical Services 1987), the central delineation flag might be moved inward or outward of its original placing based on the findings at all three flag sites. The central flag locations marked the point where, in our best estimations, the characteristics of vegetation, soil and hydrology changed from wetland to non-wetland. With few exceptions (and noted on datasheets) we used all three criteria for wetland status to place the flag. Typically when only two criteria were used it was related to rocky, or disturbed, soil conditions. A GPS unit was used to mark waypoints at the flags. Thus if, after a delineation process, we decided to relocate the central flag a bit away from the original placement, the GPS waypoint indicates the final position of the determined wetland edge, not necessarily the originally estimated point. A total of 85 waypoints were marked used to generate the map and formed the perimeter of the delineated wetland (Figure 3).
Data at each point
Over 200 datasheets were completed, marking 85 waypoints around the perimeter of the wetland as well as many associated flanking point towards (W flags) or upland from (U flags) the wetland. At each of these points, dominant vegetation was identified
- 235 - to species, and quantified to the nearest percentage in a 1 M2 plot surrounding a flagged point. Dominant vegetation (plant species with cover +20% of the area) were used to determine wetland vegetation status. Any plot with 50% or more of wetland dominants (including FAC, FACW and OBL species) was considered having wetland vegetation. If there were fewer than 5 species of dominants, we included subdominants (those with at least 10% cover). The soil criteria most easily used in these ferrisols was mottling, which when evident were often quite striking. Soil color was established using a Munsell’s Soil Guide (Munsell Color Company 2000). Most soil color designations of these soils were found within the 7.5 YR color range. Gleyed soil characters were not as evident, and absent in disturbed areas. No sample areas had any appreciable muck soil layer, although muck soil conditions were evident in the center of the marsh. Saturation of the soil to within a foot of the surface was easy to quantify near the larger test pits, but in several areas the shale layer prevented us from digging deeper holes.
SUMMARY FINDINGS
The area of wetland from the treeline at the north, downstream to the baseball field at the south encompassed a total area of 2.4 acres and is maintained by a perennial stream that ultimately reaches the Otego Creek (Figure 3). The wetland community type is best described as a Shallow Emergent Marsh by the standards of the Communities of New York (Edinger et al. 2002). The vegetation of the major portion of the marsh is a sedge (Carex spp.) meadow with Sensitive Fern (Oneoclea sensibilis), Bullrushes (Scirpus atroviren), Woolgrass (S.cyperus), and Rough Goldenrod (Solidago rugosa) in the wetter areas grading into pasture grasses and forbs, Tall Goldenrod (Solidago canadensis), and Mollugo Bedstraw (Galium mollugo) in the upland (non-wetland) regions. A few Hawthorne (Crataegus) and Nanny Haw (Virburnum nudum) trees line the stream, but largely this is an herbaceous open canopy wetland. No rare species of plants were discovered.
The wetland delineated in this project is bounded by wet pasture species upslope. A broad pasture zone in the northwest might be operating as an occasional (10 year) flood zone, but currently shows insufficient wetland soil or vegetation characteristics to be included within the wetland border; thus we excluded it from the delineation. The wetland soils are consistent with the designation of a Red Hook silt loam and included several large shale and cobble stone outcrops. The month of July when this delineation was conducted was extremely wet and likely the soils were observed in a more saturated state than would be typical of mid-summer condition. Soils at the delineation points, although frequently saturated, were largely mineraltrophic with limited accumulation of peat and little evidence of gleying. The majority of the region within the delineated region is listed on the National Wetland Inventory (www.nwi.fws.gov). On the eastern side a broad area showed hydrological evidence of sheet flow from the field upslope but very uniform soils that suggest this was the result of past plowing upslope from the Howard soils and down to the Red Hook soils to cover over a small channel. We saw no indication of tile or subsurface drains and would consider the possibility of these to be remote.
- 236 -
The Niedzialkowski wetland has had several types of disturbances and modifications over the past 50 years. The southern edge had been modified by plowing and likely by earthmoving that directed the stream to a westerly direction since at least the 1937 aerial map (Figure 1). Currently this is an edge of a baseball field that extends into the marsh to a minor degree. The soils here were unusually uniform with no clear horizons developed within 12 inches, suggesting a mixed soil profile characteristic of a plow line. On an extensive region on the east (of approximately 12 meters, or about 37 ft), there were several large partially buried dumpsites. These dumpsites contained very old construction debris as revealed in several soil pits that we dug, including: old asphalt shingles, glass bottles, unburnt coal, charcoal/burnt wood, and bricks. This waste zone is typical of many old farms of the region, with household (e.g., glass), rock piles and construction debris (e.g., bricks) periodically deposited into areas of marginal agricultural use; i.e., wet spots. Thus, some of the hydrology may have been obscured along this east side, with the original soils buried under 3-5ft. of debris. Throughout the proposed pond site are several larger soil pit excavations made by a recent engineering crew that clearly defines the level of water saturation in the lowest areas. Some of these pits revealed the shale layers that may be responsible for maintaining the water table of this wetland but these test pits did not alter the present hydrology.
A small (< 20 individuals) infestation of Marsh Thistle (Cirsium palustre) was present in the southern edge of the wetland and could potentially spread beyond this wetland if not controlled. If the area is to be inundated to form ponds, this may exterminate the population, but construction may provide opportunities for further spread by the construction equipment. We recommend that this site and the surrounding watershed be monitored for several years for this species.
At the eastern edge one active spring extended the wetland edge upslope with a highly diverse community of sedges and rushes, including Soft Rush (Juncus effesus), Spikerushes (Eleocharis) and Woolgrass (Scirpus cyperus). Other taxa included Smartweeds (Polygonum) and Mannagrass (Glyceria). The seep originates on the northeast side upslope from the main marsh, and is evident even in the 1937 aerial photo (Figure 1). This spring feeds an extremely diverse rush and sedge plant community that is distinct from the main body of the wetland. Although this spring zone is a separate feature from the main wetland we included in as part of the overall wetland area that was delineated. Should the main portion of the adjacent marsh be inundated we would advocate preservation of this smaller and more upland site both for the plant diversity it contains, but also for its hydrologic value.
- 237 - AKNOWLDEGEMENTS
The authors thank John and Carol Niedzialkowski for providing this experience. Those who wish to visit the delineated area in the future are advised to contact John and Carol Niedzialkowski on Rt. 205, Hartwick, NY.
REFERENCES
Browne, S. et al., 1995. New York State Freshwater Wetlands Delineation Manual. NYS Department of Environmental Conservation. (www.dec.ny.gov/lands). Accessed Dec. 2009.
Edinger, G.J. et al. 2002. Ecological Communities of New York State. 2nd ed. New York Heritage Program, N.Y.S. Dept. of Environmental Conservation, Albany NY.
Environmental Technical Services. 1999. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Wetlands Delineation Manual. 1999 Revised Edition. Technical Report #87-1. Austin, TX.
Munsell Color Company. 2000. Munsell Soil Color Charts. Year 2000 Revised Washable Edition. New Windsor, NY.
Sipple, W.S. 1988. Wetland Identification and Delineation Manual. Vol II. Field Mehtodology. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Revised Interim Final.
Tiner, R. W. 1999. Wetland Indicators: A Guide to Wetland Identification, Delineation , Classification and Mapping. Lewis Publ.., Wash. D.C.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1996. National List of Vascular Plant Species that Occur in Wetlands. National Wetland Inventory. (www.fws.gov/nwi/plants.htm) Accessed Sept. 2009.
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2006. (www.fws.gov/nwi/maps.htm) Accessed Sept. 2009.
- 238 - Year 2: Susquehanna Freshwater Mussel Surveys
Award Number 47260
Image from Strayer & Jirka, 1997
Submitted to: Terri F. Adriance Environmental Program Specialist Bureau of Fish & Wildlife Services Division of Fish, Wildlife & Marine Resources
&
Thomas Bell Project Manager & State Wildlife Grants’ Biologist 1285 Fisher Ave Cortland, NY 13045
Submitted by: Dr. Willard N. Harman, Distinguished Service Professor & Paul H. Lord
Authors:
Paul H. Lord [email protected]
Willard N. Harman [email protected]
January, 2010
Editor’s note: At the request of the funding agency, this redacted version does not include information identifying location related to its findings. For a complete version of the report, contact either Ms. Adriance or Mr. Bell as listed above.
- 239 - Executive Summary In this project we focused on providing population estimates for four pearly mussel species of greatest conservation need (SGCN): Alasmidonta varicosa (brook floater), A. marginata (elktoe), Lasmigona subviridis (green floater) and Lampsilis cariosa (yellow lampmussel) in four New York Susquehanna River Watershed rivers. In 2009, we completed mapping of assigned river shorelines and bottoms and searched for the SGCN with a combination of SCUBA and snorkel dives and walking searches. We focused specifically on waste water treatment plant (WWTP) impacts on the pearly mussel SGCN. We found evidence of the four SGCN in each of the rivers studied, although only recently spent shells and no live brook floaters were found in the Tioughnioga River. Negative impacts on pearly mussel SGCN were not associated with WWTPs. Changes in water conditions and search methods provide contrasting results on pearly mussel surveys of the same river sections. Pearly mussel SGCN were found in areas below extended riffles (apparently thriving in the oxygenated waters) and in areas with minimally mobile substrates (presumably avoiding pulverization).
Recommendations:
Additional research into the causes of, and mitigation for, mobile substrates in rivers.
Additional research into native pearly mussel susceptibility to death from fouling by zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha).
A more thorough search for pearly mussel SGCN replacing the quantitative surveys scheduled for year 3 of this project.
Rationale:
Mobile substrates appear to be associated with stormwater inputs and may be the most limiting factor for pearly mussel SGCN in the Susquehanna River Watershed.
Zebra mussels, moving downstream from headwater areas on the Susquehanna, the Chenango, and the West Branch of the Tioughnioga Rivers, are fouling native pearly mussels causing the death of the pearly mussels.
Quantitative surveys were intended to associate pearly mussel SGCN with river bottom and river shoreline character. The difference between minimally mobile substrates and mobile substrates appears to be the most significant river bottom characteristic associated with pearly mussels. The lack of data on hand addressing this characteristic limits accurate quantification. Resources are available to identify pearly mussel SGCN in a variety of Susquehanna River Watershed rivers and streams. We should be better able to characterize SGCN population stability status with more qualitative surveys.
- 240 - Background
Although long impacted by anthropogenic activities, the New York Susquehanna drainage basin provides habitat for about a dozen species of unionids (Clark & Berg, 1959; Harman, 1970; Strayer & Fetterman, 1999) including four “Species of Greatest Conservation Need” (SGCN) as determined by the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation (NYSDEC, 2008). These four species are Alasmidonta varicosa (brook floater), A. marginata (elktoe), Lasmigona subviridis (green floater) and Lampsilis cariosa (yellow lampmussel).
Our project tasks for February 2009 through January 2010 were to: Conduct field sampling and population estimates for the four SGCN in suitable mapped habitat. Analyze data and produce presence/absence maps. Produce and submit an annual report.
Methods Used in 2009
Methods described in our “Year 1” report were used to complete mapping of assigned river areas. Subsequent to mapping, we supplemented GPS data with notebook data and created ESRI ArcGIS® Desktop (ArcMapTM Version 9.2 or later plus extensions) files for river bottom and shoreline characterizations.
Concurrent with the final mapping effort, we began diving, using SCUBA and snorkel, to find locations with pearly mussel SGCN. Initially, we used clear bottom buckets in these efforts, but stopped when it became clear that the green floater (L. subviridis) was frequently missed using this technology. We used SCUBA in water as shallow as 0.3 m to ensure eyes were within 20 cm of our search area. Snorkel searches, which were more easily executed and which covered more river bottom area, were used in shallow water, particularly in clear water. Searches were completed with no serious effort to complete cross river transects, rather divers would swim cross river, but would end up swimming diagonally to the current as the current moved them downstream. In some wider reaches (lengths of river), divers would split the river returning to the shoreline from which they started from the middle of the river (as estimated by their tenders). In other locations, divers would persist in their “cross-river” swim until reaching the opposite shoreline. Once there, they would endeavor to return to their initial shoreline. Consequently, the result was a series of “zig-zags” moving downstream with large areas of the river reach “surveyed” which were never actually viewed.
We started our surveys closest to Cooperstown and, as our technique became more refined over time, those initial surveys (particularly on the main stem of the Susquehanna River upstream of Sidney) were not as focused on specific river character aspects as were subsequent surveys. The number of divers working concurrently varied from one to three. A dive tender, working from a kayak or standing in the river using the kayak as a work platform, recorded all data from one or two divers. The tender recorded waypoints, species information, and pertinent notes for all living SGCN unless the density was great enough that such recordings slowed the
- 241 - survey. In those cases, start and stop waypoints were used to mark a river reach, and total numbers of pearly mussels, by species, were recorded, or density per unit area were noted.
We surveyed several river reaches including waste water treatment plant (WWTP) outputs. These surveys started upstream and extended downstream of the WWTPs for Xxxxxxx, Xxxxxx, andXxxxxxxx. Additionally, we surveyed the headwaters of the Chemung River at Xxxxxxx Xxxx with two WWTPs, one on either side of this river.
We resurveyed the area just upstream of where the Xxxxxxxxxxx Xxxxx joins the Chenango River (Nxx xx.xxx Wxx xx.xxx; UTM xxT xxxxxxE, xxxxxxx) on 9 July 2009 as a follow- up to our survey of this area on 11 July 2008.
Zebra mussels (Dreissena polymorpha) were first recorded in the NY Susquehanna River Watershed in Eatonbrook Reservoir (Madison County, NY). We observed a population of Eastern lampmussels (Lampsilis radiata) in Eatonbrook Reservoir for several years after zebra mussels invaded that water body. The Eastern lampmussels burrowed through the sediments, but not under them. Zebra mussels fouled the posterior ends of the lampmussels which contain the lampmussel siphons. In 2000, 2002, 2004, and 2006, we cleaned the zebra mussels from these lampmussels. All, except seven in 2000, were fouled with zebra mussels. The lampmussel population lost few members during that period. No cleaning was done in 2007 and 2008. We returned to this location (Nxx xx.xxx Wxx xx.xxx; UTM xxT xxxxxxE, xxxxxxx) on 15 May 2009 to ascertain the status of these mussels.
Results
We mapped all assigned river reaches not mapped in 2008. We also mapped the results of our searches for pearly mussels. Accompanying this report are ArcGIS shapefiles depicting rivers mappings and pearly mussel search results. These files should replace all “draft” files provided with the “Year 1” report because pearly mussel tentative identifications have been resolved and river character files have been corrected.
This season, we sampled 29 different extended reaches with a total of 48 SCUBA dives, 11 snorkel dives, and eight walked searches. We found one or more species of the SGCN alive in 23 of the 29 extended reaches. Table 1 is a summary of freshwater pearly mussel SGCN identified live and dead in surveyed rivers in 2008 and 2009. We did not find any live or dead Eastern pearlshell (Margaritifera margaritifera) in our surveys subsequent to our 2008 informal survey of the East Fork of the Otselic Creek where it crosses Xxxxxxx Xxxx just east of New York Route 26 (Nxx xx.xxx Wxx xx.xxx; UTM xxT xxxxxxE, xxxxxxx).
WWTP river reach survey results are summarized in Table 2. Not included in Table 2 are results for the survey between the two WWTPs on the Chemung River at Xxxxxxx Xxxxt. They were not included in Table 2 because we did not survey a comparable distance upstream of the WWTPs, however, SGCN were found in the Chemung proximate to the effluent of both of these WWTPs.
- 242 - Table 1. NYSDEC freshwater pearly mussel “species of greatest conservation need” (SGCN) observed in the Upper Susquehanna Watershed while mapping and searching rivers in the summers of 2008 and 2009. Brook Floater = Alasmidonta varicosa; elktoe = Alasmidonta marginata; green floater = Lasmigona subviridis; yellow lampmussel = Lampsilis cariosa; L = live specimens observed; D = dead specimens observed; SGCN spp. = number of SGCN species found in each listed river and for the entire watershed (Total).
River Mapped Brook Floater Elktoe Green Floater Yellow Lamp Mussel SGCN Spp. SGCN Spp. Alive Susquehanna River, L, D L, D L, D L, D 4 4 Main Stem Chenango River L, D L, D L, D L, D 4 4 Chemung River L, D L, D L, D L, D 4 4 Tioughnioga River, East D L, D L, D L, D 4 3 Branch & Downstream TOTAL 3L; 4D 4L; 4D 4L; 4D 4L; 4D 4 4
Table 2. NYSDEC freshwater pearly mussel “species of greatest conservation need” (SGCN) observed in the vicinity of waste water treatment plants (WWTPs) in the Upper Susquehanna Watershed in the summer of 2009 with distances searched upstream and downstream noted in meters. L = live specimens observed; D = dead specimens observed; SGCN spp. = number of SGCN species found in river reach searched and in the three upstream and downstream reaches (Total) searched.
Table redacted.
Our 2009 survey of the area where the Xxxxxxxxxxx Xxxxx joins the Chenango River revealed an attention gaining number of recently dead pearly mussels (84 mussels including a total of 17 dead from four target SGCN) along the south side of the Xxxxxxxxxxx Xxxxx. This contrasted with the relatively few and more or less north-to-south evenly distributed old and recently dead pearly mussels noted in the same area the year before (37 including a total of 11 dead from two of the four target SGCN all of which were removed in 2008). NYS DOT supervised bridge repair work on NYS Route 12B where it crosses the Xxxxxxxxxxx Xxxxx occurred from before the 2008 visit until the 2009 survey. Construction vehicles and equipment were parked and stored along the south side of the Xxxxxxxxxxx Xxxxx at the NYSDEC access point. Silt fences were observed to be in poor condition and did not appear to be stopping the movement of construction debris into the river.
Our 2009 survey of Eastern lampmussels (Lampsilis radiata) in Eatonbrook revealed that 118 lampmussels of 121 were dead. All 121 were fouled with zebra mussels (D. polymorpha).
- 243 - Discussion
While river velocity is largely dependent on slope, the secondary characteristic determining water velocities is river height (water depth). Summer rains raised river heights far above normal (70th - 90th percentile) bringing sight-depriving silt and injury-threatening velocities to the Susquehanna River system in New York. We did not dive for several weeks at a time this summer. These periods are normally the time of the year when we would find low velocity, clearer water in the rivers. Because of the weather challenge, we did not dive many of the locations of historical SGCN provided by the NY Natural Heritage Program to ascertain SGCN population trends.
Data provided by the NY Natural Heritage Program would indicate that a sizeable mixed population of pearly mussels was extirpated in the vicinity of the Xxxxxxxxxxxxx I-88 bridge (xxT xxxxxxE xxxxxxx; Nxx xx.xxx Wxx xx.xxx). The most recent survey results provided us (Aug 1996) found no adults in contrast to earlier surveys. Our June 2009 survey found a healthy bed of pearly mussels with two SGCN: yellow lampmussel (L. cariosa) and elktoe (A. marginata) and a number of other species: Eastern elliptio (Elliptio complanata), Eastern lampmussel (L. radiata) and squawfoot (Strophitus undulatus). It might appear to be an issue of searcher technique or expertise, but consider the following two search sequences.
On 25 July on the Chenango River, Lord spotted a live yellow lampmussel (L. cariosa), in a riffle, near the Otsiningo Park xxxx xxxx (xxT xxxxxxE xxxxxxx; Nxx xx.xxx Wxx xx.xxx) north of Binghamton while mapping shorelines, and initiated a 20 minute walking search. Pokorny assisted for approximately 10 minutes (30 minute total search time). They found 11 more live yellow lampmussels, as well as a brook floater (A. varicosa), an Eastern lampmussel (L. radiata), and a triangle floater (A. undulata). On 18 August, we initiated a follow-up to the wading survey in the same area. Lord again waded, but this time his effort was aided by two experienced divers, Barber and Vogler. This approximately 30 minute (90 minute total) search revealed only two live yellow lampmussels (L. cariosa) in the area. On the date of the later survey, the Chenango River was up 350%+ over median for the date because of intense rain nine days earlier. Water was higher, moving faster, and more brown-green in color.
On 14 July, our search team (3 divers and one tender who searched by walking) spent approximately 45 minutes (135 minutes total) in a riffle-run area just upstream of Xxxxx Xxxx (xxT xxxxxxE xxxxxxx; Nxx xx.xxx Wxx xx.xxx) near Cortland, NY. They found eight green floaters (L. subviridis), one yellow lampmussel (L. cariosa), 50+ Eastern elliptio (Elliptio complanata), eight triangle floaters (A. undulata), and one Eastern lampmussel (L. radiata). On 7 October, Lord returned to search the specific area where five of the eight green floaters were located. He spent approximately 45 minutes in the water and found only one live pearly mussel, an Eastern elliptio (Elliptio complanata). River height (water depth) at the time of the October survey was up (445% of the median for the date as measured in Cortland) and water temperature was seasonably cooler than it had been in July.
Searcher experience, searcher visual acuity, search method, water height, water velocity, water transparency, water temperature, and leaf litter all can vary from one site visit to the next impairing the validity of any findings about pearly mussel SGCN.
- 244 - Our observations in both Eatonbrook Reservoir and in the rivers provide cause for concern about a currently widespread and abundant pearly mussel species: the Eastern lampmussel (L. radiata). When pearly mussels burrow under sediments, zebra mussels adhering to them are often scraped off or smothered. Many pearly mussels do, in times of high moving water or during the winter, burrow until buried. We found no Eastern lampmussel burrowing under the sediments until buried which would make this species more susceptible to death by fouling.
We identified a pattern that nearly always provides pearly mussel SGCN in the surveyed rivers. We identify an area downstream of an extended riffle or series of riffles (which presumably oxygenates the water and is often associated with a chain of islands in the river) and look for bottom substrates that are minimally mobile (which apparently provides refuge from molar action [grinding substrates]). All four of our target SGCN are found in such locations.
While a focus on the pattern described regularly found each of the SGCN, we found few brook floaters (A. varicosa). Perhaps this is not surprising since Strayer and Jirka (1997) describes the brook floater as “a running water species…said to favor gravelly riffles,” however, they also describe the yellow lampmussel (L. cariosa) as living “in riffles,” and we found them commonly in depths of 2m while the green floater is described as “found most frequently in the quiet parts of large creeks and small rivers” and we frequently found them among yellow lampmussels and elktoes (A. marginata). Trusting our successes, we focused on a pattern producing the greatest number of pearly mussel SGCN. Now, having reviewed our data and our relative lack of success in finding brook floaters, we will, at least part of the time, focus on “strong current and gravelly bottoms, thus…in and near riffles” (Ortman, 1919) to see if brook floaters are as uncommon as it appears from our research to date.
Our observations at the confluence of the Xxxxxxxxxxx Xxxxx with the Chenango River recommend review of NYSDOT practices in work areas along rivers containing SGCN, but there is no proof that DOT is responsible for the dead mussels. We do note, however, that one bridge worker volunteered that he observed the mussels burrowing when debris would fall into the river.
Our review of the literature of moving waters and sediments reveals no insights into the causes of mobile sediments or minimally mobile sediments. We know that recognition of the difference is widespread among those who have ventured into streams while wearing waders. Those so experienced will recall moving across fast moving waters where the substrate provided a walkway not unlike pavement while recalling much slower moving waters with unstable sediments which threatened to twist an ankle with each step. The former are what we are calling minimally mobile substrates and the latter are mobile substrates. We suspect the difference is associated with stormwater surge. To reduce flooding, urban and suburban drainage systems are typically designed to move storm run-off as quickly as possible. Artificial drainage systems tend to be straight, smooth and semi-circular in shape, giving the drains high throughput and low friction values. Drainpipes are typically joined to streams and rivers at right angles to the flow of the stream or river. When they deliver stormwater to a river or stream, they deliver it with energy sufficient to reshape the bottom. This is exemplified best (not exclusively) by our experience on the Chemung River by Xxxxxxx Xxxx (xxT xxxxxxE xxxxxxx; Nxx xx.xxx Wxx
- 245 - xx.xxx; Figure 1) where we found at least seven pearly mussel species alive (L. cariosa, A. marginata, A. varicosa, L. subviridis, L. radiata, A. undulata, and one tentatively identified P. cataracta) in an approximately 700 m reach from the Chemung’s origin to a sizeable culvert emptying stormwater from the town of Xxxxxxx Xxxx. In the approximately 840 m reach surveyed downstream of the culvert, we found one live yellow lampmussel (L. cariosa), the species best able to tolerate molar action. As soon as our three divers encountered the mobile substrates at the culvert, they each surfaced to gain insight as to what had changed.
The sheer size of the culvert described speaks to the challenge we have in limiting impervious surfaces and in reducing stormwater surge. Our focus on WWTPs (Table 2; Figure 1) provided no evidence that WWTPs are directly responsible for reduced pearly mussel SGCN. Some WWTPs likely reduced river oxygen levels which appear to be limiting to pearly mussel SGCN, but many more well-oxygenated river reaches are unsupportive of pearly mussel SGCN because of the molar actions of their sediments. We recommend follow-up studies of sediment mobility causes and amelioration.
We recommend additional research into native pearly mussel susceptibility to death by zebra mussels (D. polymorpha) fouling to determine if currently plentiful species are more threatened by this invasive species.
We recommend a fourth year be inserted into our three year project schedule. This should be completed before the final year of quantitative sampling. The reason for this recommendation is to ensure we use the material and personnel resources accumulated and developed in 2008 and 2009 before quantitative sampling begins because quantitative sampling will use a somewhat different mix of resources. Approval of this recommendation will facilitate more sampling because training and equipment are in place and immediately available. We recommend 2010 sampling for SGCN in the following New York Susquehanna watershed streams and rivers for the reasons noted:
West Branch of the Tioughnioga River: unintentionally omitted from the original contract. The West Branch parallels Interstate-81 and is subject to DOT maintenance and construction activities. We propose that this river be mapped and surveyed for pearly mussel SGCN.
Otselic River: the fifth pearly mussel SGCN found in our survey, a single Eastern pearlshell (Margaritifera margaritifera), was found in the headwaters of this river during a cursory 2008 survey. Consequently, we should survey this river in some detail for pearly mussel SGCN. River character mapping is not recommended at this time.
Xxxxxxxxxxx Xxxxx: provided, proximate to its confluence with the Chenango River, the densest bed of mussels found in our surveys. This river may be valuable as a refuge should we need to temporarily move pearly mussel SGCN from other Susquehanna watershed areas. Furthermore, it may serve as a source for pearly mussel SGCN if other Susquehanna watershed rivers and streams would benefit from transplanted SGCN. River character mapping is not recommended at this time.
- 246 -
Figure Redacted.
Figure 1. Chemung River origin at Xxxxxxx Xxxx showing pearly mussel species of greatest conservation need (SGCN) found, on 27 July 2009, upstream and downstream of large stormwater culvert (Xxxxxx Xxxxx) associated with change in river bottom from minimally mobile substrates (upstream) and mobile substrates (downstream). WWTP = waste water treatment plant. SGCN: L. cariosa = yellow lampmussel; A. marginata = elktoe; A. varicosa = brook floater; L. subviridis = green floater.
- 247 -
Unadilla River: historically held pearly mussel beds. River character mapping is not recommended at this time.
Otego Creek: historically held pearly mussel beds. River character mapping is not recommended at this time.
Oaks Creek: historically held pearly mussel beds. River character mapping is not recommended at this time.
If funding for the requested fourth year cannot be identified, we recommend you substitute the above task list for existing third year tasks. This recommendation is not made lightly, but is important after consideration of our association of pearly mussel SGCN with areas downstream of extended riffles with minimally mobile substrates. Our mapped data includes riffles, but does not differentiate between mobile substrates and minimally mobile substrates. Therefore, we are less optimistic regarding the insights produced by the quantitative sampling specified in the contract for year three.
Nevertheless, in the absence of an authorization to vary from our existing contract, we will survey quantitatively per Strayer & Smith (2003) in the summer of 2010. For the major bottom types (riffle, pool, & run), we will randomly choose locations for shore-to-shore transects which we will dive (if the dives can be safely executed). On each of these shore-to-shore transects, a diver or divers will survey the transect at a width of 1 m. Three 1 m quadrats will be randomly located along the transect, and the bottom sediments excavated to a depth of 20 cm (if the bottom is loose enough for excavation) and removed. Excavated materials will be sifted through increasingly finer mesh sieves, and immature and small pearly mussels will be identified and counted. Data collected will be used with accumulated mapping data to create estimates (with calculated variances) for the pearly mussel SGCN.
- 248 - References
Clarke, A. H. and C. O. Berg. 1959. The freshwater mussels of Central New York. Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta. Memoir, 367:1–79.
Harman, W. N. 1970. New Distribution records and ecological notes on Central New York Unionacea. Am. Mid. Nat. 84:46-58.
Ortman, A. E. 1919. A monograph of the naiads of Pennsylvania. Part III. Systemic account of the genera and species. Memoirs of the Carnegie Museum. Vol. 8 pp. 1-384
Strayer, D. L. & D. R. Smith. 2003. A guide to sampling freshwater pearly mussel populations. Am. Fish. Soc. Monograph. 8:1-103.
Strayer, D. L. and K. J. Jirka. 1997. The pearly mussels of New York State. N. Y. State Mus. 26:i-xii + pp.1-113 + plates 1-27.
Strayer, D. L. and A. R. Fetterman. 1999. Changes in the distributions of the freshwater mussels (Unionidae) in the Upper Susquehanna River Basin, 1955-1965 to 1996-1997. Am. Mid. Nat. 142:328-339.
- 249 - Bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) sightings along the Susquehanna River watershed tributaries
Timothy N. Pokorny1
ABSTRACT
The bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) was once a threatened species. Four major Susquehanna River watershed rivers were surveyed in New York. Bald eagles inhabit certain sections of rivers more than others. Varying results are attributable to our focus in the water and eagle preferences.
INTRODUCTION
Once considered a threatened species, the bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) has been de-listed as of August 8, 2007 (U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, 2009). The NYS Heritage Foundation lists the species as a Species of Greatest Conservation Need (SGCN) with a rating of S2 (typically 6-20 occurrences) and S3 (typically 21-100 occurrences) (New York DEC, 2010).
METHODS
We mapped 402 miles of rivers (Susquehanna, Chenango, Tioughnioga and Chemung) in the Susquehanna watershed in New York during 2008 and 2009. Kayaks were used to map the shoreline, bottom types and look for live and/or dead freshwater pearly mussels (Unionoidea: Unionidae). When our eyes weren’t focused on the shorelines and bottom we would often look around especially for bald eagles (mature and immature).
RESULTS
See Figure 1. GIS data used to compile Figure 1 is archived at the BFS.
DISCUSSION
Bald eagles were found in each of the four rivers surveyed in varying population sizes. Our focus was on the river not on the terrestrial surroundings therefore numerous individual bald eagles may have not been observed. Some occurrences may be duplicates as we were on certain sections of river more than once. Bald eagles appear to prefer wider river reaches and extended riffles.
1 Research Foundation employee, 2008-2010.
- 250 -
Figure 1. Bald eagle sightings observed from 2008 & 2009 kayaking.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank NYS DEC for funding the pearly mussel research that made these sightings possible and Paul H. Lord and Lee Ferrara for data collection assistance.
REFERENCES
New York DEC. 2010. Species of Greatest Conservation Need (SGCN).
U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service. 2009. Bald Eagle Species Profile. http://www.fws.gov/arcata/es/birds/baldEagle/b_eagle.html as viewed March 26, 2010.
- 251 - Pond water quality and pond size
Zachary Burriss1
ABSTRACT Vernal pool and pond size effects on dissolved oxygen (DO) levels and nutrient levels were studied in six Central New York ponds. Study sites included a vernal pool, four chain ponds, and one pond bordered, in part, by a bog. We collected water quality and nutrient data for each pool and pond. Previous DO and nutrient data for study sites are limited. Water quality and nutrient data were added to existing data sets. We tested samples for ammonia, nitrate + nitrite, total nitrogen, and total phosphorus. We used Microsoft Excel and Minitab to analyze the data collected. Nutrient and DO data had no relationship with pond size. Errors possibly introduced into the DO data are discussed and recommendations for future work are offered.
INTRODUCTION Our study was conducted on six ponds in Otsego County, Central New York. The six pond sites were in two locations. The first location included four chain ponds at the Thayer Farm in Springfield, NY. Pond surface areas on Thayer Farm sites ranged from 0.03 - 0.12ha (Payne and Butler 2007) (Figure 1). The second location included a vernal pool and a Cranberry Bog at the Greenwoods Conservancy in Burlington, NY (Figure 2). Surface areas were 0.04ha for the vernal pools and 28ha for the beaver pond. Study sites at Thayer Farm consist of four chain ponds that increase in size moving from CP3 - CP8 in the pond chain. Center depths, surface area, and volumes of ponds, as available, are provided in Table 1.
Table 1. Depths, surface area, and volume of Central New York chain ponds, summer 2009 (after Payne and Butler 2007).
Pond Depth (m) Surface area (ha) Surface area (ac) Volume (m3)
CP31 1 0.03 0.08 99
CP41 1.1 0.03 0.06 91 CP51 1.4 0.05 0.12 223 CP81 0.9 0.12 0.31 515 VP 0.04 0.10 BP 28 69
1 Undergraduate student, Environmental Sciences Program, SUNY Oneonta.
- 252 -
Figure 1. Chain pond (CP) 3, 4, 5 and 8 site locations at the Thayer Farm.
Figure 2. Cranberry Bog (BP) and vernal pool location at Greenwoods Conservancy.
- 253 - Ponds are identified by an abundance of aquatic macrovegetation and associated microflora attached to all surfaces (Wetzel 1983). One major component of a pond’s ability to support life is dissolved oxygen levels (Reid 2001).
The purpose of this study was to collect dissolved oxygen and nutrients levels for ponds of various sizes. We analyzed dissolved oxygen (DO) and nutrients to ascertain relationships with pond size. Little is known about the effect of size on DO and nutrients. Our hypothesis was that pond size affects DO positively and that nutrient data would trend consistently by pond size.
Vernal, or ephemeral, pools can be natural or man-made. Whether naturally formed, or man- made, vernal pools support endemic life (Heidelberg 1978). The pools contain water most of the year, but lack water at least some part of the year. Because the pools lack water for some time, they have no fish. The drying process of vernal pools is a key factor in protecting its insect and natal amphibian inhabitants. For some species, vernal pools are the only place they are able to live and breed (Bronark 1998).
METHODS Sample sites and timing DO and nutrient data for CP3, CP4, CP5 & CP8 were sampled at randomly chosen. Those locations were consistently sampled throughout the study. Sample numbers varied by pond size. We sampled our two largest ponds, BP and CP8 in four places while we took two samples from other sites. Samples for BP and VP were taken in the late morning-early afternoon while CP3, CP4, CP5 & CP8 were sampled in mid-late afternoon. Dissolved Oxygen DO readings were taken at each pond study site. We used a YSI Model 55TM Dissolved Oxygen System with attached probe. On small ponds we measured at a meter off-shore from surface to available depths in 10cm increments. Care was taken, in all sampling, not to disturb sediments. Measurements for the BP were taken to depths of 50cm. Nutrient Analysis
We obtained 100ml samples at a depth of 5cm. We used H2SO4 to preserve samples. Preservation and auto-analyzer methods, per parameter, are described in Table 2. We analyzed samples for levels of total phosphorus, total nitrogen, nitrite + nitrate, and ammonia using Lachat QuickChem FIA+®water auto-analyzer. Statistical Analysis We tested our hypothesis that pond size effects DO by running a regression for pond size with average DO. Likewise, each pond or pool nutrient data set was averaged separately and a regression was run with pond sizes. Our null hypothesis for the regressions was that there would be no straight line relationship between DO or nutrient levels with pond sizes. We ran regressions with DO and nutrient data as a response to pond size. All regressions and statistical analysis were run in Microsoft Office Excel® 2007 and Minitab® 15.1.0.0.
- 254 - Table 2. Summary of laboratory methodologies used on water samples for nutrient data calculations for comparison of Central New York ponds, 2006 (after Payne and Butler 2007).
Parameter Preservation Method Reference
Total Phosphorus- P H2SO4 Total Nitrogen- N H2SO4 Nitrite + Nitrate- N H2SO4 Ammonia- N H2SO4 RESULTS Our results show varied dissolved oxygen levels by pond size (Figure 2). Regressions proved no trend between the size of pond and DO. DO of each pond remained relatively consistent throughout sample period. Also, nutrient data regressions confirmed no effect by pond size. Average, maximum, and minimum levels of nutrient data are shown in Fig. 2, 3, 4, and 5. Minimum levels of ammonia and nitrate + nitrite were below detection on two of four chain pond sites (Figures 2 and 3). 14 12 10 (mg/l) 8 6 Levels 4 DO 2 0 BP CP 8CP 5VP CP 3CP 4 Location Figure 1. Average dissolved oxygen (DO) levels for six Central New York pools and ponds in 2009. Sites in size order from largest on left to smallest on right. BP=Bog Pond, CP=Chain Pond, and VP=Vernal Pool. Error bars represent 95% confidence interval (CI). - 255 - Figure 2. Ammonia levels given as average and maximums for six Central New York pools and ponds in 2009. All minimum readings were below detection. Sites in size order from largest on left to smallest on right. BP=Bog Pond, CP=Chain Pond, and VP=Vernal Pool. Error bars represent 95% C.I. Fig. 3. Nitrate + nitrite levels of study sites shown as average and maximum for six Central New York pools and ponds in 2009. All minimum readings were below detection level. Sites in size order from largest on left to smallest on right. BP=Bog Pond, CP=Chain Pond, and VP=Vernal Pool. Error bars represent 95% C.I. - 256 - 0.9 Min 0.8 Max 0.7 Average 0.6 (mg/L) 0.5 0.4 Nitrogen 0.3 Total 0.2 0.1 0 BP CP 8CP 5VPCP 3CP 4 Location Figure 4. Total Nitrogen expressed as average, minimum, and maximum for six Central New York pools and ponds in 2009. Sites in size order from largest on left to smallest on right. BP=Bog Pond, CP=Chain Pond, and VP=Vernal Pool. Error bars represent 95% C.I. 800 Min 700 Max 600 Average (mg/L) 500 400 phosphorus 300 Total 200 100 0 BP CP 8CP 5VPCP 3CP 4 Location Figure 5. Total Phosphorus levels expressed as average, maximum, and minimum for six Central New York pools and ponds in 2009. Error bars represent 95% C.I. BP=Bog Pond, CP=Chain Pond, and VP=Vernal Pool. DISCUSSION Dissolved oxygen We concluded that pond size does not have an effect on DO. After examining our data, we noticed there may have been discrepancies in DO collection. Instrument instability led to rapid changes in readings at each sampling site with no consistent endpoint method used. Furthermore, the time of day varied. DO levels have diel fluctuations which were not initially considered (Escaravage 1990). Such variations may have influenced our data, thus precluding us from making a viable conclusion about the relationship between DO and pond size. - 257 - Nutrient Data For our nutrient data, we conclude that pond size has no effect on ammonia, nitrate + nitrite, total nitrogen, or total phosphorus. For each, we found no significant relationship. The time of day at which our collections took place did not affect our findings (Wetzel 1983). One variable not considered were variations in time between sample collection and preservation or refrigeration. Due to distances from the lab, not all samples were preserved immediately. Although these variations occurred, we have no reason to believe it affected our analysis significantly. We conclude that pond size did not affect nutrient data. Inconsistencies in DO data have no clear conclusion. Similar studies done in the future should consider noting the time of day samples are taken, calibrating the DO probe to alleviate variations, and using a specific criterion for DO measurement endpoint. REFERENCES Bronark C. 1998. The Biology of Lakes and Ponds. Oxford University Press Oxford; New York. Escaravage V. 1990. Daily cycles of dissolved oxygen and nutrient content in a shallow fishpond: The impact of water renewal. Hydrobiologia Vol. 207, Number 1: 131-136. Heidelberg B. 1978. Pond Littoral Ecosystem. In: Dykyjovga D. and Kvĕt J. Ecological Studies; 28. Berlin; New York : Springer-Verlag. Payne, A. and B. Butler. 2007. Water quality and species diversity survey of Thayer Farm ponds, summer 2006. In 39th Ann. Rept. (2006). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta. Wetzel, RG. 1983. Limnology, second edition. Harcourt Brace College Publishers. Fort Worth. - 258 - Spatial & temporal distributions of Dreissena polymorpha larvae in Otsego Lake T. Horvath1, A. Wolfe2 and D. Monie3 1Biology Department & Environmental Sciences, SUNY Oneonta 2Environmental Sciences, SUNY Oneonta 3Cooperstown High School In order to characterize the spatial and temporal distributions of Dreissena polymorpha larvae, we used either the Honda 20 or the Honda 50 boats on the following days: 1, 3, 5, 8, 10, 12, 15, 17, 19, 22, 24, 26, 29 June; 1, 3, 6, 8, 10, 13, 20, 22, 27 July; 4, 7, 28 August. Each sampling day lasted about 3-4 hours. For information on the data collected and analyzed, please contact Dr. Horvath ([email protected]). Acknowledgements: We thank the following agencies for their financial support of this project: Pennsylvania Sea Grant via a NOAA B-WET grant supported Dr. Monie, Otsego County Conservation Association supported Ms. Wolfe through their contributions to the Village of Cooperstown’s Zebra Mussel Committee. For full report, see http://occainfo.org/documents/FinalReportforposting_000.pdf - 259 - An update on the control and eradication of water chestnut (Trapa natans, L.) in an Oneonta wetland, 2009 summary report of activities Holly A. Waterfield1, Willard N. Harman2, Matthew F. Albright3 INTRODUCTION The marsh of concern is located within the city of Oneonta, Otsego County, NY. The majority of the shoreline (and site access point) is owned by Louis Blasetti with a number of other landowners along the northwestern shoreline behind Oneida Street. The wetland encompasses about 40 acres of former agricultural bottomland and falls within a remnant oxbow of the Susquehanna River. Beaver activity near the outlet of the wetland influences water level to some degree (Eyres 2009). Water chestnut was first observed in the wetland in 2000, though it is likely that it was introduced in years prior but was not documented. A detailed description and history of the management efforts to control and eradicate the water chestnut (Trapa natans L.) within the marsh is given in a 2009 Master’s Thesis submitted by W. Eyres (2009). Management activities included a combination of herbicide applications and hand-pulling of plants in 2006, 2007, 2008 and 2009. Details of efforts undertaken in 2009 are presented in this report. Monitoring efforts included visual pre- and post-application assessments of the water chestnut population, and pre- and post-application water chemistry analysis. Management, or control measures, included an herbicide application and hand-harvesting of untreated isolated plant groupings. The herbicide 2,4-D (Navigate®) was applied July 27, 2009 by Allied Biological Inc. Purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) and Galerucella spp. were also observed in 2009. Until recently, purple loosestrife was the dominant emergent plant throughout the marsh. Galerucella spp. (leaf-eating beetles) were introduced to the marsh in 2006 by the BFS as a biocontrol agent to reduce and control the loosestrife population. In 2008, purple loosestrife in the northeastern portion of the marsh was heavily damaged by the beetles and produced few inflorescences; plants in the southwestern portion of the marsh remained healthy. In 2009 dead standing loosestrife could be seen from the railroad access; plants were heavily damaged throughout the wetland and inflorescences were rare. In August, new shoots of purple loosestrife could be seen growing up through standing dead loosestrife stems from 2008 (Figure 1). This project will include similar activities through the summer of 2010 and is being conducted with funding from the NYS Department of Environmental Conservation Invasive Species Eradication Grant #T303589. 1 Research Support Specialist: SUNY College at Oneonta Biological Field Station, Cooperstown, NY 2 Director: SUNY College at Oneonta Biological Field Station, Cooperstown, NY 3 Assistant to the Director: SUNY College at Oneonta Biological Field Station, Cooperstown, NY - 260 - Figure 1. Oneonta marsh, August 28, 2009. Late-summer regrowth of purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) following intense herbivory by Galerucella spp. beetles. 2009 ACTIVITIES AND RESULTS Pre-Application Assessment (20 and 22 July, 2009) On 20 and 22 July the water chestnut population within the marsh was assessed via visual observations and documented with photographs. The most dense plant growth was located in the north and north-eastern portion of the wetland, in the area of sites 18, 22, and 23 (Figure 2). Fruiting bodies were abundant and fairly advanced in development on the vast majority of plants that were inspected; the viability of these fruits is unknown, though the late timing of the herbicide application increases the chance of propagation and potential population expansion in the 2010 growing season. A water sample was collected from the “outlet” sampling site in the southwestern portion of the wetland off-shore from the access site. The sample was preserved to pH < 2 with sulfuric acid. Analyses were conducted to determine concentrations of total phosphorus (TP), total nitrogen (TN), nitrate+nitrite (nitrate), and ammonia; methods are listed in Table 1. Herbicide Application (July 27, 2009) The herbicide Navigate® (EPA #228-378-8959) was applied at a rate of 200 lbs/acre on the main population of water chestnut (approximately 7.5 acres) by Allied Biological Inc. under a permit issued by the NYS Department of Environmental Conservation (DEC). Figure 3 illustrates the approximate 2009 herbicide application area. - 261 - Table 1. Methods used in the nutrient analyses of water samples collected at the marsh. Analyte Method Name Reference Total Phosphorus Ascorbic acid method Liao & Martin 2001 following persulfate digestion Total Nitrogen Cadmium reduction following Ebina 1983 peroxodisulfate digestion Pritzlaff 2003 Nitrate+Nitrite Cadmium reduction method Pritzlaff 2003 Ammonia Phenolate Method Liao 2001 Figure 2. Aerial photo of the marsh (Oneonta, NY) with sampling points from past studies and water sample collection locations (figure modified from Eyres 2009). Water sampling locations are indicated; numbers indicate sites that have received herbicide application between 2006 and 2009. - 262 - Figure 3. The marsh (Oneonta, NY): shaded area illustrates the approximate 2009 herbicide application area (7.5 acres). Figure provided by Allied Biological, Inc. Post-Application Assessments & Hand-Harvesting (14 and 28 August, 7 September 2009) Two weeks after the herbicide application, we returned to the wetland to assess the state of the treated patches of chestnut and to remove (by hand) untreated isolated patches of water chestnut within the wetland. Such isolated clusters were relatively few in number, and were small, comprised of fewer than 10 ramets per clone. Plants within the treated area were visibly unhealthy and in a state of decay below the water surface. As was the case in 2008, the majority of the chestnut population in 2009 was again represented by multiple smaller groups rather than one large patch, though they were not delineated with GPS. Water samples were collected at two sample sites, “deep” and “outlet” as shown in Figure 2. Nutrient Dynamics Table 2 summarizes the nutrient data collected before and after the herbicide treatment. Figure 4 provides a comparison of nutrient conditions before and after treatment from 2006 through 2009 (2006-2008 data from Eyres 2009). Prior to the herbicide treatment, the total phosphorus concentration at the southern end of the wetland (outlet) was 25.5 µg/L, which is consistent with 2007 and 2008 pre-treatment conditions (Eyres 2009). In 2006, a major flood - 263 - flushed the wetland system, resulting in a decrease in concentrations pre- and post-treatment. Following herbicide treatment the total phosphorus concentration increased to 118 µg/L in the vicinity of the treated water chestnut population, likely indicating a release of phosphorus from the decaying plant materials. The phosphorus concentration was also elevated at the “outlet” site, though not above the range typically observed in past years prior to herbicide application. Such a spike in phosphorus concentration following the herbicide application has not been observed every year, though one was also documented in 2007 when the concentration went from 12 µg/L before the application to 500 µg/L following (Eyres 2009). Total nitrogen increased at the “outlet” site following the herbicide treatment, with an initial concentration of 0.37 mg/L prior to treatment and 1.9 mg/L following, while the sampling site closest to the treated plant patches showed no increase in TN. As with phosphorus, this increase was also documented in 2007, but not in 2006 or 2008 (Eyres 2009). Based on the nitrogen analyses, the majority of nitrogen is contained in organic compounds, likely derived from the decomposing plant material. Table 2. Nutrient concentrations at “outlet” and “deep” sampling sites in the marsh prior and subsequent to herbicide application (July 27, 2009). Ammonia, nitrate, and total nitrogen are presented in mg/L, total phosphorus in µg/L. Ammonia Nitrate Total Nitrogen Total Phosphorus Sample Date Site mg/L mg/L mg/L ug/L 7/20/2009 Outlet 0.06 0.05 0.37 25.6 8/14/2009 Outlet 0.03 < 0.02 1.93 42.3 8/14/2009 Deep 0.11 0.03 0.37 118.2 CONCLUSIONS To date, control efforts have been considered successful, in that less effort is needed to hand-harvest plants outside of the herbicide treatment area. Based on canoe-loads of plant material removed from the wetland, far less biomass exists outside of the herbicide treatment area (10 canoe loads were removed in 2008 compared to the equivalent of a single full canoe in 2009). Overall, the water chestnut population showed considerable decline. 2010 monitoring will be more intensive, aiming to quantitatively assess the status of the water chestnut population, effectiveness of the herbicide treatments and any associated impacts on water quality. - 264 - Total Phosphorus Concentration Prior and Subsequent to Herbicide Application 140 120 pre-appliation post-application 100 80 60 40 20 Total Phosphorus Concentration (ug/L) Concentration Total Phosphorus 0 2006 2007 2008 2009 Figure 4. Total phosphorus concentration (µg/L) in the northeastern sample collection site (deep) prior and subsequent to herbicide application. Pre-application data for 2006 and 2009 from “outlet” sample site. REFERENCES APHA, AWWA, WPCF. 1989. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 17th ed. American Public Health Association. Washington, DC. Ebina, J., T. Tsutsui, and T. Shirai. 1983. Simultaneous determination of total nitrogen and total phosphorus in water using peroxodisulfate oxidation. Water Res. 17(12):1721-1726 Eyres, W. 2009. Water Chestnut (Trapa natans L.) infestation in the Susquehanna River watershed: population assessment, control and effects. Master’s Thesis: SUNY College at Oneonta. Bio. Fld. Sta. OP No. 44. Liao, N. 2001. Determination of ammonia by flow injection analysis. QuikChem®Method 10- 107-06-1-J. Lachat Instruments. Loveland, Colorado. Liao, N. and S. Marten. 2001. Determination of total phosphorus by flow injection analysis (colorimetry acid persulfate digestion method). QuikChem®Method 10-115-01-1-F. Lachat Instruments. Loveland, Colorado. Pritzlaff, D. 2003. Determination of nitrate/nitrite in surface and wastewaters by flow injection analysis. QuikChem®Method 10-107-04-1-C. Lachat Instruments, Loveland, Colorado. - 265 - Monitoring the dynamics of Galerucella spp. and purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) in the Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary, summer 2009 Maribeth Rubenstein1 INTRODUCTION The distribution and effectiveness of Galerucella spp. populations as a biocontrol agent of purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) are monitored within Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary as part of an ongoing regime that began in 1997. Annual spring and fall monitoring of the impact of Galerucella spp. on purple loosestrife is updated in this report. Details of the history of this study can be found in Albright et al. (2004). Lythrum salicaria is an emergent aquatic plant that was introduced into the United States from Eurasia in the early 19th century (Thomson 1987). Purple loosestrife is an aggressive and highly adaptive invasive species which inhabits wetlands, flood plains, estuaries and irrigation systems. Once established, purple loosestrife often creates monospecific stands, leading to the displacement of native species including cattails (Typha spp.), sedges (Carex spp.), bulrushes (Scirpus spp.), willows (Salix spp.) and horsetails (Equisetum spp.) (Thomson 1987). In June 1997, 50 adults each of Galerucella calmariensis and G. pusilla, leaf-eating beetles, were introduced into Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary (N42°48.6’ W74°53.9), located at the northeastern end of Otsego Lake (Austin 1998). The beetles were initially released in cages from sites 1 and 2 (Figure 1). In 1998, sites 3-5 were introduced into the study in order to monitor the distribution of Galerucella over time to other stands of purple loosestrife (Austin 1999). Sampling sites were established to monitor the qualitative and quantitative effects of the beetles on purple loosestrife and also to examine the extent of any recovery by the native flora (Austin 1998). It was expected that these beetles would lessen the competitive ability of purple loosestrife by feeding upon their meristematic regions, resulting in defoliation, impaired growth, decreased seed production, and increased mortality (Blossey et al. 1994, Waterfield 2008). In the past, additional observations were made at sites along the shoreline of Otsego Lake in order to assess the current distribution of the Galerucella spp. from their original point of release in Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary. In 2007 observations were made at Weaver and Youngs Lakes, though were not continued in 2008. Periodic observations should be made at those sites in the future to document the level of loosestrife control and the extent of the beetle populations (Waterfield 2009). METHODS Spring and fall monitoring were performed according to protocols established by Blossey et al. (1997). Observations of the insects and plants were made within the five 1m2 quadrats, each marked by four visible stakes (Figure 1). 1 Madison County Sponsored Intern, 2009. Current affiliation: SUNY College at Oneonta - 266 - Figure 1. Map of Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary showing sampling sites. Sites 1 and 2 are 1997 Galerucella spp. stocking sites; sites 3-5 were established to evaluate the spread of Galerucella spp. within the Sanctuary over time. Spring monitoring was completed on 28 May 2009. This first assessment is typically completed within 2-3 weeks after overwintering adults appear (Blossey 1997). Galerucella spp. abundance was estimated in each life stage (egg, larva, adult) according to the established abundance categories (Table 1). The number of stems of L. salicaria within each quadrat were counted, and the five tallest were measured. The percent cover of L. salicaria and the percent damage attributable to Galerucella spp. were both estimated according to established frequency categories. Fall monitoring, which was completed on 17 August 2009, consisted of the same metrics measured in the spring monitoring along with measurements to gage the vigor of L. salicaria plants, including the number of inflorescences per plant and per quadrat, as well as the number of flowers per inflorescence. Table 1. Categories prescribed by Blossey’s (1997) protocol for reporting abundance and frequency categories. Abundance Categories Frequency Categories Number category range category mid point 0 1 0% A 0% 1-9 2 1-5% B 2.50% 10-49 3 5-25% C 15% 50-99 4 25-50% D 37.50% 100-499 5 50-75% E 62.50% 500-1000 6 75-100% F 87.50% >1000 7 100% G 100% - 267 - RESULTS & DISCUSSION All monitoring data are represented by abundance and frequency categories defined in Table 1. Changes between these frequency categories from year-to-year or plot-to-plot can represent a substantial change in abundance (Albright 2004) due to the broad ranges covered by each category. It should be noted that the actual number of L. salicaria stems are presented in the following results, while all other metrics are categorical. Variation in the number of stems between years or plots may not correspond with a shift in percent cover category, due to the above-stated lack of sensitivity that is inherent in a categorical classification scheme (Waterfield 2009). Spring Monitoring (28 May 2008) Eggs of the Galerucella beetle were not observed in quadrat 1, but showed significant increases in abundance categories for quadrats 2 through 5 (ranges varied from 10 to >1000 eggs). This represents an overall increase in egg abundance from years 2005-2008 (Figure 2). No larvae were found in any quadrat, as is consistent with past observations (Figure 3); spring sampling generally takes place prior to, or during, the laying of eggs. Adult abundances increased from the previous year in quadrat 1 and decreased in quadrats 2 through 5. 6 5 4 3 2 Abundance category 1 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 quadrat 1 quadrat 2 quadrat 3 quadrat 4 quadrat 5 Figure 2. Comparison of Gallerucella spp. egg abundance from yearly spring samplings. Abundance categories tank from Table 1. 6 5 4 3 2 Abundance category 1 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 quadrat 1 quadrat 2 quadrat 3 quadrat 4 quadrat 5 Figure 3. Comparison of Galerucella spp. larval abundance from yearly spring samplings. Abundance categories taken from Table 1. - 268 - 6 5 4 3 2 Abundance category 1 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 quadrat 1 quadrat 2 quadrat 3 quadrat 4 quadrat 5 Figure 4. Comparison of Galerucella spp. adult abundance from yearly spring samplings. Abundance categories taken from Table 1. Lythrum salicaria was less abundant in terms of the number of stems at the time of the 2009 spring monitoring than it had been in any previous year, with the exception of spring 2006 (Figure 6). Estimated percent cover was similar to the estimates made from 2002 through 2008, with L. salicaria attaining Frequency 2 category in only one of the five quadrats (Figure 7). Herbivory of loosestrife by Galerucella (measured by percent cover) increased to the highest overall levels of any year monitored (1998 – 2009) (Figure 5). 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Frequency Category Mid-point Category Frequency 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 quadrat 1 quadrat 2 quadrat 3 quadrat 4 quadrat 5 Figure 5. Comparison of percent damage estimations to purple loosestrife leaves from yearly spring samplings. Frequency mid-points taken from Table 1. - 269 - 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 Number of Stems 10 0 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 quadrat 1 quadrat 2 quadrat 3 quadrat 4 quadrat 5 Figure 6. Comparison of the number of purple loosestrife stems from yearly spring sampling observations. 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Frequency Category Mid-point Category Frequency 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 quadrat 1 quadrat 2 quadrat 3 quadrat 4 quadrat 5 Figure 7. Comparison of percent cover estimations of purple loosestrife plants from yearly spring sampling. Frequency mid-points taken from Table 1. 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 Number of Stems 1997 2000 2001 2002 2003 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 quadrat 1 quadrat 2 quadrat 3 quadrat 4 quadrat 5 Figure 8. Number of stems of L. salicaria per quadrat from 1997, 2000-2009. - 270 - 100 80 60 40 20 0 Frequency Category Category Mid-point Frequency 1997200020012002200320052006200720082009 quadrat 1 quadrat 2 quadrat 3 quadrat 4 quadrat 5 Figure 9. Estimated percent cover (category midpoints) of purple loosestrife during fall monitoring, 1997, 2000-2009. Categories as presented in Table 1. Fall Monitoring (17 August 2009) The number of L. Salicaria stems and estimated percent cover continue to decrease. They are at the lowest overall levels since the fall survey of 2001 (Figure 9), during which the plant was not reported in any of the 5 quadrats. Although purple loosestrife inflorescences were observed in 1997 and 2005 – 2007, no inflorescences were observed in any of the 5 quadrats during the fall monitoring period of 2008 and 2009. Further, in 2009 only 1 flowering plant was observed in the entire swamp. CONCLUSIONS Galerucella spp. continues to effectively control populations of L. salicaria at Goodyear Swamp. As a biological agent, Galerucella spp. seems to be “naturalizing” the populations of L. salicaria at Goodyear swamp. The purple loosestrife is controlled to the point that a diverse wetland plant community exists. The host/prey relationship appears to have reached a dynamic equilibrium. There are regular fluctuations to both the beetle and loosestrife populations. This cycle can be reasonably expected to continue indefinitely. Currently, there are widespread introductions of Galerucella spp. to control populations of purple loosestrife throughout Otsego County and the State of New York. Further, these populations effectively move from release sites to other areas where L. salicaria has invaded. A future study of patterns of Galerucella spp. movement within the Swamp could be valuable. As one of the first sites of introduction for Galerucella spp. in the state, continued monitoring of Goodyear swamp will provide valuable long-term data for land managers and ecologists. REFERENCES Albright, M.F., W.N. Harman. S.S. Fickbohm, H.A. Meehan, S. Groff and T. Austin. 2004. Recovery of native flora and behavior responses by Galerucella spp. following biocontrol of purple loosestrife. Am. Midl. Nat. 152:248-254. - 271 - Austin, T. 1998. Biological control of purple loosestrife in Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary using Galerucella spp., summer 1997. In 30th Ann. Rept. (1997). SUNY Oneonta. Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta. Austin, T. 1999. Biological control of purple loosestrife in Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary using Galerucella spp., summer 1998. In 31st Ann. Rept. (1998). SUNY Oneonta. Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta. Blossey, B. 1997. Purple loosestrife monitoring protocol, 2nd draft. Unpublished document. Dept. of Natural Resources, Cornell University. Blossey, B., D. Schroeder, S.D. Hight and R.A. Malecki. 1994. Host specificity and environmental impact of two leaf beetles (Galerucella calmariensis and G. pusilla) for the biological control of purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria). Weed Science. 42:134-140 Fagan, W.F., M.A. Lewis, M.G. Neubert, P. van den Driessche. 2002. Invasion theory and biological control. Ecology Letters 5(1) 148. Groff, S. 2001. Biological control of purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) in Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary using leaf-eating beetles (Galerucella spp.), summer 2000. In 34th Annual Report (2000). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta. Meehan, H.A. 2006. Biological control of purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) in Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary using leaf-eating beetles (Galerucella spp.), summer 2005. In 38th Annual Report (2005). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta. Snyder, C.M. 2007. Monitoring the dynamics of Galerucella spp. and purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) in the Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary and along the Otsego Lake shoreline, summer 2006. In 39th Annual Report (2006). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta. Thompson, Daniel Q., R.L. Stuckey, E. B. Thompson. 1987. Spread, Impact, and Control of Purple Loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) in North American Wetlands. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 55 pages. Jamestown, ND: Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center Online. http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/plants/loosstrf/loosstrf.htm (04JUN99). Waterfield, Holly. 2009. Monitoring the dynamics of Galerucella spp. and purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) in the Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary, summer 2008. In 42nd Annual Report (2008). SUNY Oneonta Bio. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta. - 272 - A survey of the acanthocephalan parasites of fish species Otsego County, NY L.G. Hendricks1 and F.B. Reyda2 Abstract: The survey documents the diversity of the acanthocephalan parasites in the fish species of Otsego Lake, Cooperstown, New York, and of nearby water bodies of the Biological Field Station (SUNY Oneonta), as well as of Canadarago Lake, Richfield Springs, New York. INTRODUCTION Acanthocephala, or thorny-headed worms, are parasites of vertebrates, and are commonly found in species of birds, mammals and fishes (Schmidt and Roberts, 2005). The body of an acanthocephalan consists of a proboscis and a trunk (see Figure 1). The distinguishing feature of acanthocephalans is the proboscis, which is covered with hooks, and can be retracted. The hooked proboscis is used to anchor the worm to the intestinal wall of the vertebrate host. The hooks themselves can damage the host intestine, and can affect overall fish health (Schmidt and Roberts, 2005). In some cases, hooks can actually penetrate through the intestinal wall, leading to perforations, which can be fatal (Schmidt and Roberts, 2005). It is unclear how often this happens in nature. Most of the acanthocephalan trunk consists of reproductive organs. The sexes are separate, and mating takes place in the vertebrate host intestine. Acanthocephalans are considered pseudocoelomates, i.e., their mesoderm does not line their entire body cavity. Acanthocephala lack a digestive tract. Instead, they absorb nutrients directly from the lumen of the host intestine (Schmidt and Roberts, 2005). Absorption occurs across the tegument of the parasite. The life cycle of acanthocephalans typically consists of two hosts. The first host, or intermediate host is an arthropod. The life cycle begins when an arthropod intermediate host ingests acanthocephalan eggs from the external environment. Once inside the arthropod host, the acanthocephalan egg develops into a larval stage. The life cycle continues when the intermediate host and its acanthocephalan larvae are ingested by a vertebrate predator, such as a fish. Once ingested by the vertebrate predator, the acanthocephalan larva develops into a sexually mature adult worm. The vertebrate predator is considered a definite host; it is the host in which individual adult acanthocephalans mate and produce eggs. The life cycle is completed once eggs are passed into the outside environment in the feces of the vertebrate host, and are consumed by the intermediate host. Occasionally, additional hosts, known as paratenic hosts, are interjected into the life cycle. This occurs when the arthropod intermediate host is consumed by a vertebrate predator that cannot serve as a definitive host. In such cases the larval acanthocephalan does not 1 SUNY Oneonta Biological Field Station intern, summer 2009. Current Affiliation: SUNY Oneonta. 2 Assistant Professor of Invertebrate Zoology & Biological Field Station researcher, SUNY Oneonta. - 273 - undergo further development, and encysts within the body of the paratenic host until the appropriate vertebrate predator, or definitive host, consumes the paratenic host. The goal of this survey was to collect as many species of acanthocephalan parasites as possible from the fishes of Otsego Lake, and the surrounding area, in Cooperstown, New York and Canadarago Lake, Richfield Springs, New York. Other water bodies include the Chain Ponds the Thayer Farm Big Pond, BFS, Springfield, NY, and Moe Pond, Cooperstown, NY. The identification of species of acanthocephalan parasites can provide insights into host specificity, i.e., the number of host species in which a parasite species is found. These data can contribute to our knowledge of the biological diversity of our region. This fish parasite survey data can also provide information on the health of the ecosystem and its food web. Acanthocephalans, like many other kinds of parasites, move up the food chain during the course of their life cycles. Thus the presence of these worms in their fish definitive hosts indicates that multiple trophic levels are intact within the food web. Although it may seem counterintuitive, the presence of parasites, such as acanthocephalans, in an ecosystem, such as Otsego Lake, is a positive sign of the health of the lake. METHODS Fish were collected by hook and line, trap net, gill net, or with a seine in Otsego Lake, the Thayer Farm Big Pond, Moe Pond, Goodyear Lake, and Canadarago Lake. Fish were necropsied immediately after capture, or were kept alive in aquaria in the facilities of the Biological Field Station Upland Interpretive Center and Hop Shed at Springfield, NY until necropsy. Fish were either killed directly by double-pithing, or were anesthetized first by placement in FinQuil and subsequently dissected. Fish were examined for parasites with the aid of a dissecting microscope. Each section of the digestive system was examined for Acanthocephala (as well as other parasites), as was the body cavity, liver, heart, gills, gonads, fins, eyes, and muscle layer. Acanthocephalans encountered were either preserved in ethanol, or were fixed in 5% formalin after 24 hours of storage in tap water at 4° Celsius. Whole-mount microscope slides of parasites were prepared by staining worms in Semichon’s acetocarmine, dehydrating in a graded ethanol series, clearing in methyl salicylate, and mounting in Canada Balsam. Acanthocephalans were identified to genus using the taxonomic key by Hoffman (1999), and to species by the taxonomic key provided by Amin (1985). RESULTS Sunfishes, including Lepomis gibbosus (Pumpkinseed) and Lepomis macrochirus (Bluegill), and Micropterus salmoides (Largemouth bass) were the most commonly infected hosts. Acanthocephalans were not encountered in the fish examined from the Thayer Farm Big Pond. Acanthocephalan species encountered include Leptorhynchoides thecatus, Neoechinorhyncus rutili and N. cristatus. - 274 - Table I summarizes the results of the survey. Two hundred twenty-five individuals of 13 different fish species were examined for parasites (see Table I). Adult acanthocephalans were found in the intestines and/or pyloric cecea of the fish, and larval acanthocephalans, or cystacanths, were encysted in the viscera of the body cavity of seven fish species. Of the seven species of fish that were found to host acanthocephalan species, there was a greater prevalence in white sucker, rock bass, and largemouth bass. Prevalence can be defined as the percentage of hosts infected with a parasite species. Three of four white suckers, or 75%, were infected with the acanthocephalan species Neoechinorhyncus cristatus. Five of eight rock bass, or 63%, were infected with the acanthocephalan species Leptorhynchoides thecatus and/or Neoechinorhyncus rutili. Sixteen of thirty-five largemouth bass, or 46%, were infected with the acanthocephalan species Leptorhynchoides thecatus and/or Neoechinorhyncus rutili. Table 1. Fish species examined and their acanthocephalan species in water bodies. - 275 - DISCUSSION Each of the species of acanthocephalan we encountered has a complex life cycle. As an example, the life cycle of Leptorhynchoides thecatus is as follows: 1. Sexual reproduction in the digestive tract of the definitive fish host, 2. Shedding of eggs through fish feces, 3. Entanglement of eggs in algae, via egg casing filaments, 4. Ingestion of eggs by the amphipod intermediate host, Hyallela azteca, 5. Ingestion of amphipods into either the paratenic or definitive host. If ingested by a paratenic host, acanthocephalans will encyst in organs until that host is preyed upon by the definitive host, where they will be freed from the cysts and attach to the digestive tract of the definitive host. Based on the presence of Leptorhynchoides thecatus in Otsego and Canadarago Lakes, we know that each component of this life cycle occurs. Some component of this life cycle must be absent in the Thayer Farm Big Pond, where L. thecatus was not found. Recently at the Thayer Farm Big Pond a search for amphipods, the intermediate host for L. thecatus, was conducted; none were collected. Absence of this host, or even low numbers, could account for the lack of L. thecatus in this water body. Future research could include additional searches for the intermediate amphipod host, H. azteca, in the Thayer Farm Big Pond. Also, it is worth examining additional fish species for acanthocephalan parasite presence, as well as diversity. Having a greater spectrum of fish species in our study can aid in our knowledge of the different acanthocephalan parasites and the hosts they infect. This could also lead to another study looking at potential seasonality of parasite infections. This study is part of a broader scale, long-term effort, which will contribute to our understanding of the Otsego Lake and of water body ecosystems. REFERENCES Amin, O. 1985. Acanthocephala from lake fishes in Wisconsin: Neoechinorhynchus robertbaueri n. sp., with a key to species of the genus Neoechinorhynchus Hamann, 1892, from North American fishes. Journal of Parasitology 71: 312-318. Hoffman, G. L. 1999. Parasites of North American Freshwater Fishes. 2nd Ed. Ithaca: Comstock Publishing Associates. Kraft, C. E., D. M. Carlson, and M. Carlson. 2006. Inland Fishes of New York (Online), Version 4.0. Department of Natural Resources, Cornell University, and the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation. Schmidt G. D., and L. S. Roberts. 2005. Foundations of Parasitology, 7th ed. McGraw- Hill Publishing Company, New York, New York, 702 p. - 276 - Parasitic worms of fishes of Otsego Lake and nearby water bodies Florian B. Reyda1 INTRODUCTION The goals of this fish parasite survey are to document as many parasitic worm species from fish as possible, and to identify host-parasite systems for future research. Many of the parasitic worms reported here have complex life cycles in which multiple host species are parasitized. These species therefore rely on food web interactions (e.g., predation) for their transmission. Some parasitic worm species (e.g., acanthocephalans) have pathological effects, and influence the overall health of their fish hosts. Fish parasites are therefore an important component of Otsego Lake, and awareness of the species present will contribute to our overall understanding of the state of Otsego Lake. This study is part of an ongoing survey of the helminth parasites in fishes of Otsego Lake and several nearby waters. The initial results of this survey were reported in the 41st Annual Report (for 2008). The data presented here are based upon survey work from September 2008 through September 2009. Because this is an ongoing survey, the list of fish helminth species in Table I should be considered partial; there are numerous fish helminth species that occur in Otsego Lake that are not on that list. Additional survey data is being obtained in 2010, so that the list of fish species examined and helminth species encountered for the 2010 Annual Report will serve as a nearly complete representation of the fish helminth diversity in Otsego Lake. METHODS Fish were collected from Otsego Lake, Thayer Farm Big Pond, Moe Pond (Upper Site) and Canadarago Lake by hook and line, seine, or by gill net during fall, winter, spring and summer. Fish were necropsied immediately after capture, or were kept alive in aquaria in the main lab or Hop House of the Biological Field Station until necropsy. Necropsies of fish were done with the aid of a dissecting microscope. Each component of the digestive system was examined for helminths, as was the body cavity and the liver, and often other organs such as the heart, spleen and gills. Helminths encountered were either preserved in ethanol, or fixed in 5% neutral buffered formalin. Whole-mount microscope slides of parasites were prepared by staining worms in Semichon’s acetocarmine, or by Delafield’s hematoxylin, dehydrating in a graded ethanol series, clearing in methyl salicylate, and mounting in Canada Balsam. Once prepared as slides, worms were identified with the use of a compound microscope and use of the following taxonomic literature for each of the helminth groups: Digenea: Bray et. al. 2008, Caira 1989, Gibson 1996, Muzzal 2002, and Stunkard 1956; Cestoda: Khalil et al 1994; Acanthocephala: Amin 1985, Amin 2002, Amin and Heckman 2009, Bullock 1963, Lynch 1936, and Van Cleave and Timmons 1952; Nematoda: Jilek and Crites 1982, Johnson et al 2004, Moravec 1998, Moravec et al 2008, Muzzal 1999, and Rosinski et al 1997. 1 Assistant Professor of Invertebrate Zoology and Researcher, Biology Department and Biological Field Station, State University of New York College at Oneonta. - 277 - RESULTS The parasitological data reported here (see Table 1) are based on necropsies of a total of 272 individual fish specimens, representing eight fish species. The fish species examined are Perca flavescens (yellow perch); Esox niger (chain pickerel); Ambloplites rupestris (rock bass); Micropterus salmoides (largemouth bass); Lepomis gibbosus (pumpkinseed); Lepomis macrochirus (bluegill); Lepomis auritus (redbreast sunfish); and Catostomus commersoni (white sucker). The fish species examined, water bodies, and helminth species encountered are shown in Table 1. The majority of helminths encountered were identified to species, but in two cases helminth identifications were to genus. Tentative species-level identifications in which more study is needed are indicated with a “cf” (Latin for “compare”). A total of 15 species of helminths are listed in Table I. These included six species of digeneans, four species of cestodes, three species of acanthocephalans, and two species of nematodes. DISCUSSION The number of helminth species listed in Table I is an underestimate of the helminth diversity in these fishes because not all helminth specimens that were collected have been identified at this time. For example, there are several additional species of nematodes that await identification. In addition, I expect to find more helminth species in fish species in which only a few individuals were necropsied. For example, only five white suckers were examined from Otsego Lake (mostly from the mouth of Shadow Brook). White suckers are considered “good hosts”, having been reported to host several species of acanthocephalans (Muzzal 1980) and species of cestodes (Hoffman 1999), so future additional sampling efforts are expected to yield other species, in addition to the acanthocephalan Neoechinorhynchus prolixoides reported here (see Table 1). The digeneans, or trematodes, found in this survey include Clinostomum marginatum, commonly known as “yellow grub” by fisherman that frequently find metacercaria (i.e., juvenile worms) in the fish muscle, body cavity, or fins. Although this species is an aesthetic nuisance, it does not pose a health threat to humans who eat fish because it cannot infect humans (Hoffman 1999). Yellow grub is the only digenean species found as larva that was identified to species in this survey. Other larval digeneans were commonly encountered, as numerous metacercaria in the liver, spleen, heart, intestinal lining, mouth, gills, or fins of fish. For example, the liver of one pumpkinseed contained over 200 encysted metacercaria! These digenean species use fish as a second intermediate host, and in many cases, piscivorous birds such as herons or kingfishers serve as the definitive hosts. However, it is not possible to identify many of these immature digeneans to species because their larval stages lack distinguishing morphological features. Thus, there are several, if not many, more species of digeneans parasitizing fish than the six reported in Table 1. The other five species of digeneans encountered were all found as adults in the digestive system. The life cycles of the digenean species listed in Table 1 all include two, three or more host species, the first of which is always a mollusk. For example, the first intermediate host of Crepidostomum cf cornutum is a fingernail clam. It is intriguing that, while C. cf cornutum was - 278 - encountered in largemouth bass and pumpkinseed from other water bodies, it has yet to be found in those hosts in Otsego Lake. However, the putative absence of this worm from Otsego Lake needs to be verified with additional sampling of its principle host, largemouth bass. It is surprising that only four species of cestodes were encountered in the eight fish species examined in this study because many more than four have been reported in the literature on North American fish parasites (e.g., Hoffman 1999). Yet, many immature cestode specimens were found in the fishes examined. As is the case with larval digeneans, larval cestodes are hard to identify due to a paucity of distinguishing features. It is therefore likely that other cestode species are present in these fish and water bodies, but that we have not encountered them as adult specimens, precluding specific identifications. Likewise, it is surprising that only three specimens of acanthocephalans were encountered. Again, additional sampling is needed to verify whether other acanthocephalan species are present. The Big Pond at the Thayer Farm is home to yellow perch, largemouth bass, pumpkinseed and redbreast sunfish, and a diversity of fish parasites. Yet, no fish acanthocephalans were encountered in the 100+ fish sampled from that location. The pond has a diversity of invertebrates, such as amphipods and other crustaceans that commonly serve as the intermediate host in the life cycle of acanthocephalans (Amin 1985). Because the Big Pond at Thayer Farm was artificially stocked, the lack of acanthocephalans may simply be because the fish that were introduced were not infected with acanthocephalans. I.e., the pond otherwise seems sufficient to maintain fish acanthocephalan populations. The data reported here represent a starting point for the ongoing survey of parasitic worms of fishes of Otsego Lake that I am conducting with students. In 2010 attempts will be made to fill in several sampling gaps that are apparent in Table 1, including additional specimens of yellow perch, largemouth bass, chain pickerel and white suckers from Otsego Lake. More importantly, efforts will be made to sample additional fish species in Otsego Lake that are of high ecological or economic significance, such as alewife, Otsego bass, walleye, and lake trout. - 279 - - 280 - ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The following students contributed to this project: Liza Hendricks, Michael Bergman, Tyler Smith, Chris Swider, Nick Mazziota, Taylor Beasley, Crystal Wiles, Daniel Yanik, Kathryn Eyring, Clinton Copp, Patricia Rees, Eric Siedner, Brenden Wagner, Allyson Clodfelter, Abel Luna, Jacob Baumel, and Ashley Colegrove. Thanks to Drs. Stephen Curran, Brent Nickol, and Roman Kuchta for helpful comments on the identifications of digeneans, acanthocephalans, and cestodes, respectively. Matt Albright and Holly Waterfield helped with field work, and Bill Harman provided logistical assistance. Mark Cornwell (SUNY, Cobleskill) and Mike Schallert and Tim Pokorny kindly provided several fish for this study. The New York State Department of Environmental Conservation issued the permit for fish collections (License No. 1388). REFERENCES Amin, O. 1985. Acanthocephala from lake fishes in Wisconsin: Neoechinorhynchus robertbaueri n. sp., with a key to species of the genus Neoechinorhynchus Hamann, 1892, from North American fishes. Journal of Parasitology 71: 312-318. Amin, O.M. 2002. Revision of Neoechinorhynchus Stiles and Hassall, 1905 (Acanthocephala: Neoechinorhynchidae) with keys to 88 species in two subgenera. Systematic Parasitology 53:1-18. Amin, O.M. & Heckmann, R.A. 2009. Description of Neoechinorhynchus (Neoechinorhynchus) buckeri n. sp. (Acanthocephala: Neoechinorhynchidae) from the Blacktail Redhorse Moxostoma poecilurum (Catostomidae) in the Tchoutacabouffa River, Mississippi, U.S.A., with a Key to Species of Neoechinorhynchus with Different Dorsoventral Body Wall Thickness. Comparative Parasitology 76:154-161. Bray, R. A., Gibson, D. I., Jones, A., eds. 2008. Keys to the Trematoda. Vol. 3. London: Biddles Ltd, King’s Lynn, 824 p. Bullock, W.L. 1963. Neoechinorhynchus prolixoides n. sp. (Acanthocephala) from North American fishes. Proceeding of Helminthological Society of Washington 30:92-96. Caira, J.N. 1989. A Revision of the North American Papillose Allocreadiidae (Digenea) with Independent Cladistic Analyses of Larval and Adult Forms. Bulletin of the University of Nebraska State Museum 11: 1-58. Gibson, I. D. 1996. Hemiuroidea. In: Guide to the Parasites of Fishes of Canada Part IV, Eds. L. Margolis and Z. Kabata. NRC Research Press, Nanaimo British Colombia, pp 61-123. Hoffman, G. L. 1999. Parasites of North American Freshwater Fishes. 2nd Ed. Ithaca: Comstock Publishing Associates. - 281 - Jilek, R. and Crities, J. L. 1982. Comparative Morphology of the North American Species of Spinitectus (Nematoda: Spiruruda) Analyzed by Scanning Electron Microscopy. Transitions of the American Microscopial Society 101: 126-134. Johnson, M. W., P. A. Nelson, and T. A. Dick. 2004. Structuring mechanisms of yellow Perch (Perca flavescens) parasite communities: host age, diet, and local factors.Canada Journal of Zoology 82: 1291-1301. Khalil, L.F., Jones, A., and Bray, R.A. 1994. Keys to the Cestode Parasites of Vertebrates. Cambridge: University Press, 751 p. Lynch, J.E. 1936. New species of Neoechinorhynchus from the western sucker, Catostomus macrocheilus Girard. Transactions of the American Microscopical Society 55:21-43. Moravec, M. D. Crosby, I. de Buron, D. G. Solis, and W. A. Roumillat. 2008. Three New Species of Philometrids (Nemotoda: Philometridae) From Centrarchid Fishes In The USA. Journal of Parasitology 94: 1103-1113. Moravec, F. 1998. Nematodes of freshwater fishes of the Neotropical Region. Academy of Sciences of the Czech,Republic, Prague, Czech Republic, 355 p. Muzzall, M. P. 2002. Occurrence of Bunodera sacculata Van Cleave and Mueller, 1932 in Perca flavescens From Silver Creek and Silver Lake, Michigan. Journal of Parasitology 88: 203-205. Muzzall, P.M. 1980. Ecology and seasonal abundance of three Acanthocephalan species infecting white suckers in SE New Hampshire. American Society of Parasitologists 66:127-133. Muzzall, M. Patrick. 1999. Nematode Parasites of Yellow Perch, Perca flavescens, From the Laurentian Great Lakes. Journal Helminthology Society Washington 66:115-122. Rosinski, L. J., P. M. Muzzall, and R. C. Haas. 1997. Nematodes of Yellow Perch from Saginaw Bay, Lake Huron, with Emphasis on Eustrongylides tubifex (Dioctophym Atidae) and Philometra cylindracea (Philometridae). Journal Helminthology Society Washington 64: 96-101. Stunkard, H. W. 1956. The morphology and life-history of the digenetic trematode, Azygia sebago Ward, 1910. Biological Bulletin. 111:248-268 Van Cleave, H.J. & Timmons H.F. 1952. An additional new species of the acanthocephalan genus Neoechinorhynchus. Journal of Parasitology 38:53-56. - 282 - Chlorophyll a and phytoplankton surveys of Cranberry Bog, Burlington, NY, summer 2009 Irene Primmer1 INTRODUCTION Cranberry Bog is a 70-acre wetland within the bounds of Greenwoods Conservancy, which encompasses 1200+ acres in the town of Burlington, New York (Figure 1). The bog has characteristics of both bog and fen systems, and as such, supports a unique flora including that of alkaline fens, a Sphagnum mat and bog community, marsh and open water. Algae are non-embryonic, non-vascular, oxygenic photoautotrophs whose primary photoreceptive pigment is chlorophyll a (Dillard 1999). Aquatic algae inhabit a variety of environments, occupying various niches in a body of water. Phytoplanktonic algae, which are suspended or swim freely in open water, are the focus of this study. The type of algae present and their abundance in an aquatic system can reflect trophic status and may be indicative of contamination from the addition of nutrients from agriculture run-off or sewage (Prescott 1964). Conditions of salinity, size, depth, transparency, nutrient conditions, pH, and pollution effect the composition and abundance of algae present in a body of water (Sheath and Wehr 2003), thus the algal composition is, to some degree, a reflection of the condition of a body of water. Most phytoplankton are microscopic, making it difficult to quantify the population in terms of absolute numbers of individual algal cells. To get around this, photosynthetic pigments present in such organisms can be quantified in order to estimate the abundance of organisms present within a body of water. All photosynthetic organisms contain pigments that are employed to help absorb specific wavelengths of light from the sun’s color spectrum. These wavelengths provide energy to assist in the electron transport aspect of photosynthesis. This aids in the production of energy for the specific organisms. Chlorophyll a is a pigment that is found in most photosynthetic organisms, so its quantification is used as an indicator of the amount of photosynthetic material in water bodies. As described by Stevenson and Smol (2003), surveys to determine the taxonomic composition of algae in the phytoplankton community are a useful means by which to assess biotic integrity and begin to diagnose causes of environmental problems. Changes in assemblage should reflect physical and chemical changes caused by perturbations of the system, whether caused by human actions or changes in the trophic composition. Species presence and success in community assemblages are ultimately constrained by environmental conditions and interactions with other species in the habitat (i.e. grazing by zooplankton and zebra mussels, trophic cascades that impact grazing populations, etc.). In the summer of 2009 Cranberry Bog was surveyed for both algal composition and chlorophyll a concentration. The purpose of the research was to characterize the algal 1 Peterson Family Conservation Trust Fellow 2009. Current Affiliation: Mansfield University, Mansfield, PA. - 283 - community composition in Cranberry Bog and establish a baseline of current chlorophyll a concentrations, as the algal community has not been studied previously. GW-3 GW-2 GW-1 Figure 1. Greenwoods Conservancy, Burlington, New York showing locations of summer 2009 sample sites within Cranberry Bog ( ). MATERIALS AND METHODS Samples were collected at 3 sites on Cranberry Bog on 16 June and 2 July 2009 (Figure 1 and Table 1). Samples were collected from just below the water surface and each was immediately split into subsamples for chlorophyll a and phytoplankton analyses. The methods of sample preservation, storage, and analysis are given in the following sections. Chlorophyll a Samples were kept on ice immediately following collection and during transport. In the lab, two 100mL portions of each sample were run through Whatman GF-A filters in a vacuum assembly. The filters were frozen until further processing. On the day of analysis, the filters were cut into small pieces and placed in a glass tube to which 10 mL of a buffered acetone solution - 284 - were added. This mixture was ground to a homogeneous slurry using a power drill with a teflon bit. The slurry was centrifuged at 2,100 rpm for 10 minutes to separate the solution from the filter paper. A fluorometer was used to determine the fluorescence of the supernatant according to the methods of Welschmyer (1994). Reported concentrations for samples run in duplicate represent the average of the concentrations determined for each replicate. Phytoplankton 100 mL were poured into a separate container and preserved with Lugol’s solution. In the lab, the samples were set aside to settle for at least 24 hours. A total of 5 mL from the settled portion of each sample were surveyed for the following phytoplankton taxa according to Prescott (1954): Chlorophyta, Cyanophyta, Chrysophyta, and Pyrrophyta. For each sample, 1 mL of the settled portion of sample was added to a Palmer-Maloney slide and examined in entirety using a digital compound microscope. This was repeated 5 times so that a total of 5 mL was examined. Prescott (1954) was used as a reference for grouping the algae. Table 1. The site names and corresponding GPS Coordinates for Cranberry Bog samples (WGS 84 Degrees Decimal Minutes). Site Name GPS Coordinates (D mm.mmm) GW-1 N 42 42.952’, W 75 05.839’ GW-2 N 42 42.957’, W 75 05.921 GW-3 N 42 43.183’, W 75 05.872 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Chlorophyll a concentrations Chlorophyll a concentrations of the surface samples are presented in Figure 2 and Table 2. The highest concentration was observed on 16 June (11.4 ppb) at site GW-3. Concentrations varied between the two sampling dates, most notably at site GW-3 (Figure 2). Concentrations in Cranberry Bog are comparable to those observed in Otsego and Canadarago Lakes in 2009 (Primmer 2010a and 2010b). Table 2. Average chlorophyll a (ppb) in surface samples of Cranberry Bog, Burlington, New York, sample sites GW -1, GW -2, and GW -3. Sample Date GW-1 GW-2 GW-3 16-Jun 6.34 3.14 11.43 2-Jul 6.71 5.12 4.98 Average 6.67 4.12 8.2 - 285 - 2009 Chlorophyll a Concentrations, Cranberry Bog 14 12 10 8 GW-1 6 GW-2 4 GW-3 Concentration (ppb) 2 0 16-Jun 2-Jul Date Sampled Figure 2. Chlorophyll a (ppb) in surface samples for Cranberry Bog, Burlington, New York, sample sites GW -1, GW -2, and GW -3 for samples collected 16 June and 2 July 2009. Phytoplankton Figure 3 illustrates the composition of each sample in terms of the relative abundance of each of the four taxonomic groups for each site from samples collected on 2 July 2009. Chlorophyta was the dominant taxon in the community at each site comprising greater than 80% of algal cells counted (Figure 3, Table 3). Cyanophyta was the second-most common group in the algal community. Some samples did not contain individuals from each of the four taxonomic groups; pyrrophytes were not documented at any site. The community composition varied slightly between sample sites, though a clear pattern was not apparent. The total number of cells counted varied considerably between the sites (Table 3). Twenty individuals were counted in 5 mL of concentrate at site GW-2 compared to totals of 133 and 168 individuals at sites GW-1 and GW-3, respectively. Table 3. Percent composition of four algal groups and the total number of organisms counted in 5 mL of concentrate; Chlorophyta, Cyanophyta, Pyrrophyta and Chrysophyta from Cranberry Bog sites GW-1, GW-2, and GW-3 on 2 July 2009. GW-1 GW-2 GW-3 Chlorophyta 100.0 80.0 93.5 Cyanophyta 0.0 15.0 6.0 Pyrrophyta 0.0 0.0 0.0 Chrysophyta 0.0 5.0 0.6 No. of Organisms 133 20 168 Counted - 286 - Phytoplankton Community Percent Composition of Taxa 100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% GW-1 GW-2 GW-3 Chlorophyta Cyanophyta Pyrrophyta Chrysophyta Figure 3. Composition of four different algal groups; Chlorophyta, Cyanophyta, Pyrrophyta and Chrysophyta in surface samples from Cranberry Bog, sample sites GW-1, GW -2, and GW -3, collected on 2 July 2009. REFERENCES APHA, AWWA, WPCF. 1989. Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater, 17th ed. American Public Health Association. Washington DC. Dillard, G.E. 1999. Common freshwater algae of the United States. Berlin: Gebruder Borntraeger. Prescott, G. W. 1954. The fresh-water algae. WM. C. Brown Company. Dubuque. Primmer, I. 2010a. Chlorophyll a and phytoplankton survey, Otsego Lake, 2009. In 42nd Ann. Rept. (2009). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta. Primmer, I. 2010b. Chlorophyll a and phytoplankton survey, Canadarago Lake, 2009. In 42nd Ann. Rept. (2009). SUNY Oneonta Biol. Fld. Sta., SUNY Oneonta. Sheath, R.G., J.D. Wehr. 2003. Introduction to freshwater algae. In: Freshwater algae of North America. Elsevier. San Diego. Stevenson, R.J., J.P. Smol. 2003. Use of algae in environmental assessments. In: Wehr, J.D. and R.G. Sheath (Ed.). Freshwater Algae of North America. Elsevier. San Diego. Welschmyer, N.A. 1994. Fluorometric analysis of chlorophyll a in the presence of chlorophyll b and pheopigments. Limnol. Oceanogr. 39:1985-1992. - 287 - Characterization of wetland soils and vegetation in Cranberry Bog and Goodyear Swamp, Otsego County, New York, summer 2009 Maribeth Rubenstein1 ABSTRACT Over a period of six weeks in the summer of 2009, a baseline analysis of vegetative biomass, soil nutrients and other soil properties was conducted at Cranberry Bog and Goodyear Swamp in order to identify patterns of nutrient availability and nutrient use. Once this baseline data has been established physical changes, and effects of natural or human inputs into the systems, can be assessed. According to Bedford (1999), “…understanding nutrient limitation at both the community and individual-species level may be necessary to predict changes in species composition and richness with nutrient enrichment.” Quadrats were selected arbitrarily. Vegetation was identified and the percent cover estimated within study plots. Sample vegetation was then collected, dried, weighed and analyzed with a Kjeldahl apparatus. The soil properties of temperature, pH, and moisture content (VWC) were measured in the field. Soil sample cores were taken and wet and dried weights were determined. Dried samples were burned and weighed to determine carbon content. Finally, the samples were analyzed for phosphorous and nitrogen using filter extraction techniques. The soil analysis results were inconsistent and determined unreliable for use as base line data due to difficulties with the nutrient extraction methods. INTRODUCTION Study sites were located within Cranberry Bog at Greenwoods Conservancy in Burlington, NY and Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary in Springfield, NY. Greenwoods Conservancy contains 1200 acres of land, owned by the Peterson Family Trust, and is protected under a conservation easement through the Otsego Land Trust. This land is a relatively “pristine” environment, without residential or other types of development. However it is managed for highest levels of biodiversity, including the periodic haying of some fields to maintain meadows and the active management of beaver dams to maintain bog productivity. The “bog” is approximately 70 acres and actually has characteristics (including hydrology and vegetation) of both a dwarf shrub bog and a medium fen. Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary is located at the northern edge of Otsego Lake in the town of Springfield. This wetland can be classified as a deep emergent marsh that has been nutrient enriched due to residential and agricultural inputs from the surrounding community. Swamps are forested wetlands, whereas marshes are dominated by herbaceous vegetation such as cattails (Typha spp.) and large sedges of the genus Carex (Bedford 1999). The substrate is flooded by waters that are not subject to violent wave actions. The five acre Goodyear Swamp was donated to the Biological Field Station by the Goodyear family in 1982. Since 1997, an invasion of Lythrum salicaria (purple loosestrife) within the marsh has been combated by an application of 1 Madison County Sponsored Intern, 2009. Current Affiliation: SUNY College at Oneonta - 288 - the bio-control Galerucella spp. (Waterfield 2009). The success of this bio-control has led to a rebound of vegetation diversity within the marsh, from the dominant monoculture of purple loosestrife that the marsh exhibited in the 1990s (Albright 2004). Both sites are part of the Palustrine System of wetlands, one of five systems in the classification of wetlands and deepwater habitats (USGS 2006). Wetland classification is determined by assessing if soils are hydric, vegetation is hydrophytic, and the hydrologic conditions are permanently saturated or flooded, or seasonally or intermittently flooded. Hydric soils are mottled due to the displacement of iron and magnesium within the substrate or gleyed (displaying a low chroma; grey/ green coloration). Hydrophytic vegetation has evolved to grow in saturated soils and low oxygen environments, and may display such adaptations as aerenchymous tissue and shallow or modified root systems. Palustrine wetlands include all nontidal wetlands dominated by trees, shrubs, persistent emergent plants, or emergent mosses or lichens, as well as small, shallow open water ponds or potholes. Palustrine wetlands encompass swamps, marshes, potholes, bogs, and fens (USGS 2006). Utilizing the criteria set forth in Endinger, et al. (2002), Goodyear Swamp can be characterized as a deep emergent marsh, but also shares qualities and vegetation of a shallow emergent marsh such as yellow flag iris (Iris pseudacorus), sensitive fern (Onoclea sensibilus), yellow loosestrife (Lysimachia punctata), marsh bedstraw (Galium pallustre), etc. Wetlands serve important economic and ecological functions such as flood and erosion control, and water filtration. They also provide vital habitats for a diversity of wildlife, including many species that are endangered or threatened. Peat forming wetlands may also act as carbon sinks, a vital consideration as we try to globally reduce greenhouse gas emissions. METHODS Study quadrats were arbitrarily selected based on their representation of different ecotones or environments within the ecosystems. Four quadrats were selected in Goodyear Swamp (North end of Otsego Lake) based on a previous water quality survey conducted by McEnroe and a student. The locations of the quadrats are given in Table 1 and illustrated in Figure 1. Table 1. Coordinates of sample plots evaluated in Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary, summer 2009. Site Coordinates GYS – 1 N 42°48.574 W 74°53.912 GYS – 2 N 42°48.571 W 74.53.920 GYS – 3 N 42°48.530 W 74°53.890 GYS – 4 N 42°48.549 W 74°53.930 - 289 - Figure 1. Soil and vegetation sampling locations within Goodyear Swamp Sanctuary, summer 2009. Each quadrat was divided into quarters. Measurements were taken from each quarter for temperature, VWC (volumetric water content %), conductivity and pH. Temperature measurements were taken twice from each quarter, with two different probes. These values were averaged together to calculate an overall value per quadrat per sampling date. The following instruments were used: Table 2. Instruments used to measure physiochemical soil properties. Parameter Instrument Temperature 1 HANNA Instruments Minitherm HI 8751 Temperature 2 HANNA Instruments HI 99121 ph/temperature meter pH HANNA Instruments HI 99121 ph/temperature meter VWC Hydrosense CD620 Conductivity Hydrosense CS620 Six quadrats were selected at Cranberry Bog in the Greenwoods Conservancy, Burlington, NY. Figure 2 shows the study site and the quadrat locations. These quadrats were arbitrarily selected by kayaking around the bog and choosing sites which represented different plant communities that were repeated elsewhere in the bog. The coordinates of each quadrat are given in Table 3. - 290 - 6 3 5 2 1 4 Figure 2. Quadrat locations for 2009 soil and vegetation sample collection in Cranberry Bog, Greenwoods Conservancy, Burlington, NY. Table 3. Coordinates of sample plots evaluated in Cranberry Bog, summer 2009. Site Coordinates GWC – 1 N 42° 43.176 W 075° 05.801 GWC – 2 N 42° 43.194 W 075° 05.897 GWC – 3 N 42° 43.213 W 075° 05.857 GWC – 4 N 42° 43.107 W 075° 05.923 GWC – 5 N 42° 43.227 W 075° 05.809 GWC – 6 N 42° 43.199 W 075° 05.831 Measurements of soil physiochemical properties were taken from two locations in each quadrat – the water/sediment interface and a location above this point containing only sediment. Measurements taken from both locations were averaged together, creating an overall value per quadrat per sampling date. At the end of the sampling period the quadrats in each of the locations were cored and the soils were collected and weighed while wet. Samples were then dried overnight in a 100°C oven - 291 - and re-weighed. Then approximately one gram of each dried sample was placed in a ceramic dish, weighed and burned in a muffle furnace for one hour at 550°C. The ash was then weighed to determine the carbon content in the soil (Skjemstad and Baldock 2008). Some of each of the field moist samples were set aside for phosphorous and nitrogen analysis, following methods described in Maynard et al. (2008) and Sharpley et al. (2008), respectively. Unfortunately, the presence of organic matter in several of the samples was not taken into account when selecting filtration methods. There was also a departure from the recommended size of Whatman filters due to supply availability. Although this exercise provided a meaningful learning experience, the laboratory analyses are believed not to have yielded reliable results. Therefore, the data are not included in this report. Vegetation within the quadrats was identified and analyzed for carbon and nitrogen content. Samples were collected once during the observation period, identified, wet weighed, dried for 24 hours at 105 oC and reweighed. Dried plant samples were sent to the SUNY ESF forest soils lab to determine their carbon and nitrogen content. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Field measurements of temperature, moisture (VWC%), conductivity (ms), and pH were recorded weekly for 6 weeks at the Goodyear Swamp and 5 weeks at the Greenwoods Conservancy. A regression analysis of each parameter in relationship to all other variables per quadrat was performed. With the exception of moisture (VWC%) and conductivity (ms) all other R-squared values were less than 0.9. In 9 out of 10 quadrats (both sites) a relationship between moisture and conductivity exists, but whether this is due to the moisture content of the soil, the chemical composition of the soil or the ability of the field instruments to operate under low moisture conditions is unknown. Soil samples were not spot-checked under laboratory conditions. Table 4 lists plant species identified within Cranberry Bog and Goodyear Swamp. This list does not include all species that existed within the quadrats, but includes the majority of species present. Notes for future analyses: The filtrate did not separate out when centrifuged, improperly sized Whatman filters either allowed sediment to enter the final filtrate (too small) or wicked the filtrate into its fibers (too large) thereby failing to yield a sufficient amount of sediment-free filtrate for testing. Insufficient amounts of soil were cored from the study sites and so the filtration methods could not be repeated. Weighing, burning and filtering of the samples were conducted in two separate locations, within three labs under minimal supervision. The analysis did not yield reliable results. - 292 - Table 4. Plant species identified in Goodyear Swamp (GYS) and Greenwoods Conservancy Cranberry Bog (GWC), summer 2009. Site Quadrant Species Common Name GYS 1 Symplocarpas foetidus skunk cabbage GYS 1 Ononclea sensibilus sensitive fern GYS 2 Onoclea sensibilus sensitive fern GYS 2 Myostis scorpioides forget-me-not GYS 2 Lythrum salicaria purple loosestrife GYS 2 Sparganeum burr-reed GYS 2 Leersia ozoroides rice cut grass GYS 2 Agrostis bent grass GYS 2 Eleocharis spike rush GYS 2 Galium Palustre marsh bedstraw GYS 3 Typha Latifolia cattail GYS 3 Equisetaceae horsetail GYS 3 Parthenocissus Inserta Virgina creeper GYS 3 Cornus Swida dogwood shrub GYS 3 Symplocarpas foetidus skunk cabbage GYS 3 Sagittaria latifolia broadleaf arrowhead GYS 3 Thelypteris palustris marsh fern GYS 3 Galium palustre marsh bedstraw GYS 3 Impatiens capensis jewel weed GYS 3 Leersia ozoroides rice cut grass GYS 3 mo s s GYS 3 Iris versicolor blue flag GYS 4 Symplocarpas foetidus skunk cabbage GYS 4 Iris pseudacorus yellow flag GYS 4 Equisetaceae horsetail GYS 4 Carex spp. sedge GYS 4 Galium palustre marsh bedstraw GYS 4 Impatiens capensis jewel weed GW C 1 Camaedaphne calyculata Moench leatherleaf GW C 1 Ludwigia palustrus water purslane GW C 1 Hypericum mutilum dwarf St. John's-wort GW C 2 Sarracenia purpurea northern pitcher plant GW C 3 Camaedaphne calyculata Moench leatherleaf GW C 4 Pteridophyta fern GW C 4 Hypericum mutilum dwarf St. John's-wort GW C 4 Camaedaphne calyculata Moench leatherleaf GW C 5 Hypericum mutilum dwarf St. John's-wort GW C 5 Camaedaphne calyculata Moench leatherleaf GW C 6 Leersia ozoroides rice cut grass GW C 6 Dulichium arundinaceum threeway sedge GW C 6 Carex stricta tussock sedge GW C 6 Ludwigia palustrus water purslane - 293 - REFERENCES Albright M.F., W.N. Harman, H. Meehan, S. Fickbohm, S. Groff and T. Austin. 2004. Recovery of native flora and behavioral responses by Galerucella spp. following biocontrol of purple loosestrife. Am. Midl. Nat. 152:248-254. Bedford, B.L., M.R. Walbridge, A. Aldous. 1999. Patterns in nutrient availability and plant diversity of temperate North American wetlands. Ecology. 80(7): 2151-2169. Cole, C.A. 2002. The assessment of herbaceous plant cover in wetlands as an indicator of function. Ecological Indicators. 2(3): 287-293. Edinger, G.J., D.J. Evans, S. Gebauer, T.G. Howard, D.M. Hunt, and A.M. Olivero (ed.). 2002. Ecological Communities of New York State. Second Edition. A revised and expanded edition of Carol Reschke's Ecological Communities of New York State. (Draft for review). New York Natural Heritage Program, New York State Department of Environmental Conservation, Albany, NY. Goslee, S.C., R.P. Brooks, C.A. Cole. 1997. Plants as indicators of wetland water source. Plant Ecology. 131(2):199-206. Maynard, D.G., Y.P. Kalra, J.A. Crumbaugh. 2008. Nitrate and exchangeable ammonium nitrogen. In Soil Sampling and Methods of Analysis 2nd Edition. Carter, M.R., and E.G. Gregorich, eds. Taylor & Francis Group. Boca Raton, FL. Pp. 226-230. Mitsch, W.J. and Gosselink, J.G. 2000. Wetlands. 3rd Ed.. John Wiley & Sons. New York, NY. Sharpley, A.N., P.J. Kleinman, J.L. Weld. 2008. Environmental phosphorus indices. In Soil Sampling and Methods of Analysis 2nd Edition. Carter, M.R., and E.G. Gregorich, eds. Taylor & Francis Group. Boca Raton, FL. Pp. 143-145. Skjemstad, J.O., and J.A. Baldock. 2008. Total and organic carbon. In Soil Sampling and Methods of Analysis 2nd Edition. Carter, M.R., and E.G. Gregorich, eds. Taylor & Francis Group. Boca Raton, FL. Pp. 71-79. USGS. 2006. Classification of wetlands and deepwater habitats of the United States: palustrine system. Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center. (www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/wetlands/classwet/palustri.htm) 11.22.09 - 294 - APPENDIX I Goodyear Swamp Soil Data Date Site Quadrant Temp 1 Temp 2 VWC % ms pH 6.15.09 GYS 1 13.875 16.225 56% 1.2975 6.8725 6.24.09 GYS 1 15.4 18 61% 1.335 7.025 6.30.09 GYS 1 16.25 17.325 67% 1.375 6.34 7.08.09 GYS 1 13.925 14.575 73% 1.47 6.96 7.14.09 GYS 1 14.2 15.275 86% 1.505 6.6175 7.23.09 GYS 1 16.25 17.925 55% 1.285 6.0275 6.15.09 GYS 2 15.725 16.575 77% 1.4375 6.3625 6.24.09 GYS 2 16.45 19.5 69% 1.4925 6.8975 6.30.09 GYS 2 15.9 16.475 89% 1.525 6.4075 7.08.09 GYS 2 14.45 15.45 90% 1.5325 6.7425 7.14.09 GYS 2 16.075 16.475 87% 1.5125 6.1225 7.23.09 GYS 2 17.775 18.4 85% 1.5075 6.035 6.17.09 GYS 3 15.7 18.175 75% 1.4325 6.975 6.24.09 GYS 3 16.55 19.25 74% 1.4225 7.0425 6.30.09 GYS 3 16.85 17.425 78% 1.455 6.87 7.08.09 GYS 3 15 16.275 85% 1.495 6.7275 7.14.09 GYS 3 15.325 16.475 83% 1.4825 6.2575 7.23.09 GYS 3 17.175 18.35 80% 1.4675 5.675 6.17.09 GYS 4 14.05 16.025 87% 1.515 7.29 6.24.09 GYS 4 15.5 17.625 82% 1.3625 6.515 6.30.09 GYS 4 15.775 16.55 80% 1.465 7.18 7.08.09 GYS 4 14.5 15.725 88% 1.5225 6.67 7.14.09 GYS 4 15.35 16.225 92% 1.5475 6.5425 7.23.09 GYS 4 17.2 19.05 86% 1.5075 5.8125 - 295 - APPENDIX II Greenwoods Conservancy Cranberry Bog Data Date Site Quadrant Location Temp 1 Temp 2 VWC % ms pH 6.22.09 GWC 1 17.15 19.35 5% 0.935 6.155 6.30.09 GWC 1 20.1 21.15 14% 0.54 5.225 7.06.09 GWC 1 17.55 20.15 22% 1.005 5.135 7.14.09 GWC 1 15.85 17.3 11% 0.91 5.355 7.23.09 GWC 1 21.7 22.15 18% 0.97 4.74 6.22.09 GWC 2 19.45 21.55 39% 1.155 5.955 6.30.09 GWC 2 19.4 19.8 62% 1.345 5.71 7.06.09 GWC 2 18.85 19.9 59% 1.315 5.59 7.14.09 GWC 2 15.95 16.9 66% 1.365 5.675 7.23.09 GWC 2 20.95 21.8 60% 1.325 5.085 6.22.09 GWC 3 21.6 22.2 18% 0.965 5.985 6.30.09 GWC 3 19.3 18.7 3% 0.82 6.045 7.06.09 GWC 3 21.15 23.75 25% 1.02 4.72 7.14.09 GWC 3 17.15 19.9 4% 0.83 5.335 7.23.09 GWC 3 21.55 22.05 25% 1.03 4.465 6.22.09 GWC 4 19.85 21.15 5% 0.84 5.445 6.30.09 GWC 4 20.95 20.5 11% 0.905 5.77 7.06.09 GWC 4 19.9 20.25 30% 1.065 5.535 7.14.09 GWC 4 18.6 19.2 19% 0.985 5.42 7.23.09 GWC 4 21.3 22 10% 0.895 4.59 6.22.09 GWC 5 19.8 21 57% 1.31 5.79 6.30.09 GWC 5 20.8 21.5 48% 1.255 6.67 7.06.09 GWC 5 19.8 19.55 89% 1.525 6.215 7.14.09 GWC 5 17.95 17.6 44% 1.2 5.595 7.23.09 GWC 5 21.9 23.3 44% 1.205 3.995 6.22.09 GWC 6 20.3 21.5 37% 1.145 6.195 7.06.09 GWC 6 19.15 20.1 73% 1.415 5.255 7.14.09 GWC 6 18.6 19.45 94% 1.555 5.07 7.23.09 GWC 6 21.15 21.6 79% 1.46 5.005 - 296 - APPENDIX III Vegetation Data Wet/Dry Weights and Percent Cover: Goodyear Swamp % leaf dry stem wet stem dry Site Quad Species Common Date Cover Date leaf wet wt wt wt wt GYS 1 Symplocarpas foetidus Skunk cabbage 6.11.09 80 6.26.09 23.4g 4.2g 26.0g 2.8g GYS 1 Ononclea sensibilus Sensitive Fern 6.11.09 20 6.26.09 6.45g 1.4g 3.45g 0.7g GYS 2 Onoclea sensibilus Sensitive Fern 6.11.09 15 6.26.09 4.35g 1.6g 2.0g 0.5g GYS 2 Myostis scorpioides Forget-me-not 6.11.09 5 6.26.09 0.3g 0.2g 0.75g 0.2g GYS 2 Lythrum salicaria Purple Loosestrife 6.11.09 1 6.26.09 0g 0g GYS 2 Sparganeum Burr-reed 6.11.09 25 6.26.09 5.6g 1.3g 0g 0g GYS 2 Leersia ozoroides Rice cut grass 6.11.09 20 6.26.09 1.0g 0.4g 0g 0g GYS 2 Agrostis Bent grass 6.11.09 3 6.26.09 GYS 2 Eleocharis Spike Rush 6.11.09 5 6.26.09 0.4g 0.2g 0g 0g GYS 2 Galium Palustre Marsh Bedstraw 6.11.09 25 6.26.09 0.55g 0.2g 0g 0g GYS 2 Various Unknown Various Unkown 6.11.09 4 6.26.09 GYS 3 Typha Latifolia Cattail 6.11.09 20 6.26.09 5.8g 1.25g 0g 0g GYS 3 Equisetaceae Horsetail 6.11.09 3 6.26.09 5.9g 1.35g 0g 0g GYS 3 Parthenocissus Inserta Virgina Creeper 6.11.09 1 6.26.09 14.6g 2.5g 0g 0g GYS 3 Cornus Swida Dogwood Shrub 6.11.09 30 6.26.09 19.5g 6.5g 16.7g 8.2g GYS 3 Symplocarpas foetidus Skunk cabbage 6.11.09 20 6.26.09 16.2g 2.3g 8.6g 2.3g Broadleaf GYS 3 Sagittaria latifolia Arrowhead 6.11.09 1 6.26.09 0.6g 0.7g 0.25g GYS 3 Thelypteris palustris Marsh Fern 6.11.09 5 6.26.09 1.2g 0.6g 1.0g 0.4g GYS 3 Galium Palustre Marsh Bedstraw 6.11.09 5 6.26.09 0.4g 0.4g 0g 0g GYS 3 Impatiens capensis Jewel Weed 6.11.09 10 6.26.09 GYS 3 Leersia ozoroides Rice cut grass 6.11.09 15 6.26.09 1.3g 0.55g 0g 0g GYS 3 Moss Moss 6.11.09 10 6.26.09 GYS 3 Iris Versicolor Blue Flag 6.11.09 2 6.26.09 GYS 4 No Coverage 6.11.09 5 6.26.09 GYS 4 Symplocarpas foetidus Skunk cabbage 6.11.09 60 6.26.09 6.7g 1.1g 4.1g 0.8g GYS 4 Iris pseudacorus Yellow Flag 6.11.09 20 6.26.09 10.1g 2.0g 0g 0g GYS 4 Equisetaceae Horsetail 6.11.09 1 6.26.09 GYS 4 Sedge Sedge 6.11.09 10 6.26.09 1.1g 0.35g 2.8g 0.9g GYS 4 Galium Palustre Marsh Bedstraw 6.11.09 5 6.26.09 0.4g 0.25g 0g 0g GYS 4 Impatiens capensis Jewel Weed 6.11.09 3 6.26.09 1.4g 0.3g 3.3g 0.5g - 297 - Wet/Dry Weights and Percent Cover: Greenwoods Conservancy Cranberry Bog % leaf wet leaf dry stem wet stem dry Site Quad Species Common Date Cover Date weight weight weight weight Camaedaphne GWC 1 calyculata Moench leatherleaf 6.22.09 95 7.06.09 46.15g 26g 76.1g 53.7g GWC 1 Ludwigia Palustrus Water Purslane 6.22.09 3 7.06.09 1.3g 0.25g 0g 0g GWC 1 Hypericum mutilum Dwarf St. John's-wort 6.22.09 2 7.06.09 0.3g 0.25g 0g 0g GWC 2 Sarracenia purpurea Northern Pitcher Plant 6.22.09 95 7.23.09 Camaedaphne GWC 3 calyculata Moench leatherleaf 6.22.09 30 7.06.09 12.6g 6.75g 33.4g 24.4g GWC 4 Pteridophyta Fern 6.22.09 15 7.06.09 0.8g 0.5g 0.4g 0.3g GWC 4 Unknown Unknown 6.22.09 7.06.09 0.35g 0.2g 0.3g 0.3g GWC 4 Hypericum mutilum Dwarf St. John's-wort 6.22.09 7.06.09 1.1g 0.6g 0g 0g Camaedaphne GWC 4 calyculata Moench leatherleaf 6.22.09 25 7.06.09 28.1g 16.2g 44.1g 32.6g GWC 5 Hypericum mutilum Dwarf St. John's-wort 6.22.09 10 7.06.09 3.9g 1.0g 0g 0g Camaedaphne GWC 5 calyculata Moench leatherleaf 6.22.09 5 7.06.09 6.5g 3.1g 3.1g 2.0g GWC 6 Leersia ozoroides Rice cut grass 6.22.09 7.06.09 0.9g 0.65g 0g 0g Dulichium GWC 6 arundinaceum Threeway sedge 6.22.09 7.06.09 1.05g 0.4g 0g 0g GWC 6 Carex stricta Tussock sedge 6.22.09 7.06.09 32.35g 13.5g 5.3g 2.3g GWC 6 Ludwigia Palustrus Water Purslane 6.22.09 7.06.09 5.3g 1.5g 0g 0g - 298 - Nitrogen and Carbon Analysis: Goodyear Swamp and Cranberry Bog Sample # Location Quad Species %N %C 1 GYS 1 Onoclea Sensibilus 2.10 45.56 2 GYS 1 Symplocarpas foetidus 2.29 42.18 3 GYS 2 Onoclea Sensibilus 1.25 47.07 4 GYS 2 Sparganeum 2.12 43.67 5 GYS 3 Sparganeum 1.80 44.65 6 GYS 3 Cornus Swida 0.50 47.57 7 GYS 3 Symplocarpas foetidus 2.72 44.37 8 GYS 3 Equisetaceae 2.40 36.74 9 GYS 4 Impatiens capensis 1.96 43.56 10 GYS 4 Symplocarpas foetidus 2.68 44.05 11 GYS 4 Iris pseudacorus 2.01 43.69 12 GYS 3 Thelypteris palustris 1.74 48.29 13 GYS 3 Parthenocissus Inserta 3.68 47.72 Camaedaphne calyculata 0.35 49.05 15 GWC 1 (Leatherleaf) Stem 15a GWC 1 Leatherleaf Foliage 1.36 53.86 16 GWC 2 Sarracenia purpurea 1.39 49.07 17 GWC 6 Leersia ozoroides 1.64 44.05 18 GWC 6 Dulichium arundinaceum 2.10 47.72 19 GWC 6 Carex stricta 1.63 47.53 20 GWC 5 Hypericum mutilum Stems 0.96 45.98 20a GWC 5 Hypericum mutilum Foliage 1.98 48.71 21 GWC 5 Sphagnum 1.37 45.65 22 GWC 5 Leatherleaf Stem 0.61 52.77 22a GWC 5 Leatherleaf Foliage 1.44 54.01 23 GWC 4 Leatherleaf Stem 0.37 48.93 23a GWC 4 Leatherleaf Foliage 1.60 54.29 24 GWC 3 Leatherleaf Stem 0.44 48.92 24a GWC 3 Leatherleaf Foliage 1.68 54.12 Note: There was no sample 14 - 299 - BFS Technical Report #27 AQUATIC MACROPHYTE MANAGEMENT PLAN FACILITATION LAKE MORAINE, MADISON COUNTY, NY 2009 1. MACROPHYTE BIOMASS MONITORING 2. WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS WILLARD N. HARMAN MATTHEW F. ALBRIGHT HOLLY A. WATERFIELD MARIBETH RUBENSTEIN SUNY ONEONTA BIOLOGICAL FIELD STATION 7027 ST HWY 80 COOPERSTOWN, NY 13326 - 300 - BACKGROUND Located in Madison County NY, Moraine Lake (42o 50’ 47” N, 75o 31’ 39” W) was formed by a deposited glacial moraine damming a valley. The lake, which has been artificially raised, is divided into two basins separated by a causeway and interconnected by a submerged culvert. The north basin is approximately 79 acres, has a mean depth of 1.1m, and a maximum depth 3.7m. The south basin occupies 182 acres, has a mean depth of 5.4m, and a maximum depth of 13.7m. Most of the recreational activities such as fishing, boating and swimming take place in the south basin (Harman et al., 1997). Moraine Lake has been regarded as meso-eutrophic due to the high productivity of algal and macrophytic plants, low transparency, and depleting levels of dissolved oxygen in the hypolimnion during summer stratification. Developments of lakeside residences and nearby agricultural activities are believed to have contributed to the current productivity status of the upper and lower basins (Anon., 1991). Nutrient loading as a result of faulty septic systems from the residences are believed to be a significant source of the problem in nutrient introduction (Harman et al. 1998). Many of the systems are out of date, undersized, and extremely close to the lake (Brown et al. 1983). Furthermore, soils surrounding the lake have poor percolation rates, steep slopes, shallow depths to bedrock, and fractured bedrock make the lake vulnerable to nutrient loading (Anon. 1991) (Harman et al. 2008). INTRODUCTION The aquatic macrophyte communities of Moraine Lake have been monitored by the SUNY Biological Field Station (BFS) since 1997. The purpose of monitoring these plant communities has specifically been directed towards controlling Eurasian water-milfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum). Myriophyllum spicatum is an invasive species that grows rapidly and its extensive canopies cause problems for recreation and other species growth (Borman et al. 1999). Numerous methods of control have been applied to reduce the abundance of Eurasian water-milfoil (Harman et al. 2006). The goal in the past of managing the M. spicatum is to achieve a balance of species (Lembi 2000) (Harman et al. 2008). These efforts to control M. spicatum have been effective in reducing the biomass of this species in relation to the overall biomass of aquatic plants in the Lake. However, currently Moraine Lake is experiencing a state of productivity whereby macrophytes other than M. spicatum, such as Ceratophyllum demersum, Nitellopsis obtusa and Stuckenia pectinata are producing biomass that may be a threat to the recreational goals of the users of the Lake. It would be timely to address nutrient loading in addition to controlling plant mass via Sonar® application and other methods. - 301 - MATERIALS AND METHODS Sampling took place 2 June, 1 July, 5 August, 15 September, and 20 October. Five collection sites were sampled, two in the north basin and three from the south basin (Figure 1). The sampling method used was the Point Intercept Rake Toss Relative Abundance Method (PIRTRAM) (Anonymous 2005). It was determined last year (2008) by comparing the PIRTRAM and dry weight methods that the rake toss method “could prove useful if not too much value is placed on actual abundance estimates. …an adequate number of replicate samples could provide insight into species dominance and extent related to exotic nuisance species as well as efforts to control them” (Harman et al. 2008). For this method two heads of garden rakes were welded together and connected to a 10m nylon cord. At each of the 5 sites, the rake was thrown out randomly 3 times. The rake was allowed to settle to the bottom of the lake and slowly pulled into the boat. Once in the boat, species were separated and measured by abundance categories. The 5 abundance categories are “no plants” (denoted by “Z”), “fingerful” (“T”= trace), “handful” (“S” = sparse), rakeful (“M” =medium), and “can’t bring into the boat” (“D” = dense). Table 1 provides biomass range estimates associated with each category. Each rake toss triplicate sample’s category was converted to its corresponding mid-point (Harman et al. 2008). The mid-points were averaged. These averages were then summed together to look at overall biomass. In each basin at the deepest location, water quality was measured with a Hydrolab Scout 2 ®. From surface to substrate, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, pH, and temperature were measured. A water sample was taken from each basin and returned to the lab to be analyzed using the Lachat QuickChem FIA+Water Analyzer ®. The ascorbic acid method following persulfate digestion (Liao and Marten 2001) was used to determine total phosphorus. For total nitrogen, the cadmium reduction method (Pritzlaff 2003) was used following peroxodisulfate digestion as described by Ebina et al. (1983). The phenolate method (Liao 2001) was used to measure ammonia and the cadmium reduction method (Pritzlaff 2003) for nitrate+nitrate- nitrogen. (Harman et al. 2008) RESULTS Plant Biomass 2009 estimated aquatic macrophyte biomass by site and species is shown in Tables 2-6. Table 1 provides the abundance categories employed by the rake toss method (mid-point, low and high biomass as g/m2). - 302 - Figure1. Bathymetric map of Moraine Lake, Madison County, NY. Contours in feet. WQ1 and WQ2 represent were water quality data were collected, sites 1-5 represent where plant biomass and rake toss methods were performed. (Harman et al. 2008) Table 1. Categories, field measurements, midpoint of each category (g/m2) and dry weight ranges applied for the rake toss method and used to generate Tables 2-16. (Harman et al. 2008) Abundance Categories Field Measure Total Dry Weight (g/m^2) mid low high "Z" = no plants Nothing 0 0 0 0 "T" = trace plants Fingerful .0001 - 2.000 1.00005 0.0001 2 "S" = sparse plants Handful 2.001 - 140.000 71.0005 2.001 140 "M" = medium plants Rakeful 140.001 - 230.000 185.0005 140.001 230 "D" = dense plants Can't bring in boat 230.001 - 450.000+ 340.0005 230.001 450 - 303 - Table 2. Mean biomass (g/m2) category mid-points for each species found at Site 1 during 2009 sampling events; those left blank were not present in the sample. Site 1: 6/2/2009 7/1/2009 8/5/2009 9/15/2009 10/20/2009 Myriophyllum spicatum Megalodonta beckii Zosterella dubia 0.67 Najas spp. Ceratophyllum demersum 0.33 85.33 Chara vulgaris 24.00 Vallisneria americana Elodea canadensis Ranunculus aquatilis Ranunculus trichophyllus 0.33 Stuckenia pectinata 0.67 23.67 23.67 Potamogeton crispus 24.00 23.67 Potamogeton zosteriformis 0.33 23.67 23.67 Potamogeton pusillus Nitellopsis obtusa 71.00 23.67 340.00 340.00 TOTAL 50.00 142.33 156.33 340.00 340.00 Table 3. Mean biomass (g/m2) category mid-points for each species found at Site 2 during 2009 sampling events; those left blank were not present in the sample. Site 2: 6/2/2009 7/1/2009 8/5/2009 9/15/2009 10/20/2009 Myriophyllum spicatum 71.00 0.33 47.67 0.67 24.00 Megalodonta beckii 0.33 0.67 Zosterella dubia 23.67 0.33 Najas spp. Ceratophyllum demersum 0.67 0.67 0.33 1.00 24.00 Chara vulgaris Vallisneria americana Elodea canadensis 147.00 47.33 185.00 62.00 62.00 Ranunculus aquatilis Ranunculus trichophyllus Stuckenia pectinata 24.33 288.33 0.33 Potamogeton crispus 71.00 0.67 Potamogeton zosteriformis 0.67 23.67 Potamogeton pusillus Nitellopsis obtusa TOTAL 338.00 339.00 257.00 63.67 110.00 Table 4. Mean biomass (g/m2) category mid-points for each species found at Site 3 during 2009 sampling events; those left blank were not present in the sample. Site 3: 6/2/2009 7/1/2009 8/5/2009 9/15/2009 10/20/2009 Myriophyllum spicatum 0.33 47.67 0.67 0.60 Megalodonta beckii Zosterella dubia 0.67 Najas spp. Ceratophyllum demersum 123.33 23.67 Chara vulgaris Vallisneria americana Elodea canadensis 24.00 24.33 Ranunculus aquatilis Ranunculus trichophyllus Stuckenia pectinata 23.67 175.00 Potamogeton crispus 0.67 Potamogeton zosteriformis 0.33 Potamogeton pusillus Nitellopsis obtusa 85.67 137.00 340.00 340.00 340.00 TOTAL 257.00 409.33 340.67 340.60 340.00 - 304 - Table 5. Mean biomass (g/m2) category mid-points for each species found at Site 4 during 2009 sampling events; those left blank were not present in the sample. Site 4: 6/2/2009 7/1/2009 8/5/2009 9/15/2009 10/20/2009 Myriophyllum spicatum 71.00 109.00 85.67 71.00 71.00 Megalodonta beckii Zosterella dubia 0.67 23.67 42.80 23.67 Najas spp. 0.33 24.00 42.60 0.33 Ceratophyllum demersum 109.00 109.00 288.33 79.80 111.80 Chara vulgaris Vallisneria americana Elodea canadensis Ranunculus aquatilis Ranunculus trichophyllus Stuckenia pectinata 0.33 Potamogeton crispus 109.00 0.33 Potamogeton zosteriformis 0.67 47.33 23.67 0.33 Potamogeton pusillus Nitellopsis obtusa TOTAL 290.00 266.33 445.33 236.53 207.13 Table 6. Mean biomass (g/m2) category mid-points for each species found at Site 5 during 2009 sampling events; those left blank were not present in the sample. Site 5: 6/2/2009 7/1/2009 8/5/2009 9/15/2009 10/20/2009 Myriophyllum spicatum 85.67 47.67 24.33 42.60 109.00 Megalodonta beckii 0.33 Zosterella dubia 1.00 0.33 Najas spp. 0.33 24.00 Ceratophyllum demersum 24.00 198.67 288.33 236.67 47.67 Chara vulgaris Vallisneria americana Elodea canadensis 0.33 Ranunculus aquatilis Ranunculus trichophyllus Stuckenia pectinata 0.33 23.67 0.80 Potamogeton crispus 24.33 0.33 Potamogeton zosteriformis 71.00 0.33 24.00 0.67 Potamogeton pusillus Nitellopsis obtusa TOTAL 205.33 248.33 360.33 281.40 181.00 Water Quality Analysis 2009 water quality parameters are within historically recorded levels. In the North basin waters were anoxic at 4 meters to bottom and pH values were basic, ranging from 7.74 to 8.80. The maximum temperature recorded was 23.70 Co at the surface on 5 August. Secchi readings averaged 3.95m. Ammonia was 0.084 mg/L on 1 July and below detection (< .02 mg/l) on all other sampling dates. Nitrite+nitrate concentrations were 0.03 mg/L on 1 July and below detection (< .02 mg/L) on all other sampling dates. Total phosphorous averaged 12.8 ug/L. In the South basin, pH values ranged from 7.31 to 8.78. Waters were anoxic below 9.8m on 2 June. The entire basin was mixing during the 20 October sampling event. The maximum temperature recorded was 23.99 Co at the surface on 5 August. Secchi readings averaged 4.35m, - 305 - ranging from 2.75m on 2 June to 5.5m on 5 August. Ammonia was 0.12 mg/L on 20 October and was otherwise near or below the detection limit (< .02 mg/l). Nitrite+nitrate concentrations averaged 0.17 mg/L, with a maximum concentration of 0.53 mg/L determined for 2 June. Total phosphorous averaged 17.3 ug/L; the maximum determined concentration ( 31.8 ug/L ) occurred on 20 October. DISCUSSION During the 2 June sampling common hornwort (C. demersum), Eurasian milfoil (M. spicatum) and common waterweed (E. candensis) were the most abundant overall, but appeared in balance with several other types of vegetation historically recorded in the lake. Starry stonewort (N. obtusa) was evident at site 3 in the shallower South basin. Upon return to the lake on 1 July, the bay east of the boat launch revealed areas of total coverage of N. obtusa. Although sago pondweed (S. pectinata) was ubiquitous, Site 2 (between Snake Island and the road) had the thickest coverage. Site 3 contained flowering Eurasian milfoil. At site 5 we observed large masses of sago pondweed, although this was not supported in data from rake tosses. On 5 August N. obtusa was observed in large amounts ( approx. ¼ acre) at Site 1, close to the shore. Stonewort was quite abundant at Site 3 as well. At site 2 common waterweed was the dominant vegetation while common hornwort dominated Sites 4 and 5. The 15 September survey revealed that N. obtusa was extremely dense and flowering at Sites 1 and 3 and was also making an appearance throughout the coves. Site 2 contained more Eurasian milfoil than generally seen at this time of year. Additionally, the North basin showed a lot of healthy-looking Eurasian milfoil. Overall, the water clarity had improved since the last visit. The plant communities observed on 20 October showed signs of seasonal decline; fewer species were present and a greater amount of substrate was bare, with the exception of sites 1 and 3 where starry stonewart dominated. At site 1 N. obtusa formed a dense canopy approximately 1 meter thick on the lake-bottom. Site 2 showed a marked decrease in estimated biomass from previous sampling dates. At site 3, starry stonewort was the only species represented in rake toss samples, though clusters of eel grass (Vallisneria americana) were visible. Plant communities at sites 4 and 5 in the north basin had greater diversity than at sites in the south basin. Site 4 was dominated by common hornwort (C. demersum) while Eurasian milfoil (M. spicatum) was dominant at site 5. In the September and October sampling, starry stonewort, when present, could not be evaluated using the rake toss method. The plant density was so great that the plant material would collapse off the rake while attempting to retrieve it to the boats. - 306 - REFERENCES Anon. 1988. Madison County septic system survey. Madison County Planning Department, Wampsville, NY 13163.0 Anon. 2005. reputedly by Lord, P.H. & R. L. Johnson. Borman, S., R. Korth, and J. Tempte. 1999. Through the looking glass. A field guide to aquatic plants. Wisconsin Lakes Partnership. Crow, G. E. and C. B. Hellquist. 2000a. Aquatic and wetland plants of Northeastern North America. V.1. Pteridophytes, gymnosperms, and angiosperms: dicotyledons. The University of Wisconsin Press. Crow, G. 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