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Trends in Biosciences

Volume 10 Number 43 November, 2017 CONTENTS

REVIEW PAPERS 1. Plant Proteins and their Health Effects: A Review 8889 Paras Porwal, Dilip Kumar and Sudhir Kumar

RESEARCH PAPERS 2. Evaluation of Honey Bee as Entomovector of HaNPV 8893 M.A. Vakaliya and C. K. Borad 3. In vitro Synthesis of 1,4-Dihydropyridines: An Anticancer Molecule 8901 Mohd. Yaseen Sirwal, Mohd. Shahnawaz and Kamal K. Kapoor 4. A Checklist of (: ) of Uttar Pradesh, India 8907 Sahar Mobin, Hirdesh Kumar and Mohd. Kamil Usmani 5. Effect of Banana Pseudostem Scutching Waste, FYM and Biocompost on Nutrient Content and 8913 Uptake by Cabbage Lokesh Kumar Saini, J. M. Patel and M. M. Patel 6. Geographical Locations, Morphological Characterization and Growth Performance of Wild Edible 8919 Oyster Mushrooms Collected from Forest Regions of Maharashtra S. A. Patil, D.B. Shinde and A. C. Jadhav 7. Characterization of Chromium Degrading Fungal Isolates Using Its Gene Sequencing 8925 Majid Iqbal Butt, Deepak Chauhan, Mohd. Shahnawaz, Fakhar Shehzad, Touseef Hussain Trak and Sanjay Sahay 8. Performance of Irrigated Wheat FLD’s in Mula Command Area of Ahmednagar 8929 S.S. Tuwar and B.D. Bhakare 9. Investigation on the Effect of Vertical Axis Rotary Tiller (Rotavator) for Tillage System 8931 D. Ganapathi and V.M. Duraisamy 10. Combining Ability Analysis for Yield and Its Component Traits in Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). 8937 S.G. Deshmukh, N.R. Potdukhe, H.S. Deshmukh and R.S. Nandanwar 11. Genetic Variability, Heritability and Genetic Advance for Yield and its Related Traits in Rice 8944 Genotypes Under Rainfed Shallow Lowland Area B. Manjunatha and B Niranjana Kumara 12. Effect of Exogenous Fibrolytic Enzymes on Milk and Components Yield as Well as on Feed Efficiency 8947 and Body Weight in Holstein Friesian x Kankrej Crossbred Cows After Peak Lactation P. M. Lunagariya, S. V. Shah, A. C. Patel, M. A. Shekh and P. R. Pandya 13. Growth Performance of Different Wild Edible Oyster Isolates on Wheat Straw 8952 S. A. Patil, D.B. Shinde and A. C. Jadhav 14. Experiment on Effect of Interactions Between Soil Mycoflora and Fungivorous Microarthropods on 8962 Leaf Litter Decomposition and Fungal Reproductive Potential Pradip Kumar Bandyopadhyay, Sudipta Sinha, Buddhadev Mondal and Niranjan Gupta 15. Harvest Time Residues of Thiamethoxam 25% WG in Mango 8967 T. Thiruveni and P. Karthik 16. The Relative Diversities and Abundance of Different Pollinators on Sunflower 8971 Vikas Singh and V.K. Dubey 17. Engineering Properties of Palmyrah Palm Jaggery (Borassus flabellifer L.) 8974 M.T. Nighitha and I.P. Sudagar 18. Effect of Blending on Colour and Sensory Qualities of Blended Jamun: Aonla Nectar During Storage 8977 A. A. Vaidya, P.P. Relekar and K.H. Pujari 19. Comparative Analysis of Pigeon Pea Genotypes for Physiological Traits Under Water Logging 8982 Conditions Using Hydroponics and Pot Culture Anshika Tyagi, R.S. Raje and Suresh Chand 20. Economic Viability of Layer Poultry Farms in Navsari District of Gujarat 8991 J.J. Makadia, R.T. Khatri and H.H. Mistry 21. Varietal Screening of Bottle Guard Against Gummy Stem Blight Disease 8997 Mukesh J. Patel, V. A. Solanki, K. B. Rakholiya and M. D. Khunt 22. Study on the Constraints Faced and Suggestions Given by the Farmers who Borrowed Croploan 9001 Gottemukkula Bhavani, D.M. Mankar and P.P. Bhople 23. Economic Analysis of Chickpea Production in Ahmednagar District of Maharashtra 9004 A. Wable, V. P. Wavdhane and S. C. Gawande 24. Effect of Different Levels Saline Irrigation Water on Growth and Yield of Gladiolus cv American Beauty 9011 M. P. Ahir and Alka Singh 25. Problem Faced by Waste Handling Workers During Handling of Biomedical Waste 9014 Swati Srivastava and Ritu Singhvi 26. Screening of Chickpea Genotypes Against Collar Rot of Chickpea Caused by Sclerotium rolfsii 9018 Sacc. Under Field Conditions S. S. Shirsole, N. Khare, N. Lakpale and A.S. Kotasthane 27. Performance Evaluation of Irrigation Canals in the Middle Gujarat Region 9021 J.B. Bhimani, S.K. Raul, S.V. Baria, A.J. Patoliya and M.M. Damor 28. Growth Potentiality of Grass Carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) Seeds in Non Conventional Rearing 9029 Approach at Hill Zone of Karnataka A.V. Swamy, C.Rajanna, Srinivas H Hulkoti and T H Ranjith 29. Structure and Performance of Marine Fish Marketing in Cuddalore District of Tamil Nadu – 9031 An Economic Analysis R. Thulasiram, A. Daniel Viswasam Samuel, M.S. Raman and G. Parthasarathi 30. Utilization of Essential Oil as a Bio-Chemotherapeutant Against Tinea capitis 9035 Piyush Mishra 31. Impact of KVK Training on Development of the Vegetable Growers 9039 B. Mallick, A.K. Parida, D.K. Swain, and S.Pattanayak 32. The Genus Swertia L. (Gentianaceae): An important Ethnomedicinal Plant of Darjeeling Himalaya 9045 of West Bengal, India Rajendra Yonzone

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REVIEW PAPER Plant Proteins and their Health Effects: A Review PARAS PORWAL1, DILIP KUMAR*2 AND SUDHIR KUMAR3 1Amity Institute of Biotechnology, Amity University Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow Campus 2Department of Husbandry and Dairying, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh 3Centre of Food Science and Technology, Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi, Uttar Pradesh *email : [email protected]

ABSTRACT because of their concentrated source of isoflavones. It has Plant proteins are good substitutes for meats or animal been hypothesized that isoflavones reduce the risk of cancer, heart disease, and osteoporosis, and also help relieve proteins. Plant proteins have a less content of essential amino acids in comparison to animal proteins. Legumes menopausal symptoms (Mark, 1999). include peas, beans, lentils, peanuts, and others that can Soybeans hold 35-40% protein on a dry-weight basis, be used as food. Vegetable protein is also used in the of which 90% is comprise of two storage globulins, 11S preparation of infant food. Soybeans are the best among glycinin and 7S b-conglycinin. Glycinin have A (acidic) & legumes because of their concentrated source of isoflavones B (basic) subunits, whereas b-conglycinin has , ' &  and gives hypolipidemic effects and lowering cholesterol subunits (Torres et al., 2006). These proteins are full of all from the human body. The clinical studies have shown that amino acids essential to human nutrition which makes soy soy isoflavones may uses against breast cancer in women products almost equivalent to animal sources in protein and prostate cancer in men. The milk can be replaced with quality with less saturated fat and no cholesterol (Young, Soy-based and meat-based formulas to infants who are 1991) Isoflavones are biologically active in soybeans. Soy allergic to milk. The anti-thyroid actions of soy appear to isoflavone supplements contain up to 500 mg ISF/g be consistent in both and humans. (Anthony et al., 1996). Genistin, daidzin and glycitein are the main soy isoflavones. Key words proteins, isoflavones, soybeans, health. Animal proteins The major source of animal protein is meat, poultry Proteins are an essential component of the diet needed and seafood that almost contains equal amount of proteins. for the survival of animals and humans. They provide For example beef, lamb, pork, fish and poultry almost adequate amounts of required amino acids. Nutritional contains equal proteins. Other sources include organs and quality of a food depends on protein content, digestion, glands such as liver, kidney, brain, heart and sweetbreads, absorption, and utilization of proteins. Amino acids which are also rich in vitamins and minerals. Milk is an availability varies with protein sources, processing important source of protein but also with a rich source of treatments, and interaction with other components of the calcium and vitamins. Egg is a complete protein with diet. Proteins which lacks in one or more amino acids are excellent quality; one egg is equivalent to 6 g of protein. considered to be of poor quality. For e.g. tryptophan and The egg yolk contains protein, fat and cholesterol and egg lysine are nutritionally limiting in corn, lysine in wheat and white contains mostly protein with no fat or cholesterol other cereals, and methionine in soybeans and other (Young, 2001). legumes (Young, 2001). Plant proteins Source of proteins in human diet are mainly animal proteins (e.g. egg, milk, meat and fish) and plant proteins The proteins from plant sources are mostly incomplete (e.g. pulses, cereals, nuts, beans and soy products). Animal proteins and have smaller amounts of proteins than animal proteins have high Biological value than vegetable proteins sources. Legumes are an exception of this: peas, lentils, with regards to their amino acid composition and are more beans, chickpeas, lima beans, soybeans and peanuts biologically complete. The “complete proteins” refers to contain large amounts of proteins in their seeds. In some foods that contain all the essential amino acids needed by legumes the protein contents in their dried form are higher the body and “incomplete proteins” refers to foods that than in fresh. Plant proteins are good substitutes for meats are lacking in one or more essential amino acids. There are or animal proteins. Proteins from legumes are not equal in more complete proteins from animal sources as compared quality with animal proteins but even than can be an to vegetable proteins, which are “biologically incomplete”. alternate substitute when consumed in combination with An incomplete protein can be transformed into a complete other foods (Young, 2001). protein by combination of two or more proteins together The anti-nutritional factors such as inhibitors of that is called “complementarity of proteins”. Two plant digestive enzymes and lectins in soybeans and other proteins such as legumes and grains or legumes and nuts/ legumes have been reported to lower nutritional value seeds can be combined to formulate a complete protein (Mendel and David, 2001). Inhibitors are generally from two incomplete proteins (Young, 2001). Legumes inactivated by heat treatment during food processing or include peas, beans, lentils, peanuts, and others that can can partially remove by fractionation to improve nutritional be used as food. Soybeans are the best among legumes quality. The commercially heated flours mostly retain 5- 8890 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

20% of the original trypsin and chymotrypsin inhibitor cholesterol levels, compared with animal protein. activity. The prolonged heating is required to destroy all The USFDA approved a food-labeling health claim inhibitor activity can damage the nutritive value of soy for soy protein in the prevention of coronary heart disease proteins. So, soy proteins can be changed into dough like in 1999 but clearly indicated that ‘‘the evidence did not materials under certain circumstances, but they lack the support a signiûcant role for soy isoflavones in cholesterol- dough-forming properties inimitable to wheat proteins. The lowering effects of soy protein’’ (USFDA, 1999). Since then, addition of soy proteins to bread dilutes the wheat gluten retail of soy consumption has significantly increased. and starch, depresses loaf volume, and affects crumb texture. Thus, soy proteins cannot be used simply to replace Improves bone health wheat flour (Mendel and David, 2001). Meta-analyses of randomized controlled trials Use of vegetable protein in infant formula suggested that soy isoflavones intervention significantly reduced bone loss of the spine (Ma et al., 2007) and markedly The milk can be replaced with Soy-based and meat- decreased urinary deoxypyridinoline, a bone resorption based formulas to infants who are allergic to milk. Soy marker, and increased serum bone speciûc alkaline proteins are deficient in methionine. The infant formulas phosphatase, a bone formation marker, in menopausal are mostly made by first preparing the aqueous portion women (Ma et al., 2008).Studies in postmenopausal women containing protein source, carbohydrate and minerals and have shown similar results (Morabito et al., 2002; Lydeking- a separate fat portion generally containing an emulsifier. Olsen et al., 2004). However, no signiûcant effects of These two portions are then mixed, homogenized, analyzed isoflavones on bone mass density or biomarkers of bone and formulation adjustments are made if required. The heat metabolism have been reported in other studies in which and oxygen sensitive ingredients (e.g., vitamin C and the B soy protein was supplemented and isoflavones poor soy vitamins) are then added collectively with the required protein was used as control (Gallagher et al., 2004; Cheong amount of water to standardize the formula. The product is et al., 2007). These data indicate that soy protein may then either spray dried to yield a powder or heat treated. interfere with the effects of isoflavones either by masking The source of carbohydrate is usually sucrose, corn syrup or antagonizing its effect. A non-soy control group could (hydrolyzed corn starch) or a mixture of sucrose and corn be addressed this issue for future studies. Although syrup in a soy protein infant formula. Soy protein formulas increasing data, especially those from more recent studies, are suitable for feeding infants who exhibit lactose tend to support a positive role of soy intake in the prevention intolerance or have lactase deficiency (Thomson, 1979). of bone loss, especially on the biomarkers of bone metabolism, in postmenopausal women, more human trials Table 1. Undesirable potential contaminants to be are needed to verify this action. considered in infant formulas Improves menopausal symptoms Protein source Potential contaminant A meta-analysis of 25 trials published between 1966 Cottonseed Gossypol and 2004indicates that soy phytoestrogens does not Cereal grains Gluten improve hot flashes or other menopausal symptoms. Intake Peanut Aflatoxin of soy supplements for treatment of menopausal symptoms in patients with early breast cancer did not show any Rapeseed Erucic acid significant effect on menopausal symptom scores or quality of life after 12 week compared with placebo (Mac Gregor et Beneficial effects of soy protein rich diet al., 2005).  Prevention of coronary heart disease. Prevents breast and prostate cancers  Hypolipidemic effects and rich source of isoflavones. Many animal and human studies have been  Improves bone health. conducted to determine the association between soy intake  Improves menopausal symptoms. and breast and prostate cancers. A variety of human cancer cell lines have also been used in vitro studies to understand  Prevents breast and prostate cancers. the cellular and molecular events involved in the regulation Hypolipidemic effects and rich source of isoflavones of cell proliferation and apoptosis by soy components. The first human study on the cholesterol-lowering Case-control studies have shown that high soy intakes in effect of soy protein was reported by Hodges et al.(1967) adolescence are associated with low risk for breast cancer and demonstrated that replacement of mixed proteins by in adulthood (Shu et al., 2001).But a recently published mainly isolated soy protein products at an intake of 100 g/ Japanese collaborative cohort study suggested that day reduced mean cholesterol levels by >2.59 mmol/L in consumption of soy foods such as tofu, boiled beans and hypercholesterolemicmen. Anderson et al. (1995) analyzed miso soup has no protective effects against breast cancer 38 controlled clinical studies published between 1977 and (Nishio et al., 2007). Soy isoflavones may stimulate 1994. Among them, 30 studies were conducted with epithelial cell proliferation in the breasts of premenopausal hypercholesterolemic subjects. The results suggested that women in clinical studies (McMichael-Phillips et al.,1998). mean intakes of 47 g/day, ranging from 17 to 124 g, of isolated Dietary isoflavones significantly decreased the risk of or textured soy protein resulted insignificant reduction in prostate cancer in Japanese men (Nagata et al., 2007). total cholesterol by 9.3%, LDL-cholesterol by 12.9% and Supplementation with soy protein or soy isoflavones triglycerides by 10.5%, with an insignificant change in HDL decreased the markers of cancer development and PORWAL et al., Plant Proteins and their Health Effects: A Review 8891

Table 2. Health claims for soy protein in different countries

Country Description Reference (s)

Malaysia Soy protein helps reduce cholesterol levels. The Solae Company, 2006 Japan Helps improve diet for those with high cholesterol level. Paul G, 2007

Korea Soy protein helps improve elevated levels of blood cholesterol. Paul G, 2007 France Soya protein, as part of a diet low in fat and saturated fat, may reduce Paul G, 2007 blood cholesterol. United Kingdom The inclusion of at least 25 g of soy protein per day, as part of a diet Joint Health Claims low in saturated fat, can help reduce blood cholesterol levels Initiative, 2002

Brazil Daily consumption of at least 25 g of soy protein could help the Paul G, 2007 cholesterol reduction. Its consumption should be associated with a balanced diet and a healthy lifestyle. Canada The consumption of 25 g of soy protein per day reduces the risk of Paul G, 2007 heart disease.

South Africa Diets which contain at least 25 g soy protein (4 servings) daily and Paul G, 2007 which are low in saturated fat and cholesterol may reduce the risk of heart disease by lowering cholesterol levels.

United States, Philippines, 25 g of soy protein a day, as part of a diet low in saturated fat and Paul G, 2007; U.S Indonesia cholesterol, may reduce the risk of heart disease. FDA, 1999 progression in prostate cells including prostate-specific women: a dose-response study using a novel approach with 41 antigen (PSA), testosterone, and androgen receptor in Ca. J. Clin. Endocrinol.Metab., 92:577-582. patients with prostate cancer or in men at high risk for Dalais F.S., Meliala A., Wattanapenpaiboon N., Frydenberg M., Suter developing advanced prostate cancer(Kumar et al.,2004; D.A., Thomson W.K. and Wahlqvist M.L. 2004. Effects of a Dalais et al.,2004) diet rich in phytoestrogens on prostate-speciûc antigen and sex hormones in men diagnosed with prostate cancer. Urology, CONCLUSION 64:510–515. Consumption of soy protein appears to consistently Gallagher J.C., Satpathy R., Rafferty K. and Haynatzka V. 2004. lower blood LDL cholesterol in hyperlipidemic subjects. The effect of soy protein isolate on bone metabolism. However, the magnitude of the effect and the required intake Menopause, 11:290-298. to achieve the effect are variable in different studies. Hodges R.E., Krehl W.A., Stone D.B. and Lopez A. 1967. Dietary Increasing evidence, especially in light of results from recent carbohydrates and low cholesterol diets effects on serum lipids on man. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 20:198-208. human studies, tends to support the beneûcial effects of soy isoflavones in the prevention of bone loss in Joint Health Claims Initiative, 2002. Generic health claim for soya postmenopausal women. Although soy protein or protein and blood cholesterol. http://www.jhci.org.uk/approv/ schol2.html. isoflavones positively impact biomarkers of prostate cancer, their potential benefits have not been substantiated in Kumar N.B., Cantor A., Allen K., Riccardi D., Besterman-Dahan K., Seigne J., Helal M., Salup R. and Pow-Sang J. 2004. The speciûc clinical trials. The effects of soy protein and isoflavones in role of isoûavones in reducing prostate cancer risk. Prostate, relieving menopause symptoms and prevention of breast 59:141-147. cancer have been proved. The antithyroid actions of soy Lydeking-Olsen E., Beck-Jensen J.E., Setchell K.D. and Holm-Jensen appear to be consistent in both animals and humans. T. 2004. Soymilk or progesterone for prevention of bone loss- Present evidence indicates that soy protein may be a 2 year randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Eur. J. Nutr., responsible for at least the hypolipidemic effects. 43:246-257. LITERATURE CITED Ma D.F., Qin L.Q., Wang P.Y. and Katoh R. 2007. Soy isoûavone intake increases bone mineral density in the spine of menopausal Anderson J.W., Johnstone B.M. and Cook N. 1995. Meta-analysis women: Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Clin. of the effects of soy protein intake on serum lipids. N. Engl. J. Nutr., 27:57-64. Med., 333:276-82. Ma D.F., Qin L.Q., Wang P.Y. and Katoh R. 2008. Soy isoûavone Anthony M.S., Clarkson T.B., Hughes C.L., Morgan T.M. and Burke intake inhibits bone resorption and stimulates bone formation G.L. 1996. Soybean isoûavones improve cardiovascular risk in menopausal women metaanalysis of randomized controlled factors without affecting the reproductive system of peripubertal trials.Eur J. Clin. Nutr., 62: 155-161. rhesus monkeys. J. Nutr., 126:43-50. MacGregor C.A., Canney P.A., Patterson G., McDonald R. and Paul Cheong J.M., Martin B.R., Jackson G.S., Elmore D., McCabe G.P., J. 2005. A randomised double-blind controlled trial of oral soy Nolan J.R., Barnes S., Peacock M. and Weaver C.M. 2007. Soy supplements versus placebo for treatment of menopausal isoûavones do not affect bone resorption in postmenopausal 8892 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

symptoms in patients with early breast cancer. Eur. J. Cancer, Paul G. 2007. Soy protein label claims: where regulatory and marketing 41:708-714. meet. 5th Southeast Asia Soy food Seminar & Trade Show: Mark J.M., 1999. Legumes and soybeans: overview of their nutritional Science to Market-Opportunities in Asia, Bangkok, Thailand. profiles and health effects. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 70:439S-450S. March 6-8. McMichael-Phillips D.F., Harding C., Morton M., Roberts S.A., Shu X.O., Jin F., Dai Q., Wen W., Potter J.D., Kushi L.H., Ruan Z., Howell A., Potten C.S. and Bundred N.J. 1998. Effects of soy Gao Y.T. and Zheng W. 2001. Soy food intake during adolescence protein supplementation on epithelial proliferation in the and subsequent risk of breast cancer among Chinese women. histologically normal human breast. Am. J. Clin. Nutr., 68:1431S- Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev., 10:483-488. 1435S. The Solae Company. 2006. Foreign health authorities grant soy Mendel F. and David L. 2001. Brandon Nutritional and Health protein heartclaim: Malaysia becomes 8th nation to link soy Benefits of Soy Proteins. J. Agric. Food Chem., 49:1069-1086. with lower cholesterol. http://www.solae.com/company. Morabito N., Crisafulli A., Vergara C., Gaudio A., Lasco A., Frisina Thomson W.A.B. 1979. Infant Formulas and the Use of Vegetable N., Danna R., Corrado F. and Pizzoleo M.A. 2002. Effects of Protein. J. Am. Oil Chemists’ SOC., 56:386-388. genisteinand hormone-replacement therapy on bone loss in early Torres N., Torre-Villalvazo I. and Tovar A.R. 2006. Regulation of postmenopausal women: a randomized double-blind placebo- lipid metabolism by soy protein and its implication in diseases controlled study. J. Bone Miner. Res., 17:1904-1912. mediated by lipid disorders. J. Nutr. Biochem., 17:365-73. Nagata Y., Sonoda T., Mori M., Miyanaga N., Okumura K., Goto K., U.S. Food and Drug Administration. 1999. Food labeling health claims: Naito S., Fujimoto K. and Hirao Y. 2007. Dietary isoûavones soy protein and coronary heart disease. Food and Drug may protect against prostate cancer in Japanese men. J. Nutr., Administration, HHS Final rule. Fed Regist., 64:57700-57733. 137:1974-1979. Young V.R. 2001. Protein and amino acids, In: Present Knowledge Nishio K., Niwa Y., Toyoshima H., Tamakoshi K., Kondo T., Yatsuya in Nutrition. 8thEdition. Bowman BA and Russel RM (eds). H., Yamamoto A., Suzuki S. and Tokudome S. 2007. International Life Sciences Institute, Washington DC. 5: 43-58. Consumption of soy foods and the risk of breast cancer: ûndings Young VR(1991). Soy protein in relation to human protein and from the Japan Collaborative Cohort (JACC) Study. Cancer amino acid nutrition. J. Am. Diet. Assoc., 91:828-35. Causes Control, 18: 801-808.

Received on 30-10-2017 Accepted on 10-11-2017 Trends in Biosciences 10(43), Print : ISSN 0974-8431, 8893-8900, 2017

Evaluation of Honey Bee as Entomovector of HaNPV M.A. VAKALIYA* AND C. K. BORAD Ainpvpm: Agrilcultural Ornithology, Anand Agricultural University Anand Gujarat *email : [email protected]

ABSTRACT easy access to managed population of honey bees whose Investigations were carried out to evaluate the efficiency habitation can be adapted and transported as needed, there is an opportunity to use honey bee as disseminators of of honey bee as entomovector of HaNPV at Anand Agricultural University, Anand, Gujarat during 2016-17. insect pathogens against an array of pests affecting agricultural crops. In this study, we intend to examine the The entomovector bee activity (as reflected by their honey bee to serve as disseminators of Helicoverpa nuclear number) in pigeonpea ranged from 1.19 bee/5 min/m2 to polyhedrosis virus (HaNPV). 2.78 bee/5 min/ m2. The entomovector bee activity was significantly different among the treatments. The In the crop fields, NPV is usually disseminated maximum activity was recorded at 10 m distance; it was mechanically using convectional insecticide spraying lower at 50 m distance and lowest at 100 m distance from pumps. Use of entomovector to disseminate NPV came in the dispenser. Similar trend was observed in individual light only after 1990s (Smagghe et al, 2012). Some applications too. The overall mean HaNPV load carried by experimental studies have been done in USA, Australia bees was records as 4.00×105 POB. The mean HaNPV and European countries, however no such studies are done load carried by bees in different applications ranged from in Indian conditions to disseminate NPV or other pathogens 1.70×105 to 5.95 × 105 POB. The overall mean HaNPV using “entomovector technology”. The entomovector load on flower was 13.9×103 ± 53.2×103 POB. The overall technology was demonstrated for dissemination of HaNPV mean HaNPV load on flower at 10m from dispenser was on crimson clover flower (Gross et al, 1994). This technology significantly higher than it recorded at 50 m and 100 m has enabled us to disseminate the rightly amount of bio distance from dispenser. The H. armigera mortality agent at right place, at right time, and minimize the barriers differed among the treatments. The overall mortality of H. of NPV treatment limitations (Mommaerts and Smagghe, armigera was similar in both bioassays (laboratory and 2011). field). In both bioassays, the H. armigera larval mortality Pigeonpea, Cajanus cajan (L.) is one of the major decreased with increasing distance from the dispenser. pulse crop of the tropics and subtropics. It is the second The lowest population of H. armigera larvae (2.22 larvae/ most important pulse crop of India, after chickpea (Anon., 10 twigs) was found at 10 m from dispenser than it was 2015). Among the pigeonpea crop pod borer Helicoverpa recorded at 2.42 larvae/10 twig at 50 m, 2.63 larvae/10 armigera (Hubner) is one of the most important pests twig at 100 m distance from dispenser. The H. armigera infesting from the bud formation to the maturity of the crop population was not significantly differed among the (Patil et al., 1990). It is a polyphagous pest occurring on a treatments during pre-application period. During variety of crops (Chari et al., 1990 & Mehrvar et al., 2009). application and post-application period, the H. armigera All over the world an estimated loss due to this pest is population was significantly differed among the treatments. found to be exceeding US $ 300.00 million, forcing several research groups to investigate various strategies to control Key words Dispenser, HaNPV, Helicoverpa armigera, this pest. It is a matter of concern as it is inflicting 56.22 per Honey bee, Apis mellifera, Pigeonpea, cent damage in India alone (Sharma et al., 1991). Damage to Cajanas cajan L., Entomovector technology pods due to the borer complex was reported to be 20 to 72 percent (Lateef and Reed, 1983). In middle Gujarat, pod An entomovector is a pollinating insect used as a damage due to the H. armigera was 39.20 percent in BDN- vector to spread pathogen used in the bio-control of plant 2 variety of pigeonpea (Patel and Patel, 2010). pests and diseases. The primary reasons for introducing MATERIALS AND METHODS entomovector technology as a bio-control strategy were to reduce the application of synthetic pesticides because Field Experiment of concerns of their impacts on human life and the The experiments was conducted at Agronomy farm, environment and development of resistance against pests. B. A. College of Agriculture, Anand Agricultural University, The main assumption was that the entomovector Anand (Gujarat) during Kharif 2016-17. BDN-2 variety of technology perform better than spraying of bio-control pigeonpea sown with plant spacing 90 × 45 cm. The agents because of the ability to deliver the bio agents dissemination of HaNPV mainly depends on activity pattern directly on to the target locations i.e. the flower (Ngugi and of honey bee. Hence, the measure the effect of disseminated Scherm, 2006). European honeybee, Apis mellifera L., in HaNPV on H. armigera population. The treatments plots search of nectar and pollen, has established innumerable at 10 m, 50 m and 100 m from dispenser and one netted primary and secondary associations with available flora control was created. (McGregor, 1976; Behera et al., 2014; Pushpalatha and The first application was applied at the time of full Hariparasad, 2015). Because of these associations and our bloom stage (January 2017). 10g of HaNPV 8.0% dust 8894 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Table 1. Entomovector bee (marked) activity in the pigeonpea crop

No. of marked bee/5 minutes/m2 during each application Treatment Pooled I II III IV 1.64 1.76 1.76 1.81 1.74 T1- 10 m from dispenser (2.20) (2.60) (2.60) (2.80) (2.54) 1.51 1.64 1.64 1.37 1.54 T2- 50 m from dispenser (1.80) (2.20) (2.20) (1.40) (1.88) 1.30 1.37 1.44 1.23 1.33 T3- 100 m from dispenser (1.20) (1.40) (1.60) (1.00) (1.27) S.Em. ± T 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.06 0.04 P - - - - 0.04 T × P - - - - 0.04 C.D. at 5% T 0.21 0.23 0.23 0.19 0.12 P - - - - NS T × P - - - - NS C. V. % 10.13 10.29 10.14 9.21 9.99

Note: Figures in parenthesis () are retransformed value; those outside are square root transformed values. formulation was disseminated through pathogen applicator Pathogen Applicator Device (PAD) devices (PAD) attached with honey bee hives. This practices A pathogen applicator device to disseminate HaNPV was carried out during 10:00 to 13:00 hours. The subsequent using A. mellifera was used as designed and developed by repetition was performed on 5th, 9th and 15th day from 1st Gross et al. (1994). application. Insect rearing/culture MATERIALS In order to obtain pure culture of H. armigera larvae Honey bee were collected from pigeonpea and reared in individual Honey bee hive (40 × 55 × 30 cm) containing Apis plastic vials containing artificial diet, till pupation. After a mellifera L. was utilized for dissemination of HaNPV. Hive week, healthy pupae were take outside and transferred was purchased from market and maintained using standard separately to the moth emergence cage (33×33×33 cm) for procedures (Mishra, 1995). eclosion. The pupae were observed at 12 hours intervals for adult emergence. The freshly emerged male and female HaNPV Formulation moths in 1:1 ratio were released inside empty earthen pots Liquid formulation of HaNPV 2.0 % AS was (45×30 cm). The earthen pots were placed in plastic basins purchased from the Bio-control unit, Dept. of Agricultural surrounded by moist sand to half the height of basin. The Entomology, Junagadh Agricultural University, Junagadh. sand bed was moistened with sodium hypochlorite (1%) A powder formulation of NPV was made by centrifuging 1 solution to avoid fungal growth. The top portion of pot liter aliquot of liquid HaNPV. Centrifuge was done in two was covered with black muslin cloth fastened by rubber phases: 1000 rpm for 1 minute and 5000 rpm for 10 minutes band for oviposition. Fresh honey solution (10%) with help of centrifuge machine to produce approximately 2 enriched with vitamins in cotton wool was provided daily g of dry material. The dry material was manually crushed as adult food till death of the moths. Eggs were collected and ground using a mortar and pestle. The resulting powder by changing the black cloth daily in morning. The 24 hours was then mixed with 9 parts industrial talc (200µ particle old eggs were surface sterilized with sodium hypochlorite size) and a trace of pink fluorescent powder as marker to (1%) solution. Immediately after hatching of eggs, the track honey bee in field observation. neonate larvae were reared in plastic container on artificial

Table 2. HaNPV load carried by honey bee per visit

Repetition Application-1 Application-2 Application-3 Application-4 Overall HaNPV (POB) 1.70 × 105 ± 1.66 5.95 × 105 ± 4.52 4.55 × 105 ± 2.63 × 3.80 × 105 ± 2.82 × 4.00 × 105 ± 3.88 carried/visit × 105 × 105 105 105 × 105

Note: All the data are represented in Mean±S.D. VAKALIYA and BORAD, Evaluation of Honey Bee as Entomovector of HaNPV 8895

Table 3. HaNPV load deposited on the pigeonpea flower by honey bees

Amount of HaNPV load on flower (POB) Treatment Application-1 Application-2 Application-3 Application-4 Overall T1- 10m from 10.0 × 103 ± 32.5 × 103 ± 55.0 × 103 ± 25.0 × 103 ± 30.6 × 103 ± dispenser 7.4×103 8.2 × 103 15.6 × 103 4.0 × 103 8.7 × 103 T2- 50m from 5.00 × 103 ± 5.00 × 103± 12.5 × 103 ± 7.50 × 103 ± 7.50 × 103 ± dispenser 1.5× 103 1.5 × 103 2.2 × 103 6.8 × 103 1.51 × 103 T3- 100m from 2.50 × 103 ± 2.50 × 103 ± 2.50 × 103 ± 7.50 × 103 ± 3.75 × 103 ± dispenser 1.25 × 103 1.25 × 103 1.90 × 103 6.8 × 103 1.06 × 103 5.83 × 103 ± 13.3 × 103 ± 23.3 × 103 ± 13.3 × 103 ± 13.9 × 103 ± Overall 2.6 × 103 6.2 × 103 11.0 × 103 9.1 × 103 3.2 × 103

Note: All the data are represented in Mean±S.D. diet and utilizes for bioassay according to its need (Gopali, polyhedral, one millilitre diluted virus suspension (1/1000th 1998). serial dilution) was drawn into pipette and put in the groove METHODS of the haemocytometer and then standard cover slip was placed over the slides. After allowing polyhedral to settle Flower visitation down for two minutes, the polyhedral count was taken in The entomovector bees visiting pigeonpea flowers 80 squares of the 1/400 square millimetre area at random were recorded between 10:00 to 13:00 hours. The using stereomicroscope. Concentration of stock solution observations were recorded in randomly five spots of one was expressed as POBs/ml which was calculated by using meter section area from each treatment for five minutes. the following formula. Number of POBs/ml = (D × N)/(X × The count of bee was made simultaneously in three K), Where, D = Dilution factor, N = No. of square counted X -7 treatments using three independent observers. Presence = total no. of POBs counted, K = Constant (2.5 × 10 ). of fluorescent material on appendages of the bees was HaNPV load on flower confirmed and proportion of bees with and without After releasing of HaNPV, on following days, 10 fluorescent material was worked out. samples of pigeonpea flowers were collect randomly from HaNPV load on honey bee each treatment plots and kept in individual 50-ml glass tubes To estimate the amount of HaNPV carried out by bees, for analysis of amount of HaNPV loaded onto the flowers. five bees exiting from the PAD, were collected in separate The next procedures was follow as given above for counting sampling tubes (50 ml). 25 ml sterilized distilled water was HaNPV load on bees. added into the glass tubes and transported to the laboratory. Effect of HaNPV on H. armigera The bees were removed after through washing. The polyhedral from the virus suspension (25 ml) was counted Bioassy with the help of haemocytometer. For counting of Bioassay was carried out in two ways; Laboratory bioassay and filed bioassay. Laboratory bioassay was carried out by rearing of H. armigera in laboratory at ambient Tab1e 4a. Laboratory bioassay of HaNPV disseminated temperature. Twenty larvae of 2nd instar were used for by honey bee on pigeonpea flower bioassay in each treatment. For first three days (72 hours) Mortality (%) of H. Treatment larvae were fed with the flowers brought from respective armigera treatment. On 4th day, the larvae were switch over to artificial 29.89 diet. Every day, the larvae were closely examined for any T1- 10m from dispenser (24.83) disease symptoms. Dead larvae were subjected to 26.56 microscopic examination for presence of NPV polyhedra. T2- 50m from dispenser (20.00) Whereas filed bioassay was carried out by collecting ten 18.43 larvae from each of treatment after 3 days (72 hrs.) of T3- 100m from dispenser (10.00) application and were placed on artificial diet at normal environmental conditions. Larvae were observed daily and 0.90 T4- Control mortality due to HaNPV and the other causes were recorded. (0.00) S.Em. ± 0.96 Population index C.D. at 5% 2.96 The observations on population of H. armigera larvae C.V. % 10.13 were recorded by counting the number of larvae per 10 cm twigs of pigeonpea crop. Fifty twigs from each treatment Note: Figures in parenthesis () are retransformed value; those were observed at weekly interval, starting from flowering outside are arc sin transformed values 8896 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Tab1e 4b. Field bioassay of HaNPV disseminated by lower in comparison to it was observed by Dillon (2002). It honey bee on pigeonpea flower is mainly due to colony strength, it was 5000 bees in present study whereas Dillon (2002) used 50,000 bees per ten hives. Mortality (%) of H. Treatment armigera HaNPV load on bees and flower 26.56 The overall mean HaNPV load carried by bees was T1- 10m from dispenser (20.00) recorded as 4.00 × 105 POB. The mean HaNPV load carried 22.50 by bees in different applications ranged from 1.70 × 105 to T2- 50m from dispenser (14.64) 5.95 × 105 POB (Table 2). There was no significant fluctuation T3- 100m from 18.44 in HaNPV load carried by bees during different application dispenser (10.01) (Fig 2a). The overall mean HaNPV load on flower at 10m 0.90 T4- Control from dispenser was found significantly higher than it (0.00) recorded at 50 m and 100 m from dispenser. HaNPV load on S.Em. ± 1.17 flower was significantly reduced with increasing distance C.D. at 5% 3.62 from dispenser. The similar trend of HaNPV load on flower C.V. % 13.72 was observed during all application (Fig 2b). The HaNPV load on flower in all the applications decreased with Note: Figures in parenthesis () are retransformed value; those increasing distance from dispenser. The HaNPV load in outside are arc sin transformed values various applications on flower ranged from 5.83 × 103 ± 12.6 × 103 to 23.3 × 103 ± 91.1 × 103 POB/flower (Table 3). The initiation period (December 2016) till completion of the HaNPV load on flower was recorded lowest during 1st experiment (February 2017). application. The almost similar HaNPV load was observed Statistical Analysis over remaining 2nd, 3rd, and 4th applications. Statistical analysis was carried out by following In present study, overall mean HaNPV load carried 5 standard procedures (Steel and Torrie, 1980). by bees was 4.00×10 POB per flight. According to Shipp et al. (2012) the bee transmitted B. bassiana in the tomato and RESULTS AND DISCUSSION pepper and mean CFU load on bees ranged from 9.7×105 to Entomovector bee activity 1.8×106 in tomato and 1.3×106 to 3.4×106 CFU/bees in pepper. Smagghe et al. (2013) studied on entomovectoring with The entomovector bee activity in pigeonpea ranged bumble bees using Metarhizium anisopliae. The bumble from 1.19 bee/5 min/m2 to 2.78 bee/5 min/ m2 (Table 1). The bee carried 9.3±1×106 spores per bees. The overall HaNPV entomovector bee activity significantly differed among the load on flower was 13.9×103 ± 53.2×103 POB. According to treatments (F=23.48, P < 0.05, df=11). The mean number of Saffir et al. (2006), average bee disseminated T. harzianum entomovector bee was significantly higher at 10 m from load on flower was 2.2×104 ± 4.8×103 CFU per flower. 2 dispenser (2.54 bees/m ). Subsequently, the bee count According to Shipp et al. (2012), bumble bee transmitted B. decreased with increasing distances from dispenser, (1.88 bassiana load on tomato and pepper flower ranged from bees/m2 at 50 m and 1.16 bee/ m2 at 100 m from dispenser). 7.6×103 to 1.2×104 CFU for tomato and, 5.6×103 to 1.7×104 Similar trend in bee activity was observed in each CFU per flower for pepper. repetition too. Where, the entomovector bee activity Bioassay significantly differed among the treatment (P < 0.05, df=11). The bee activity was observed significantly higher at 10 m The evaluation of effectiveness of disseminated distance from dispenser during all the applications. HaNPV under lab condition was done by bioassay of H. However, it was at par with bee activity observed at 50 m armigera larvae on pigeonpea flowers collected from from dispenser during 1st and 2nd application. The bee activity treatment plots. The H. armigera mortality differed among observed at 50 m from dispenser was at par with bee activity the treatments (F=92.65, P<0.05, df=15) (Table 4a). The observed at 100 m from dispenser in each repeatition. The maximum mortality (24.83 %) of H. armigera larvae was non-entomovector bees (77.42 %) were maximum at 100 m found at 10 m distance from dispenser followed by 20.00 % from dispenser, than it was recorded 56.00 % at 50 m and at 50 m and 10.00% at 100 m from dispenser. H. armigera 50.00 % at 10 m from the dispenser (Fig. 1). The entomovector mortality decreased with increasing distance from dispenser. bee proportion in field decreased with increasing distances The overall H. armigera larval mortality in field condition from dispenser. was significantly differed among the treatments (F=182.39, Study, the entomovector bee activity in pigeonpea P<0.05, df=15)(Table 4b). The H. armigera larval mortality ranged from 1.19 bee/5 minute/m2 to 2.78 bee/5 minute/m2 was recorded maximum at 10 m from dispenser (20.0 %) and the foraging activity decreased with increasing followed by 50 m (14.64%) and 100 m (10.01%) at distance distances from hive in present study. Dillon (2002) reported from dispenser. The overall mortality of H. armigera was that bee activity in cotton field ranged from 0.0 bees/10 similar in both bioassays. In both bioassays, the H. min/2 m2 to 24 bees/10 min/2 m2 and foraging activity armigera larval mortality decreased with increasing distance decreased with increasing distance from hives. The foraging from dispenser. distance for bee colonies varies among place to place, and Present study on effectiveness of honey bee it is affected by colony strength, food sources, month or disseminated HaNPV showed that maximum H. armigera the time of the day in same region (Abou-Shaara, 2014). In larval mortality (in laboratory) was 24.83 %. Gross et al. present study, the entomovector bee activity was observed (1993) studied honey bee disseminated HaNPV mortality VAKALIYA and BORAD, Evaluation of Honey Bee as Entomovector of HaNPV 8897

Table 5. Population of H. armigera larvae in pigeonpea field

Larvae/10 twigs Treatment Pre-application period Application period Post-application period 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 9th Overall Period Pooled Pooled Pooled SMW SMW SMW SMW SMW SMW SMW SMW SMW pooled

T1- 10m from 2.05 2.22 2.11 2.13 1.69 1.42 1.55 1.44 1.44 1.22 1.22 1.33 1.65 dispenser (3.70) (4.43) (4.21) (4.40) (2.36) (1.52) (1.90) (1.57) (1.57) (0.92) (0.99) (1.27) (2.22) 2.25 T2-50m from 2.00 2.00 2.09 1.81 1.70 1.75 1.50 1.50 1.30 1.30 1.40 1.71 (4.56) dispenser (3.50) (3.50) (3.87) (2.78) (2.39) (2.56) (1.75) (1.57) (1.09) (1.19) (1.46) (2.42)

T3-100m from 2.11 2.16 2.06 2.11 1.84 1.69 1.77 1.50 1.63 1.51 1.44 1.52 1.77 dispenser (3.95) (4.17) (3.74) (3.95) (2.89) (2.36) (2.63) (1.75) (2.16) (1.72) (1.57) (1.81) (2.63) 1.89 2.11 2.21 2.07 2.07 1.91 1.99 1.86 1.91 1.75 1.70 1.81 1.94 T4- Control (3.05) (3.95) (4.38) (3.78) (3.78) (3.15) (3.78) (2.96) (3.15) (2.56) (2.39) (2.78) (3.26) S.Em. ± T 0.15 0.17 0.11 0.09 0.09 0.11 0.08 0.11 0.11 0.30 0.07 0.05 0.02 P - - - 0.07 - - 0.04 - - - - 0.04 0.05 T × P - - - 0.15 - - 0.09 - - - - 0.09 0.11 C.D. at 5% T NS NS NS NS 0.26 0.33 0.22 0.32 0.32 0.40 0.20 0.13 0.07 P - - - NS - - 0.14 - - - - 0.12 0.16 T × P - - - NS - - NS - - - - NS NS C. V. % 16.18 17.86 11.68 15.51 10.34 14.66 12.49 15.10 14.98 9.52 10.53 13.06 14.67

Note: Figures in parenthesis () are retransformed value; those outside are square root transformed values

Fig. 1. Entomovector bee and non-entomovector bee activity in the pigeonpea field 8898 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Fig. 2. HaNPV load, a) on bee per visit, and b) Deposited on pigeonpea flower of H. armigera mortality to the tune of 87.00% (Location-1) number of H. armigera larvae before application ranged and 73.90% (Location-2) on crimson clover flowers. Dillon 3.78 to 4.40 larvae/10 twig and after application of HaNPV it (2002) studied honey bee disseminated HaNPV mortality was 1.27 to 2.78 larvae/10 twig. The lowest population of H. of H. armigera larvae in cotton crop and recorded 64.70% armigera larvae (2.22 larvae/10 twigs) was found at 10 m mortality. The H. armigera mortality in present study was from dispenser than it was recorded at 2.42 larvae/10 twig low which might be due to weaker strength of colonies of at 50 m, 2.63 larvae/10 twig at 100 m distance from dispenser entomovector bee in the hive (1 hive=5000 bees) compared and 3.26 larvae/10 twig at netted control. The population of to 50,000 bees (Dillon, M. 2002) and 25,000 bees (Gross, et H. armigera was found to be increased with increasing al. 1993) used elsewhere. distance from dispenser. But the H. armigera population was not significantly differed among the treatments during pre-application period. During application and post- Effect on H. armigera population application period, the H. armigera population was The H. armigera population was monitored to significantly differed among the treatments. determine the effect of honey bee, disseminated HaNPV in Study on population of H. armigera larvae before various treatments. The weekly data was grouped into pre- application ranged from (3.78 to 4.40 larvae/10 twig); and application, application and post-application period. The after application of HaNPV it was ranged from (1.27 to 2.78 overall difference among the treatments was found highly larvae/10 twig). Yogesh and Kumar (2014) studied bio significant (F=26.99, P<0.05, df=19)(Table 5). All the efficiency of HaNPV against H. armigera in pigeonpea and treatments were significantly differed from each other. The found that before application population of H. armigera VAKALIYA and BORAD, Evaluation of Honey Bee as Entomovector of HaNPV 8899

Pathogen Applicator Device (PAD) Bee-hive with Pathogen Applicator Device (PAD)

HaNPV load on pigeonpea flower HaNPV loan on honey bee was (2.90/5 plant) and after application it was found to be sufficient to suppress the H. armigera population. (1.20 larvae/5 plant). Byrappa et al. (2012) also studied bio Moreover, based on obtained results it can be concluded efficiency of HaNPV against H. armigera in field bean crop that vectoring of HaNPV by A. mellifera bees suppressed and found that population of H. armigera during pre- H. armigera population in pigeon pea efficiently. Further, application period was 20.26 larvae/m2 area and post suppression of H. armigera of honey can be enhanced by application period 11.69 larvae/m2. The reduction in H. employing more colonies of honey bee for entomovectoring armigera population was 27.76 % in present study, while and its management and initiating application at low pest the H. armigera population reduction was 42.30 % case the population pressure. studied made by Byrappa et al. (2012). The difference in LITERATURE CITED mortality/control of H. armigera achieved in above studies may be due to variation in application method and Abou-shaara, H. F. 2014. The foraging behavior of honey bee, Apis population of entomovector bee as well as H. armigera mellifera: a review. Veterinarni Medicina, 59(1), 1-10. during application in pigeonpea crop. Anonymous 2015. Agriculture at a Glance, Directorate of Economics & Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India. This is the first study of its kind involves honey bees Behera, L. K., Mehta, A. A., & Sinha, S. K. 2014. Suitable bee flora A. mellifera as the vector of HaNPV to control H. armigera availability for commercial apiculture during dearth period in in pigeon pea open field. The success of entomovector the heavy rainfall area of south Gujarat. Research Journal of technology in suppression of pest population depends on Chemistry & Environmental Science, 2(6), 65-68. dispenser design, selection of vector, control agent and Byrappa, A. M; Kumar, N. G., & Divya, M. 2012. Impact of environment safety. Here, care has been taken in selecting biopesticides application on pod borer complex in organically the various components for employing entomovectoring, grown field bean ecosystem. Journal of Biopesticides, 5(2), 148- right from selection of dispenser to managing the vector. 60. The mean 5.83 × 103 to 23.3 × 103 POB/flower HaNPV load Chari, M. S., Krishnananda K., & Rao, R. S. N. 1990. Helicoverpa on pigeon pea through entomovectoring reported here is armigera threat to Indian agriculture In: Heliothis management 8900 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

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Received on 23-10-2017 Accepted on 05-11-2017 Trends in Biosciences 10(43), Print : ISSN 0974-8431, 8901-8906, 2017

In vitro Synthesis of 1,4-Dihydropyridines: An Anticancer Molecule MOHD. YASEEN SIRWAL1,2*, MOHD. SHAHNAWAZ3,4 AND KAMAL K. KAPOOR1 1Department of Chemistry, University of Jammu, Jammu, India 2Department of Chemistry, Govt. Degree College Kishtwar, Kishtwar, Jammu and Kashmir 3Department of Botany, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune, Maharashtra 4Present address, Plant Biotechnology Division, CSIR-Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Canal Road Jammu, Jammu, Jammu and Kashmir * email : [email protected]

ABSTRACT system. IR spectra on KBr were recorded on Perkin-Elmer 1 13 As cancer is one of the leading causes of death across the FTIR spectrophotometer. NMR ( H and C broadband decoupled) and ESIMS spectra were recorded on Brucker globe. Various drugs are available in the market to treat such patients. Unfortunately all the drugs are very Ac-500 (500 & 125 MHz respectively) spectrometer and expensive due to their mode of synthesis. One such Micro Mass VG-7070H mass spectrometer respectively. anticancer molecule is 1,4-Dihydropyridines. In the Elemental analysis was performed on Leco CHNS 932 1 present study an attempt was made to synthesize 1,4- analyzer. H chemical shifts are reported in parts per million (ppm) from tetramethylsilane (TMS) as internal standard. Dihydropyridines at fast and more economic and efficient 1 way at in vitro level. The abbreviations s, brs, d, dd, t, q, b, m in H NMR spectra refer to singlet, broad singlet, doublet, double doublet, triplet, quartet, broad and multiplet respectively. All organic Key words 1,4-Dihydropyridines, In vitro synthesis, extracts were dried over anhydrous Na SO and solvents solvent free medium 2 4 were removed on rotary evaporator. Common abbreviations for solvents are used throughout, R.T. for room temperature, Cancer is the second most deadly disease worldwide. mix for mixture and aq. for aqueous. Commercial grade As per World Health Organization (Anonymous 2017) 8.8 solvents were dried as per established procedure before million peoples died with cancer in 2015. The number of use. new cases is expected to rise by about 70% over the next 2 decades. Since ancient times various drugs are being Preparation of catalyst (SbCl3 / Al2O3): utilized to treat this deadly disease. A number of drugs To an antimony (III) chloride (2.28gm, 10 mmol) such as vinblastine, vincristine (Mukhtar et al. 2014), solution in100 ml of distilled ethanol was added 60 gm of Podophyllotoxin (Ardalani et al. 2017), taxol (Rowinsky et neutral alumina. The mixture was stirred at room temperature al. 1992); (Malik 2017) protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) etc. for one hour followed by removal of solvent under reduced (Perrotti and Neviani 2013). are being used. As several pressure on rotovap. The resultant free flowing powder cancers are characterized by the aberrant activity of was then activated at 110oC in an oven for two hours and oncogenic kinases, it was not surprising that a phosphatase was used throughout the experimentation (Kapoor et al. like PP2A has progressively been considered as a potential 2006). tumor suppressor (Perrotti and Neviani 2008). Indeed, General procedure for the synthesis of 3- multiple solid tumors (e.g. melanomas, colorectal, methoxycarbonyl-2-methyl-1,4-dihydropyridine and 3- carcinomas, lung and breast cancers) present with genetic and/or functional inactivation of different PP2A subunits aceto-2-methyl-1,4-dihydropyridine: and, therefore, loss of PP2A phosphatase activity towards An equimolar mixture of 1,3-dicarbonyl compound, certain substrates (Perrotti and Neviani 2008). Recently 1,4- cinnamaldehyde and aromatic amines was taken in mortar dihydropyridines (a large group of structurally diverse and grinded with 2 mol% of SbCl3/Al2O3 using pestle at compounds (Velena et al. 2016)) reported to have an room temperature till the completion of reaction (TLC). The anticancer potential (Viradiya et al. 2017). In the present reaction mixture was diluted with ethyl acetate (30 ml for a study an attempt was made to synthesize 1,4- 5 mmol scale) and washed with water (2 x 10 ml) and brine (1 dihydropyridines in the laboratory with enhanced yield. x 10 ml). The organic layer was dried over anhydrous Na SO , followed by the removal of ethyl acetate under MATERIAL AND METHODS 2 4 reduced pressure and the residue was column All experiments were performed in oven dried glass chromatographed to give corresponding 1,4- apparatus. Melting points were measured in open capillaries dihydropyridines (85-90% yield). on Perfit melting point apparatus and are uncorrected. The progress of the reaction was monitored by TLC (0.5-mm- RESULTS AND DISCUSSION thick plates using BDH silica gel G as adsorbent). A reaction of methyl-acetoacetate, (5 mmol, 0.58g), Visualization of spots was effected by exposure to iodine cinnamaldehyde, (5mmol, 0.66g), aniline, (5 mmol, 0.46g) vapours and Draggendroff reagent. Column and 2 mol% of SbCl3/Al2O3 (0.25 mmol, 0.62g) was carried chromatography was performed on silica gel (60-120 mesh) out by grinding using pestle and mortar under solvent-free and compounds were eluted with graded solvent systems conditions (1stScheme, Fig. 1 (A)). of petroleum ether and ethyl acetate. Recrystallization was After one hour, the formation of product was noticed achieved with ethyl acetate-petroleum ether (60-80) solvent (TLC) which showed a distinct spot at Rf-value 0.75 when 8902 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Fig. 1. Different schemes of 1,4-dihydropyridine synthesis: A: 1st Scheme, B: 2nd Scheme, C: 3rd Scheme, D: 4th Scheme, E: 5th Scheme portraying the mechanism of 1,4-dihydropyridine synthesis.

eluted with 20% ethylacetate-petroleum ether. After presence of 2 mol% of SbCl3/Al2O3 to realize the formation completion of the reaction, the product was isolated and of expected product as 1,4-diphenyl-3-aceto-2-methyl-1,4- purified by column chromatography. The structure of the dihydropyridine (3rd Scheme, Fig. 1(C)). The structure isolated product was arrived at by spectral means such as integrity of was established by comparison of our spectral 1H NMR, 13C NMR, IR and MS. It’s 1H NMR showed three and physical data with the one known in literature(Sridharan characteristic resonances i.e., a doublet at ä 4.75 (J = 5.5 et al. 2007).The same methodology was extended to a Hz), doublet of doublet at ä 5.07 (J = 5.5 Hz, J = 7.6 Hz) and number of substituted anilines (4th Scheme, Fig. 1 (D)) and another doublet at ä 6.23 (J = 7.6 Hz) arising out of C4-H, reaction was found successful and results are shown in C3-H and C2-H of the heterocyclic ring respectively. The Table 2. The reaction seems to be following the mechanism presence of singlets at ä 3.58 and 2.15 can be attributed to as shown in 5th Scheme (Fig. 1 (E)). methoxy and methyl protons. A multiplet at ä 7.01-7.36 for CONCLUSION ten protons speaks the presence of two phenyl rings in the product. IR spectrum showed characteristic bands [(õcm-1) Based on the study carried out a rapid and efficient at 1690, 1568, 1221] indicative of the formation of product method for the synthesis of 1,4-dihydropyridines (1,4-DHPs) 1,4-diphenyl-3-methoxycarbonyl-2-methyl-1,4- through the one pot condensation of 1,3-dicarbonyl dihydropyridine. Further corroboration comes from the MS compounds, various aromatic amines and cinnamaldehyde using 2 mol % SbCl /Al O as the catalyst was reported. data (306(M+H)+) and CHN analysis and comparison with 3 2 3 the spectral data of known compound (Sridharan et al. 2007). ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Embracing the same protocol, the reaction was also carried MYS is thankful to Head, Department of Chemistry, nd out with anilines (2 Scheme, Fig. 1(B)) and results are University of Jammu, Jammu, India for providing access to shown in Table 1. the common facilities of the department to carry out the In another experiment, acetylacetone, was used in work. MS is highly indebted to DST-SERB for National Post- place of methyl acetoacetate, and reaction was conducted doctoral Fellowship. with equimolar amounts of cinnamaldehyde, and aniline in SIRWAL et al., In vitro Synthesis of 1,4-Dihydropyridines: An Anticancer Molecule 8903

Table 1. Synthesis of 1,4-dihydropyridines

Entry Ar-NH2 1,4-Dihydropyridines Time Yield 40 (min.) (%)

NH2 1 80 88

89

NH2 76

2

CH3

NH 2

3 70 90

OCH 3

4

NH 2

90 88

F

8904 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Entry Ar-NH2 1,4-Dihydropyridines Time Yield 40 (min.) (%)

NH2

5 86 87

Cl

NH2

6 83 86

Br

NH2 F 7 96 85

Table 2. Synthesis of 1,4-dihydropyridines

Entry Ar-NH2 1,4- Time (min.) Yield(%) dihydropyridines 44

NH2 1 80 89

SIRWAL et al., In vitro Synthesis of 1,4-Dihydropyridines: An Anticancer Molecule 8905

Entry Ar-NH 2 1,4-dihydropyridines 44 Time (min.) Yield(%)

NH2

2 75 90

CH3

NH2

3 70 91

OCH3

NH2

4 90 88

F

NH2

5 85 87

Cl

NH2

6 83 86

Br

NH2 F 7 98 85

8906 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

LITERATURE CITED Metastasis Reviews 27(2):159-168 Anonymous 2017. Word Health Organisation: Cancer fact sheet. Perrotti D, Neviani P 2013. Protein phosphatase 2A: a target for Publisher. Accessed on 20th October 2017 anticancer therapy. The Lancet Oncology 14(6):e229-e238 Ardalani H, Avan A, Ghayour-Mobarhan M 2017. Podophyllotoxin: Rowinsky EK, Onetto N, Canetta RM, Arbuck SG Taxol: the first of a novel potential natural anticancer agent. Avicenna Journal of the taxanes, an important new class of antitumor agents. In: Phytomedicine:1-7 Seminars in oncology, 1992. vol 19. Elsevier, p 646-662 Kapoor KK, Ganai BA, Kumar S, Andotra CS 2006. Antimony (III) Sridharan V, Perumal PT, Avendano C, Menendez JC 2007. A new chloride impregnated on alumina - An efficient and economical three-component domino synthesis of 1, 4-dihydropyridines. Lewis acid catalyst for one-pot synthesis of dihydropyrimidinones Tetrahedron 63(21):4407-4413 under solvent-free conditions. Canadian Journal of Chemistry Velena A, Zarkovic N, Gall Troselj K, Bisenieks E, Krauze A, Poikans 84(3):433-437 J, Duburs G 2016. 1, 4-dihydropyridine derivatives: Malik S 2017 Biotechnology and Production of Anti-Cancer dihydronicotinamide analogues - model compounds targeting Compounds. Springer oxidative stress. Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity 2016 Mukhtar E, Adhami VM, Mukhtar H 2014. Targeting microtubules Viradiya D, Mirza S, Shaikh F, Kakadiya R, Rathod A, Jain N, Rawal by natural agents for cancer therapy. Molecular Cancer R, Shah A 2017. Design and Synthesis of 1, 4-dihydropyridine Therapeutics 13(2):275-284 Derivatives as Anti-cancer Agent. Anti-Cancer Agents in Medicinal Chemistry (Formerly Current Medicinal Chemistry- Perrotti D, Neviani P 2008. Protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A), a Anti-Cancer Agents) 17(7):1003-1013 drugable tumor suppressor in Ph1 (+) leukemias. Cancer and

Received on 11-11-2017 Accepted on 13-11-2017 Trends in Biosciences 10(43), Print : ISSN 0974-8431, 8907-8912, 2017

A Checklist of Acrididae (Orthoptera: Acridoidea) of Uttar Pradesh, India

SAHAR MOBIN1, HIRDESH KUMAR2 AND MOHD. KAMIL USMANI3

1,3Section of Entomology, Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 2Zoological Survey of India, Prani Vigyan Bhawan, Block M, New Alipore, Kolkata, West Bengal email: [email protected] ; [email protected] ; [email protected]

ABSTRACT towards the south, and touches Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh towards the southeast. It is the most crowded state in the A Checklist of Acrididae of Uttar Pradesh based on published information and specimens collected from Republic of India and being one of the major states of India is very rich in biodiversity and agriculture. different localities as well as identified specimens are polyphagus in their feeding habit and cause serious deposited in Department of Zoology Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh was prepared. A total of 78 species/ damage to agricultural crops. Keeping in mind, the economic importance of grasshoppers as pest in the state, a checklist subspecies were recorded belonging to 49 genera and 12 of acridids found in Uttar Pradesh is compiled based on subfamilies. The most dominant subfamily was found to be Oedipodinae. Species were arranged according to their collected specimens and published literature. respective subfamilies and their percentage of occurrence Due to great significance of acridids as important was also calculated subfamily wise. agricultural pests, it is aimed to prepare a checklist of acridid fauna of Uttar Pradesh, India. This is the first attempt to provide an annotated checklist of the Acridid fauna of Uttar Key words Acridid, diversity, grasshoppers, pest, short- Pradesh India, which is mainly based on the identified horned. specimens deposited in Department of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University Aligarh and published information found Grasshoppers are which belong to suborder during Literature Survey. that comes under the order Orthoptera. They have MATERIAL AND METHODS a long term relationship with humans as they have been the major pest in every type of vegetation. As locusts, Different localities of Uttar Pradesh (Fig. 1) were used when they swarm in millions destroy crops over a wide as the sites for insect collection. Adult grasshoppers of area. They can cause famine as they have devastating both the sexes were collected. They were caught either by effects and they can even be serious pests when they are sweeping aerial net or directly by hands. Collected less in numbers. The Acrididae are the transcendent group specimens were pinned for their morphological studies, later of grasshoppers, containing about 6,701 valid species of identified through their different morphological and genitalic the 8,132 species of the whole Superfamily Acridoidea characters and then they were labeled. (Cigliano et al., 2017). The members of the family Acrididae Extensive literature survey was done to add-on all are marked by features like lower basal lobe of hind femur possible species found in Uttar Pradesh. All published shorter than the upper one, three segmented tarsi, short information was undertaken through various sources which antennae, short ovipositor, tympanum on first abdominal served the basis for the present critical study. Classification tergum, absence of fastigial furrow. and validation of species was followed by Cigliano et al. Kirby (1914) has done a remarkable taxonomic work (2017). on Acrididae in the book ‘Fauna of British India’ and he RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS partitioned the family Acrididae into eight subfamilies. The present checklist includes 78 species/ subspecies Tandon (1976) has given checklist of Indian Acridoidea. belonging to 49 genera and 12 subfamilies of Acrididae Bhowmik (1984), Tandon and Shishodia (1995), Hazra et al., from Uttar Pradesh, India. Number of genera and species in (1993), Reshi et al., (2008), Sharma and Mandal (2008), different subfamilies of Acrididae occurred in Uttar Pradesh Usmani et al., (2009, 2010, 2012 a, b & c, 2013), Usmani and is shown in Table 1. Subfamily-wise species representation Khan (2010), Nayeem and Usmani (2012a,b), Kumar and is shown in Figure 2 which shows that the subfamily Usmani (2012, 2015) Akhtar et al., (2012, 2014), Sharma Oedipodinae is represented by maximum number of species (2011), Rafi and Usmani (2013), Rafi et al., (2014) have (25%). contributed to the Indian Acrididae. In 2010, Shishodia et CHECKLIST OF ACRIDID FAUNA OF UTTAR al. reported 39 species of Acrididae from Uttar Pradesh. PRADESH Uttar Pradesh covers 243,290 square kilometers which Order ORTHOPTERA Olivier, 1789 is equivalent to 7.33% of total India’s area, and is the fourth Suborder CAELIFERA Ander, 1939 biggest Indian state in terms of area. The state is adjoined by Rajasthan towards the west, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh Superfamily ACRIDOIDEA Macleay, 1821 and Delhi towards the northwest, Uttarakhand and Nepal Family ACRIDIDAE Macleay, 1821 towards the north, Bihar towards the east, Madhya Pradesh 1. Subfamily Macleay, 1821 8908 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Table 1. Number of genera and species in different subfamilies of Acrididae occurred in Uttar Pradesh

SUBFAMILY SPECIES GENUS ACRIDINAE 8 6 SPATHOSTERNINAE 1 1 11 8 CYRTACANTHACRIDINAE 4 4 8 4 TROPIDOPOLINAE 1 1 7 6 8 2 HEMIACRIDINAE 8 2 2 2 COPTACRIDINAE 1 1 OEDIPODINAE 19 12 TOTAL 78 49

1. Genus Orthochtha Karsch, 1891 Tribe Brunner von Wattenwyl 1893 1) Orthochtha indica Uvarov, 1942 11. Genus Dirsh, 1953 2. Genus Paraphlaeoba Bolivar, 1902 14) (Serville, 1838) 2) Paraphlaeoba platyceps Bolivar, 1902 15) Xenocatantops karnyi (Kirby, 1910) 3. Genus Perella Bolivar, 1914 12. Genus Schaum, 1853 3) Perella insignis Bolivar, 1914 16) Catantops erubescens (Walker, 1870) Tribe Acridini MacLeay 1821 13. Genus Jago, 1984 4. Genus Linnaeus, 1758 17) Diabolocatantops innotabilis (Walker, 1870) 4) Acrida exaltata (Walker, 1859) 18) (Stål, 1861) 5) Acrida gigantea (Herbst, 1786) 14. Genus Dirsh, 1953 Tribe Phlaeobini Brunner von Wattenwyl, 1893 19) Stenocatantops splendens (Thunberg, 1815) 5. Genus Phlaeoba Stål, 1860 Tribe Paraconophymatini Otte, 1995 6) Phlaeoba infumata Brunner von Wattenwyl, 1893 15. Genus Paraconophyma Uvarov, 1921 7) Phlaeoba panteli Bolivar, 1902 20) Paraconophyma polita Uvarov, 1921 Tribe Truxalini Serville, 1838 4. Subfamily CYRTACANTHACRIDINAE Kirby, 1910 6. Genus Truxalis Fabricius, 1775 Tribe Cyrtacanthacridini Kirby, 1910 8) Truxalis nasuta (Linnaeus, 1758) 16. Genus Chondracris Uvarov, 1923 2. Subfamily SPATHOSTERNINAE Rehn, 1957 21) Chondracris rosea (De Geer, 1773) Tribe Spathosternini Rehn, 1957 17. Genus Cyrtacanthacris Walker, 1870 7. Genus Krauss, 1877 22) Cyrtacanthacris tatarica tatarica (Linnaeus, 9) Spathosternum prasiniferum prasiniferum (Walker, 1758) 1871) 18. Genus Patanga Uvarov, 1923 3. Subfamily CATANTOPINAE Brunner von 23) Patanga succincta (Johansson, 1763) Wattenwyl, 1893 19. Genus Schistocerca Stål, 1873 8. Genus Choroedocus Bolivar, 1914 24) Schistocerca gregaria gregaria (Forskål, 1775) 10) Choroedocus illustris (Walker, 1870) 5. Subfamily EYPREPOCNEMIDINAE Brunner von 11) Choroedocus robustus (Serville, 1838) Wattenwyl, 1893 9. Genus Eupreponotus Uvarov, 1921 20. Genus Cataloipus Bolivar, 1890 12) Eupreponotus inflatus Uvarov, 1921 25) Cataloipus indicus Uvarov, 1942 10. Genus Pelecinotus Bolivar, 1902 21. Genus Tylotropidius Stål, 1873 13) Pelecinotus intermedia Bhowmik & Dutta, 1965 MOBIN et al., A Checklist of Acrididae (Orthoptera: Acridoidea) of Uttar Pradesh, India 8909

Fig. 1. District Map of Uttar Pradesh, India 8910 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

26) Tylotropidius varicornis (Walker, 1870) 49) Clonacris kirbyi (Finot, 1903) Tribe Eyprepocnemidini Brunner von Wattenwyl, 1893 Tribe Hieroglyphini Bolivar, 1912 22. Genus Eyprepocnemis Fieber, 1853 34. Genus Hieroglyphus Krauss, 1877 27) Eyprepocnemis alacris alacris (Serville, 1838) 50) Hieroglyphus annulicornis (Shiraki, 1910) 28) Eyprepocnemis bhadurii Bhowmik, 1965 51) Hieroglyphus banian (Fabricius, 1798) 29) Eyprepocnemis roseus Uvarov, 1942 52) Hieroglyphus concolor (Walker, 1870) 23. Genus Heteracris Walker, 1870 53) Hieroglyphus indicus Mason, 1973 30) Heteracris littoralis (Rambur, 1838) 54) Hieroglyphus nigrorepletus Bolivar, 1912 31) Heteracris nobilis (Uvarov, 1942) 55) Hieroglyphus oryzivorus Carl, 1916 32) Heteracris pulchra (Bolivar, 1902) 56) Hieroglyphus acuticercus Kumar & Usmani, 2015 6. Subfamily TROPIDOPOLINAE Jacobson, 1905 10. Subfamily CALLIPTAMINAE Tinkham, 1940 Tribe Tristriini Mishchenko, 1945 35. Genus Acorypha Krauss, 1877 24. Genus Stål, 1873 57) Acorypha glaucopsis (Walker, 1870) 33) Tristria pulvinata (Uvarov, 1921) 36. Genus Sphodromerus Stål, 1873 7. Subfamily GOMPHOCERINAE Fieber, 1853 58) Sphodromerus undulatus undulatus (Kirby, 1914) 25. Genus Mesopsis Bolivar, 1906 11. Subfamily COPTACRIDINAE Brunner von 34) Mesopsis cylindricus (Kirby, 1914) Wattenwyl, 1893 35) Mesopsis indicus (Prasad, 1956) 37. Genus Eucoptacra Bolivar, 1902 Tribe Dociostaurini Mistshenko, 1974 59) Eucoptacra praemorsa (Stål, 1861) 26. Genus Leva Bolivar, 1909 12. Subfamily OEDIPODINAE Walker, 1871 36) Leva indica (Bolivar, 1902) 38. Genus Chloebora Saussure, 1884 Tribe Arcypterini Bolivar, 1914 60) Chloebora grossa Saussure, 1884 27. Genus Aulacobothrus Bolivar, 1902 61) Chloebora marshalli (Henry, 1933) 37) Aulacobothrus luteipes luteipes (Walker, 1871) 39. Genus Dittopternis Saussure, 1884 28. Genus Crucinotacris Jago, 1996 62) Dittopternis venusta (Walker, 1870) 38) Crucinotacris decisa (Walker, 1871) Tribe Acrotylini Johnston, 1956 Tribe Gomphocerini Fieber, 1853 40. Genus Acrotylus Fieber, 1853 29. Genus Fieber, 1852 63) Acrotylus humbertianus Saussure, 1884 39) Chorthippus indus Uvarov, 1942 Tribe Epacromiini Brunner von Wattenwyl, 1893 Tribe Ochrilidiini Brunner von Wattenwyl, 1893 41. Genus Fieber, 1853 30. Genus Ochrilidia Stål, 1873 64) Aiolopus simulatrix simulatrix (Walker, 1870 ) 40) Ochrilidia geniculata (Bolivar, 1913) 65) Aiolopus thalassinus tamulus (Fabricius, 1798) 8. Subfamily OXYINAE Brunner von Wattenwyl, 1893 66) Aiolopus thalassinus thalassinus (Fabricius, 1781) Tribe Oxyini Brunner von Wattenwyl, 1893 Tribe Locustini Kirby, 1825 31. Genus Gesonula Uvarov, 1940 42. Genus Gastrimargus Saussure, 1884 41) Gesonula punctifrons (Stål, 1861) 67) Gastrimargus africanus africanus (Saussure, 1888) 32. Genus Oxya Serville, 1831 68) Gastrimargus marmoratus (Thunberg, 1815) 42) Oxya chinensis (Thunberg, 1815) 43. Genus Locusta Linnaeus, 1758 43) Oxya fuscovittata (Marschall, 1836) 69) Locusta migratoria migratoria (Linnaeus, 1758) 44) Oxya gorakhpurensis Usmani & Shafee, 1985 44. Genus Oedaleus Fieber, 1853 45) Oxya grandis Willemse, 1925 70) Oedaleus abruptus (Thunberg, 1815) 46) Oxya hyla Serville, 1831 71) Oedaleus senegalensis (Krauss, 1877) 47) Oxya japonica japonica (Thunberg, 1815) 45. Genus Pternoscirta Saussure, 1884 48) Oxya velox (Fabricius, 1787) 72) Pternoscirta cinctifemur (Walker, 1859) 9. Subfamily HEMIACRIDINAE Dirsh, 1956 Tribe Epacromiini Brunner von Wattenwyl, 1893 33. Genus Clonacris Uvarov, 1943 46. Genus Heteropternis Stål, 1873 MOBIN et al., A Checklist of Acrididae (Orthoptera: Acridoidea) of Uttar Pradesh, India 8911

Fig. 2. Percentage occurrence of different subfamilies of Acrididae in Uttar Pradesh.

73) Heteropternis respondens (Walker, 1859) Hazra, A.K., Tandon, S.K., Shishodia, M.S., Dey,A. and Mandal, S.K. Tribe Oedipodini Walker, F. 1871 1993. Insecta: Orthoptera: Acridoidea. In Fauna of West Bengal, State Fauna Series. 3(part 4): 287-354. 47. Genus Latreille, 1829 Kirby,W.F. 1914. The fauna of British India including Ceylon and 74) Oedipoda miniata (Pallas, 1771) Burma, Orthoptera (Acrididae), 1: IX + 276 pp. London. Tribe Trilophidiini Shumakov, 1963 Kumar, H. and Usmani, M.K. 2012. A Checklist of Acrididae 48. Genus Trilophidia Stål, 1873 (Orthoptera: Acridoidea) of Himachal Pradesh. Advances in Life Sciences. 1 (2): 162-163. 75) Trilophidia annulata (Thunberg, 1815) Kumar, H. and Usmani, M.K. 2015. A Review of the genus 76) Trilophidia repleta (Walker, 1870) Hieroglyphus (Acrididae: Hemiacridinae) from India, with Tribe Parapleurini Brunner von Wttenwyl, 1893 description of a new species. Tropical Zoology. 28(2):35-55. 49. Genus Ceracris Walker, 1870 Nayeem, M.R. and Usmani, M.K. 2012a. Grasshoppers and Locust 77) Ceracris striata Uvarov, 1925 Diversity in Leguminous Crops of Eastern Uttar Pradesh, India. 78) Ceracris nigricornis Walker, 1870 Proc. Zool. Soc. India. 11(1): 107-111. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Nayeem, M.R. and Usmani, M.K. 2012b. Preliminary checklist of Acridoidea (Orthoptera) of Jharkhand, India. Journal of Authors are thankful to the Chairman of Department Entomological Research. 36(2):161-163. of Zoology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh for providing Rafi, U. and Usmani, M.K. 2013. Diversity and Distribution of all necessary facilities. The first author is also grateful to Acridid Pests (Orthoptera: Acrididae) of Purvanchal region, Uttar University Grants Commission for providing Non-Net UGC Pradesh, India. Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. Fellowship. 110(1): 50-56. LITERATURE CITED Rafi, U., Usmani, M.K., Akhtar, M.H., Nayeem, M.R. 2014. Population Density, Diversity and Distributional Pattern of Akhtar, M.H., Usmani, M.K. and Nayeem, M.R. 2012. Impact of fauna (Acrididae: Acridoidea: Orthoptera) in Central Abiotic Factors on Population of Acridoid Fauna (Orthoptera) and Eastern Uttar Pradesh, India. Rec. zool. Surv. India. 114(part- in Aligarh Fort, Uttar Pradesh, India. Trends in Biosciences. 1): 165-176. 5(1): 17-19. Reshi SA, Azim MN and Usmani MK. 2008. A checklist of short Akhtar, M.H., Nayeem, M.R. and Usmani, M.K. 2014. Abundance, horned grasshoppers (Orthoptera: Acridoidea) from Kashmir, Distribution and Taxonomic Studies on Hemiacridinae (Acrididae: India. Biosystematica. 2: 25-32. Acridoidea: Orthoptera) in Uttar Pradesh, India. Journal of Global Biosciences. 3(6): 910-918. Sharma, N. and Mandal, S.K. 2008. Acridoidea Diversity of Hastinapur Wildlife Sanctuary, Uttar Pradesh, India. Rec. Zool. Surv. India. Bhowmik, H.K. 1984. Report on collection of Orthoptera (Insecta) 108(part-3): 85-96. from the district of Purulia and Bankura, West Bengal, India. Zoological survey of India. 6 (1- 3): 109-114. Sharma, N. 2011. Acridoidea (Orthoptera: Insecta) Diversity of Sur Sarovar Bird Sanctuary, Keetham, Agra (Uttar Pradesh, India). Cigliano, M.M., H. Braun, D.C. Eades & D. Otte. Orthoptera Species Rec. Zool. Surv. India. 111(part-2): 23-28. File. Version 5.0/5.0. [27.X.2017]. . Shishodia, M.S., Chandra, K. and Gupta, S.K. (2010). An annotated 8912 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

checklist of Orthoptera (Insecta) from India. Record. Zool. Usmani, M.K., Akhtar, M.H. and Nayeem, M. R. 2012a. Diversity Surv, India. 314: 1-366. and taxonomic studies of Acridoid pests (Acridoidea: Orthoptera) Tandon, S.K. 1976. A Check-list of the Acridoidea (Orthoptera) of of pulses from Uttar Pradesh, India. Munis Entomology & India Part I Acrididae. Rec. zool. Surv. India. Occ. paper no. 3: Zoology. 7(2): 837-846. 1-48. Usmani, M.K., Akhtar, M.H. and Nayeem, M.R. 2012b. Diversity, Tandon S.K. and Shishodia, M.S. 1995. Orthoptera. Himalayan distribution and taxonomic studies of Acridoid fauna (Orthoptera) ecosystem series: Fauna of western Himalaya (U.P.) -2, of Aligarh Fort, Uttar Pradesh, India. Advances in Life Sciences. Zoological survey of India. 37-42. 1(1): 36-40. Usmani, M.K., Khan, M.I. & Kumar, H. 2009. Acridoidea Usmani, M.K., Akhtar, M.H. and Nayeem, M.R. and U. Rafi. 2012c. (Orthoptera) Biodiversity of Western Uttar Pradesh. Diversity, distribution and taxonomic studies of grasshopper Proceedings of National symposium on IPM Strategies, fauna (Acrididae: Acridoidea: Orthoptera) of Aligarh, Uttar Pasighat. 2009:9. Pradesh, India. Annals of Entomology. 30(1): 31-40. Usmani, M.K. and Khan, M.I. 2010a. A Preliminary Check List of Usmani, M.K., Akhtar, M.H., Kumar, H., Nayeem, M.R., Khan, Locusts and Grasshoppers (Orthoptera: Acridoidea) of North M.I., and Rafi, U. 2013. Taxonomic Studies of Grasshoppers of East India. Trends in Biosciences. 3 (1): 49-55. Subfamily Acrdinae (Acrididae: Acridoidea: Orthoptera) of Uttar Pradesh, India. Proceedings of the National Conference on Insect Usmani, M.K., Khan, M.I. and Kumar, H. 2010b. Studies on Diversity and Systematics: Special Emphasis on Molecular Acridoidea (Orthoptera) of Western Uttar Pradesh. Approaches. 62-68. Biosystematica. 4(1): 39-58.

Received on 10-11-2017 Accepted on 12-11-2017 Trends in Biosciences 10(43), Print : ISSN 0974-8431, 8913-8918, 2017

Effect of Banana Pseudostem Scutching Waste, FYM and Biocompost on Nutrient Content and Uptake by Cabbage

LOKESH KUMAR SAINI1*, J. M. PATEL2 AND M. M. PATEL1

1Department of Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry, NMCA, NAU, Navsari, Gujarat 2Soil and Water Management Research Unit, NAU, Navsari, Gujarat *email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT large scale can solve the problem of disposal of wastes and lack of organic matter in soil. On the other hand, a judicious A field experiment was conducted at N.A.U, Navsari, Gujarat to study the effect of different organic manures combination of different organic and inorganic sources of on nutrient content and uptake by cabbage. The experiment nutrients might be helpful to obtain higher nutrient content and uptake by crop and a good soil health for the comprised of nine treatment of banana pseudostem scutching waste (SW), FYM and biocompost (BC) with or subsequent crops. without combination and applied as FYM @ 10 t ha-1 carbon MATERIALS AND METHODS equivalent basis with the common dose of recommended Field experiment was conducted during the rabi fertilizer. The finding showed that application of 100% season of 2015-16 at Soil and Water Management Farm of FYM (O ) gave significantly higher value of primary 0 Navsari Agricultural University, Navsari, Gujarat. The soil nutrients (N, P and K), secondary nutrients (Ca, Mg and of experimental field was clay in texture had following S) and micronutrients (Fe, Mn, Zn and Cu) content and -1 characteristics: pH2.5 8.3, EC2.5 of 0.4 ds m and organic uptake by cabbage. In addition, the second and third highest carbon 0.62%. The experiment soil was low in available content and uptake of macro and micronutrients were found nitrogen (246 kg ha-1) and sulphur (6 mg kg-1), medium in in treatment O (100% BC) and O (75% FYM + 25% 2 6 available phosphorus (45 kg ha-1) and manganese (8 mg kg- SW), respectively. 1) and high in available potassium (410 kg ha-1), iron (14 mg kg-1), zinc (1.2 mg kg-1) and copper (3 mg kg-1). The experiment Key words banana pseudostem scutching waste, comprised of nine treatments of FYM, biocompost (BC) biocompost, carbon equivalent, nutrient and banana pseudostem scutching waste (SW) and it’s content, uptake and FYM combinations viz., 100% FYM (O0), 100% SW (O1), 100%

BC (O2), 75% BC + 25% SW (O3), 50% BC + 50% SW (O4), Cabbage is a cole crop and one of the important fresh 25% BC + 75% SW (O5), 75% FYM + 25% SW (O6), 50% and processing vegetable crop in most countries of the FYM + 50% SW (O7) and 25% FYM + 75% SW (O8) were world. In India, it is mainly cultivated in Gujarat, Uttar applied as basal on 10 t ha-1 FYM carbon equivalent basis Pradesh, Orissa, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, Maharashtra with common dose of recommended fertilizer (100:50:50 N, and Karnataka. The area under this crop grown in India is -1 P2O5, K2O kg ha ). 4.01 lakh ha with annual production of 91 lakh tonnes Treatments were evaluated in randomized block (Anon., 2015). design with three replications on cabbage variety “Golden Chemical fertilizers and organic manures play a pivotal Acre”. In the experiment fresh banana pseudostem role in vegetable production. Organic manures including scutching waste was used which consist of pithy matter the key characteristics and economically viable way of and cut fibers generated during fiber extraction from banana supplying nutrients to crops. Integrated application of pseudostem. Chemical compositions of organic manures diverse source of nutrients not only increase the uptake of used in the experiment are given in Table 1. The nutrient plant nutrients but also improve the post harvest soil fertility concentration in plant samples were determined by methods and subsequently helps for achieving much desired crop given in Table 2. Nutrient uptake by cabbage was worked production with sustainable soil health (Chatterjee and out by computing the values of content and dry matter Bandyopadhyay, 2014). production. Data pertaining to nutrient content and uptake Presently, the banana pseudostem (60 to 80 t ha-1) is by crop were statistically analyzed as per the methods absolute waste in most of the banana growing states of described by Panse and Sukhatme (1967). India. Disposal of pseudostem in a routine ways i.e., Nutrient content dumping on field bunds and burning, disposing in nalla/ natural drains etc. causing environmental problems (Anon., Primary nutrient: Application of 100% FYM recorded 2014). In past, some researchers have successfully significantly higher value of N, P and K content in both demonstrated use of banana pseudostem for extraction of head as well as leaves (Table 3). The N content in head and fibers on a small scale. Use of banana pseudostem scutching leaves recorded were 2.48 and 2.66 per cent, respectively 1 and was found to be statistically at par with treatments O , waste (30-35 t ha ) as an organic for crop production at 2 8914 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Table 1. Composition of organics manures used in the experiment

Parameters FYM Biocompost Scutching waste

OC (%) 21.55 25.05 34.45

N (%) 1.20 1.15 0.90

P2O5 (%) 0.40 0.35 0.20

K2O (%) 0.50 0.45 0.59

Fe (mg kg-1) 3592 7706 1228

Mn (mg kg-1) 531 470 60

Zn (mg kg-1) 150 182 6

Cu (mg kg-1) 49 89 8

C:N ratio 18 22 38

Table 2. Methods for analysis of nutrients in plant

Nutrient analyzed Method followed Reference N Kjeldahl Jackson, 1973 P Vanadomolybdo phosphoric acid yellow colour Jackson, 1973 K Flame photometric Jackson, 1973 Ca and Mg Complexometric Jackson, 1973 S Turbidmetric Chaudhary and Cornfield, 1966 Fe, Mn, Zn and Cu Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometric Elwell and Gridley, 1967

Table 3. Effect of organic manures on primary nutrient content (%) in head and leaves of cabbage

Head Leaves Treatments N P K N P K

O0 : 100% FYM 2.48 1.12 2.05 2.66 0.98 2.22

O1 : 100% SW 2.12 0.72 1.79 2.35 0.71 1.84

O2 : 100% BC 2.45 1.10 1.95 2.62 0.94 2.17

O3 : 75% BC + 25% SW 2.42 0.95 1.93 2.49 0.85 2.09

O4 : 50% BC + 50% SW 2.40 0.88 1.83 2.55 0.83 2.00

O5 : 25% BC + 75% SW 2.30 0.82 1.81 2.45 0.76 1.86

O6 : 75% FYM + 25% SW 2.46 1.06 1.98 2.56 0.91 2.17

O7 : 50% FYM + 50% SW 2.43 0.91 1.93 2.52 0.84 2.02

O8 : 25% FYM + 75% SW 2.29 0.86 1.84 2.45 0.78 1.95

SEm± 0.061 0.026 0.048 0.058 0.028 0.052

CD at 5% 0.18 0.08 0.14 0.18 0.08 0.16

CV% 4.49 4.81 4.37 4.02 5.77 4.42

SAINI et al., Effect of Banana Pseudostem Scutching Waste, FYM and Biocompost on Nutrient Content and Uptake by Cabbage 8915

Table 4. Effect of organic manures on secondary nutrient content (%) in head and leaves of cabbage

Head Leaves Treatments Ca Mg S Ca Mg S

O0 : 100% FYM 0.62 0.26 0.37 1.08 0.50 0.41

O1 : 100% SW 0.31 0.12 0.21 0.96 0.35 0.23

O2 : 100% BC 0.58 0.25 0.36 1.08 0.47 0.38

O3 : 75% BC + 25% SW 0.47 0.22 0.31 1.00 0.46 0.33

O4 : 50% BC + 50% SW 0.46 0.19 0.30 0.99 0.42 0.30

O5 : 25% BC + 75% SW 0.32 0.14 0.22 0.97 0.38 0.24

O6 : 75% FYM + 25% SW 0.58 0.25 0.36 1.08 0.48 0.36

O7 : 50% FYM + 50% SW 0.43 0.21 0.32 1.00 0.45 0.31

O8 : 25% FYM + 75% SW 0.33 0.16 0.22 0.97 0.38 0.24 SEm± 0.016 0.006 0.009 0.035 0.015 0.011 CD at 5% 0.05 0.02 0.03 NS 0.04 0.03 CV % 6.06 5.39 5.13 5.90 5.94 5.86

Table 5. Effect of organic manures on micronutrient content (mg kg-1) in head and leaves of cabbage

Head Leaves Treatments Fe Mn Zn Cu Fe Mn Zn Cu

O0 : 100% FYM 189.7 75.4 58.0 17.0 205.8 87.7 62.0 18.3

O1 : 100% SW 162.5 62.2 45.7 14.7 152.0 66.0 51.8 16.4

O2 : 100% BC 185.1 71.6 53.7 16.8 202.9 83.5 60.7 18.0

O3 : 75% BC + 25% SW 179.0 67.7 50.0 16.2 196.6 75.8 56.5 17.7

O4 : 50% BC + 50% SW 171.3 67.4 49.3 16.0 193.0 72.9 55.3 17.6

O5 : 25% BC + 75% SW 166.7 65.5 45.7 15.2 172.4 69.7 53.3 16.9

O6 : 75% FYM + 25% SW 181.3 71.1 54.3 16.6 200.3 81.5 58.9 17.9

O7 : 50% FYM + 50% SW 178.0 67.4 48.4 15.2 191.5 78.2 54.2 17.4

O8 : 25% FYM + 75% SW 166.3 66.1 46.5 15.1 171.0 66.7 53.0 17.1 SEm± 4.4 3.0 1.7 0.4 5.0 2.5 1.7 0.4 CD at 5% 13.1 NS 5.0 1.3 15.1 7.6 5.0 NS CV % 4.3 7.6 5.8 4.8 4.7 5.8 5.2 4.0

Table 6. Effect of organic manures on primary nutrient uptake (kg ha-1) by head and leaves of cabbage

Head Leaves Treatments N P K N P K

O0 : 100% FYM 62.71 28.36 51.99 71.55 26.27 59.61

O1 : 100% SW 36.36 12.33 30.69 44.42 13.39 34.78

O2 : 100% BC 55.30 24.80 43.94 68.39 24.62 56.66

O3 : 75% BC + 25% SW 48.68 19.13 38.77 55.75 19.01 46.78

O4 : 50% BC + 50% SW 45.22 16.62 34.54 54.90 17.82 43.06

O5 : 25% BC + 75% SW 43.01 15.32 33.86 48.93 15.24 37.13

O6 : 75% FYM + 25% SW 54.64 23.63 44.05 63.28 22.55 53.71

O7 : 50% FYM + 50% SW 45.96 17.24 36.49 53.32 17.78 42.61

O8 : 25% FYM + 75% SW 41.63 15.65 33.39 48.91 15.66 38.91 SEm± 1.304 0.524 0.956 1.317 0.666 1.129 CD at 5% 3.91 1.57 2.87 3.95 2.00 3.39 CV% 4.69 4.72 4.29 4.03 6.03 4.26

8916 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Table 7. Effect of organic manures on secondary nutrient uptake (kg ha-1) by head and leaves of cabbage

Head Leaves Treatments Ca Mg S Ca Mg S

O0 : 100% FYM 15.78 6.58 9.37 29.11 13.54 11.08

O1 : 100% SW 5.33 2.12 3.54 18.05 6.68 4.28

O2 : 100% BC 13.09 5.57 8.07 28.11 12.14 9.99

O3 : 75% BC + 25% SW 9.50 4.35 6.29 22.51 10.34 7.32

O4 : 50% BC + 50% SW 8.73 3.58 5.71 21.42 9.02 6.40

O5 : 25% BC + 75% SW 5.98 2.65 4.10 19.31 7.56 4.81

O6 : 75% FYM + 25% SW 12.81 5.55 7.92 26.66 11.80 8.99

O7 : 50% FYM + 50% SW 8.14 3.98 6.00 21.04 9.41 6.48

O8 : 25% FYM + 75% SW 6.00 2.91 4.06 19.37 7.69 4.74 SEm± 0.320 0.125 0.175 0.728 0.372 0.228 CD at 5% 0.96 0.37 0.52 2.18 1.11 0.68 CV% 5.85 5.23 4.96 5.52 6.57 5.55

Table 8. Effect of organic manures on micronutrient uptake (g ha-1) by head and leaves of cabbage

Head Leaves Treatments Fe Mn Zn Cu Fe Mn Zn Cu

O0 : 100% FYM 470.4 190.8 146.9 43.0 553.5 236.0 166.7 49.3

O1 : 100% SW 280.6 106.8 78.5 25.3 287.3 124.7 97.9 30.9

O2 : 100% BC 420.6 161.5 121.1 37.9 529.0 217.6 158.2 47.0

O3 : 75% BC + 25% SW 354.3 135.9 100.5 32.6 440.8 169.9 126.7 39.6

O4 : 50% BC + 50% SW 331.6 126.9 92.8 30.1 415.4 157.0 119.1 37.8

O5 : 25% BC + 75% SW 315.4 122.5 85.5 28.4 344.8 139.5 106.6 33.9

O6 : 75% FYM + 25% SW 409.6 157.8 120.7 36.9 495.8 201.8 145.8 44.3

O7 : 50% FYM + 50% SW 333.3 127.6 91.7 28.8 404.6 165.2 114.5 36.7

O8 : 25% FYM + 75% SW 315.1 120.1 84.5 27.5 341.8 133.4 106.0 34.2

SEm± 8.0 6.7 3.6 0.9 11.2 5.4 3.8 0.9

CD at 5% 24.1 20.2 10.7 2.8 33.6 16.1 11.3 2.8

CV % 3.9 8.4 6.0 4.9 4.6 5.4 5.2 4.1

FYM gave significantly higher values of Ca (0.62% in head), O3, O4, O6 and O7 in case head and O2, O3, O6 and O7 for leaves. For P the content in head it was 1.12 per cent, while Mg (0.26% in head and 0.50% in leaves) and S (0.37% in for leaves it was 0.98 per cent. However, these values were head and 0.41% in leaves) content and remained at par with the treatments O and O in case of Ca for head, in case of found to be at par with treatments O2, O6 for both head and 2 6 leaves. In case of K content in head it was 2.05 and Mg O2 and O6 for head and O2, O3 and O6 for leaves and in statistically at par with treatments O2, O3, O6 and O7. For case of S O2, and O6 for head and O2 for leaves. leaves the content was 2.22 per cent and was at par with O2, Micronutrients: Application of different organic manures

O3, and O6 treatments. registered a significant effect on micronutrient (Fe, Mn, Zn Secondary nutrient: Application of different organic and Cu) content in head and leaves of cabbage except Mn manures showed a significant effect on secondary nutrient content in head and Cu content in leaves (Table 5). (Ca, Mg and S) content in head and leaves of cabbage Application of 100% FYM gave significantly higher value except Ca content in leaves (Table 4). Application of 100% of Fe (189.7 mg kg-1 in head and 205.8 mg kg-1 in leaves), Mn SAINI et al., Effect of Banana Pseudostem Scutching Waste, FYM and Biocompost on Nutrient Content and Uptake by Cabbage 8917

Table 9. Effect of organic manures on total macronutrient (kg ha-1) and micronutrient (g ha-1) uptake by cabbage (head + leaves)

Treatments N P K Ca Mg S Fe Mn Zn Cu

O0 : 100% FYM 134.26 54.63 111.60 44.90 20.12 20.45 1023.86 426.83 313.56 92.31

O1 : 100% SW 80.78 25.71 65.47 23.38 8.80 7.82 567.89 231.54 176.41 56.24

O2 : 100% BC 123.69 49.43 100.60 41.20 17.70 18.06 949.61 379.12 279.28 84.90

O3 : 75% BC + 25% SW 104.44 38.14 85.56 32.01 14.69 13.62 795.09 305.89 227.18 72.22

O4 : 50% BC + 50% SW 100.12 34.43 77.60 30.15 12.60 12.12 747.02 283.94 211.86 67.90

O5 : 25% BC + 75% SW 91.94 30.56 71.00 25.30 10.20 8.91 660.24 261.95 192.09 62.23

O6 : 75% FYM + 25% SW 117.91 46.18 97.76 39.47 17.34 16.91 905.43 359.60 266.50 81.22

O7 : 50% FYM + 50% SW 99.28 35.02 79.10 29.19 13.39 12.48 737.98 292.86 206.19 65.50

O8 : 25% FYM + 75% SW 90.54 31.31 72.30 25.36 10.59 8.80 656.87 253.51 190.48 61.63 SEm± 1.845 0.802 1.828 0.743 0.367 0.316 11.063 9.378 5.528 1.312 CD at 5% 5.53 2.41 5.48 2.23 1.10 0.95 33.17 28.12 16.57 3.93 CV % 3.05 3.62 3.75 3.98 4.56 4.13 2.45 5.23 4.18 3.17

(87.7 mg kg-1 in leaves), Zn (58.0 mg kg-1 in head and 62.0 mg 553.5 g ha-1 in leaves), Mn (190.8 g ha-1 in head and 236.0 g kg-1 in leaves) and Cu (17.0 mg kg-1 in head) content and ha-1 in leaves), Zn (146.9 g ha-1 in head and 166.7 g ha-1 in -1 -1 remained at par with the treatments O2, O3, O6 and O7 in leaves) and Cu (43.0 ha in head and 49.3 g ha in leaves) case of Fe for head and O2, O3, O4, O6 and O7 for leaves, in and remained at par with the treatment O2 in case of Fe, Zn case of Mn O2 and O6 for leaves, in case of Zn O2, and O6 for and Cu for leaves only (Table 8). both head and leaves and in case of Cu O2, O3, O4 and O6 for Total nutrient (Head + Leaves): Application of 100% FYM head. (O0) gave significantly higher total uptake of N (134.26 kg The increase in nutrient content might be due to ha-1), P (54.63 kg ha-1), K (111.60 kg ha-1) Ca (44.90 kg ha-1), addition of low C:N ratio containing organic manure Mg (20.12 kg ha-1) and S (20.45 kg ha-1). In addition, the enhanced early mineralization thus increasing the second and third highest total uptake of macronutrients availability of macro and micronutrients and minimizing the were found in treatment O2 (100% BC) and O6 (75% FYM + fixation of nutrients. This also helped in steady supply of 25% SW), respectively. Likewise macronutrients, total balanced nutrient throughout the growth period due to uptake of micronutrients were significantly affected by improvement in soil fertility status. Similar results were also different organic manures. The results indicated that among reported by Zahradnik and Petrikova, 2007, Escobar and the all treatments, application of 100% FYM noted highest Hue, 2010, Brito et al., 2013 in cabbage and Chatterjee and total uptake of Fe (1023.86 g ha-1), Mn (426.83 g ha-1), Zn Bandyopadhyay, 2014 in tomato. (313.56 g ha-1) and Cu (92.31 g ha-1). Supplementary, second and third highest total uptake were noted in treatments O Nutrient uptake 2 and O6, respectively (Table 9). Primary nutrient: Application of different organic manures Application of low C:N ratio containing organic registered a significant effect on primary nutrient (N, P and manures significantly increased plant growth and yield K) uptake by head and leaves of cabbage. Application of attributes, yield and dry matter accumulation, ultimate 100% FYM recorded significantly higher value of N (62.71 resulted into the high uptake of macro and micronutrients. kg ha-1 in head and 71.55 kg ha-1 in leaves), P (28.36 kg ha-1 It might be due to application of organic sources which in head and 26.27 kg ha-1 in leaves) and K (51.99 kg ha-1 in enhances the biological activity in soil ultimately resulting head and 59.61 kg ha-1 in leaves) uptake and was at par with in increased availability of macro and micro nutrients in soil the treatments O in case of N, P and K uptake by leaves 2 significantly, consequently improving the uptake of (Table 6). nutrients. Almost similar results were also reported by Secondary nutrient: Application of 100% FYM gave Kanwer and Paliyal, 2005, Sur and Das, 2006, Mathakiya -1 significantly higher value of Ca (15.78 kg ha in head and and Meisheri, 2007, Singh and Pandey, 2010 and Brito et -1 -1 29.11 kg ha in leaves), Mg (6.58 kg ha in head and 13.54 al., 2013 in cabbage and Chander and Verma, 2009 in -1 -1 - kg ha in leaves) and S (9.37 kg ha in head and 11.08 kg ha cauliflower. 1 in leaves) uptake (Table 7). CONCLUSION Micronutrient: Application of 100% FYM gave significantly higher uptake of Fe (470.4 g ha-1 in head and On the basis of result obtained in present field investigation, it is concluded that application of 100% FYM 8918 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017 or 100% BC or 75% FYM + 25% banana psedostem spectrophotometery pergamon. Press Ltd., London, W-1. scutching waste along with 100% recommended dose of Escobar, M. E. O. and Hue, N. V. 2010. Soil quality and vegetable -1 growth as affected by organic amendments to a tropical oxisol fertilizers (100:50:50 N, P2O5, K2O kg ha ) enhanced the nutrient content and uptake by cabbage. during transition to organic farming. Congress of Soil Science, Soil Solutions for a Changing World. 1-6 Aug., Brisbane, Australia. LITERATURE CITED Jackson, M. L. 1973. Soil Chemical Analysis. Prentice Hall of India Anonymous 2014. Final report of NAIP Component-2 sub project Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, India. “A value chain on utilization of banana pseudostem for fibre and Kanwar, K. and Paliyal, S. S. 2005. Effect of integrated nutrient other value added products”.NAU, Navsari, Gujarat, India. management on growth and yield of cabbage. Himachal J. Agric. Anonymous 2015. National Horticulture Database 2015, National Res., 31(1): 15-20. Horticulture Board, Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India, Mathakiya, H. V. and Meisheri, M. B. 2007. Feasibility of using New Delhi. some solid industrial wastes on cabbage and their effect on yield Brito, L. M.; Monteiro, J. M.; Mourao, I. and Coutinho, J. 2013. and nutrient absorption. J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci., 55(2): 227- Compost, lime, and rock phosphate effects on organic white 230. cabbage growth and nutrient uptake. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Panse, V. G. and Sukhatme, P. V. 1967. “Statistical Methods for Anal., 44: 3177–3186. Agricultural Worker”, Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Chander, G. and Verma, T. S. 2009. Effect of boron and farm yard New Delhi, India, pp. 152-161. manure on cauliflower growth, yield and nutrient uptake in two Singh, P. K. and Pandey, M. 2010. Study the effect of integrated different soils of Himachal Pradesh. Indian J. Hort., 66(4): nutrient management on yield and nutrient uptake in cabbage. 543-546. Indian J. Hill Farming, 23(2): 39-41. Chatterjee, R. and Bandyopadhyay, S. 2014. Studies on effect of Sur, P. S and Das, D. K. 2006. Effect of integrated nutrient organic, inorganic and biofertilizers on plant nutrient status and management on yield and uptake of nutrients by cabbage availability of major nutrients in tomato. Internat. J. Bio- (Brassica oleracia var. capitata L.). Indian Agric., 50(1&2): resource & Stress Management, 5(1): 093-097. 61-66. Chaudhary, I. A. and Cornfield, A. H. 1966. The determination of Zahradnik, A. and Petrikova, K. 2007. Effect of alternative organic total sulphur in soil and plant material. Analysis, 11: 528-530. fertilizers on the nutritional value and yield of head cabbage. Elwell, W. T. and Gridley, J. A. F. 1967. Atomic absorption Hort. Sci., 34(2): 65–71.

Received on 18-11-2017 Accepted on 20-11-2017 Trends in Biosciences 10(43), Print : ISSN 0974-8431, 8919-8924, 2017

Geographical Locations, Morphological Characterization and Growth Performance of Wild Edible Oyster Mushrooms Collected from Forest Regions of Maharashtra S. A. PATIL*, D.B. SHINDE AND A. C. JADHAV Plant Pathology Section, College of Agriculture, Pune, Maharashtra *email:[email protected]

ABSTRACT From ancient times, wild mushrooms have been consumed The present research studies were carried out with an by man with delicacy probably, for their taste and pleasing objective to undertake the survey and collect wild edible flavor (Das, 2010). They have rich nutritional value with oyster mushrooms in order to isolate and culture them high content of proteins, vitamins, minerals, fibers, trace and to study their growth and yield performance on wheat elements and low number of calories and cholesterol (Agrahar and Subbulakshmi, 2005; Wani et al. 2010). straw substrate. Various strains of Pleurotus spp. were collected from Sahyadri and Satpuda valleys of MATERIAL AND METHODS Maharashtra state which included Pune, Ahmednagar and Survey and collection of wild edible oyster mushrooms Nashik districts. Twenty six samples were collected from different habitat like tree trunk, leaf litter, humus, compost The present investigation was carried out on and wooden stumps during monsoon. The morphological Pleurotus spp. collected during survey for their growth characters of wild oyster mushroom viz., cap colour, cap and yield performance on wheat straw. Samples of Pleurotus shape, cap diameter, stipe attachment, stipe length and spp. were collected from Sahyadri and Satpuda valleys of gill attachment were recorded. Light pink colour of cap Maharashtra state which included Pune, Ahmednagar, were commonly observed. The cap diameter varied from Nashik and Jalgaon districts. The samples were collected 4.25 to 5.98 cm. Stipe attachment was lateral and commonly from dense forest regions of the Maharashtra during observed for all strains. The stipe length varied from 0.61 monsoon. to 1.23 cm. Various forms of gill attachment viz. shortly Geographical locations of wild edible mushrooms: decurrent, decurrent, adnexed and adnate were observed for different strains. Selected wild oyster mushrooms were Twenty six samples of oyster (Pleurotus spp.) isolated and their growth performance on Potato Dextrose mushrooms were collected from the forest regions and their Agar (PDA) media was studied. Isolate Pune Pleurotus-4 locations are presented in Table1. Most of the samples (PNP-4) showed significantly maximum growth than were found in dense forest area and at high latitudes and remaining isolates and the standard control P. sajor caju. among the samples the variability in habitat were observed. The spawn of selected isolates was prepared on wheat The samples were seen on the tree trunk, wooden stumps, grains and the time required for spawn production varied leaf litter, humus, grassland and compost. At the time of from 14 to 19.75 days. The strain PNP-10 required collection of samples, information regarding edibility was minimum time for spawn production (14 days). collected from local people. Further the mushrooms were isolated in the laboratory and simultaneously tested the edibility of these mushrooms by feeding to the rats and Key words Geographical location, Morphological also confirmed by using reference books viz., The characters, growth performance, Pleurotus mushrooms, edible and otherwise, its habitat and its time spp. of growth (M. E. Hard) and Introduction to mushroom science (T. N. Kaul). The isolates from the samples which Mushroom is a general term used mainly for the showed profuse growth on media and found edible were fruiting body of macrofungi (Ascomycota and selected for further study. Out of twenty six samples, fifteen Basidiomycota) and represents only a short reproductive cultures were obtained and best nine cultures were included stage in their life cycle (Das, 2010). Mushroom can be for evaluation study and these are PN-14-25, PN-14-38, PN- epigeous or hypogeous, large enough to be seen with the 14-40, PN-14-41, PN-14-42, PN-14-47, PN-14-48, PN-14-49 naked eyes and can be picked by hands (Chang, 1992). and PN-14-50. Mushrooms are popular for their delicacy and flavor Habitat: and can be regarded as vegetable meat. Mushrooms have achieved significant importance due to their nutritive and The natural habitat of collected samples PN-14-25, medicinal values and also as income generating venture in PN-14-41 was on leaf litter and tree trunk, PN-14-42, PN-14- most of the countries. Mushroom is an attractive protein 47, PN-14-48 and PN-14-49 were on tree trunk, sample PN- source for the developing countries where people rely 14-38 and PN-14-40 were on wooden stump and PN-14-50 heavily on cereal diet (Sohi, 1988). In recent times, increasing was on leaf litter. importance is given for the cultivation of protein rich Morphological characters of selected wild edible oyster mushrooms as they hold greater promise in satisfying the mushrooms protein requirement of mankind. The morphological characters of wild edible oyster Mushrooms have a long association with human kind mushroom viz., cap colour, cap shape, cap diameter, stipe and provide profound biological and economical impact. attachment, stipe length and gill attachment were recorded 8920 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Table 1. Geographical location of selected wild edible oyster mushrooms collected during survey.

Sr. Sample Code Location GPS data Habitat No. No. Agriculture College, Pune Dist-Pune La-18032’01.86”N 1 PN-14-07 Lo-73050’39.73 ”E On tree trunk Pune University, La-18033’09.45”N 2 PN-14-09 Dist – Pune Lo-73049’37.13”E Humus Agriculture College, Pune Dist – La-18032’08.12”N Pune 3 PN-14-16 Lo-73050’53.64 ”E Leaf litter Agriculture College, Pune Dist - La-18032’07.87”N Pune 4 PN-14-18 Lo-73050’54.88 ”E On tree trunk Agriculture College, Pune Dist – La-18032’07.94”N Pune 5 PN-14-19 Lo-73050’54.64 ”E Leaf litter Agriculture College, Pune Dist – La-18032’07.94”N Pune 6 PN-14-20 Lo-73050’54.28 ”E On tree trunk Agriculture College, Pune Dist – La-18032’08.09”N Pune 7 PN-14-24 Lo-73050’29.04 ”E Wooden stumps Agriculture College, Pune Dist – La-18032’08.03”N On tree trunk and leaf Pune litter 8 PN-14-25 Lo-73050’30.08 ”E Peth Avsari ghat, Pune Dist – Pune La-18055’40.13”N 9 PN-14-26 Lo-73055’16.01”E Wooden stumps Peth Avsari ghat, Pune Dist – Pune La-18057’48.22”N 10 PN-14-27 Lo-73056’16.97”E Compost Peth Avsari ghat, Pune Dist – Pune La-18057’07.28”N 11 PN-14-28 Lo-73056’28.30”E Humus Peth Avsari ghat, Pune Dist – Pune La-18058’03.36”N 12 PN-14-29 Lo-73056’26.30”E Humus Peth Avsari ghat, Pune Dist – Pune La-18057’57.32”N 13 PN-14-33 Lo-73056’27.45”E Compost Peth Avsari ghat, Pune Dist – Pune La-18057’55.59”N 14 PN-14-35 Lo-73056’21.10”E Wooden stumps Peth Avsari ghat, Pune Dist – Pune La-18060’18.30”N 15 PN-14-38 Lo-73056’21.02”E Wooden stumps Peth Avsari ghat, Pune Dist – Pune La-18059’21.02”N 16 PN-14-40 Lo-73057’48.60”E Wooden stumps La-19047’27.19”N On tree trunk 17 PN-14-41 Igatpuri, Dist - Nashik Lo-73033’30.1”E and leaf litter La-19041’20.18”N 18 PN-14-42 Igatpuri, Dist - Nashik Lo-73030’21.30”E On tree trunk La-19041’34.67”N 19 PN-14-43 Igatpuri, Dist - Nashik Lo-73033’28.43”E Humus La-19041’69.04”N 20 PN-14-44 Igatpuri, Dist - Nashik Lo-73031’70.20”E Humus La-19041’38.40”N 21 PN-14-46 Vaitarana, Dist-Nashik Lo-73031’18.10”E Wooden stumps La-19040’45.69”N 22 PN-14-47 Vaitarana, Dist- Nashik Lo-73032’38.42”E On tree trunk

PATIL et al., Geographical Locations, Morphological Characterization and Growth Performance of Wild Edible Oyster Mushrooms 8921

Sr. Sample Code Location GPS data Habitat No. No. La-19040’48.30”N 23 PN-14-48 Vaitarana, Dist - Nashik Lo-73032’24.76”E On tree trunk La-19040’45.96”N 24 PN-14-49 Vaitarana, Dist - Nashik Lo-73032’32.63”E On tree trunk La-20031’27.67”N 25 PN-14-50 Kanashi, Dist - Nashik Lo-73054’41.63”E Leaf litter Agriculture College, Pune Dist - La-18032’07.12”N 26 PN-14-61 Pune Lo-73050’48.70”E On tree trunk and presented in Table:2. during survey showed variation in their gill attachment. Cap colour and cap shape There were various forms of gill attachment viz., shortly decurrent, decurrent, adnexed and adnate. The strains PN- Different strains were collected from different 14-25, PN-14-38 and PN-14-40 had shortly decurrent type locations showed variation in colours of cap. The colours of attachment, while PN-14-41 and PN-14-42 had decurrent viz., white, dark pink and light pink were commonly observed. type, strains PN-14-47 and PN-14-50 had adnate type, strain The strains PN-14-25 and PN-14-42 were white, PN-14-38 PN-14-48 had slightly decurrent and strain PN-14-49 had and PN-14-47 were creamy white, PN-14-40 was pinkish, adnexed type of gill attachment. PN-14-41 was pink, PNP-14-48 and PN-14-49 was light pink and PN-14-50 was dark pink in colour. There was variation Growth performance of different wild edible oyster in the cap shape also. The various shapes viz., slightly mushroom isolates on Potato Dextrose Agar medium circular, depressed, flat and oyster like were observed. The Selected wild edible oyster mushrooms were isolated cap shape of strain PN-14-25 was slightly circular, PN-14- and their growth performance on Potato Dextrose Agar 38, PN-14-42 and PN-14-48 were depressed, PN-14-40 and medium was recorded after 3, 5 and 7 days and presented in PN-14-50 were flat, PN-14-41 and PN-14-46 were oyster like. Table 3. Isolates PNP-4, PNP-9 and PNP-10 showed Cap diameter: significantly maximum growth, followed by PNP-7 and PNP- 8, whereas isolate PNP-2 recorded minimum growth The data for cap diameter of collected wild edible performance. oyster mushroom was recorded. The maximum cap diameter was observed in sample PN-14-48 (5.98 cm), followed by Colony diameter PN-14-50 (5.96 cm), PN-14-49 (5.94 cm), PN-14-38 (5.92 cm), Selected wild edible oyster mushrooms were isolated PN-14-41 (5.84 cm), PN-14-25 (5.81 cm), PN-14-42 (5.63 cm) and grown on Potato Dextrose Agar medium. The and PN-14-47 (4.33 cm) where as it was minimum (4.25 cm) observations for their colony diameter were recorded on 7th in PN-14-40. day and are presented in Table:3. The isolates PNP-4 showed Stipe attachment significantly maximum colony diameter (73.3 mm), followed by PNP-10 (72.4 mm), PNP-9 (71.5 mm), PNP-8 (53.9 mm), Stipe attachment of wild edible oyster mushroom was PNP-7 (53.0 mm), PNP-6 (50.5 mm), PNP-3 (49.3 mm), PNP-5 lateral for all the collected strains. There was no variation (35.4 mm), PNP-1 (34.3 mm) while the minimum colony observed for this character. diameter (32.7 mm) was recorded in PNP-2. Stipe length In present study an attempt had been made to survey, The morphological character i.e. stipe length was collect and isolate the wild edible oyster mushrooms and noted for all the collected strains of wild edible oyster evaluated the different isolates for its growth and yield mushrooms. The maximum stipe length was recorded in performance on wheat straw substrate. PN-14-47 (1.23 cm), followed by PN-14-48 (1.17 cm), PN-14- Survey and collection of wild edible oyster mushrooms 50 (1.14 cm), PN-14-49 (0.96 cm), PN-14-42 (0.92 cm), PN-14- During present investigation survey of Sahyadri and 41 (0.91 cm), PN-14-25 (0.85 cm) and PN-14-38 (0.74 cm), Satpuda regions including Pune, Ahmednagar, Nashik and where as minimum stipe length (0.61 cm) was recorded in Jalgaon districts were carried out and samples of wild oyster PN-14-40. mushrooms were collected. Further morphological The remaining samples were either found non edible characters of wild mushrooms viz. their habitat, GPS data, or no growth on culture medium and hence not included in cap colour, cap diameter, cap shape, stipe attachment, stipe present study and their morphological characters were not length, gill attachment were recorded and information included in results. regarding edibility of samples were collected from local Gill attachment people. Isolation and culturing of strains were carried out in laboratory in controlled condition on Potato Dextrose Strains of wild edible oyster mushrooms collected Agar media. Further these mushrooms were feeded to the 8922 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Table 2. Morphological characters of selected wild edible oystermushrooms.

Cap Stipe Sr. Stipe Gill Sample No. Cap colour diameter Cap shape length No. attachment attachment (cm) (cm)

1 PN-14-07 Yellow 4.51 Funnel Lateral 0.77 Adnate

2 PN-14-09 White 4.89 Ovoid Lateral 0.93 Adnate

3 PN-14-16 White 4.15 Oyster Lateral 1.05 Adnasced

4 PN-14-18 Creamy 5.16 Oyster Lateral 1.68 Adnasced

5 PN-14-19 Creamy white 5.89 Oyster Lateral 1.11 Adnasced

6 PN-14-20 Pinkish 4.33 Oyster Lateral 1.98 Adnasced

7 PN-14-24 Light pink 4.74 Oyster Lateral 0.73 Free

8 PN-14-25 White 5.81 Slightly circular Lateral 0.85 Shortly decurrent

9 PN-14-26 White 4.46 Oyster Lateral 1.16 Adnasced

10 PN-14-27 Creamy 4.47 Oyster Lateral 1.74 Adnasced

11 PN-14-28 White 5.64 Oyster Lateral 1.18 Adnasced

12 PN-14-29 White 4.58 Oyster Lateral 1.69 Adnasced

13 PN-14-33 White 5.68 Oyster Lateral 0.94 Adnasced

14 PN-14-35 White 5.14 Oyster Lateral 0.67 Adnasced

15 PN-14-38 Creamy white 5.92 Depressed Lateral 0.74 Shortly decurrent

16 PN-14-40 Pinkish 4.25 Flat Lateral 0.61 Shortly decurrent

17 PN-14-41 Pink 5.84 Oyster like Lateral 0.91 Decurrent

18 PN-14-42 White 5.63 Depressed Lateral 0.92 Decurrent

19 PN-14-43 White 5.44 Oyster Lateral 0.91 Shortly decurrent

20 PN-14-44 White 5.64 Oyster Lateral 0.71 Adnate

21 PN-14-46 Creamy white 4.97 Oyster Lateral 0.98 Shortly decurrent

22 PN-14-47 Creamy white 4.33 Oyster like Lateral 1.23 Adnate

23 PN-14-48 Light pink 5.98 Depressed Lateral 1.17 Slightly decurrent

24 PN-14-49 Light pink 5.94 Oyster like Lateral 0.96 Adnexed

25 PN-14-50 Dark pink 5.96 Flat Lateral 1.14 Adnate

26 PN-14-61 Dark pink 5.86 Oyster Lateral 1.19 Shortly decurrent

PATIL et al., Geographical Locations, Morphological Characterization and Growth Performance of Wild Edible Oyster Mushrooms 8923

Table 3. Growth performance of different wild edible oyster mushroom isolates on Potato Dextrose Agar medium.

Sr. No. Sample No. Growth performance Colony diameter at 7th day* After 3 days After 5 days After 7 days

1 PN-14-07 No growth No growth No growth -

2 PN-14-09 No growth No growth No growth -

3 PN-14-16 - - + 17.7

4 PN-14-18 No growth No growth No growth -

5 PN-14-19 - - + 14.6

6 PN-14-20 - - + 28.3

7 PN-14-24 No growth No growth No growth -

8 PN-14-25 - - + 34.3

9 PN-14-26 No growth No growth No growth -

10 PN-14-27 No growth No growth No growth -

11 PN-14-28 No growth No growth No growth -

12 PN-14-29 No growth No growth No growth -

13 PN-14-33 - - + 27.1

14 PN-14-35 No growth No growth No growth -

15 PN-14-38 - - + 32.7

16 PN-14-40 - + ++ 49.3

17 PN-14-41 + ++ +++ 73.3

18 PN-14-42 - - + 35.4

19 PN-14-43 No growth No growth No growth -

20 PN-14-44 No growth No growth No growth -

21 PN-14-46 - - + 30.8

22 PN-14-47 - + ++ 50.5

23 PN-14-48 + + ++ 53.0

24 PN-14-49 + + ++ 53.9

25 PN-14-50 + ++ +++ 71.5

26 PN-14-61 - - + 31.9

Control 27 (P. sajor-caju) + ++ +++ 72.4

S.E. 4.6

C.D. (0.05) 13.6

*Mean of four replications Note: - Poor growth; + Good growth; ++ Medium growth; +++ Very good growth 8924 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017 rats for continuous ten days. Those strains found edible LITERATURE CITED and showed profuse growth on culture media were selected Agrahar, M. D. and Subbulakshmi, G. 2005. Nutritional value of for further study. edible wild mushrooms collected from Khasi hills Meghalaya. Melghat forest in central India was surveyed for Food Chem. 89: 599-603. occurrence of wild edible fungi and their prevalent Bhaben, T., Lisha, G. and Chandra, S. G. 2011. Wild edible fungal favourable ecological factor in the month of June to February resources used by ethnic tribes of Nagaland, India. Indian J. and 153 species of mushrooms were recorded by Ram et al. Tradit. Know. 10(3): 512-515. (2010). Chang, S.T. 1992. Mushroom biology and mushroom production. Mush. J. Tropics, 11: 45-52. Growth observations of selected wild edible oyster Chang, S.T. and Miles, P.G. 1989. Edible mushrooms and their mushrooms on culture media cultivation.CRC Press. Boca Raton, Florida. 6: 555-565. Selected wild mushrooms were isolated and their Jandaik, C. L. and Kapoor, J. N. 1975. Cultural studies on some growth performance on Potato Dextrose Agar media was edible fungi. Indian J. Mushrooms. 1: 22-26. recorded after 3, 5 and 7 days. Isolates PNP-4, PNP-9 and Karwa, A. and Rai, M. K. 2010. Morphological and biochemical PNP-10 showed significantly maximum growth followed by characterization of different oyster mushroom. Journal of PNP-7 and PNP-8. Isolate PNP-2 recorded least growth on Phytol. 3(8): 18-20. culture media. Mehta, K. B. And Bhandal, M. S. 1988. Mycelial growth variation of Observations regarding colony diameter for all six Pleurotus spp. at different temperatures. Indian J. Mush. isolates were observed after 7 days. The colony diameter 14: 64-65. varied between 32.7 mm to 73.3 mm. The maximum colony Ram, R.C., Pandey, V. N. and Singh, H. B. 2010. Morphological diameter was recorded for isolate PNP-4, followed by PNP- characterization of edible fleshy fungi from different forest regions. Indian J .Sci. Res. 1(2): 33-35. 10, PNP-9, PNP-8, PNP-7, PNP-6, PNP-3, PNP-5 and PNP-1. The minimum colony diameter was recorded for PNP-2. Sharma, A. D. and Jandaik, C.L. 1984. Cultural requirement of two Similar observations for growth performance of wild oyster isolates of Pleurotus eryngii. Indian J. Mushrooms.10-11 (1-2): 20-26. isolates on PDA culture media were noticed by Mshandete and Kivaisi (2013), Asmamaw Tesfaw et al. (2015) and Bilal Shukla, S. and Jaitley, A. K. 2011. Morphological and biochemical characterization of different oyster mushroom (Pleurotus spp.) Sofi et al. (2014). They reported 45 to 81.7 mm colony J. of Phytol. 3(8): 18-20. diameter on Potato Dextrose Agar medium.

Received on 28-10-2017 Accepted on 15-11-2017 Trends in Biosciences 10(43), Print : ISSN 0974-8431, 8925-8928, 2017

Characterization of Chromium Degrading Fungal Isolates Using ITS Gene Sequencing MAJID IQBAL BUTT1, DEEPAK CHAUHAN1,2, MOHD. SHAHNAWAZ*3, 4, FAKHAR SHEHZAD1, TOUSEEF HUSSAIN TRAK5 AND SANJAY SAHAY1 1Department of Botany, Benazir College of Science & Commerce, Barkatullah University Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh 2Present address, Department of Botany, Govt. Degree College for Womens, Udhampur, Jammu and Kashmir 3Department of Botany, Savitribai Phule Pune University, Pune, Maharashtra 4 Present addresses, Plant Biotechnology Divisions CSIR-Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, Canal Road Jammu, Jammu, Jammu and Kashmir 5Departments of Botany, Government NMV P.G College, Hoshangabad, Barkatullah University Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh *email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT sequence (Schoch et al. 2012). It has typically been most Due to various anthropogenic activities the level of useful for molecular systematics at the species level, and chromium is increasing at an alarming rate around the even within species (e.g., to identify geographic races). Because of its higher degree of variation than other genic globe. To tackle with this problem, various microorganisms were reported, to play an important role regions of rDNA (for small- and large-subunit rRNA), variation among individual rDNA repeats can sometimes with their potential to utilize chromium as a carbon source. In our previous study we reported such chromium be observed within both the ITS and IGS regions. degrading fungal isolates collected from the chromium In continuation to our previous report (Butt et al. dumping sites. In the present study, an attempt was made 2017) where we had reported the chromium degrading fungal to characterize most efficient chromium degrading fungal isolates. In the present study, an attempt was made to isolates using both morphological and molecular tools (ITS characterize the most efficient chromium degrading fungal gene sequencing). isolates at both morphological (macroscopic and microscopic and molecular level (ITS gene sequencing). Key words Chromium degrading fungi, Chromium MATERIALS AND METHODS dumping sites, morphological keys, ITS gene The Most efficient chromium degrading fungal sequencing isolates reported in our previous study (Butt et al. 2017) were characterized, both at morphological and molecular Identification of an organism is very important after level. knowing their importance and applications for future use. In the literature there are three different levels for the Characterization of chromium degrading fungal identification of any unknown micro-organism viz a viz isolates at morphological level: morphological level, biochemical level and at the molecular At morphological level, the most efficient chromium level (Aneja 2003). For fungal identification morphological degrading fungal isolates were characterized at both studies have been used since earlier. Recent emphasis is macroscopic and microscopic level using referred however on molecular identification involving certain identifications keys. specific sequences. The sequences from the internal At macroscopic level: transcribed spacer (ITS) region of the nuclear ribosomal DNA are commonly used for the identification of fungi The chromium degrading fungal isolates were (Kõljalg et al. 2005); (Naumann et al. 2007); (Nilsson et al. cultivated on potato dextrose agar plates at corresponding 2008). Internal transcribed spacer (ITS) refers to a piece of isolated temperature for 7 days. The following non-functional RNA situated between structural rRNA on morphological characteristics were evaluated: colony a common precursor transcript. When read from 5’ to 3’, growth (length and width), presence or absence of aerial this polycistronicr RNA precursor transcript contains the mycelium, colony color, presence of wrinkles and furrows, 5' external transcribed sequence 5’ ETS, 18S rRNA, ITS1, pigment production etc. 5.8S rRNA, ITS2, 28S rRNA and finally the 3’ETS. During At microscopic study: rRNA maturation, ETS and ITS pieces are excised and as non-functional maturation by-products rapidly degraded. Microscopic observation of spore and their Sequence comparison of the ITS region is widely used in arrangement is very important in the classification of fungi. and molecular phylogeny because it is easy to Fungal spores were cultivated on potato dextrose medium. amplify even from small quantities of DNA (due to the high The germination and growth of mycelium was observed copy number of rRNA genes), and has a high degree of daily under a light microscope. The microscopic examination variation even between closely related species. This can was made by observing needle mount preparations and be explained by the relatively low evolutionary pressure slide cultures after staining with lactophenol cotton blue. acting on such non-functional sequences. All microscopic identification was carried out by using CH20i microscope (Olympus) and photographs of each The ITS region is the most widely sequenced DNA fungal strain were taken by means of MIGS (Magnous Image region in molecular ecology of fungi (Peay et al. 2008) and Projection System). has been recommended as the universal fungal barcode 8926 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

per the instruction manual. The quality and quantity of the DNA was checked using 0.8% agarose gel electrophoresis using lambda DNA as a marker. Quantification of the DNA: The quality and quantity of DNA was confirmed by comparing with that of the lambda () phage DNA (50ng/µl) as a marker separated on 0.8% Agarose gel. The concentration of DNA was also measured using Nanodrop (NanoDrop 2000 Spectrophotometer, Thermo Scientific, United States). All DNA solutions were diluted to uniform concentration of 10ng/µl for PCR amplification of ITS gene. PCR Amplification of ITS gene: A 25 µl PCR reaction was performed with 1.5mM MgCl2, 0.5 mM of each dNTP, 1XTaq buffer, 1U/µl Taq DNA polymerase, 0.5pM of each primer primer(ITS1: 5' TCCGTAGGTGAACCTGCGG 3'; ITS4: 5' TCCTCCGCTTATTGATATGC3' (Esteve-Zarzoso et al. 1999) and 50 ng DNA template. The PCR (Veriti, gradient thermocyler cycler, Applied Biosystem, USA) was programmed at initial denaturation 95°C 5 min, 35 cycles with denaturation at 94°C 1 min, annealing 55°C 2 min, extension 72°C 2 min followed by final extension at 72°C 10 min. The PCR products were separated on 1.5% Agarose gel (Invitrogen) against negative control and 100 plus DNA ladder (GeneRular, Fermantas) to check Fig. 1. Microphotograph of colony morphology of amplification of the gene. The gel documentation was done F1md under magnification power 40X: using gel doc unit (Alpha Imager, Germany). A. colony structure; B. conidiophores structure; Elution and sequencing of the amplified bands: C. old colony. After electrophoresis (1.2% Agarose gel) all the genes were eluted using gel elution kit (GeneMark, Taiwan) using Characterization of chromium degrading fungal the instruction manual. 2 µl of the eluted DNA was checked isolates at molecular level: on 1.2% Agarose gel for quality against the 100 plus bp At molecular level the most efficient chromium DNA ladder (Gene Ruler) as marker After quantification degrading fungal isolates (BPF-4) was identified based on using Nanodrop, the good quality eluted DNA along with ITS gene sequencing tool. primers was given to commercial lab for sequencing Extraction of genomic DNA: Identification and molecular phylogeny of the chromium degrading fungal isolate: The genomic DNA of the most efficient chromium The chromatograms of the sequences were viewed degrading fungal isolates (BPF-4) was using fungal genomic using Chromas Lite software (Chromas, 2012). MEGA6 DNA extraction kit (Bhat Biotech Pvt. Ltd., Bangalore) as software (Tamura et al. 2013) was used to curate the

Fig. 2. Microphotograph of F1md (Curvularia lunata) mycelial and conidial structure, under magnification power 40X BUTT et al., Characterization of Chromium Degrading Fungal Isolates Using Its Gene 8927

Fig. 3. Phylogenetic relationship based on ITS gene sequence between F2dd and ten closely related texa retrieved from Genebank database sequences. entire and white in colour. The old colony showed greenish The sequences were aligned using clustal W and sectors. The growth rate of colony was moderate. muscle tool of the MEGA6 software (Tamura et al. 2013). All At microscopic level: the curated sequences were compared to the non-redundant Hyphae of F md were septate and hyaline. Conidial NCBI database by using BLASTN, with the default settings 1 heads were biseriate (containing metula that support used to find the most similar sequence and were sorted by phialides) and columnar. Conidiophores were smooth-walled the E score. A representative sequence of 10 most similar and hyaline, 70 to 300µm long, terminating in mostly globose neighbors was aligned using CLUSTAL W2 for multiple vesicles. The conidiophores head was short, columnar and alignments with the default settings. The multiple-alignment uniseraite with ovate vesicle. Conidia are small (2-2.5 µm), file was then used to create a neighbor-joining phylogram globose, smooth and brown. Globose, sessile, hyaline with CLUSTAL W2. accessory conidia (2-6 µm) frequently produced on RESULTS AND DISCUSSION submerged hyphae (Fig. 1B). On the bases of macro and Characterization of chromium degrading fungal microscopic characters the isolate was identified as Aspergillus terries (Barnett and Hunter 1972); (Gilman 1957). isolates at morphological level:

The F2md mycelia were found to beseptate, At macroscopic level: dematiaceous producing brown conidiophores. The conidia were curved slightly, distinctly, transversely septate, with F1md colonies on potato dextrose agar at 25°C were initially creamish, sometimes with light green center, an expanded third cell from the pore end of the conidium. gradually becoming beige to buff to cinnamon (Fig. 1A). The conidia were septate from edge to edge of the conidial Reverse is colorless or very light yellow. Moderate to rapid wall (Fig. 2). The isolate was thus identified as Curvularia growth rate, colonies become finely granular with conidial lunata (Gilman 1957). production and brown in colour when grew old (Fig. 1C). Whereas the mycelium of F2dd isolate was thin- walled; penicilli mostly biverticillate, often monoverticillate; In case of F2md fungal isolate, dark shiny velvety- black colony with fluffy surface and dark bluish-black metulae in verticils of 2-3, roughened, phialidesampulliform, reverses of the colonywas reported. The older colony in verticils of 5-10, smooth to finely roughened, mostly becomes compact and fleshy. short; conidia subspheroidal, less often ellipsoidal, finely Where as in F2dd isolate, the colony was compact or roughened, thin walled, borne in loose, disordered, dense, center somewhat raised, sulcate, velutinous, margin entangled chains. 8928 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Characterization of chromium degrading fungal Barnett HL, Hunter BB (1972) Illustrated genera of imperfect fungi. isolates at molecular level: Illustrated genera of imperfect fungi (3rd ed) Butt MI, Chauhan D, Shahnawaz M, Shehzad F, Trak TH, Sahay, Phylogenetic analysis of the most efficient chromium Sanjay 2017. Collection, Isolation and screening of fungal isolates degrading fungal isolate strain F2dd: with potential to degrade chromium. Trends in Bioscience 10(42): The ITS sequences of ten closely related taxa were 8875-8882 retrieved from GeneBank and evolutionary history was Esteve-Zarzoso B, Belloch C, Uruburu F, Querol A (1999) inferred using the Neighbor-Joining method. The optimal Identification of yeasts by RFLP analysis of the 5.8 S rRNA gene and the two ribosomal internal transcribed spacers. tree with the sum of branch length = 0.02129630 is shown International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary (next to the branches). The evolutionary distances were Microbiology 49(1):329-337 computed using the p-distance method and are in the units Gilman JC 1957. A manual of soil fungi. Oxford AndIbh Publishing of the number of base differences per site. The analysis Co.; New Delhi involved 11 nucleotide sequences. All positions containing Gouda MK 2000. Studies on chromate reduction by three Aspergillus gaps and missing data were eliminated. There were a total species. Fresenius Environmental Bulletin 9(11/12):799-808 of 540 positions in the final data set. Evolutionary analyses Kõljalg U, Larsson KH, Abarenkov K, Nilsson RH, Alexander IJ, were conducted in MEGA6. The dendrogram is shown in Eberhardt U, Erland S, Hoiland K, Kjoller R, Larsson E 2005. Fig.3. F2dd was identified as the species of Penicillium; UNITE: a database providing web-based methods for the most likely P. canescense. molecular identification of ectomycorrhizal fungi. New In literature maximum microbes which were reported Phytologist 166(3):1063-1068 to degrade chromium were from domain bacteria. Only few Naumann A, Navarro-Gonzalez M, Sanchez-Hernandez O, Hoegger fungal isolates e.g. Aspergilli (Gouda 2000) with potential PJ, Kus U 2007. Correct identification of wood-inhabiting fungi to degrade Cr (VI) were reported. by ITS analysis. Current Trends in Biotechnology and Pharmacy 1(1):41-61 In the present study we documented the efficient Nilsson RH, Kristiansson E, Ryberg M, Hallenberg N, Larsson K-H chromium degrading fungi at both morphological and 2008. Intraspecific ITS variability in the kingdom Fungi as molecular level, and the isolate F2dd was identified as the expressed in the international sequence databases and its species of Penicillium; most likely P. canescense. implications for molecular species identification. Evolutionary ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Bioinformatics Online 4:193 Peay KG, Kennedy PG, Bruns TD 2008. Fungal community ecology: MIB and DC are thankful to the Principal, Department a hybrid beast with a molecular master. AIBS Bulletin 58(9):799- of Botany, Benazir College of Science & Commerce, 810 Barkatullah University Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh, India for Schoch CL, Seifert KA, Huhndorf S, Robert V, Spouge JL, Levesque providing facilities to carry out the work. MS is highly CA, Chen W, Bolchacova E, Voigt K, Crous PW 2012. Nuclear indebted to DST-SERB for National Post-doctoral ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region as a universal Fellowship. DNA barcode marker for Fungi. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109(16):6241-6246 LITERATURE CITED Tamura K, Stecher G, Peterson D, Filipski A, Kumar S 2013. MEGA6: Aneja KR 2003. Experiments in microbiology, plant pathology and molecular evolutionary genetics analysis version 6.0. Molecular biotechnology. New Age International Biology and Evolution 30(12):2725-2729

Received on 13-11-2017 Accepted on 16-11-2017 Trends in Biosciences 10(43), Print : ISSN 0974-8431, 8929-8930, 2017

Performance of Irrigated Wheat FLD’s in Mula Command Area of Ahmednagar S.S. TUWAR AND B.D. BHAKARE AICRP on Irrigation Water Management, Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri, Dist. Ahmednagar, Maharashtra. email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT collected and analyzed with suitable statistical tools and The present study was carried out on wheat variety NIAW- procedure. The statistical tools use to find out technology gaps (Samui et.al.2000) as follows. 301 at farmer’s fields in Ahmednagar district of Maharashtra during 2013-14 to 2015-16. The productivity Demonstration yield – Farmers practice and yield gaps between improved package and practices Percent increase in yield= ———————————X100 under Front Line Demonstrations (FLD’s) and farmer’s Farmers practice practice of wheat crop in irrigated condition were compared Technology gap = Potential yield – Demonstration yield with each other. The data obtained was average for three years. It was observed that on an average 18.84 per cent Extension gap = Demonstration yield – Yield under increased grain yield was recorded in demonstration plots farmers practice than the farmer’s practices. The technology gap, extension Potential yield – Demonstration yield -1 -1 gap and technology index were 10.02 q ha , 4.78 q ha and Technology index= —————————————X 100 25.05 per cent, respectively. The net returns of Rs. 27,024 Potential yield compared to farmers practice returns of Rs. 19,382 were obtained. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Wheat yield Key words Wheat, front line demonstration (FLD), technology gap, extension gap, technology The data on wheat FLD’s yield during the three years index and economic return. is presented in table 1. The results revealed that due to frontline demonstration on wheat an average yield was 29.98 qha-1 under demonstrated plots as compared to farmers Wheat is the second most important food crop in practice 25.20 q ha-1. The wheat yield was higher by 18.84% India after rice, it play an important role in food security of over the prevailing farmers practice. The results indicate the country. In Maharashtra wheat is grown on 0.90 mha that the higher average grain yield in demonstration plots area with production 124 million tones and productivity of is due to adoption of new agricultural technologies as per 1381 kg ha-1 (Anonymous 2015). The productivity of wheat recommendations. The results are in close conformity with varies widely from location to location. Front Line research results of Sharma et.al.(2016) and Singh (2017). demonstration (FLD) is the concept to demonstrate the newly evolved technologies on farmers field viz. use of Technology gap improved varieties, integrated nutrient management, The technology gap was 9.17, 7.57 and 13.32 q ha-1 integrated pest management etc. Keeping in view the above during 2013-14, 2014-15 and 2015-16, respectively. The facts FLD’s of improved production technology on wheat average technology gap found was 10.02 q ha-1. The were conducted on farmers field to enhance the productivity technology gap observed may be attributed to the and economic returns to the beneficiary farmers & thus dissimilarity in the soil fertility status, agricultural promote the technology adoption towards the other. technologies and climatic situations. MATERIAL AND METHODS Extension gap The FLD’s on wheat were conducted at farmers field An extension gap between demonstrated technology in Mula Command Area of Ahmednagar district to assess and farmers practice ranges from 3.83 to 5.65 q ha-1 during its performance during the year 2013-14 to 2015-16. Each different three years. On an average extension gap under demonstration was of 0.20 ha. area and the inputs were three year FLD programme was 4.78 q ha-1 which emphasized applied as per the package of practices of wheat crop the need to educate the farmers through various extension recommended by Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth, Rahuri. means i.e. propaganda of frontline demonstration for The improved variety NIAW-301, recommended seed rate adoption of improved production and protection -1 (100 kgha ) and sara method of sowing with recommended technologies, to revert the trend of wide extension gap. dose of fertilizer (120 kg N+ 60 Kg P O + 40 Kg K O ha-1.) 2 5 2 The extension gap can be subsequently change with use nd and timely sowing (2 week of November) was used during of latest production technologies with high yielding all the three years for conducting FLD’s. Adjacent field of varieties. 0.20 ha size was considered as control plot for comparison (i.e. farmers practice). Technology index The frontline demonstration plots were regularly The technology index shows the feasibility of the visited by the scientist of the AICRP on Irrigation Water demonstrated technology at the farmers field. The Management, MPKV, Rahuri. The yield data were collected technology index varied from 18.93 to 33.30 per cent (Table from both the demonstration and farmers practice were 1). On an average technology index was observed 25.05 8930 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Table 1. Performance of frontline demonstration on wheat.

Year No. Area Average Increase Techno- Exten- Techno- Net Returns Rs. ha-1 B:C Ratio of ha. yield (q ha-1) in logical sion logical gap gap index Trials Demons- Farmer’s Yield Demons- Farmer’s Demon- Farmer’s tration practice (%) (q/ha) (q/ha) (%) tration practice stration practice plot plot plot 2013- 2 0.20 30.83 25.98 18.67 9.17 4.85 22.93 30502 23539 2.05 1.88 14 2014- 2 0.20 32.43 26.78 21.10 7.57 5.65 18.93 35920 26430 2.34 2.04 15 2015- 2 0.20 26.68 22.85 16.76 13.32 3.83 33.30 14651 8177 1.39 1.22 16 Average 29.98 25.20 18.84 10.02 4.78 25.05 27024 19382 1.93 1.71

per cent during three years of FLD programme. It may be LITERATURE CITED due to uneven and erratic rainfall and different soil type. Anonymous 2015: Agriculture statistics at glance Government of The results are in corroboration with the findings of Dhaka India. Ministry of Agriculture and farmers welfare, Department et.al. (2010) and Singh (2017) of Agril. and farm welfare Directorate of Economics Statistic Economic return Page-88. Dhaka, B.L., Meena, B.S. and Suwalka, R.L. 2010. Popularization of The lower the value of technology index more is the improved maize production technology through frontline feasibility of the technology. The inputs and outputs prices demonstrations in south-eastern Rajasthan. J.Agril.Sci. 1(1):39- of commodities prevailed during the study of demonstration 42. were taken for calculating net return and benefit: cost ratio Mokidue, I, Mohanty, A.K. and Sanjay, K. 2011. Correlating growth, (Table 1). The cultivation of wheat under improved yield and adaption of urd bean technologies. Indian Journal of technologies gave higher net returns of Rs. 30502, 35920 Ex. Edu. 11(2): 20-24. and 14651 ha-1 respectively as compared to farmers practice. Samui, S.K, Mitra, S., Roy, D.K., Mandal, A.K. and Saha, D. 2000. Similar findings were reported by Singh (2017). The benefit Evaluation of front line demonstration on groundnut. Journal cost ratio of wheat cultivation under improved cultivation of the Indian Society Costal Agricultural Research 18(2): 180- practices were 2.05, 2.34 and 1.39 and 1.88,2.04 and1.22 183. under farmer’s practices in all the years. This may be due to Sharma, V., Kumar, V., Sharma, S.C. and Singh, S. 2016. Productivity higher yield obtained under improved technologies enhancement and popularization of improved production compared to farmers practice. This finding is in line with technologies in wheat through frontline demonstaraions. Journal of Applied and Natural Science 8(1): 423-428. the finding s of Mokidue et al. (2011). Singh, D, Patel, A.K., Baghel, M.S., Singh, A and Singh, A.K. 2017 CONCLUSION Impact of Frontline Demonstration on the yield and Economics On the basis of the results of frontline demonstrations of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) in Siddhi District of Madhya conducted, the yield and returns in wheat crop increased Pradesh. Journal of Agriresearch 1 (1): 22-25. substantially with use of improved production technology. Singh, S.B. 2017. Impact of frontline demonstrations on yield of The productivity gain under FLD’s over existing practices wheat (Triticum aestivum) under rain fed condition in Uttarakhand. International journal of Science, Environment of wheat cultivation created awareness and motivated the and Technology 6(1): 779-786. other farmers to adopt improved production technologies of wheat in the district. Received on 07-11-2017 Accepted on 15-11-2017 Trends in Biosciences 10(43), Print : ISSN 0974-8431, 8931-8936, 2017

Investigation on the Effect of Vertical Axis Rotary Tiller (Rotavator) for Tillage System D. GANAPATHI AND V.M. DURAISAMY Agricultural Machinery Research Centre, TNAU, Coimbatore. email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT row vertical axis rotavator has been developed and In this research, the effect of horizontal and vertical axis evaluated. Therefore the mean weight diameter, and cone index of soil investigated. rotary tillers in different forward speed, depth and rotor rpm on mean weight diameter and cone index have been The axis of ratavator may rotate in vertical axle of analyzed. Soil mean weight diameter is measured by rotor shaft (Fig.1) standard sieve analysis method and cone penetrometer was MATERIALS AND METHODS used to measure soil cone index. Factorial experiments based on a randomized complete block with 72 treatments, Soil type four different forward speeds of 2.0, 2.5, 3.0 and 3.5 Kmph; The experiments were done in farm machinery three different depths of 150, 200 and 250 mm; three workshop soil bin, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, India. different rotor rpm of 220, 270 and 310 and with two rotary The soil bin has two compartments one side is filled with tillers with three replications were used. Result showed clay soil and the other side is filled with sand. The clay soil that in the optimum speed of 3.0 Kmph and 200mm of depth is taken for the experiment Fig.2. with a rotor rpm of 270 were 34.8mm and 1mm of the Soil moisture content and bulk density measurements maximum and minimum mean weight diameter for vertical axis rotary tiller respectively; the maximum and minimum Soil moisture content was determined using the MWD in 3.0 kmph and 150 mm of depth (maximum depth) standard oven drying procedure. The soil sample for the with a rotor rpm of 270 were 45 mm and 1mm for horizontal determination of the moisture content collected immediately axis rotary tiller. The values of cone index 2970 kPa and upon the completion of test run. At least 12 soil samples 3480 kPa for vertical axis and horizontal axis rotary tiller were collected in metallic containers had a specified volume were obtained. for each test run from different located strata of the soil whose moisture content was to be determined. The mass Key words rotavator, vertical axis, tillage, rotary tiller, of the collected moist samples was determined using a scale power harrow, implement. balance with an accuracy of 0.01g, and placed in a constant temperature oven for drying at a temperature of about 1050 The Indian agriculture tillage system is in the stage C for a minimum drying period of 24 hours as described by that Moldboard plough, disc plough are replaced with ASAE standards. Also soil moisture meter were used, it horizontal axis rotary tillers. Rotavator became popular directly digit the moisture content of soil (Fig.3). Finally among the farming community because of its time and found that moisture content and bulk density was 16.2% 3 energy saving. Potekar et al., reported that rotavator tillage and 1.72g/cm respectively. system energy consumption was less compared to other Experimental layout tillage implements. This resulted in fine seedbed preparation Factorial experiments based on a complete block with with less effort and within short time as compared to other 72 treatments four different forward speeds of 2.0, 2.5, 3.0 tillage systems. Prasad J compared the performance of and 3.5 Kmph; three different depths of 150, 200 and 250 conventional plows with horizontal axis rotavator and mm; three different rotor rpm of 220, 270 and 310 and with reported that soil specific weight and mean weight diameter two rotary tillers were used. All experiments have been done were much less for rotavator. Destan et al., reported that in three replications. Yuvraj 215 tractor was used in all the by using rotavator soil which had been tillage before will experiments. be soft and mixed so the clods size will have a good distribution. In compare with active implement rotavator For each experiment rotavator were mounted on needs less pass in farm to reach the same soil quality. tractor and their power was provided through PTO shaft of Azadbakht et al., compared and evaluated the performance the tractor. Determining mean weight diameter and cone of rotavator with horizontal rotary axis and vertical rotary index of soil was done after ploughing. axis. The mean weight diameter, cross sectional area Soil cone index measurements disturbed and cone index of soil investigated. In India The cone penetrometer was used to measure soil cone vertical axis rotary tiller has been introduced in recent years index in different depths. This device consists of four main by some farm equipment manufacturers. Farmers claim parts an aluminium rod with detachable cone, load cell, difference between horizontal and vertical axis rotary action digital display and sensor. The sensor measures the depth but there are no scientific work compare them. Some and shown in the display. Data were collected in the soil research has been done on comparison between rotavator bin and then transferred to computer Fig.4. and conventional tillage implements. In this research single 8932 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Table 1. Comparison tests of different levels of depth and plough type on MWD

Ploughs Depth (mm) Vertical Horizontal 150 35.0Ba 45.0Aa 200 34.8Ba - 250 34.5Ba -

*same capital letters in each row and same small letters in each column show not significant different (LSD 1%).

Table 2. Comparison tests of different levels of forward speed and type of plough on MWD

Ploughs Forward speed (Kmph) Vertical Horizontal 2.0 33.8Ba 45.0Aa 2.5 34.3Ba 46.7Ab 3.0 34.8Ba 48.2Ab 3.5 35.3Ba 52.3Aa

*same capital letters in each row and same small letters in each column show not significant different (LSD 1%).

Table 3. Comparison tests of different levels of rotary rpm and type of plough on MWD

Rotary rpm Ploughs Vertical Horizontal Soil dust, % 220 36.2Ba 49.0Aa 15 270 34.3Ba 46.7Ab 18 310 33.8Ba 43.2Ab 25

*same capital letters in each row and same small letters in each column show not significant different (LSD 1%). Table 4. Cone index measurement

S. No Vertical axis plough Horizontal axis plough Depth, mm Force, kPa Depth, mm Force, kPa 1 100 1950 100 2120 2 150 2320 150 2760 3 200 2560 200 3050 4 250 2970 250 3480

Mean weight diameter measurements class i;

To measure soil fragmentation in different depth and WA = weight of total material in each size class i; velocity with two ploughs, rectangular sieve was used. The Wc = weight of coarse material in size i as measured soil was collected in different depths like 100, 150, 200 and after weight sieving; 250mm and sieve analysis were done for each depth. Sieves Wo = weight of aggregates placed on the sieve prior taken for the experiment were in the sizes of 2, 3, 4, 5, 10, 20, to wet sieving size i; 25, 35 and 45 mm (Fig. 5) W = total sample weight. To calculate the proportion of the total sample that is T in each aggregate size class (Pawi). RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Soil mean weight diameter determination The effects of two different rotavator with vertical Pawi and horizontal axis in different forward speed, rotor rpm Where, and depths on MWD have been analysed in this experiment. According to table I in each depth level the effects of Pawi = proportion of aggregate weight for each size plough type is significant but type of plough on different GANAPATHI and DURAISAMY, Investigation on the Effect of Vertical Axis Rotary Tiller (Rotavator) for Tillage System 8933

Fig.1 Single row vertical axis rotary tiller

Fig. 3. Soil moisture meter

Fig. 2. Soil bin

Fig. 4b. Soil cone index measurement

depth levels have no effect on MWD. It means that in same depth vertical axis rotavator cut down soil more than horizontal one but in both of them the amount of soil pulverization in different depth is same because in horizontal axis soil picks up as a whole a piece and create hunk and these hunks are thrown back during axis rotation and on impact with the back plate may not shatter, but in vertical axis rotavator soil is mixed and uniformly cut down. Also it Fig.4.a Cone penetrometer was absorbed that maximum MWD in 150mm and horizontal axis rotavator was 45.0mm. Minimum MWD in 150mm and vertical axis rotavator was 35.0mm. 8934 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Fig. 5. Soil MWD determination by sieve analysis - horizontal plough (left), vertical plough (center) and sieve.

Fig.6. Comparison of MWD with two different rotavator (horizontal and vertical) in different forward speed

Fig. 7. Comparison of MWD with two different rotavator (horizontal and vertical) in different rotary rpm GANAPATHI and DURAISAMY, Investigation on the Effect of Vertical Axis Rotary Tiller (Rotavator) for Tillage System 8935

Fig.8.a.Soil cone index for vertical axis rotavator

According to table II in each forward speed the effects of plough type is meaningful but in vertical axis rotavator different levels of forward speed have no effect on MWD but in horizontal axis rotavator different levels of forward speed have a effect on MWD. This is because soil is picked up as a whole piece and create hunk in horizontal axis rotavator. This kind of rotavator in lower forward speed has much time to cut down the hunks. Vertical axis rotavator never creates hunks and mixes soil, therefore forward speed has no effects on it. Also it was absorbed that maximum MWD in 3.5Kmph and horizontal axis rotavator was 52.3mm. Minimum MWD in 2.0 Kmph and vertical axis rotavator was 33.8mm (Fig. 6). According to table III in each rotary rpm the effects of plough type is meaningful but in both vertical and horizontal rotavator the levels of effect have on MWD. This is because lower rpm creates soil cut down as a whole piece and create hunk in both the rotavator and higher rpm causes the soil in powdery form. The amount of dust soil was high in higher rpm which is result in soil erosion. So Fig.8.b. Soil cone index the optimum rpm of 270 was used in vertical axis rotavator. Also it was absorbed that maximum MWD in 310rpm and because that, according to Fig 6 and 7 the result is that horizontal axis rotavator was 43.2 mm. Minimum MWD in MWD of horizontal axis rotavator is much more than vertical 220 rpm and vertical axis rotavator was 36.8.8mm (Fig. 7). one. So tillage with this plough creates more resistant soil. The soil dust was measured in three rotary rpm and 270rpm Values of 2970 and 3480 kPa for vertical axis rotavator and was considered as the optimum rpm. horizontal axis rotavator are shown in Fig. 8.b. Cone index measurement CONCLUSION In this test the effects of two different type rotavator Considering the speed increase will lead to increased in different forward speed, rotor rpm and depth on soil cone farm efficiency, in rotavator with vertical axis increasing index were statically analysed. farm efficiency and more pulverization are simultaneously. As it clear in Fig.8.a.cone index increases with increase While in rotavator with horizontal axis increasing farm in depth. This is because that, according to table I MWD efficiency leads to less pulverization. Both the horizontal increases with increase in depth in both ploughs so in and vertical rotavators have different ploughing depth, deeper depth more force is needed. Values of 1950, 2320, while in rotavator with vertical axis most hunks are crushed 2560 and 2970 kPa for 100, 150, 200 and 250mm are shown at different depths. Higher rotary rpm creates the soil more respectively. According to Fig 8.b soil resistance in vertical powdery form also the lower rpm causes soil larger in size. axis rotavator is less than horizontal axis rotavator. This is Also, soil resistance in vertical axis rotavator is less than 8936 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017 horizontal axis rotavator. Thus, regardless of other factors Environmental, Ecological, Geological and Mining Engineering. Vol:8 and according to the results, use of rotavator with vertical No.1. blade more appropriate than rotavator with horizontal blades. Destan M. F and and K. Houmy. 1990. Effects of Design and Kinematic Parameters of LITERATURE CITED Rotary Cultivators on Soil Structure. Soil & Tillage Research. 17, ASAE Standards, ASAE EP291.2 DEC98. 2000. Terminology and 291-301. Definitions for Soil Gill W.R. and W.R and G. E. V. Berg. 1967. Soil Dynamics in Tillage Tillage and Soil-Tool Relationships. American Society of Agricultural and Traction. Engineers. St. Joseph,Mich. USA. Agricultural Handbook No. 316. Washington D.C., US GPO. Azadbakht M. Design, Development and Evaluation of Rotary Plow. Potekar J.M and D.D. Tekale. 2004. Comparative performance of 1999. M.Sc. Thesis, tractor drawn implements College of Agriculture, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran (in Farsi with tillage system with rotavator tillage system. Karnataka J.Agric.Sci., English abstract). 17(1) : ( 76-80). Azadbakht M., B. azadbakht., R.J. Galogah., A. Kiapei and H. Jafari. Prasad J. 1996. A Comparison between a Rotavator and Conventional 2014. Soil Properties Tillage Equipment after Plowing with Vertical and horizontal axis rotavator. for Wheat-Soybean Rotations on Vertisol in Central lndia. Soil & International journal of Tillage Research. 37, 191-199

Received on 11-11-2017 Accepted on 17-11-2017 Trends in Biosciences 10(43), Print : ISSN 0974-8431, 8937-8943, 2017

Combining Ability Analysis for Yield and Its Component Traits in Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.).

S.G. DESHMUKH1, N.R. POTDUKHE2, H.S. DESHMUKH3 AND R.S. NANDANWAR4

1Department of Agril. Botany, Dr.PDKV, Akola. 2Wheat Research Unit, Dr.PDKV, Akola. 3Department of Agril. Botany, MPKV Rahuri. 4Department of Agril. Botany, Dr.PDKV, Akola. email : [email protected]

ABSTRACT et al.2012). Future wheat breeding needs to be extremely efficient as the land allocated to wheat is unlikely to increase The present investigation was undertaken for analysis of gene action involved in grain yield and yield contributing significantly, and the use of inputs cannot increase at similar rates as they have in the last half-century (Hall and traits in 16 parental genotypes (9 lines and 7 testers) and Richards, 2013).The selection of genetically superior 63 F1 hybrids in a line x tester design. The F1 S along parents and one check variety viz. GW-322, were evaluated parents is an important step in the development of high yielding varieties which is possible only by the study of using Randomized Block Design during Rabi 14-15. The combining ability. In systematic breeding program, Analysis of Variance for combining ability showed that mean square due to general (GCA) and specific (SCA) selection of parents with desirable characteristics having good general combining ability effects for grain yield and combining ability, were significant for all the traits its components, high heterosis and high estimates of studied, reflecting the importance of both additive and non- additive gene effects in the inheritance of these characters. specific combining ability effects are essential. These parameters will help in formulating an efficient and effective The ratio of GCA to SCA variance were found high for breeding procedure to bring about rapid and suitable days to 50% earhead emergence, days to 50 per cent flowering, plant height, length of earhead (cm) and number improvement in this crop. The general and specific combining ability effects are very effective genetic of spikelets earhead-1. The characters, days to maturity, parameters in deciding, the next phase of breeding program number of effective tillers, number of grains earhead-1, (Kumar et al, 2015). The main objective of the present study grain weight earhead-1 (g), grain weight plant-1(g), straw was to obtain the information on the extent of combining weight plant-1 (g), 1000 grain weight (g) and harvest index, ability for grain yield and its related traits in the selection in which the ratio of GCA to SCA variances was found lower than unity. Among female parents, FLW-25 and WH- process. 595 were the best general combiner for grain yield and MATERIALS AND METHODS yield related traits. Two crosses viz., FLW-25×ISD-215 The experimental material were consists of 9 lines, 7 and DWR-4101× FLW-27 have been identified which were testers, 63 crosses and 1 Zonal check variety (GW- 322 ). exhibited high mean performance, high standard heterosis, The experiment was carried out in two phases, during Rabi, significant sca effects and both the parents involved in 2013-14 selected genotypes were crossed in line x tester these crosses had good (high × high) combining ability design to generate 63 crosses and these crosses along effect for yield. with parents and check were evaluated for combining ability analysis at Wheat Research Unit, Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Key words Combining ability, Line × Tester, Gene Krishi Vidhyapeeth,Akola during Rabi 14-15. All these action, Wheat. genotypes were grown in randomized block design with three replications. The data were recorded for characters Among the major crops, wheat is one of the most (viz. days to 50% earhead emergence, days to 50 per cent critical for warranting human nourishment, it is the most flowering, days to maturity, plant height, number of effective widely crop grown globally and is the primary source of tillers, length of earhead (cm), number of spikelets earhead- protein for the world population. India is considered to be 1, number of grains earhead-1, grain weight earhead-1 (g), the second largest producer of wheat (Sharma 2013) and grain weight plant-1(g), straw weight plant-1 (g), 1000 grain occupies second position after China. The geometrical weight (g), harvest index.). Analysis of Variance was carried increase in India’s population has been a challenge for out as per the standard method (Panse and Sukhatme, 1967) agricultural scientists. To fulfill the projected demand of for all the characters under study. The variation among the world population for food grains, it is essential that hybrids was partitioned further into general (gca) and production and productivity of wheat must be increased. specific (sca) combining ability components in accordance However, this may not be easily achieved as there is with the procedure of Kempthorne (1957). The criticism mounting evidence that genetic gains in yield have recently and suggestions of Arunachalam (1974) are kept in view. been much lower than what it would be required (Reynolds The actual combining ability variances, their effects and 8938 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Table 1. Analysis of variance for combining ability.

Sources of d.f. Mean Sum of Squares variation Days to Days to 50% Days to Plant No. of Length of Number 50% flowering maturity height (cm) effective earhead of emergence tillers/plant (cm) spikelet/ earhead Replications 2 7.762 0.862 3.815 51.610 0.749 0.127 1.941 Crosses 62 24.295** 25.032** 24.160** 70.534** 3.327** 4.165** 13.097** Females 8 126.488** 134.259** 117.228* 238.896** 13.702** 23.375** 69.596** (Lines) * Males 6 17.924 15.626 3.480 133.912** 0.309 1.001 3.542 (Testers) Females Vs 48 8.059** 8.003** 11.234** 34.552 1.975** 1.359** 4.875** Males (Lines Vs Testers) Error 124 4.649 3.228 2.041 25.641 0.434 0.609 1.436

Sources of d.f. Mean Sum of Squares variation Number of Grain weight/ Grain Straw weight/ 1000 Grain Harvest index grains/ earhead Earhead (g) weight/ plant (g) weight (g) plant (g) Replications 2 2.025 0.068 1.786 2.847* 5.950 0.001 Crosses 62 190.629** 0.345** 19.697** 9.339** 45.588** 0.013** Females 8 858.397** 1.517** 63.106** 24.165** 195.573** 0.042** (Lines) Males 6 77.199 0.173 15.636 3.513 28.341 0.012 (Testers) Females Vs 48 93.513** 0.171** 12.969** 7.597** 22.746** 0.009** Males (Lines Vs Testers) Error 124 4.587 0.027 0.589 0.712 7.475 0.001

Table 2. Analysis of Variance of combining ability for different characters

Sources of Mean Sum of Squares variation Days to 50% Days to 50% Days to Plant No. of Length of Number of emergence flowering maturity height effective earhead spikelet/ (cm) tillers/plant (cm) earhead GCA 2.672** 2.789** 2.046** 6.327** 0.209** 0.451** 1.320** SCA 1.366** 1.734** 3.095** 3.767* 0.510** 0.259** 1.190** GCA/SCA 1.955 1.608 0.661 1.679 0.410 1.740 1.109

Sources of Mean Sum of Squares variation Number of grains/ Grain weight/ Grain Straw 1000 Grain Harvest index earhead Earhead (g) weight/ weight/ weight (g) plant (g) plant (g) GCA 15.595** 0.028** 1.100** 0.260** 3.717** 0.0008**

SCA 29.441** 0.044** 4.129** 2.278** 5.079** 0.0027** GCA/SCA 0.529 0.629 0.266 0.114 0.731 0.281

DESHMUKH et al., Combining Ability Analysis for Yield and Its Component Traits in Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) 8939

Table 3. General combining ability effects of the parents for different characters.

SN Genotype GCA Days to 50% Days to 50% Days to Plant No. of Length of Number of emergence flowering maturity height (cm) effective earhead spikelet/ tillers/plant (cm) earhead Females 01 WH - 595 -4.952** -5.323** -1.074** 3.003** 0.466** -1.018** -2.388** 02 RL-83 2.619** 2.439** 4.402** 0.479 1.508** 0.587** 0.374 03 PAU HD- -0.905* -1.132** -0.598 -2.817** -0.049 0.192 -1.531** 2329 KLM- 3B 04 FLW – 8 -1.143** -0.608 -4.122** 2.764** -0.111 0.120 -1.450** 05 HW- 2015 -0.333 -0.466 -1.026** -0.861 -0.639** 0.330* 0.603* 06 DWR-4099 1.667** 1.582** 0.974** -3.374** -0.468** -2.242** -0.778** 07 DWR -4101 2.952** 3.011** 1.735** -4.634** -0.434** -0.037 3.650** 08 FLW - 25 1.286** 1.534** -1.074** 5.703** 0.828** 0.720** 1.384** 09 GIENT-3 -1.190** -1.037** 0.783* -0.262 -1.101** 1.349** 0.136 SE (gi)+ 0.307 0.258 0.215 0.004 0.103 0.118 0.176 SE (Gi – Gj)+ 0.434 0.365 0.305 1.052 0.145 0.166 0.249 C.D.5% 1.215 1.022 0.853 2.945 0.407 0.466 0.698 C.D.1% 1.606 1.351 1.127 3.893 0.538 0.616 0.922 Males 01 SG-15 0.725 0.640* 0.577* 0.244 0.139 0.231 0.346 02 ISD-215 1.021** 0.862** 0.243 -2.286* -0.183 0.097 0.657** 03 WH-712 -0.460 -0.138 -0.497 1.733 -0.061 -0.017 -0.158 04 RL -22 0.725 0.714* 0.169 -1.567 0.024 -0.084 -0.310 05 VL -798 -0.534 -0.471 -0.275 2.578** 0.095 -0.284 -0.099 06 PUSA-2099 -0.349 -0.434 -0.053 -2.813** 0.028 -0.158 -0.292 07 FLW - 27 -1.127** -1.175** -0.164 2.111* -0.042 0.216 -0.143 SE (gi)+ 0.271 0.228 0.190 0.004 0.091 0.104 0.155 SE (Gi – Gj)+ 0.383 0.322 0.269 0.928 0.128 0.147 0.220 C.D.5% 1.072 0.902 0.752 2.598 0.359 0.411 0.615 C.D.1% 1.417 1.192 0.994 3.433 0.474 0.543 0.813

SN Genotype GCA Number of grains/ Grain weight/ Grain weight/ Straw 1000 Grain Harvest earhead Earhead (g) plant (g) weight/ weight (g) index plant (g)

Females 01 WH - 595 -0.621 0.030 1.167** -0.324 1.442* 0.042** 02 RL-83 - 6.521** -0.459** -1.012** 0.112 -4.828** -0.025** 03 PAU HD- -7.802** -0.309** -2.751** -1.507** -2.922** -0.053** 2329 KLM- 3B 04 FLW – 8 -1.731** -0.069 -0.400* -0.780** -1.148 0.009 05 HW- 2015 6.517** 0.094* 0.172 -1.245** -1.468* 0.031** 06 DWR-4099 0.031 0.205** 0.588** 0.053 3.730** 0.020** 07 DWR -4101 4.288** 0.224** 0.581** 1.501** 1.391* -0.018** 08 FLW - 25 11.355** 0.392** 3.261** 1.033** -0.747 0.063**

8940 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

SN Genotype GCA Number of grains/ Grain weight/ Grain weight/ Straw 1000 Grain Harvest earhead Earhead (g) plant (g) weight/ weight (g) index plant (g) 09 GIENT-3 -5.516** -0.108* -1.606** 1.156** 4.550** -0.070** SE (gi)+ 0.351 0.030 0.118 0.135 0.423 0.004 SE (Gi – 0.497 0.042 0.167 0.190 0.598 0.006 Gj)+ C.D.5% 1.391 0.118 0.466 0.533 1.674 0.016 C.D.1% 1.839 0.155 0.616 0.704 2.212 0.021 Males 01 SG-15 0.675 0.133** 1.255** -0.120 1.594** 0.032** 02 ISD-215 -0.877* -0.066 -0.537** 0.244 -1.306* -0.022** 03 WH-712 2.279** 0.050 0.132 0.417* 0.603 -0.004 04 RL -22 -3.151** -0.094* -1.014** 0.250 0.236 -0.030** 05 VL -798 -0.173 -0.056 -0.409** -0.534** -1.084* 0.003 06 PUSA-2099 0.664 -0.008 -0.057 -0.404* -0.500 0.006 07 FLW - 27 0.583 0.041 0.629** 0.148 0.457 0.014** SE (gi)+ 0.310 0.026 0.104 0.119 0.373 0.004 SE (Gi – 0.438 0.037 0.147 0.168 0.527 0.005 Gj)+ C.D.5% 1.227 0.104 0.411 0.470 1.476 0.014 C.D.1% 1.622 0.137 0.543 0.621 1.951 0.019 the test of significance, were carried out by following the these characters. Similar findings were also reported by methods given by Singh (1973 a, b). Singh et al (2007), Preeti Raj and Kandalar (2013) and Barot RESULTS AND DISCUSSION et al (2014). The characters, days to maturity, number of effective tillers, number of grains earhead-1, grain weight The analysis of variance for combining ability (Table earhead-1 (g), grain weight plant-1(g), straw weight plant-1 1) showed that the variance due to crosses and females (g), 1000 grain weight (g) and harvest index, in which the was found significant for all the characters indicating ratio of GCA to SCA variances was found lower than unity considerable amount of interaction. The males showed which indicated the preponderance of non additive gene significant difference for plant height. The variance due to actions for these characters. Similar findings were also female vs. male was found significant for all the characters reported by Ankita Singh and Anil Kumar (2014) and Patel except plant height, suggesting that significant contribution (2015). of sca effects towards the variation among the crosses. Results are in agreement with Desale and Mehta (2013), Among female parents, FLW-25 was the best general Ankita Singh and Anil Kumar (2014) combiner for grain yield and yield related traits, i.e. number of effective tillers, length of earhead (cm), number of The Analysis of Variance for combining ability spikelets earhead-1, number of grains earhead-1, grain weight (Table 2) showed that mean square due to general (GCA) earhead-1 (g), grain weight plant-1(g), straw weight plant-1 and specific (SCA) combining ability, were significant for (g), harvest index and also showed negative significant all the traits studied, reflecting the importance of both GCA effects for the trait days to maturity, followed by WH- additive and non-additive gene effects in the inheritance of 595 for grain yield and yield related traits, i.e. number of these characters. The results corroborates with the findings effective tillers, 1000 grain weight (g) and harvest index, by of Dholariya et al (2014), Yadav et al (2014) and Ranjana exhibiting significant positive gca effects (Table 3) and also Tiwari et al (2015).The ratio of GCA to SCA variance were for negative significant gca effects for the traits like days to found high for days to 50% earhead emergence, days to 50 50% earhead emergence, days to 50 per cent flowering, per cent flowering, plant height, length of earhead (cm) and days to maturity indicating usefulness in breeding for early number of spikelets earhead-1, which indicated that maturing hybrids ( Table 3). Among male parents, SG-15 importance of additive gene actions in the expression of DESHMUKH et al., Combining Ability Analysis for Yield and Its Component Traits in Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) 8941

Table 4. SCA effects of promising crosses in desirable direction for yield and other traits.

SN Crosses SCA Days to Days to Days to Plant No. of Length of Number 50% 50% maturity height effective earhead of emergence flowering (cm) tillers/plant (cm) spikelet/ earhead

01 HW-2015 × SG-15 - - - - 1.247** 1.141* - 02 DWR-4101 × - - -1.995* - - 1.163** - PUSA-2099 03 GIENT-3 × PUSA- - - - - 0.786* - 1.901** 2099 04 DWR-4101 × - - - - 0.923* - - FLW-27 05 GIENT-3 × WH- - -2.481* - - 0.875* - - 712

SN Crosses SCA Number of Grain weight/ Grain Straw 1000 Grain Harvest index grains/ Earhead (g) weight/ weight/ weight (g) earhead plant (g) plant (g) 01 HW-2015 × SG-15 0.375** 4.986** 2.763** 4.316** 0.054** 02 DWR-4101 × PUSA- 3.860** 0.229* 4.662** 1.468** 3.618* 0.085** 2099 03 GIENT-3 × PUSA- 15.198** 0.570** 3.880 - - 0.108** 2099 04 DWR-4101 × FLW- 7.941** 0.390** 3.446 1.916** - 0.048** 27 05 GIENT-3 × WH- 6.850** 0.383** 3.403** - 4.736** 0.084** 712

Note: * Significant at 5% level of significance. ** Significant at 1% level of significance. was the best general combiner for grain yield and yield (2015) reported that significant positive or negative sca related traits, i.e. grain weight earhead-1 (g), 1000 grain weight effects in F1 generation for yield and various yields (g) and harvest index, followed by FLW-27 for grain yield attributing traits. But, none of the crosses expressed good and harvest index. The male parent FLW-27 possessed specific combining ability effect for all the traits. Similar favorable genes for days to 50% earhead emergence, days results also recorded by Kalhoro et al 2015, Saeed et al to 50 per cent flowering by recording significant negative (2016), Uzair et al. (2016). gca effects. The parents which are good general combiners In systematic breeding program, selection of parents for yield, possessed GCA effects in the desired direction with desirable characteristics having good general for yield components was also reported earlier by Patel combining ability effects for grain yield and its components, (2015), Kumar et al (2015), Raiyani et al (2015). high heterosis and high estimates of specific combining Based on significant high sca effects (Table 4), five ability effects are essential. These parameters will help in crosses viz., HW-2015 X SG-15, DWR-4101 X PUSA-2099, formulating an efficient and effective breeding procedure GIENT-3 X PUSA-2099, DWR-4101 X FLW-27, GIENT-3 X to bring about rapid and suitable improvement in this crop. WH-712 were identified as promising for seed yield and General and specific combining ability effects are very other yield contributing characters. Out of these five effective genetic parameters in deciding, the next phase of crosses, cross HW-2015 X SG-15 exhibited highest breeding program (kumar et al 2015). significant sca effects for grain yield per plant and other On the basis of per se performance, standard traits viz., number of effective tillers, length of earhead, heterosis, gca and sca effects (Table 5), two crosses viz., grain weight earhead-1, straw weight plant-1, 1000 grain FLW-25×ISD-215 and DWR-4101× FLW-27 have been weight and harvest index, followed by cross DWR-4101 X identified which were exhibited high mean performance, high PUSA-2099 for the traits grain yield per plant, length of standard heterosis, significant sca effects and both the earhead, number of grains earhead-1, grain weight earhead- parents involved in these crosses had good (high × high) 1 , 1000 grain weight and harvest index. Kumar and Kerkhi combining ability effect for yield. This indicated important 8942 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Table 5. Mean yield performance, standard heterosis and SCA effects of the promising crosses.

SN Crosses Grain yield Heterosis (%) Significant SCA GCA effects of Significant SCA per plant (g) Standard effects parents for grain effects for other Heterosis for for yield per plant characters in Mean Range H2 H3 other Grain (g) desirable direction characters (%) yield P1 P2 per plant (g) 1 HW- 15.11 3.04 - 88.46 109.50 5,6,7,9,11,12,13. 4.986** 0.172 1.255** 5,6,7,9,11,12,13. L×H 2015×SG-15 15.11 2 FLW- 13.99 70.63 93.96 5,6,7,8,9,11,13. 2.568** 3.261** 0.537** 1,2,5,6,8,11,13. H×H 25×ISD-215 3 DWR- 13.88 87.19 92.47 4,7,9,11,12,13. 4.662** 0.581** -0.057 3,6,8,9,11,12,13. H×L 4101×PUSA- 2099 4 DWR-4101× 13.35 127.05 85.14 5,7,8,9,11,12,13. 3.446** 0.581** 0.629** 5,8,9,11,13. H×H FLW-27 5 FLW-25× 12.74 55.33 76.57 5,7,8,9,11,13,16. -0.478 3.261** 1.255** H×H SG-15

*, **- significant at 5% and 1% level, respectively H1: Heterobeltiosis H2: Standard heterosis 1. Days to 50% emergence 2. Days to 50% flowering 3. Days to maturity 4. Plant height 5. No. of effective tillers/plant 6 Length of earhead 7.No. of spikelet/ earhead 8.No. of grains/earhead 9.Grain weight/earhead 10.Grain weight/plant 11 Straw weight/plant 12.1000 Grain weight 13.Harvestindex

role of additive x additive gene interaction in high ranking Component Traits in Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Electronic per se performance of these hybrids. However, if a cross Journal of Plant Breeding, 5(3) : 350-359. combination exhibiting high SCA as well as high per se Desale C.S. and D.R. Mehta, 2013. Heterosis and Combining Ability performance having at least one parent as good general Analysis for Grain Yield and Quality Traits in Bread Wheat combiner for a specific trait, viz. HW-2015×SG-15 and (Triticum aestivum L.). Electronic Journal of Plant Breeding, 4(3): 1205-1213. DWR-4101×PUSA-2099, it is expected to throw desirable transgressive segregants in later generations (Singh et al., Dholariya N.D., V.R. Akabari, J.V.Patel, V.P. Chovatia, 2014. Combining Ability and Gene Action Study for Grain Yield and Its 2013, Awasthi et al., 2011). Attributing Traits in Bread Wheat. Electronic Journal of Plant The cross FLW-25× SG-15 recorded high mean Breeding, 5(3):402-407. performance, high standard heterosis, non significant sca Hall, A. J. and Richards, R. A. 2013. Prognosis for genetic effects and one parent involved in these crosses had good improvement of yield potential and water-limited yield of major (high × low) and (low × high) combining ability effects. grain crops. Field Crops Research, 143: 18-33. This indicated the important role of additive x dominance Kalhoro Fahad Ali, Asghar Ali Rajpur, Shahmir Ali Kalhoro, gene interaction in high ranking per se performance of these Amanullah Mahar, Amjad Ali, Sohail Ahmed Otho, Rab Nawaz hybrids. So, these crosses can be further be utilized to exploit Soomro, Fayaz Ali, Zulfiqar Ali Baloch, 2015. Heterosis and

additive component by isolating superior genotypes to Combining Ability in F1 Population of Hexaploid Wheat develop the varieties with high yield potential (Awasthi et (Triticum aestivum L.). American Journal of Plant Sciences, al., 2011) 6:1011-1026. *Kempthorne, O. 1957.An Introduction to Genetical Statistics, LITERATURE CITED (Ed.), J. Wiley and Sons, Champman and Hall, London. Ankita Singh and Anil Kumar, 2014. Gene Action Analysis for Yield Kumar Dinesh and S. A. Kerkhi, 2015. Combining Ability Analysis and Yield Contributing Traits in Bread Wheat. International for Yield and Some Quality Traits in Spring Wheat (Triticum Journal of Basic and Applied Biology, 2(1):17-20. aestivum L.). Electronic Journal of Plant Breeding, 6(1): 26-36. Arunachalam, V. 1974. The falacy behind the use of modified line x Kumar Pradeep, Gyanendra Singh, Y.P. Singh, Dinisha Abhishek, tester design. Indian J. Genet., 34 : 280-287. Satnam Singh Nagar, 2015. Study of Combining Ability Analysis Awasthi, P.N., L.P. Tiwari, N.B. Singh, Rajvir Singh, Charulkanchan, in Half Diallel Crosses of Spring Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). 2011. Selection of High Yielding Superior Genotypes through Internation Journal of Advanced Research, 3(9): 1363-1370. Combining Ability in Bread Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Current Panse, V. G. and Sukhatme, P.V. 1967. Statistical Methods of Advances in Agricultural Sciences, 3(2) : 100-103. Agricultural Workers. 2nd Edition, I.C.A.R Publ. New Delhi. pp. Barot, H.G., M.S. Patel, W.A. Sheikh, L.P. Patel, C.R. Allam, 2014. 381. Heterosis and Combining Ability Analysis for Yield and Its Patel H. N., 2015. Genetic Analysis for Grain Yield and Quality DESHMUKH et al., Combining Ability Analysis for Yield and Its Component Traits in Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) 8943

Parameters in Aestivum Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) Under (50):6663-6669. Late Sown Condition. International Journal of Retailing and Singh Daljit 1973 (a). Diallel Analysis Over Different Environments Rural Business Perspectives, 4(2):1543-1545. I. Indian J. Genet., 33:127-136. Raiyani A.M. , D.A. Patel, V.N. Kapadia, M.C. Boghara, H.C. Sisara, Singh Daljit 1973 (b). Diallel Analysis for Combining Ability over 2015. Combining Ability and Gene Action for Different Several Environments II. Indian J. Genet., 33:469-481. Characters in bread Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). The Bioscan, Singh Khajan, Udai Bhan Singh, Satya Narayan Sharma, 2013. 10(4): 2159-2169. Combining Ability Analysis for Yield and Its Components in Raj Preeti and Vasant S.Kandalkar, 2013. Combining Ability and Bread Wheat (Triticum aestivum L. Em. Thell.). J. Wjeat Res., Heterosis Analysis for Grain Yield and Its Components in Wheat. 5(1):63-67. J. Wheat Res., 5(1): 45-49. Singh Rajesh, H. N. Pandey, M. M. Mishra, S. V. Sai Prasad, Mangla Ranjana Tiwari, Shailesh Marker, P.W. Ramteke, 2015. Gene Action Parikh; 2007. Combining Ability and Heterosis for Yield and and Combining Ability Analysis for Quality Traits in Macroni Grain Quality in Durum Wheat (Triticum turgidum Var. Durum); Wheat (Triticum durum Desf.). VEGETOS, 28(1): 130-133. Madras Agric. J., 94(1-6):1-6. *Reynolds, M., Foulkes, J., Furbank, R., Griffiths, S., King, J., Uzair Muhammad, Zulfiqar Ali, Tariq Mahmood, Ihsan Karim, Umer Murchie, E., Parry, M. and Slafer, G., (2012). Achieving yield Akram, Naeem Mahmood, Tariq Saeed, Rabia Kalsoom, 2016. gains in wheat. Plant Cell and Environment, 35: 1799-1823. Genetic Basis of Some Yield Related Traits in Wheat (Triticum Saeed Muhammad, Iftikhar Hussain Khalil, Durr-E Nayab, Shakeel aestivum L.) under Drought Conditions. Imperial Journal of Ahmad Anjum, Mohsin Tanveer, 2016. Combining Ability and Interdisciplinary Research, 2(11): 444-449. Heritability for Yield Traits in Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Yadav Nand Kishor, Prem Chandra Yadav, Shweta, R.K. Yadav, Pak. J. Agri. Sci., 53(3): 577-583. Lokendra Singh, Yogesh Pandey, 2014. Combining Ability and Sharma Rajiv 2013. Does Low Yield Heterosis Limit Commercial Heterotic Response for Yield and Its Attributing Traits in Wheat Hybrids In Wheat? African Journal of Agricultural Research, 8 (Triticum aestivum L.). International Journal of Plant Sciences, 9(2):377-380.

Received on 11-11-2017 Accepted on 19-11-2017 Trends8944 in Biosciences 10(43), Print : ISSN 0974-8431,Trends 8944-8946, in Biosciences 2017 10 (43), 2017

Genetic Variability, Heritability and Genetic Advance for Yield and its Related Traits in Rice Genotypes Under Rainfed Shallow Lowland Area B. MANJUNATHA AND B NIRANJANA KUMARA

All India Coordinated Research Project on Rice, Agricultural and Horticultural Research Station, Ponnampet University of Agricultural and Horticultural Sciences, Shivamogga, Karnataka email : [email protected]

ABSTRACT in its expression. The phenomenon of transmission The present study consists of 64 rice genotypes that were ofcharacters from parents to offspring is usually measured evaluated at Agricultural and Horticultural Research in terms of heritability. Therefore the estimatesof heritability station, Ponnampet. Karnataka to study genetic variability, and genetic advance would help to formulate theadvanced heritability and genetic advance for grain yield and four breeding programme. yield associated traits. Theexperiment was conducted using MATERIAL AND METHODS 6 × 6 simple lattice design with two replications during the 2012 kharif main cropping season. The analysis of The experiment was carried out during kharif, 2012 at variance revealed statistically significant differences Agricultural and Horticultural Research Station, (p<0.05) indicating the existence of genetic variability Ponnampet.The material comprised of 64 elite rain fed among the 64 genotypes for all the traits studied. shallow low land genotypes(Table 1) sown in a simple lattice Significant differences were observed for grain yield that design with tworeplications with spacing of 20 X 15 cm. ranged from 1562.00 to 5414.00 kg/ hawith overall mean Data were recorded on five randomly selected plants in value of 3765.00 kg haHigher PCV and GCV values were each entry in each replications for the traits days to 50% exhibited by yield kg/ha which suggests the possibility of flowering, Plant height (cm), number of panicles per square improving thistrait through selection. The highest metre,except yield which recorded in kg/plotconverted into heritability was recorded for panicles per square metre kg/ha. The data subjected to INDOSTAT software to followed by days to fifty percent flowering, yield kg/ha estimate Genetic coefficient ofvariation (%), phenotypic and plant height. High to medium heritability coupled coefficient of variation (%), Heritability (%) (Broad sense), with high GCV and high genetic advance as percentage Genetic Advance and Genetic Advance as percent of mean. of means were exhibited for plant height, panicles The estimates for variability treated as per the per square metre. High genetic advances as percent of categorizationproposed by Siva Subramanian and means were recorded by yield kg per hectare, panicles per Madhavamenon(4), heritability and genetic advance as square metre, Plant height (cm) and days to fifty per cent percent of meanestimates according to criteria proposed flowering. by Johnson et al.(2).

Key words Variability, heritability, genetic advance RESULTS AND DISCUSSION In the present study analysis of variance revealed Rice is a self-pollinated cereal crop belonging to the the existence of significant differences among genotypes family Gramineae (synomym-Poaceae) under the order for all traits studied. The mean, variability estimates i.e., Cyperales and classMonocotyledon having chromosome Genetic coefficient of variation (%), phenotypic coefficient number 2n=24 [1]. The genusOryza includes a total of 25 of variation (%), Heritability (%) (Broad sense), Genetic recognized species out of which 23 are wildspecies and Advance as percent of mean are presented in Table 2. All two, Oryzasativa and Oryzaglaberrima are cultivated [2].It traits under studied have higher phenotypic coefficient of can survive as a perennial crop and can produce a ratoon variation than genotypic coefficient of variation. The crop forup to 30 years but cultivated as annual crop and magnitude ofphenotypic coefficient of variation and grown in tropical andtemperate countries over a wide range genotypic coefficient of variation was moderate to highfor of soil and climatic condition. the traits panicles per square metre and yield [3, 5]. The For any crop improvement it depends on magnitude high PCV observed for yield per hectare [5]. The high GCV of genetic variability present in base population. obtained for number of panicles per square metre indicating Environmental effects influence the total observable the improvement is possible through selection. Genotypic variations of quantitative traits. Therefore,partitioning of coefficient of variation measures the extent of genetic overall variance due to genetic and non-genetic causes variability percent for a trait but does not assess the amount becomes necessary for effectivebreeding programme. The of genetic variation which is heritable. Heritability estimates genotypic coefficient of variation estimates the heritable were high for all the characters. The heritability estimates variability, whereasphenotypic component measures the along with genetic advance can be useful to predict effect role of environment on the genotype. High PCV and low of selection in selection programmes. The traits like days GCV for acharacter indicated high influence of environment to fifty percent flowering, yield [7] and plant height exhibited MANJUNATHA and KUMARA, Genetic Variability, Heritability and Genetic Advance for Yield and its Related Traits 8945

Table 1. The different rice genotypes used in the experiment

Serial no. IET numbers Serial no. IET numbers Serial no. IET numbers

1 IET 22416 23 IET 23145 45 IET 23166

2 IET 22420 24 IET 23146 46 IET 23167

3 IET 22428 25 IET 23147 47 IET 23168

4 IET 22422 26 IET 23148 48 Thunga

5 IET 22423 27 IET 23149 49 IET 23169

6 IET 22437 28 IET 23150 50 IET 23170

7 IET 21974 29 IET 23151 51 IET 23171

8 IET 22418 30 IET 23152 52 IET 23172

9 IET 21996 31 IET 23153 53 IET 23173

10 IET 23133 32 IET 23154 54 IET 23174

11 IET 23134 33 Savithri 55 IET 23175

12 IET 23135 34 IET 23155 56 IET 23176

13 IET 23136 35 IET 23156 57 IET 23177

14 IET 23137 36 IET 23157 58 IET 23178

15 IET 23138 37 IET 23158 59 IET 23179

16 IET 23139 38 IET 23159 60 IET 23180

17 IET 23140 39 IET 23160 61 IET 23181

18 IET 23141 40 IET 23161 62 IET 23182

19 Dhanarasi 41 IET 23162 63 IET 23183

20 IET 23142 42 IET 23163 64 IET 23184

21 IET 23143 43 IET 23164

22 IET 23144 44 IET 23165

Table 2. Variability, Heritability and genetic advance for quantitative traits in rice.

Genetic Phenotypic Herita Genetic coefficient Genetic advance Characters Mean Range coefficient of bility advance of variation as percent mean variation (%) (%) (%) (%) Days to fifty percent 120 100-137 6.90 7.00 0.96 16.75 13.32 flowering Plant height 81 59-100 11.77 11.40 0.94 18.44 22.84 (cm) Panicles per m2 358 242-511 15.64 15.85 0.97 113.88 31.80 Yield kg/ha 3765 1562-5414 22.17 22.16 0.95 1640.6 43.60 high magnitude of genetic advance as percent of mean indicate that these characters attributable to additive mean. The traits plant height, days to fifty percent gene effects which are fixable revealing that improvement flowering, panicles per square metre and yield have in these characters would be possible through direct high heritability along with genetic advance as percent of selection. 8946 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

CONCLUSION Soyabean. Agronomy Journal, 47(7): 314-318. Sixty four rice genotypes along with one standard Roy, B. Hossain, M. and Hossain, F. 2001. Genetic variability checks were evaluated for four yield and yield attributing in yield components of rice (OryzasativaL.). traits. Results of the present investigation on variability, Environment and Ecology.19(1): 186-189. heritability and genetic advance indicated a scope for Siva Subramanian, S. and Madhavamenon, P. 1973. improvement of grain yield through selection. Combining ability in rice. Madras Agricultural LITERATURE CITED Journal. 60: 419-421. Hooker J. D., 1979. The flora of British India. Vol 2. Reeve L Thirumala Rao, V. Chandra Mohan, Y. Bhadru, D. Bharathi, & Co., Kent, England, p: 25. D. and Venkanna,. V. 2014, genetic variability and association analysis in rice, International Journal of Brar D. S., Khush G. S., 2003. Utilization of wild species of Applied Biology and Pharmaceutical Technology. genus Oryzae in rice improvement. In: J S Nanda, Sharma SD Monograph on Genus Oryzae 283309. Venkanna, V., Lingaiah, N., Raju, Ch and Rao, V.T. 2014. Genetic studies for quality traits of F population of Singh S. K., Bhati P. K., Sharma A, Sahu V 2015. Super rice (Oryzasativa L.). International Journal of Applied hybrid rice in China and India: current status and Biology and PharmaceuticalTechnology.5(2): 125- future prospects. Int J Agric and Biol 17: 221-232.1. 127. Genetic variability and association analysis in rice. International Journal of Applied Biology and Vaithiyalingan, M. and Nadarajan, N. 2006. Genetic variability, heritability and genetic advance in F Pharmaceutical Technology. 5(2): 63-65. 1 population of inter sub-specific crosses of rice. Crop Johnson, H.W. Robinson, H.F. and Costock, R.E. 1955. Research. 31(3): 476-477. Estimates of genetic and environmental variability in

Received on 11-11-2017 Accepted on 16-11-2017 Trends in Biosciences 10(43), Print : ISSN 0974-8431, 8947-8951, 2017

Effect of Exogenous Fibrolytic Enzymes on Milk and Components Yield as Well as on Feed Efficiency and Body Weight in Holstein Friesian x Kankrej Crossbred Cows After Peak Lactation. P. M. LUNAGARIYA1*, S. V. SHAH1, A. C. PATEL2, M. A. SHEKH3 AND P. R. PANDYA3 1Livestock research Station, 2Dept. of Animal Genetics & Breeding, 3Dept. of Animal Nutrition Research College of Veterinary Science & Animal Husbandry, Anand Agricultural University, Anand, Gujarat, India *email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT improved calf weight (+2.50 kg) even though numbers of An experiment was conducted to evaluate effect of female were more (female to male ratio 5:3 vs. 3:5) in EFE supplemented group. supplementation of exogenous fibrolytic enzymes in diet on milk yield, milk yield efficiency and birth weight of calf after peak lactation in Holstein Friesian x Kankrej (HFK) Key words crossbred cows, exogenous fibrolytic crossbred cows. An on-Station study of 126 days duration enzyme, milk yield, feed conversion efficiency, was conducted with cellulase and xylanase enzymes (3000 body weight of cows and calf and 200000 IU/g, respectively) @ 3000+12000 IU/kg diet, respectively as revealed optimum under in vitro experiment. Ruminant animals may be considered as the Sixteen HFK crossbred cows were allotted to two dietary foundation of animal agriculture because they have served mankind many millennia (Weimer et al., 2009). The ruminant treatments viz. T1 (control) and T2 (Enzymes) of eight cows in each group on the basis of days in milk (57.44± 9.69), production systems are dependant worldwide on forage as 4% FCM yield (12.66±0.45 kg) and body weight the main nutritional components (Wilkins, 2000). The (418.00±19.08 kg). Cows were individually fed biggest problem faced by many developing countries in concentrate, green hybrid Napier (Coimbture-3) and animal production sector is the wide gap between animal’s sorghum hay to meet the crude protein (CP) and total requirements and availability of feeds. In India the majority digestible nutrient (TDN) requirements. Bi-weekly milk of livestock subsist on low quality native grasses, crop samples were collected in proportion to morning and residues, and agro-industrial by-products. Feeding evening milk yield to measure gross milk composition. agricultural by products (lignocellulosic materials) directly The intake of dry matter (DM), CP and TDN on daily, per to farm animals in general are low protein content, high cent body weight and metabolic weight basis were non- crude fiber and low digestibility. Thus, to increase the significant between the groups. The yield of milk, 4% fat digestibility of these agricultural crop residues, it is corrected milk (FCM) and milk components yield like fat, important to break down the linkage between cellulose, protein, lactose, solid not fat (SNF) and total solid (TS) hemicellulose and lignin. Plant cell walls typically consist were also non-significant between groups. Cows of enzyme of about 35-50% cellulose, 20-35% hemicellulose and 10- group had consumed numerically less DM (1.19 vs. 1.13 25% lignin in the dry mass (Gemeda et al., 2014). The various kg) and TDN (670.11 vs. 640.01 g) to yield one kg milk. methods such as physical processing, physico-chemical Efficiency of 4% FCM yield also followed same the trend processing, biological treatment and use of feed additives of DM (1.20 vs. 1.14 kg) and TDN (674.46 vs. 645.82 g) have been tried. For many years, researchers were consumption. However, the efficiency of CP utilization for discouraged from using enzymes to enhance the fibrous milk (123.96 vs. 123.08 g/kg milk) and FCM (124.74 vs. diets utilization because enzymes would be ineffective due 124.19 g/kg FCM) yield was similar in both the groups. to ruminal proteolysis. These concerns have been Body weight gain (+12.38 vs. +18.55 kg) of crossbred cows disproved by several recent studies that have demonstrated was significantly higher on feeding fibrolytic enzymes. that EFE supplementation enhanced the productivity of Birth weight of calf (29.50 vs. 32.00 kg) was numerically livestock (Miachieo and Thakur, 2007; Bandla et al., 2008), higher in fibrolytic enzymes group, even though female to and several fibrolytic enzyme products are currently male ratio (5:3 vs. 3:5) was higher in fibrolytic enzyme commercially available. supplemented group and pregnancy period (280.50 vs. The meta-analysis revealed variable response of EFE 280.13 days) was similar between the groups. Exogenous on milk yield and milk composition needs reconsideration fibrolytic enzymes had released more energy owing to (Ortiz-Rodea et al., 2013). Strategic approach like in vitro action on fibrous fodder, resulted in higher body weight testing for dose optimization before in vivo application and gain in enzyme group which converted to higher body use of cows in early lactation (21±5 DIM) are needed for weight of calf even though having more female (5:3 female accurate response on milk yield and milk composition to male ratio) than control group (3:5 female to male ratio). (Adesogan et al., 2014). This study aimed to evaluate effect Feeding of exogenous fibrolytic enzymes (Cellulase + of EFE supplementation on milk and components yield as Xylanase @ 3000+12000 IU/kg diet) to Holstein Friesian well as feed conversion efficiency and birth weight of cows X Kankrej crossbred cows after peak lactation resulted and calf after peak lactation in Holstein Friesian x Kankrej higher body weight gain of cows, which resulted in crossbred cows. 8948 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Table 1. Composition of feeds and fodder (% on DM basis)

Particular CP EE CF Ash NFE Ca P

Concentrate 18.92 3.76 8.70 14.89 53.73 1.62 1.02

NB Var. CO3 9.21 3.18 34.32 8.94 47.35 1.01 0.43

Sorghum hay 5.84 2.51 30.2 9.20 52.25 0.52 0.41

Note: NB=hybrid napier, CP= crude protein, EE=ether extract, NFE=nitrogen free extract, Ca= calcium, P= phosphorus MATERIALS AND METHODS loose for two hours each in the morning and evening for exercise. All cows had free access to fresh, clean and An experiment was conducted as On-Station study of 126 days duration on 16 Holstein Friesian x Kankrej (HFK) wholesome drinking water during they were let loose. De- crossbred cows at Livestock Research Station, College of worming of all the lactating cows was carried out using Veterinary Science & Animal Husbandry, Anand Agricultural broad spectrum anthelmintic before initiation of the University, Anand. The cellulase and xylanase enzymes experiment. Cows were machine milked twice daily (5:30 a.m. and 5:30 p.m.), recorded milk yield and weekly average were procured from M/s Aumgene Bioscience Pvt. Ltd., Surat, Gujarat, India and contained 3000 and 200000 IU/g, was calculated. The milk samples were drawn at bi-weekly interval in proportion to morning and evening milk yield respectively as per manufacturer’s labeling. An in vitro study was carried out to arrive at optimum dose of cellulase from individual animals. Milk samples were analyzed for and xylanase for on station study. Cellulase tested was milk fat, solids-not-fat (SNF), milk protein and lactose 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000, 5000 and 6000 IU/kg diet, with content as per BIS (1981) using Milkoscan. The 4% FCM combination of xylanase @ 2, 3 and 4 time of cellulase, production was calculated using formula 4% FCM (kg) = (0.4*Milk yield kg)+(15*fat yield kg). The amount of dry making 18 treatment and control (total 19 treatments). In vitro optimum dose of cellulase and xylanase was found to matter (kg), crude protein (g) and total digestible nutrient be 3000+12000 IU/kg diet, respectively and was tested on (kg) required to produce one kg of whole milk or 4% FCM station study. was calculated for feed conversion efficiency. After completion of 18 weeks experiments cows were fed in group Sixteen HFK crossbred cows were selected and to meet nutrients requirements (NRC, 2001) till calving. allotted to two dietary treatments viz. T (control) and T 1 2 Gestation period of cow; birth weight and sex of calf (Enzymes) of eight cows in each group, following recorded to ascertain effect of body weight of cows on Completely Randomized Design on the basis of days in birth weight of calf on account of feeding EFE supplemented milk (57.44± 9.69), 4% FCM yield (12.66±0.45 kg) and body diet. The data generated were subjected to t test analysis weight (418.00±19.08 kg). The cows were individually fed (Snedecor and Cochran, 1994). concentrate, green hybrid Napier (Coimbture-3) and sorghum hay to meet the CP and TDN requirements (NRC, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 2001). Bi-weekly samples of ingredients offered were Dry Matter (DM) and Nutrients in intake collected and stored for chemical analysis (AOAC, 1995 and Van Soest et al., 1991). An individual feeding of cows Ingredient compositions of feed and fodders are given carried out in well ventilated and hygienic stall. Cows let in Table 1. Dry matter (DM) and nutrients intakes of cows

Table 2. Dry matter and nutrients intake of crossbred cows

Particulars/Treatment Control Enzyme

DMI (kg/day) 13.83 ± 0.84 13.43 ± 0.86

% DMI (kg/day) 3.29 ± 0.16 3.26 ± 0.16

DMI (g/kg W0.75) 148.48 ± 5.95 146.59 ± 6.78

CPI (kg/day) 1.46 ± 0.12 1.47 ± 0.11

TDNI (kg/day) 7.80 ± 0.49 7.59 ± 0.48

%CPI (kg/day) 0.347± 0.02 0.357 ± 0.02

%TDNI (kg/day) 1.86 ± 0.09 1.84 ± 0.09

Note: DMI=dry matter intake, CPI=crude protein intake, TDNI= total digestible nutrient intake The means without superscripts in a row differ non-significantly (P>0.05) LUNAGARIYA et al., Effect of Exogenous Fibrolytic Enzymes on Milk and Components Yield as Well as on Feed Efficiency 8949

Table 3. Milk and components yield of crossbred cows

Particulars/Treatment Control Enzyme

Milk yield (kg/day) 11.93 ± 1.15 12.08 ± 0.98

4% FCM yield (kg/day) 11.86 ± 1.15 11.97 ± 0.97

Milk fat % 3.66 ± 0.13 3.84 ± 0.10

Milk SNF % 8.02 ± 0.04 8.01 ± 0.06

Milk TS% 11.68 ± 0.15 11.85 ± 0.09

Milk lactose% 4.27 ± 0.02 4.24 ± 0.03

Milk protein% 3.16 ± 0.01 3.15 ± 0.02

Milk fat yield (kg/day) 0.44 ± 0.05 0.47 ± 0.04

Milk SNF yield (kg/day) 0.96 ± 0.09 0.97 ± 0.08

Milk TS yield (kg/day) 1.40 ± 0.14 1.43 ± 0.12

Milk lactose yield (kg/day) 0.51 ± 0.05 0.51 ± 0.04

Milk protein yield (kg/day) 0.38 ± 0.04 0.38 ± 0.03

Note: FCM= fat corrected milk, SNF= solid not fat, TS=total solid

The means without superscripts in a row differ non-significantly (P>0.05) are given in Table 2. Daily dry matter intake on total (13.83 0.47 kg), milk SNF (0.96 vs. 0.97 kg) milk TS (1.40 vs. 1.43 kg) vs. 13.43 kg), per cent of body weight (3.29 vs. 3.26 kg) and was numerically higher in enzyme supplemented cows in metabolic body weight (148.48 vs. 146.59 g) basis of cows comparison to control, whereas milk lactose (0.51%) and was numerically lower in fibrolytic enzymes supplemented milk protein (0.38 kg) was similar in both group. groups. Total and per cent intake of crude protein (1.46 vs. da Silva et al. (2015) had observed no beneficial effect 1.47 kg and 0.347 vs. 0.357 kg, respectively) and total of fibrolytic enzymes @ 0, 8, 16 and 24 g/cow/day digestible nutrients (7.80 vs. 7.59 kg and 1.86 vs. 1.84 kg, supplementation on milk yield and composition in mid- respectively) were also non-significant between the groups. lactating Holstein cows. Similarly, Chung et al. (2012) also DM and nutrients intake were statically not observed non-significant effect of exogenous fibrolytic influenced on supplementation of fibrolytic enzyme (blend enzyme (0, 0.5 and 1.0 ml/kg DM of TMR) on milk yield in of active xylanase and cellulase) @ 15 g/animal/day in TMR Holstein dairy cows. However, Mohamed et al. (2013) had in Holstein cows as reported by El-Bordeny et al. (2015). observed significant effect of exogenous fibrolytic enzymes Similarly non-significant effect of fibrolytic enzymes on milk, SNF and energy corrected milk yield; whereas non- supplementation on DM and nutrients intake were observed significant effect on milk fat, protein, lactose and solid not when supplemented @ 15 g/cow in Holstein dairy cows fat (SNF) content in early lactating dairy cows. Similarly El- (Shadmanesh, 2014; Mohamed et al., 2013) and @ 50 mg/ Bordeny et al. (2015) had also reported significant increased kg DM in Holstein Friesian crossbred cows (Khanh et al., in milk, FCM and ECM yield as well as milk fat contents, 2012). However, linear (P<0.05) effect of fibrolytic enzyme while milk protein, lactose, total solid and solid not fat supplementation (@ 0, 8, 16 and 24 g/cow/day) was contents were non-significantly improved on enzymes observed by da Silva et al. (2015) on DM and NDF intakes supplementation to Holstein cow’s rations. Higher (P<0.05) in mid-lactating Holstein cows. daily milk and FCM yield; and numerical improvement in Milk yield and composition milk total solids and fat content while numerical reduction in milk protein content was reported by Miachieo and Daily milk (11.93 vs. 12.08 kg) and fat corrected yield Thakur (2007) on feeding cows TMR supplemented with (FCM; 11.86 vs. 11.97 kg) yield was numerically higher in fibrolytic enzymes. fibrolytic enzyme supplemented group of cows in comparison to control (Table 3). Milk fat (3.66 vs. 3.84%) Feed conversion efficiency and milk TS (11.68 vs. 11.85) content also followed same Feed conversion efficiencies for milk and FCM yield trend, whereas milk SNF (8.02 vs. 8.01%), milk lactose (4.27 of crossbred cows are given in Table 4. Cows of enzyme vs. 4.24) and milk protein (3.16 vs. 3.15%) was slightly lower group had consumed numerically less DM (1.19 vs. 1.13 in EFE supplemented group. Daily yield of milk fat (0.44 vs. 8950 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Table 4. Feed conversion efficiency of crossbred cows Particulars/Treatment Control Enzyme DMI (kg/kg milk) 1.19 ± 0.06 1.13 ± 0.04 DMI (kg/kg FCM) 1.20 ± 0.06 1.14 ± 0.04 CPI (g/kg milk) 123.96 ± 3.71 123.08 ± 3.49 CPI (g/kg FCM) 124.74 ± 3.58 124.19 ± 3.52 TDNI (g/kg milk) 670.11± 30.46 640.01 ± 26.54 TDNI (g/kg FCM) 674.46 ±30.46 645.82 ± 26.78

Note: DMI=dry matter intake, FCM= fat corrected milk, CPI=crude protein intake, TDNI=total digestible nutrient intake The means without superscripts in a row differ non-significantly (P>0.05) kg) and TDN (670.11 vs. 640.01 g) to yield one kg milk. An investigation of Knowlton et al. (2002) had shown Efficiency of 4% FCM yield also followed same the trend of more weight gained (P<0.02) on supplementation of DM (1.20 vs. 1.14 kg) and TDN (674.46 vs. 645.82 g) fibrolytic enzyme (15,000 units cellulase/g) @ 204 g/tonne consumption. However, the efficiency of CP utilization for DM of TMR in Holstein cows for the period of 28 days. milk (123.96 vs. 123.08 g/kg milk) and FCM (124.74 vs. 124.19 Whereas, Dean et al. (2013) reported that fibrolytic enzyme g/kg FCM) yield was similar in both the groups. supplementation had only numerically increased (P>0.05) Miachieo and Thakur (2007) have reported non- body weight gain in lactating Holstein cows during mid significant effect of fibrolytic enzymes on feed conversion lactation. However, contradictory findings on body weight efficiency in dairy cows. Dean et al. (2013) had shown non- changes were reported by Miachieo and Thakur (2007) and significant effect of fibrolytic enzyme on feed conversion the findings revealed that supplementation of fibrolytic efficiency in mid-lactating Holstein cows. Similarly, enzymes resulted in numerically higher loss in body weight £opuszañska-Rusek and Bilik (2011) and Bernard et al. (2010) (10.97 kg) than control diet (6.15 kg) of cows. Milk yield can also reported non-significant effect of fibrolytic enzymes increased up to six week after calving and after lactation on feed conversion efficiency in Polish Red-and-White peak (6-8 weeks), decrease due to decrease in the number Holstein-Friesian cows and Holstein cows, respectively. of secreting cells (Chilliard, 1991), more energy released Whereas, El-Bordeny et al. (2015) and Mohamed et al. (2013) owing to higher digestibility on EFE feeding (Lunagariya, reported significant improvement in feed conversion 2016) will stored as body fat resulting in higher body weight efficiency on feeding fibrolytic enzyme in Holstein cows. gain. Higher body weight of dam will result in higher birth weight of calf (+2.50 kg) evethough having higher female Body weight of cows and calf to male ratio (5:3) in comparison to control group where Body weight change (+12.38 vs. +18.55 kg) of female to male ratio was 3:5. crossbred cows was significantly higher on feeding CONCLUSION fibrolytic enzymes. Birth weight of calf (29.50 vs. 32.00 kg) was numerically higher in fibrolytic enzymes group, even Feeding of exogenous fibrolytic enzymes (Cellulase though female to male ratio (5:3 vs. 3:5) was higher in + Xylanase @ 3000+12000 IU/kg diet) to Holstein Friesian fibrolytic enzyme supplemented group and pregnancy period X Kankrej crossbred cows after peak lactation resulted in (280.50 vs. 280.13 days) was similar between the groups. non-significant improvement in dry matter and nutrients Exogenous fibrolytic enzymes had released more energy intake; milk and component yield; and feed conversion owing to action on fibrous fodder, resulted in higher body efficiency. However, more energy released on account of weight gain in enzyme group which converted to higher EFE feeding reflected in higher body weight gain of cows body weight of calf even though having more female (5:3 at the end of experiments. Higher body weight gain of cows female to male ratio) than control group (3:5 female to male resulted in improved calf weight (+2.50 kg) even though ratio). numbers of female were more (female to male ratio 5:3 vs. 3:5) in EFE supplemented group. Table 5. Body weight and pregnancy period of crossbred cows; and calf weight Particulars/Treatment Control Enzyme Body weight (kg) Initial 418.38± 29.51 417.25 ± 26.18 Final 430.75± 31.04 435.80 ± 25.05 Difference 12.38a ± 2.20 18.55b ± 1.60 Reproduction Pregnancy period (days) 280.13 ± 2.77 280.50 ± 3.12 Birth weight of calf (kg) 29.50 ± 1.41 32.00 ± 1.20 Sex ratio (Female to male) 3:5 5:3

The means with different superscripts in a row differ significantly (P<0.05) LUNAGARIYA et al., Effect of Exogenous Fibrolytic Enzymes on Milk and Components Yield as Well as on Feed Efficiency 8951

LITERATURE CITED Yuangklang C. (2012). Effect of fibrolytic enzymes supplementation on rumen fermentation and digestibility in dairy Adesogan, A. T.; Ma, Z. X.; Romero, J. J.; Arriola, K. G., 2014: cow fed straw-based diet. Khon Kaen Agr. J., 40 (2): 141-144. Ruminant Nutrition Symposium: Improving cell wall digestion and animal performance with fibrolytic enzymes. Journal of Knowlton, K. F.; McKinney, J. M. and Cobb, C. (2002). Effect of a Animal Science 92, 1317-1330. direct-fed fibrolytic enzyme formulation on nutrient intake, partitioning, and excretion in early and late lactation Holstein AOAC (1995). Official Methods of Analysis, 16th Edition. Association cows. J. Dairy Sci., 85: 3328-3335. of Official Analytical Chemists. Washington, D.C. £opuszañska-Rusek, M. and Bilik, K. (2011). Influence of pre and Bandla, S.; Chaturvedi, O. H.; Malik, R. and Asgar, M. (2008). Effect postpartum supplementation of fibrolytic enzymes and yeast of enzyme to substrate ratio of exogenous fibrolytic and protease culture, or both, on performance and metabolic status of dairy enzymes on in vitro gas production kinetics. Indian J.Small cows. Ann. Anim. Sci., 11(4): 531-545. Rumin., 14 (2). Lunagariya, P. M. (2016). Effect of supplementing fibrolytic enzymes Bernard, J. K.; Castro, J. J.; Mullis, N. A.; Adesogan , A. T.; West, J. on rumen fermentation and milk yield in dairy cows. Ph. D. W. and Morantes, G. (2010). Effect of feeding alfalfa hay or thesis submitted to Anand Agricultural University, Anand, Gujarat, Tifton 85 bermuda grass haylage with or without a cellulase India. enzyme on performance of Holstein cows. J. Dairy Sci., 93:5280-5285. Miachieo, K. and Thakur, S. S. (2007). Effect of exogenous fibrolytic enzymes on the productive performance of lactating Sahiwal BIS (1981). Handbook of Food Analysis (XI), Dairy Products. Bureau cows. Indian J. Anim. Nutri., 24 (1): 27-30. of Indian Standards. Manek Bhavan, New Delhi, pp. 152-182. Mohamed, D. E. A.; Borhami, B. E.; El-Shazly, K. A. and Sallam, S. Chilliard, Y. (1991). Physiological constraints to milk production: M. A. (2013). Effect of dietary supplementation with fibrolytic Factors which determine nutrients partitioning, lactation enzymes on the productive performance of early lactating dairy persistency and mobilization of body reserves. In Feeding dairy cows. J Agri. Sci., 5(6): 146-155. cows in the tropics. Edited by Speedy, A. and Sansouncy, R. Food and Agricultural Organization of United States, Rome. NRC (2001). Nutrient Requirements of Dairy Cattle. 7th Rev. Edition, (http://www.fao.org/docrep/003/t0413e/T0413E03.htm) Subcommittee on Dairy Cattle Nutrition, Committee on Animal Nutrition, National Research Council, National Academy Press, Chung, Y. H.; Zhou, M.; Holtshausen, L.; Alexander, T. W.; Washington, DC. (http://www.nap.edu/catalog/9825.htm). McAllister, T. A.; Guan, L. L.; Oba, M. and Beauchemin, K. A. (2012). A fibrolytic enzyme additive for lactating Holstein cow Ortiz-Rodea, A.: Noriega-Carrilla, A.: Salem, A. Z. M.: Ortega O. diets: Ruminal fermentation, rumen microbial populations, and Castelan: Gonzatez-Ronquillon, M., 2013: The use of exogenous enteric methane emissions. J. Dairy Sci., 95:1419-1427. enzymes in dairy cattle on milk production and their chemical composition: A meta-analysis. Animal Nutrition and Feed da Silva, T. H.; Takiya, C. S.; Vendramin, T. H. A. and Renno, F. P. Technology 13(3), 399-409. (2015). Effect of fibrolytic enzymes on performance of dairy cows. Zootecnia: Otimizando Recurso e Potencialidades, Belo Shadmanesh, A. (2014). Effect of dietary supplement with fibrolytic Horizone-MG. 19 a 23 de Julho. pp:1-3. enzymes on the productive performance of early lactating dairy cows. Indian J. Fund. Appl. Life Sci., 4 (2): 396-401. Dean, D. B.; Staples, C. R.; Littell, R. C.; Kim, S. and Adesogan, A. T. (2013). Effect of method of adding a fibrolytic enzyme to dairy Snedecor G. W. and Cochran W. G. (1994). Statistical Methods. 8th cow diets on feed intake, digestibility, milk production, ruminal edn. Affiliated East-West spress Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi. fermentation and blood metabolites. Anim. Nutri. Feed Technol., Van Soest, P. J., Robertson, J. B. and Lewis, B. A. (1991). Methods of 13: 337-353. dietary fiber, neutral detergent fiber and non starch El-Bordeny, N. E.; Abedo, A. A.; El-Sayed, H. M.; Daoud, E. N.; polysaccharides in relation to animal nutrition. J. Dairy Sci., Soliman, H. S. and Mahmoud, A. E. M. (2015). Effect of 74:3583-3597. exogenous fibrolytic enzyme application on productive response Weimer, P. J.; Russell, J. B. and Muck, R. E. (2009). Lessons from of dairy cows at different lactation stages. Asian J. Anim. Vet. the cow: What the ruminant animal can teach us about Adv., 10 (5): 226-236. consolidated bioprocessing of cellulosic biomass. Bioresour. Gemeda, B. 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Received on 13-11-2017 Accepted on 16-11-2017 Trends8952 in Biosciences 10(43), Print : ISSN 0974-8431,Trends 8952-8961, in Biosciences 2017 10 (43), 2017

Growth Performance of Different Wild Edible Oyster Isolates on Wheat Straw S. A. PATIL*, D.B. SHINDE AND A. C. JADHAV Plant Pathology Section, College of Agriculture, Pune email : [email protected]

ABSTRACT Maintenance of cultures Various strains of Pleurotus spp. were collected from The pure cultures of fungus were maintained on Sahyadri and Satpuda valleys of Maharashtra state which Potato Dextrose Agar medium. Sub-culturing of the fungus included Pune, Ahmednagar and Nashik districts. Twenty were done at an interval of 8 days & stored under controlled six samples were collected from different habitat like tree conditions at 28 ± 1°C. Seven days old pure mycelial cultures trunk, leaf litter, humus, compost and wooden stumps. of the test fungi were used in various studies. The cultures derived from wild edible oyster Key words Growth Performance of Different Wild Edible mushroom were coded as isolate numbers as below and Oyster Isolates on Wheat Straw used for further study.

Selected wild oyster mushrooms were isolated and Sr. No. Sample No. Isolate No. their growth performance on Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) 1 PN-14-25 PNP-1 media was studied. Isolate Pune Pleurotus-4 (PNP- 4)showed significantly maximum growth than remaining 2 PN-14-38 PNP-2 isolates and control P. sajor-caju. The spawn of selected 3 PN-14-40 PNP-3 isolates was prepared on wheat grains and the time required 4 PN-14-41 PNP-4 for spawn production varied from 14 to 19.75 days. The strain PNP-10 required minimum time for spawn production 5 PN-14-42 PNP-5 (14 days). 6 PN-14-47 PNP-6 The mushroom beds were filled with wheat straw as 7 PN-14-48 PNP-7 substrate. The time required for spawn run varied from 15.75 8 PN-14-49 PNP-8 to 22 days. The time needed for pinhead formation after 9 PN-14-50 PNP-9 spawn run varied from 3.25 to 6.25 days. The strain PNP-4 was early to complete spawn run as well as pinhead 10 P. sajor-caju PNP-10 formation. The time for the harvesting from the date of (Control) spawning was recorded as for first harvest (23.5 to 35.75 days), second harvest (31.75 to 50 days) and third harvest Spawn Preparation (43.75 to 66.25 days). The strain PNP-4 was found early Preparation of commercial spawn than the recommended variety P. sajor-caju of oyster mushroom. Mushroom spawn has been defined as the vegetative mycelium from a selected mushroom grown on a convenient MATERIAL AND METHODS medium. The spawn comprises mycelium of the mushroom Isolation by tissue culture method and a supporting medium, which provides nutrition to the Fully matured fresh fruiting bodies were collected fungus during its growth. during survey and brought to laboratory for tissue culture. Wheat grains were used as the base material for The adhered dust particles were removed with the help of multiplying the mycelium in the spawn bottles and cotton swab. The fruiting body was held with the sterilized polypropylene bags. The bold, healthy and pesticide free forcep and dipped in 70 per cent ethanol for 30 sec. to grains were chosen for substrate purpose. eliminate the microbes present on bit surface. The fruiting Steps followed in preparation of commercial spawn: body was cut longitudinally with a sterilized scalpel and 1) Wheat grains were washed for twice to remove the tissue bits of approximately 3 to 5 mm were separated from suspended dust particles or foreign materials. the pileus–stipe junction (i.e. collar region). The bits were aseptically transferred on to pre-sterilized Petri plates 2) Then wheat grains were boiled in the container with containing Potato Dextrose Agar culture media with the water till they soften. Care was taken that the starch help of sterilized forcep. Petri plates were wrapped with should not ooze out of the grains. parafilm and incubated in BOD incubator at 30 to 320C for 6 3) The boiled grains were spread in thin layer on a jute to 7 days and observations regarding growth performance sheet under shade for draining out excess water from and colony diameter were recorded. The actively growing grains surface to avoid greasiness. mycelium from edges along with culture medium of about 4) Calcium carbonate powder (CaCO3) @ three per cent 5mm size was transferred in slants and incubated at 30 to of the dry substrate was thoroughly mixed with grains 320c for a week. This pure culture was used as inoculum for for maintenance of proper pH (6.5 to 7.0) in the spawn spawn preparation. substrate. PATIL et al., Growth Performance of Different Wild Edible Oyster Isolates on Wheat Straw 8953

5) The grains were filled up to ¾ th in the polypropylene Beds took near about 15 to 22 days for complete bags of 100 gauge thickness. spawn run and then transferred to growing room having 6) Then polypropylene bags were plugged with non- controlled conditions as that of incubation room. absorbent cotton and sterilized in autoclave at 20 psi Cropping for 2 hrs. The bags were cut opened when wheat straw was 7) After sterilization, bags were allow to cool over-night fully covered with whitish mycelium to expose the and then transferred to the inoculation chamber. substratum surface for initiation of pinheads. The beds were 8) The inoculation chamber was sterilized by spraying then kept on hangers. The environmental conditions viz., four per cent formalin solution. temperature in between 25 to 27°C, relative humidity in 9) Sterilized bags were inoculated in an inoculation between 70 to 80 per cent and diffused light during day chamber. time were maintained for primordial formation and fruit body development. Ventilation of 2 to 3 hours per day was given 10) The inoculating needle and forcep were properly for maintaining Co level in the growing room and sterilized by flame and transfer of the culture was 2 observations regarding days required for pinhead formation made close to the flame of spirit lamp. were taken at regular intervals. Light mist spray of water 11) Sterilized bags were inoculated with master culture was given to beds twice in a day till the end of cropping which was 15 days old and were incubated at 27 ± seasons. Watering was stopped a day before harvesting. 1°C for 15 days. Harvesting 12) The mycelium covered the grains in 15 to 20 days and the spawn was ready for growing mushroom on large Fruiting bodies were harvested at full maturity. Mature scale. fruiting bodies were those which started forming spores but the margins of pileus become wavy. The fruiting bodies Precautions taken during spawn preparation: were harvested when fruit body has curled under edges 1) The inoculation was done under aseptic condition. and well formed gills, because over matured fruit body is 2) In case there was fungal or bacterial contamination in fragile and difficult to handle. Harvesting was done by the spawn bags, the entire content of the bottles or twisting the mushroom fruit body at its base. After first bags were destroyed. harvest, beds were scrapped slightly to remove dead mycelial growth then second and third flushes were taken. 3) 15 to 20 days old spawn was used for bed filling. Harvested fruiting bodies were packed into polythene bags 4) Cultures and spawns were stored at room temperature. and preserved by drying. Substrate preparation and sterilization RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Wheat straw was taken as substrate for cultivation Growth performance of different isolates of wild edible of selected isolates. Wheat straw was then filled in gunny oyster mushrooms on wheat straw bags and soaked in fresh water for 12 hrs. After soaking the excess water was allowed to drain off. The pre-soaked wheat After spawn production, the mushroom beds were straw was pasteurized by immersing them in hot water at filled with wheat straw and the observations viz., days 80°C for 1 hr. After pasteurization excess of hot water was required for spawn run, days required for pinhead formation drained off and the substrate was allowed to cool at room and days required for first, second and third harvest after temperature. At this stage, the moisture content of the pinhead formation were recorded. The results for the same substrate was around 70 to75 per cent, and then substrate are reflected in Table 1 and Table 2. was taken for bed filling. Days required for spawn run Bed filling and spawning The observation on days required for spawn run was Spawn prepared on wheat grains was used for recorded when the mycelial growth had completely covered spawning @ 2 per cent spawn on wet weight basis of the the mushroom beds. Variation was noticed for the substrate. Spawning in layers was done in polythene bags observation on days required for spawn run among the of size 35 × 55 cm. The bags were filled with substrate @ 3 isolates. The spawn run was completed within 15.75 to 22 kg per bag. After spawning the top of polythene bag was days from inoculation in all the isolates under study. It was closed with thread and about 25 to 30 holes with sterilized noticed that the isolate PNP-4 was found significantly pin were made per polythene bag for proper aeration. The superior over all other isolates which shows minimum period spawned bags were then incubated at room temperature (15.75 days) to complete spawn run on the wheat straw. It for spawn run and observations regarding spawn run were was followed by PNP-10 (16.75 days), PNP- 7 (18.50 days), recorded at regular intervals. PNP-2, PNP-3 and PNP-6 (18.75 days), PNP-8 and PNP-9 (19.25 days), PNP-1 (20 days). The isolate PNP-5 required Incubation and spawn run the maximum duration (22 days) to complete spawn run and After bed filling beds were kept for incubation in noticed a slow growing isolate. incubation room. Sufficient amount of light, proper Days required for pinhead formation ventilation, optimum temperature (i.e. 25 to 28°C) and required humidity (i.e. 70 to 85 %) was maintained during This observation was recorded when the mushroom entire cropping period. beds were transferred to the growing room and the small 8954 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Table 1. Growth performance of different isolates of wild edible oyster mushrooms on wheat straw.

Sr. No. Treatments Days required for spawn run* Days required for pinhead formation after spawn run* Isolate No. 1 PNP-1 20.00 4.75 2 PNP-2 18.75 5.25 3 PNP-3 18.75 4.75 4 PNP-4 15.75 3.25 5 PNP-5 22.00 6.25 6 PNP-6 18.75 4.75 7 PNP-7 18.50 4.25 8 PNP-8 19.25 4.75 9 PNP-9 19.25 5.75 PNP-10 10 (P. sajor-caju) 16.75 3.75 Control S.E. ± 0.47 0.31 C.D. (0.05) 1.36 0.90

*Mean of four replications pinheads had started emerging. The isolate PNP-4 was found First harvest significantly superior (3.25 days) over all other isolates, The minimum days required for first harvest after followed by PNP-10 (3.75 days), PNP-7 (4.25 days), PNP-1, pinhead formation were recorded in isolate PNP-4 (3.5 days), PNP-3, PNP-6 and PNP-8 (4.75 days), PNP-2 (5.25 days) and followed by PNP-10 (3.75 days), PNP-2 and PNP-3 (4.25 PNP-9 (5.75 days). The maximum number of days required days), PNP-1 (4.75 days), PNP-6 and PNP-7 (5 days), PNP- for pinhead formation (6.25 days) was recorded for PNP-5. 8 (5.75 days), PNP-9 (6.25 days) where as isolate PNP-5 Days required for harvesting after pinhead formation required maximum number of days (6.75 days) for first After pinhead formation, the harvesting was done harvest after pinhead formation. three times. The number of days required for first, second Second harvest and third harvests were recorded and results for the same The minimum days required for second harvest after are presented in Table 2. pinhead formation were recorded in isolate PNP-4 (13 days),

Table 2. Days required for harvesting after pinhead formation.

Treatments Sr. No. 1st harvest* 2nd harvest* 3rd harvest* Isolate No. 1 PNP-1 4.75 16.75 29.75 2 PNP-2 4.25 15.25 28.25 3 PNP-3 4.25 15.25 27.25 4 PNP-4 3.50 13.00 25.00 5 PNP-5 6.75 20.75 36.75 6 PNP-6 5.00 16.75 30.25 7 PNP-7 5.00 18.25 30.25 8 PNP-8 5.75 17.75 29.75 9 PNP-9 6.25 18.25 30.75 PNP-10 10 (P. sajor-caju) 3.75 13.25 25.25 Control S.E. ± 0.32 0.37 0.44 C.D. (0.05) 0.93 1.09 1.27

*Mean of four replications PATIL et al., Growth Performance of Different Wild Edible Oyster Isolates on Wheat Straw 8955 followed by PNP-10 (13.25 days), PNP-2 and PNP-3 (15.25 PNP-1 (41.75 days), PNP-9 (44.25 days), where as isolate days), PNP-1 and PNP-6 (16.75 days), PNP-8 (17.75 days), PNP-5 required maximum number of days (50 days) for PNP-7 and PNP-9 ( 18.25 days). The isolate PNP-5 required second harvest after spawning. maximum number of days (20.75 days) for second harvest Third harvest after pinhead formation. The minimum days required for third harvest after Third harvest spawning were recorded in isolate PNP-4 (43.75 days), The minimum days required for third harvest after followed by PNP-10 (44.25 days), PNP-3 (50.75 days) PNP- pinhead formation were recorded in isolate PNP-4 (25 days), 2 (52.25 days), PNP-8 (54 days), PNP-6 and PNP-7 (54.50 followed by PNP-10 (25.25 days), PNP-3 (27.25 days) PNP- days), PNP-1 (54.75 days) and PNP-9 (57.25 days). The 2 (28.25 days), PNP-1 and PNP-8 (29.75 days), PNP-6 and isolate PNP-5 required maximum number of days (66.25 days) PNP-7 (30.25 days), PNP-9 (30.75 days) where as isolate for third harvest after spawning. PNP-5 required maximum number of days (36.75 days) for Morphological characters of mushroom fruits from third harvest after pinhead formation. different wild edible oyster isolates Total days required for first, second and third The observations of the fruit bodies viz.,pileus harvesting after spawning diameter, stipe length, stipe size, colour and odour were The observations pertaining to total days required recorded from different wild edible oyster isolates. The for first, second and third harvesting were recorded from result are presented in Table 4. date of spawning (inoculation) to date of first, second and Pileus diameter third harvesting respectively. The results are reflected in Table 3. The pileus diameter of fruit bodies were ranged from 4.81 to 6.36 cm in different isolates under study and the First harvest: maximum pileus diameter was noticed in PNP-10 (6.36 cm), The minimum days required for first harvest after followed by PNP-4 (6.19 cm), PNP-1 (6.13cm), PNP-2 spawning were recorded in isolate PNP-4 (23.5 days), (6.11cm), PNP-6 (6.07cm) PNP-5 (5.94 cm), PNP-7 (5.57), PNP- followed by PNP-10 (24.25 days), PNP-2 and PNP-3 (27.75 9 (5.53 cm), PNP-3 (5.52 cm), where as minimum diameter days), PNP-6 (28.75 days), PNP-7 (29.25 days), PNP-1 (30 (4.81 cm) was noticed in PNP-8. days), PNP-9 (31.75 days) where as isolate PNP-5 required Stipe length maximum number of days (35.75 days) for first harvest after spawning. The stipe length of fruit bodies in different isolates of wild mushrooms were ranged from 0.91 to 2.63 cm. However Second harvest minimum stipe length (0.81 cm) was recorded in PNP-8 The minimum days required for second harvest after followed by PNP-9 (0.87 cm), PNP-2 (0.91 cm), PNP-5 (0.95 spawning were recorded in isolate PNP-4 (31.75 days), cm), PNP-1 (0.96 cm), PNP-4 (0.98 cm), PNP-7 (1.01 cm), followed by PNP-10 (32 days), PNP-3 (38.75 days), PNP-2 PNP-3 (1.03 cm), PNP-6 (1.22 cm) and maximum stipe length (39.25 days), PNP-6 (41 days), PNP-7 and PNP-8 (41.50 days), (2.63cm) was recorded in PNP-10.

Table 3. Total days required for first, second and third harvesting after spawning.

Sr. No. Treatments st nd rd Isolate No. 1 harvest* 2 harvest* 3 harvest* 1 PNP-1 30.00 41.75 54.75 2 PNP-2 27.75 39.25 52.25 3 PNP-3 27.75 38.75 50.75 4 PNP-4 23.50 31.75 43.75 5 PNP-5 35.75 50.00 66.25 6 PNP-6 28.75 41.00 54.50 7 PNP-7 29.25 41.50 54.50 8 PNP-8 29.50 41.50 54.00 9 PNP-9 31.75 44.25 57.25 PNP-10 10 (P. sajor-caju) 24.25 32.00 44.25 Control S.E. ± 0.40 0.46 0.63

C.D. (0.05) 1.16 1.34 1.82

*Mean of four replications 8956 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Table 4. Morphological characters of mushroom fruits from different wild edible oyster isolates.

Treatments Pileus Stipe Stipe size Sr. diameter length (circumference) Colour Odour No. Isolate No. (cm)* (cm)* (cm)* 1 PNP-1 6.13 0.96 1.31 White Farinaceous 2 PNP-2 6.11 0.91 2.04 Creamy white Fishy 3 PNP-3 5.52 1.03 1.42 Pinkish Pleasant 4 PNP-4 6.19 0.98 1.19 Pink Mild anise 5 PNP-5 5.94 0.95 1.84 White Mild fishy 6 PNP-6 6.07 1.22 1.88 Creamy white Farinaceous 7 PNP-7 5.57 1.01 1.41 Light pink Pleasant 8 PNP-8 4.21 0.81 2.03 Light pink Farinaceous 9 PNP-9 5.53 0.87 2.01 Dark pink Mild anise PNP-10 10 (P. sajor-caju) 6.36 2.63 2.92 Grey Mild fishy Control S.E. ± 0.21 0.07 0.04 C.D. (0.05) 0.57 0.21 0.13

*Mean of four replications

Stipe size recorded by random selection of ten mature fruit bodies The stipe size (circumference) of fruit bodies in from all the isolates and the results are shown in the Table 5. The average fruit body weight in all the isolates under different isolates of wild mushrooms were ranged from 1.19 to 2.92 cm. However minimum stipe size (1.19 cm) was study was ranged from 3.28 to 6.42g per fruit. The isolate recorded in PNP-4 followed by PNP-1 (1.31 cm), PNP-7 (1.41 PNP-10 had significantly highest average fruit body weight cm), PNP-3 (1.43 cm), PNP-5 (1.84 cm), PNP-6 (1.88), PNP-9 (6.42g), followed by PNP-2 (6.14g), PNP-6 (5.85g) PNP-4 (2.01 cm), PNP-8 (2.03 cm), PNP-2 (2.04 cm) and maximum (5.58g), PNP-5 (5.14g), PNP-3 (5.09g), PNP-9 (4.62g), PNP-8 (4.58g), PNP-7 (4.04g), where as lowest average fruit body stipe size (2.92 cm) was recorded in PNP-10. weight was observed for PNP-1 (3.28g) per fruit body. Colour Number of fruits per kg dry substrate There was variation observed in the colour of fruit bodies of the collected wild edible oyster isolates (Table:8). The observations for number of fruits per kg dry Different isolates possessed different colours viz. isolates substrate were recorded for all the isolates and the results PNP-1, and PNP-5 were white, PNP-2 and PNP-6 were creamy are presented in Table:9. The number of fruits per kg dry white, PNP-3 was pinkish, PNP-4 was pink, PNP-7 and PNP- substrate in all the isolates under study were ranged from 153 to 235. The maximum number of fruits were observed 8 was light pink, PNP-9 was dark pink and PNP-10 was grey in colour. for PNP-4 (235), followed by PNP-6 (216), PNP-10 (214), PNP-1 (205.50), PNP-7 (203.25), PNP-8 (197.25), PNP-3 Odour (195.50), PNP-2 (182), PNP-5 (175) and minimum number of There was variation noticed in the odour of fruit fruits were observed for PNP-9 (153) per kg dry substrate. bodies of the collected wild edible oyster isolates (Table:8). Fresh yield from different isolates of wild edible oyster The isolates PNP-1, PNP-6 and PNP-8 possessed mushrooms on wheat substrate: farinaceous type of odour, PNP-2 had fishy odour, PNP-3 and PNP-7 had pleasant odour, PNP-4 and PNP-9 had mild Fresh yield performance of different isolates at first, anise odour and PNP-5 and PNP-10 had mild fishy type of second and third harvest was recorded separately and odour. reflected in Table:10. Yield parameters of different isolates from wild edible First harvest: oyster mushrooms on wheat straw The results of first harvest (Table:10) revealed that The yield parameters include the observations viz., the isolate PNP-4 had recorded maximum fresh yield (567.25g), followed by PNP-10 (547.5g), PNP-6 (534.75g), average fruit body weight, total number of fruits per kg dry PNP-8 (514g), PNP-9 (506.25g), PNP-2 (420.25g), PNP-7 substrate, fresh yield of different isolates, dry weight of (400.25g), PNP-3 (398.25g), PNP-1 (380.25g) and isolate PNP- different isolates and total dry weight with per cent of fresh weight. 5 had recorded the minimum fresh yield (336.25g) per kg dry substrate. Average mature fruit body weight At the first harvest, the yield of isolate PNP-1 was The observations for average fruit body weight were 66.54 per cent of the total yield, followed by PNP-7 (66.26%), PATIL et al., Growth Performance of Different Wild Edible Oyster Isolates on Wheat Straw 8957

Table 5. Yield parameters of different isolates of wild edible oyster mushrooms on wheat straw substrate.

Sr. No. Treatments Average fruit body weight (g)* No. of fruits/ Isolate No. kg dry substrate* 1 PNP-1 3.28 205.50 2 PNP-2 6.14 182.00 3 PNP-3 5.09 195.50 4 PNP-4 5.58 235.00 5 PNP-5 5.14 175.00 6 PNP-6 5.85 216.25 7 PNP-7 4.04 203.25 8 PNP-8 4.58 197.25 9 PNP-9 4.62 153.00 PNP-10 10 (P. sajor-caju) 6.42 214.00 Control S.E. ± 0.16 3.06 C.D. (0.05) 0.45 8.90

*Mean of four replications

PNP-9 (60.62%) and PNP-3 (60.61%), where as yield of At the second harvest, the yield of isolate PNP-4 was isolate PNP-4 was 59.33 per cent of the total yield. 27.45per cent of the total yield, followed by PNP-8 (25.87%), Second harvest: PNP-9 (25.23%) and PNP-3 (60.61%), while the yield of isolate PNP-6 was 24.97 per cent of the total yield. The results of second harvest (Table:10) revealed that the isolate PNP-4 had maximum fresh yield (262.5g), followed Third harvest: by PNP-10 (223.75g), PNP-8 (222.75g), PNP-6 (220.75g), PNP- The results of third harvest (Table:10) revealed that 9 (210.75g), PNP-2 (168.75g), PNP-3 (164g), PNP-7 (127g) the isolate PNP-6 had recorded maximum fresh yield (128.5 and PNP-1 (112.75g) while the isolate PNP-5 had the g), followed by PNP-10 (127.75 g), PNP-4 (126.75 g), PNP-8 minimum fresh yield (112 g) per kg dry substrate. (125 g), PNP-9 (118 g), PNP-2 (115 g), PNP-5 (107 g), PNP-3

Table 10. Fresh yield performance of isolates from wild edible oyster mushroom on wheat substrate. (g/kg dry substrate)

Treatments Yield of 1st harvest* Yield of 2nd harvest* Yield of 3rd harvest* Sr. Total Total Total Total Yield No. (g)* Isolate No. Weight yield Weight yield (%) Weight yield (g) (%) (g) (g) (%) 1 PNP-1 380.25 66.54 112.75 19.74 78.25 13.70 571.25 2 PNP-2 420.25 59.56 168.75 23.97 115.00 16.33 704.00 3 PNP-3 398.25 60.61 164.00 24.96 95.50 14.53 657.75 4 PNP-4 567.25 59.33 262.50 27.45 126.75 13.25 956.50 5 PNP-5 336.25 60.58 112.00 20.18 107.00 19.27 555.25 6 PNP-6 534.75 60.49 220.75 24.97 128.50 14.53 884.00 7 PNP-7 400.25 66.26 127.00 21.02 77.25 12.78 604.50 8 PNP-8 514.00 59.69 222.75 25.87 125.00 14.51 861.75 9 PNP-9 506.25 60.62 210.75 25.23 118.00 14.13 835.00 10 PNP-10 (P. sajor-caju) 547.50 60.90 223.75 24.88 127.75 14.21 899.00 Control S.E. ± 6.18 11.10 7.31 12.12 C.D. (0.05) 17.94 32.10 21.21 35.18

*Mean of four replications 8958 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

(95.50g) and PNP-1 (78.25 g) where as isolate PNP-7 had the isolate PNP-4 had recorded maximum dry yield (72.75g), recorded the minimum fresh yield (77.25 g) per kg dry followed by PNP-10 (67.5g), PNP-6 (63g), PNP-8 (62.25g), substrate. PNP-9 (59.25g), PNP-2 (47g), PNP-3 (43.75g), PNP-7 (42.50g), At the third harvest, the yield of isolate PNP-5 was PNP-1 (39.75g) and the isolate PNP-5 had the minimum dry 19.27 per cent of the total yield, followed by PNP-2 (16.33%), yield (34 g) per kg dry substrate. PNP-3 (14.53%) and PNP-6 (14.53%), while the yield of isolate At first harvest, the yield of isolate PNP-7 was 67.46 PNP-7 was 12.78 per cent of the total yield. The results in per cent of the total yield, followed by PNP-1 (66.25%), respect of fresh mushroom yield revealed that about 2/3 rd PNP-8 (61.63%) and PNP-10 (61.36%), where as yield of of total yield was obtained at first harvest and decreases isolate PNP-2 was 59.49 per cent of the total yield. rd thereafter up to 1/3 at third harvest in all isolates under Second harvest study. The results of second harvest revealed that the Total fresh yield of different isolates from wild edible isolate PNP-4 had maximum fresh yield (34g), followed by oyster mushrooms on wheat substrate: PNP-10 (26.75g), PNP-6 (26.25g), PNP-9 (24.25g), PNP-8 After third harvest, total fresh yield per kg dry (23.50g), PNP-2 (18.50g), PNP-3 (17.75g), PNP-7 (12.75g), substrate from different isolates were recorded and reflected PNP-1 (11.75g) where as isolate PNP-5 had the minimum in Table:10. The total fresh yield from all isolates were ranged fresh yield (11.25 g) per kg dry wheat straw. from 555.25 to 956.50g per kg dry wheat straw substrate. At second harvest, the yield of isolate PNP-4 was However the fresh yield recorded by isolate PNP-4 (956.5g) 28.33 per cent of the total yield, followed by PNP-6 (25.24%), was found significantly superior, followed by PNP-10 PNP-9 (25%) and PNP-3 (24.65%), while the yield of isolate (899g), PNP-6 (884g), PNP-8 (861.75g), PNP-9 (835g), PNP-2 PNP-1 was 19.58 per cent of the total yield. (704g), PNP-3 (657.75g), PNP-7 (604.50g), PNP-1 (571.25g) Third harvest: where as minimum yield was recorded for PNP-5 (555.25g) per kg dry substrate as compared to other isolates. The results of third harvest revealed that the isolate PNP-10 had maximum fresh yield (15.75g), followed by PNP- Dry weight of different isolates from wild edible oyster 8 (15.5g), PNP-6 (15g), PNP-2 (14.25g), PNP-4 (14g), PNP-9 mushrooms: (13.50g), PNP-5 (11.75g), PNP-3 (10.50g), PNP-1 (8.50g) After each harvesting, the mushrooms were dried in where as isolate PNP-7 had the minimum fresh yield (8.25g) mushroom dryer and observations regarding dry weight at per kg dry wheat straw. first, second and third harvests were recorded and are Further the results indicate that isolate PNP-5 was presented in Table:11. 20.61 per cent of the total yield, followed by PNP-2 (18.04%), First harvest: PNP-8 (15.35%) and PNP-3 (14.58%) and yield of isolate The results of first harvest (Table:12) revealed that PNP-4 was 11.67 per cent of the total yield.

Table 11. Dry weight of different isolates from wild edible oyster mushroom on wheat substrate.(g/kg dry substrate)

Treatments Yield of 1st harvest* Yield of 2nd harvest* Yield of 3rd harvest* Sr. No. Total Total Total Isolate No. Weight yield (%) Weight yield (%) Weight yield (%) (g) (g) (g) 1 PNP-1 39.75 66.25 11.75 19.58 8.50 14.17 2 PNP-2 47.00 59.49 18.50 23.41 14.25 18.04 3 PNP-3 43.75 60.76 17.75 24.65 10.50 14.58 4 PNP-4 72.75 60.62 34.00 28.33 14.00 11.67 5 PNP-5 34.00 59.64 11.25 19.74 11.75 20.61 6 PNP-6 63.00 60.57 26.25 25.24 15.00 14.42 7 PNP-7 42.50 67.46 12.75 20.24 8.25 13.10 8 PNP-8 62.25 61.63 23.50 23.27 15.50 15.35 9 PNP-9 59.25 61.08 24.25 25.00 13.50 13.92 10 PNP-10 (P. sajor-caju) 67.50 61.36 26.75 24.32 15.75 14.32 Control S.E. ± 1.06 1.41 0.91 C.D. (0.05) 3.09 4.08 2.63

*Mean of four replications PATIL et al., Growth Performance of Different Wild Edible Oyster Isolates on Wheat Straw 8959

Table 12. Total dry weight of different isolates from wild edible oyster mushroom on wheat substrate.

Sr. Treatments Total yield Per cent of fresh Moisture Content (%) weight No. Isolate No. (g)* 1 PNP-1 60.00 10.51 89.49 2 PNP-2 79.75 11.32 88.68 3 PNP-3 72.00 10.95 89.05 4 PNP-4 120.75 12.63 87.38 5 PNP-5 57.00 10.20 89.80 6 PNP-6 104.25 11.79 88.21 7 PNP-7 63.50 10.51 89.49 8 PNP-8 101.25 11.75 88.25 9 PNP-9 97.00 11.61 88.39 PNP-10 10 (P. sajor-caju) 110.00 12.23 87.77 Control S.E. ± 1.33 C.D. (0.05) 3.87

*Mean of four replications

Total dry weight of different isolates from wild edible required for pinhead formation and days required for first, oyster mushrooms on wheat substrate: second and third harvest after pinhead formation. The variation was observed for all the observations. Under this title, two observations were recorded viz., total dry weight and total dry weight to the per cent of fresh The results on spawn run clearly showed that the weight. The results are shown in Table:12. time taken for spawn run of the different isolates varies from 15 to 22 days depending upon the isolate. The isolate Total dry weight PNP-4 was found significantly superior, followed by PNP- After drying of the third harvest fruit bodies, total 10, PNP-7, PNP-2, PNP-3, PNP-6, PNP-8, PNP-9 and PNP-1. dry weight per kg dry substrate from different isolates were The isolate PNP-5 required more days for spawn run. The recorded. The dry yield of isolate PNP-4 (120.75g) was found findings of Shah et al. (2004) and Hassan Sher et al. (2010) significantly superior, followed by PNP-10 (110g), PNP-6 showed that 2 to 3 weeks are required for completion of (104.25g), PNP-8 (101.25g), PNP-9 (97g), PNP-2 (79.75g), spawn run which supports present study. PNP-3 (72g), PNP-7 (63.50g), PNP-1 (60g), where as the After the spawn run, days required for pinhead minimum yield was recorded in PNP-5 (57g) as compared to formation was recorded. It varied between 3.25 to 6.25 days. other isolates. The performance of isolate PNP-4 was superior which Total dry weight to the total fresh weight : showed early pinhead formationafter spawn run, followed by PNP-10, PNP-7, PNP-1, PNP-3, PNP-6, PNP-8, PNP-2 and After recording the total fresh yield and dry weight PNP-9, where as maximum number of days were required by of all the ten isolates, total dry weight to the per cent of PNP-5 for pinhead formation. Gaikwad (2004) reported that fresh weight was calculated. It was found maximum in the the time duration required for pinhead formation varies isolate PNP-4 (12.63%), followed by PNP-10 (12.63%), PNP- between 17 to 23 days after spawning in Pleurotus sajor- 6 (11.79%), PNP-8 (11.75%), PNP-9 (11.61%), PNP-2 caju.Sivaprakasam and Ramraj (1991) have reported, 25-27 (11.32%), PNP-3 (10.95%), PNP-1 and PNP-7 (10.51%) where days for appearance of pinhead, in case of Pleurotus sajor- as it was minimum (10.20%) in the isolate PNP-5. caju grown on wheat straw. Sharma and Jandaik (1983) and Moisture content Zadrazil and Kurtzmen (1982) also reported similar results. The moisture content in all wild edible oyster They reported 3 to 7 days required for pinhead formation mushrooms was found negatively corelated with dry matter after removal of polypropylene bags. content in mushroom i.e. the dry matter increases with After pinhead formation the observations for days decrease in moisture content in mushroom. required for first, second and third harvesting were recorded. Growth performance of different isolates from wild Days required for first harvest after pinhead formation were minimum and significantly superior for PNP-4, followed by edible oyster mushrooms on wheat straw PNP-10, PNP-2, PNP-3, PNP-1, PNP-6, PNP-7, PNP-8 and Growth performance on wheat straw includes the PNP-9. The maximum number of days for first harvest after observations viz., days required for spawn run, days pinhead formation was recorded in PNP-5. In second 8960 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017 harvesting minimum days were required by PNP-4, followed 6, PNP-4, PNP-5, PNP-3, PNP-9 and PNP-7 whileit was by PNP-10, PNP-2, PNP-3, PNP-1, PNP-6, PNP-8, PNP-7 and minimum in PNP-1 per fruit body. Sharma and Jandaik (1991) PNP-9, where as maximum days were required by PNP-5. in their studies with Pleurotus spp. recorded fruit body For third harvest minimum days were required by PNP-4, weight of 5.0 to 5.8 g. Hassan Sher et al. (2010) also noted followed by PNP-10, PNP-3, PNP-2, PNP-1, PNP-8, PNP-6, 2.3 to 9.7 g average fruit body weight in Peshavar. PNP-7, and PNP-9, where as maximum number of days were Number of fruits per kg dry substrate: required by PNP-5. Similar results were reported by Mshandete and Kivaisi (2013), Hassan Sher et al. (2010), The total number of fruit bodies harvested from the Muhammad Iqbal et al. (2005) and Shah et al. (2004). They mushroom beds were recorded. The number of fruits per kg noted 4 to 10 days were required for first, 15 to 28 days for dry substrate varied from 153 to 235. The isolate PNP-4 had second and 32 to 52 days for third harvesting after pinhead maximum number of fruit bodies, followed by PNP-6, PNP- formation. 10, PNP-1, PNP-7, PNP-8, PNP-3, PNP-2 and PNP-5, while number of fruit bodies were minimum in PNP-9 per kg dry Total days required for first, second and third harvest substrate. Gaikwad (2004) noted that the total number of after spawning fruits formed in Pleurotus sajor-caju ranged between 125 - The observation on total days required for harvesting 200. after spawning was recorded. Among the ten isolates under Fresh yield of different isolates from wild edible oyster study, isolate PNP-4 was found significantly superior for mushrooms on wheat substrate: days required for first, second and third harvest from the date of spawning, followed by PNP-10 and the maximum The fresh yield of different isolates from wild oyster number of days for first, second and third harvest were mushroom was recorded. The fresh yield varied from 555.25 recorded for PNP-5. The findings of Mshandete and Kivaisi to 956.50g per kg dry substrate. The isolate with maximum (2013), Hassan Sher et al. (2010), Muhammad Iqbal et al. dry weight was PNP-4, followed by PNP-10, PNP-6, PNP-8, (2005) and Shah et al. (2004) noted the similar duration for PNP-9, PNP-2, PNP-7, PNP-3 and PNP-1 where as it was Pleurotus spp. They reported 25 to 35 days required for minimum in PNP-5 per kg dry substrate. first, 40 to 50 days for second and 55 to 70 for third harvest Sharma (1992) studied 14 different Pleurotus spp. and after inoculation, which shows close proximity with our concluded that P. sajor-caju was high yielding. Pani and results. Das (1999) recorded the yield of Pleurotus sajor-caju Morphological characters of mushroom fruits from andwas 914g per kg dry substrate. Similarly Sangitrao and different wild edible oyster isolates Griensven (2000) recorded highest yield (1060.67 g/kg dry wheat straw) for Pleurotus sajor-caju, Patil et al. (2010) The various morphological characters viz.,pileus studied the yield performance of Pleurotus spp. on wheat diameter, stipe length, stipe size, colour, and odour were straw and recorded mushroom yield i.e. 720.66g per kg recorded. substrate. Further Bilal Sofi et al. (2014) reported average The pileus diameter of the isolates varied from 4.81 to yield, varied between 630-780 g per kg dry substrate. 6.36 cm. Pileus diameter in PNP-10 was significantly superior, Dry weight of different isolates from wild edible oyster followed by PNP-4, PNP-1, PNP-2, PNP-5, PNP-7, PNP-9, mushroom: PNP-3, PNP-8 while it was minimum for PNP-6 isolate. The stipe length of the isolates varied from 0.81 to The dry weight of different isolates from wild oyster mushroom was recorded. The dry weight varied from 57 to 2.63 cm. The minimum length was noticed in PNP-8, followed 120.75g per kg dry substrate. The isolate with maximum dry by PNP-9, PNP-2, PNP-5, PNP-1, PNP-4, PNP-7, PNP-3, PNP- weight was PNP-4, followed by PNP-10, PNP-6, PNP-8, PNP- 6 and maximum stipe length was noticed in PNP-10. 9, PNP-2, PNP-3, PNP-7 and PNP-1, while it was minimum in The stipe size of the isolates varied from 1.31 to 2.92 PNP-5 per kg dry substrate. Kumari and Achal (2008) and cm. PNP-4 recorded minimum size, followed by PNP-1, PNP- Quimio (1978) reported that the wheat straw was most 7, PNP-3, PNP-5, PNP-6, PNP-9, PNP-8, PNP-2 and it was suitable substrate for growing mushroom which gives recorded maximum in PNP-10. maximum yield of oyster on wheat straw. Singh et al. (1995) Pruthvi et al. (1984) studied the mushrooms comprise reported that the yield of Pleurotus spp. ranged between a large heterogeneous group which differs greatly in their 473 to 700 g per kg dry substrate with biological efficiency shape, size, colour, appearance and edibility. Hassan Sher of 47.30% to 87.50%. Savalgi and Savalgi (1994), Sangwan et al. (2010) observed the same results for Pleurotus and Saini (1994), Kadlag et al. (1998), Dubey (1999) and ostreatus and Mshandete and Kivaisi (2013) for Pleurotus Mathew et al. (1996) also reported more or less similar results HK-37. in respect of mushroom yield on substrate. 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Received on 28-10-2017 Accepted on 17-11-2017 Trends8962 in Biosciences 10(43), Print : ISSN 0974-8431,Trends 8962-8966, in Biosciences 2017 10 (43), 2017

Experiment on Effect of Interactions Between Soil Mycoflora and Fungivorous Microarthropods on Leaf Litter Decomposition and Fungal Reproductive Potential

PRADIP KUMAR BANDYOPADHYAY1, SUDIPTA SINHA2, BUDDHADEV MONDAL2 AND NIRANJAN GUPTA3

1Department of Botany, Burdwan Raj College, Burdwan* 2 Department of Mathematics, Burdwan Raj College, Burdwan Department of Zoology, Burdwan Raj College, Burdwan 3Bardhaman Science Centre, National Council of Science Museum Ministry of Culture, Govt. of India *email : [email protected]

ABSTRACT for soil biologists is to understand the dynamics of the decomposition process and its relations to the origin and In this experiment 50 microcosms replicates were set up in a plastic chamber (8 x 8 cm high and diameter) with a 2 maintenance of soil fertility in natural and cultivated systems. In order to do this, it is necessary to understand cm2 hole in the lid covered with nylon mesh. Effect of the biology of decomposer organisms and their interactions fungivory on leaf litter decomposition was assessed by with physical and biotic environments. The influence of microscoms experiment. In this experiment a comparison soil fauna on soil biological processes is well documented of 4 treatments (T -Fungi only, T -Fungi+Oppia yodai,T - 2 3 4 (reviews by Seastedt, 1984, Ingham et al., 1985; Lussenhop, Fungi+Onychiurus sp.,T 5-Fungi+Oppia yoda i+ Onychiurus sp) with the Control( Sterilized and defaunted- 1992). Microarthropods are among the most abundant decomposers in soil.Collembola, Acarines and enchytraeids T ) were made. It has been revealed from the present 1 are the major taxa belonging to this group. These animals experiment that the presence of both Acarina(Oppia yodai) and Collembola (Onychiurus sp) in treatment -5 resulted live in the pore system of the soil and most of them preferentially feed on fungi; ingest decomposed plant in significant loss of leaf litter weight .The means material and mineral particles. These fungal grazing comparison test showed that the difference between control to T and control to T3 were not significant. Treatment -4 microarthropods affects microbial respiration (Bengtsson 2 and Rundgren,1983; Kaneko et al.1998), decomposition showed slightly higher loss of weight than that of T and 2 rates(Cortet et al.2003),nutrient cycling, plant growth ( T3 but significantly lower than treatment-5.The effect of fungivory on fungal community structure was evaluated Klironnomes and Kendrick,1995), fungal biomass ,fungal succession,the distributation of fungi in soils (Lussenhop, on the basis of reproductive potential of different species 1992) and the interaction between competing fungal species (Alternaria alternata, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Fusarium chlamydosporium and Aspergillus flavus ) by (Tiunov and Scheu ,2005). Interactions between micro and fungi are central to many processes in soil, the total number of recovered spore as well as total number such as decomposition and nutrient cycling. Fungi are an of different spore recovered with ±95% confidence interval important group of decomposer organisms. As a group only. At the end of the experiment altogether 4 types of fungus degrade all kinds of organic matter and man-made spore were identified from 90% of microcosms based on products; they absorb by digesting with their filamentous shape and appearance as well as hyphal fragments. Number of spores of Alternaria alternata showed hyphae, complex polymers such as carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. They release their digestive significant increment over T (12±1) in T (23±2.5) and T 2 5 3 enzymes into the surrounding and absorb the available (18±1.5) but not in T4(9±1).The number of recovered spore of Cladosporium cladosporoioides was higher(18±2) than nutrients (Swift et al.1979).Saprophytic fungi are able to degrade cellulose and lignin (Domsch and Gams, 1969; Dix that of Alternaria alternata in T The spores of Fusarium 4. and Webster, 1995) which enables them to decompose litter and Aspergillus recovered from all the treatments were numerically lower than that of Alternaria and and wood. Fungi are the main decomposer group of the products of primary production, leaf litter, twigs, roots etc. Cladosporium. Therefore, fungi are central to understanding the process of decomposition in terrestrial ecosystem (Rodin and Key words Experiment, Effect of Interactions, Soil, Basilevic, 1967, 1968). In accordance, fungivory stands up Mycoflora and Fungivorous as a key interaction to be study if we aim to understand the Microarthropods, Leaf Litter dynamics of the decomposition process (Bandyopadhyay Decomposition, Fungal Reproductive et al.2009) and its implications to soil fertility. In relation to Potential decomposition other studies have shown that fungivory increased the respiration rate of the micro-biota in Decomposition of plant organic matter is a process decomposing leaf litter (Hedlund and Oehrn,2000).Along directly linked to soil fertility. Therefore, a main challenge BANDYOPADHYAY et al., Experiment on Effect of Interactions Between Soil Mycoflora and Fungivorous Microarthropods 8963

Fig 1. Leaf litter decomposition in microcosms experiments after 60 days of Exposure to different treatments

Table 1. One way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) of Leaf litter decomposition in Microcosms experiments after 60 days of exposure to different treatments

Source of ss df MS F P-value F crit* F crit** Variation Between 0.404835 4 0.101209 29.09769 4.3808 2.866081 4.43069 Treatments Within 0.069565 20 0.003478 Treatments Total 0.4744 24

** F-Critical at 1% level * F-Critical at 5% level with decomposition, fungi have several important functions Soil fungi provide the principal nutrient for the soil micro in the ecosystems, such as symbiosis and parasitism. One- arthropods in the soil food web and this prey-predator fourth of all described fungal species form lichens and relationship is significant in the decomposition process. almost all plant species are associated with mycorrhizal The aim of the present work was to determine the effects of fungi (Smith and Read,1997). Interactions between micro interactions between soil micro-arthropods (Collembola And arthropods and fungi are central to many processes in soil. Acarina) and mycoflora on soil fertility and impact of this Surprisingly, the possible mechanisms of these interactions, fungus-fauna relationship on decomposition process. such as grazing, disturbance and dispersal, have been little MATERIALS AND METHODS studied. Grazing of soil animals on fungi may affect the competition between saprophytic and mycorrhizal fungi The present study has been carried out by Innovation (Tiunov and Scheu, 2005), the recovery and succession of Hub of Burdwan science Centre,NCSM,Govt.of saprophytic fungi (Maraun et al.1998 b) and the dispersal India,Burdwan and Burdwan Raj College,Burdwan district of fungal propagules (Anderson, 1988, Renker et al.2005). in West Bengal, India.It is situated at a distance of about 6

Fig. 2. Effect of fungivory on the total number of recovered Spore (Mean ± 95% confidence intervals 8964 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Fig 3. Effect of fungivory on the recovered spores of different fungi. (S1- Altenaria alternata, S2-Cladosporium cladosporioides, S3-Fusarium chlamydosporum and Aspergillus flavus). km(approx) in the south –west of Barddhaman Railway was taken to minimize potential differences in the station. These area falls between 23023’14"N latitude and composition of the micro-biota between microcosms. The 87086’15"E longitude at an altitude of 30m above sea level. micro arthropods fauna in all chambers were eliminated by The soil characteristics of the studied area are sandy loam fumigating them with Chloro benzene crystals for 5min and to alluvial with moderate porosity. In the present study soil followed by ventilation for 30 min. Then out of these 50 samples were collected from non-rhizosphere and chambers 10 chambers kept defaunted (T2), 10 chambers rhizosphere of most dominant plant species of study sites was added with one adult oppid mite(Oppia yodai)- at monthly interval over a period of two years (January T3;10chambers was added with one adult collembolan 11 2014 to December 2015). Dhillon(1964) described an species (Onychiurus sp.)-T4; 10 chambers was added with apparatus for collection of soil samples, which was later, an adult Oppia yodai and one adult Onychiurus sp.-T5.Leaf modified by Roy (1967)12 has been applied in this sampling litter of remaining 10chambers was dried and stored as process. In the present investigation Tullgren funnel as control for initial dry weight (T1). The 40 experimental modified by Murphy (1962)13 was used for extraction of the microcosms were placed in a green house for 60 days during arthropods. The fungal population was assessed by September, 2014-November, 2015. Then leaf litter of each 40 inoculating the soil solution of 10–3 and 10– 4 dilutions. The microcosms dried at 700C for 3 days and the leaf litter conventional dilution plate method was followed using weighed to a precision of 0.1ìg, together with the dried leaf potato dextrose agar (PDA). This experiment was based on litter of the 10 control chambers. The weight of the leaf litter the methodology of Guevara et al., 2002. In this experiment after 60 days between treatments and the overall control 50 microcosms replicates were set up in a plastic chamber were compared. The overall one-way ANOVA was analysed (8 x 8 cm high and diameter) with a 2 cm2 hole in the lid to detect significant differences between treatments. covered with nylon mesh. 2 gm of wet leaf litter extracted After weighting the leaf litter as described above 10 from a bulk amount was added to each container. Leaf litter ml of distilled water was added to the 40 microcosms (each was collected at the study site (Site-I) from the surface area of 10 microcosms of T2 T3,T4 and T5) and shook them 2 of randomly selected points and chopped into 1cm pieces, vigorously before taking a 50ìl sample from each to classify wet and homogenized. Then, from the bulk chopped leaf and count all spores under a compound microscope litter were weighed (50 samples of 2 gm each) to a precision (Magnus,Olympus). The overall number of recovered spore of 0.1ìg, taking each sample from the centre of the bulk to and the number of different types of spore recovered in all minimize variation in water content between samples. Then the treatments were compared a suspension of spores of four fungi Alternaria alternata, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Aspergillus flavus and RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS Fusarium chlamydosporium, commonly occurring in the In this study effect of fungivory on leaf litter soil and leaf litter of the study site was prepared. Each decomposition was assessed by microscoms experiment. species were grown in a 5cm Petri dish(2% malt agar extract In this experiment a comparison of 4 treatments (T2-Fungi 0 at 30 C).After 10days the mycelium surface of each plate only,T3-Fungi+Oppia yodai,T4-Fungi+Onychiurus sp.,T5- was washed with 120ml of distilled water and the spore as Fungi + Oppia yodai + Onychiurus sp) with the Control( well as mycelium fragments were mechanically suspended. Sterilized and defaunted-T1) were made. The weight of These suspensions were mixed and then added 5ml to the control was taken before 60 days of incubation. Loss of 40 chambers. By artificially increasing the relative litter weight after 60 days of incubation was taken as a dominance (spore number) of these 5 species, an attempt measure of decomposition rate. The weight of control was BANDYOPADHYAY et al., Experiment on Effect of Interactions Between Soil Mycoflora and Fungivorous Microarthropods 8965

taken as initial weight and final weight of the leaf litter was that diverse fauna (T5 of the present study) will affect the taken as the response variable. It has been revealed from rate of decomposition process. However, the observed result the present experiment that the presence of both may be due to the fact that fungi were differentially affected Acarina(Oppia yodai) and Collembola (Onychiurus sp) in by fungivory. Alternaria alternata appeared to be more treatment -5 resulted in significant loss of leaf litter weight active (high spore production) in all the treatments except

(Fig:1) .The means comparison test showed that the in T4.Cladosporium cladosporoioides found to be more difference between control(0.816 gm) to T2(0.765gm) and active in T4. These findings indicate that fungivory affects control to T3(0.721gm) were not significant. Treatment -4 the activity (Spore production) of litter fungi and fungivores showed slightly higher loss of weight (0.645gm) than that performed different on a variety of offered fungi indicating of T2 and T3 but significantly lower than treatment- distinct resource (food) qualities.Fungivory by the Acarines 5(0.431gm). and Collembola i.e. a complex and diverse faunal make up One way ANOVA (Table: 1) showed significant has the potential to affect fungal community and the differences between treatments (F=29.09; df 4.45 at p<0.001 decomposition process by selectively feeding on a strong and p<0.05). combative species. All these results were corroborate with the findings of Tiunov and Scheu (2005) Parkinson et al. Effect on Fungal reproductive potential (1979), Lussenhop (1992) and several others The effect of fungivory on fungal community LITERATURE CITED structure was evaluated on the basis of reproductive potential of different species (Alternaria alternata, Anderson, 1988. The role of soil fauna in agricultural systems. Ir. Cladosporium cladosporioides, Fusarium Wilson J.R(ed) Advantages in nitrogen cycling in agricultural ecosystem CAB, Waling Ford Oxen UK.pp 89-112 chlamydosporium and Aspergillus flavus) by the total number of recovered spore as well as total number of Beare MH, Parmelee RM, Hendrix PF, Cheng W, Coleman DC Crossley Jr DA 1992. Microbial and faunal interactions and different spore recovered with ±95% confidence interval effects on litter nitr0ogen and decomposition in agroecosystems. only. At the end of the experiment altogether 4 types of Bengtsson G, Rundgren S 1993. Respiration and growth of a spore were identified from 90% of microcosms based on fungus, Mortierella isabellina, in vespanse to grazing by shape and appearance as well as hyphal fragments. The onychiurus armatus(collembola). Soil Biol Biochem 15:469- spores were corresponded to those species added at the 473.Ecological Monograph 62:569-591 beginning of the experiment. These are spores of Alternaria Bandyopadhyay,P.K; S.Khatun,N.C.Chatterjee 2009.Isolation of Gut alternata, Cladosporium cladosporioides, Fusarium Fungi and feeding behaviour of some selected soil microarthropods chlamydosporium and Aspergillus flavus. Comparisons of Wastelands of Burdwan District. Asian J.Exp.Sci. 23 (1) : between treatments showed significant differences between 253-259 Cortet J, Joffre R, ElmSholt S, Krogh PH 2003. Increasing species total number of spores recovered in T2 (35±4) and T5 (52±3.5) (Fig: 2). The number (Mean± 95 % confidence level) of four and trophic diversity of mesofauna affects fungal biomass, different types of spore recovered showed more or less mesofau8na community structure and organic matter same trend (Fig:3) except in treatment -4. Number of spores decomposition Processes. Biol Fertile Soils 37: 302-312 of Alternaria alternata showed significant incresement Dix N.J., Webster J(eds),1995. Fungal ecology. Harper L.ROW, New York over T2 (12±1) in T5 (23±2.5) and T3 (18±1.5) but not in T4 (9±1). The number of recovered spore of Cladosporium Domsch, K.H., Gams, W.1968. Die Bedeutung Vorfruchtabhangiger cladosporoioides was higher (18±2) than that of Alternaria Verschie sungen in der bodenmikro-flora. Phytopathologic Zeits chrift 63,64-74 alternata in T4. The spores of Fusarium and Aspergillus recovered from all the treatments were numerically lower Guevara,R. Villedo,L.andA. Nazera 2002.Soil mesofauna patterns and experiments on soil leaf litter mite than that of Alternaria and Cladosporium. fungivory:Preferences,Effects on fungal reproduction and From the results of the present study it has been decomposition.Acta Zool Mex.(n.s.).87:1-15 revealed that fungivory is one of the key interactions which Hanlon RDG, Anderson J.M.1979. The effects of collembola grazing accelerate decomposition. This results corroborates studies an microbial activity in decomposing leaf litter. Oecologia of Cortet et al. (2003) Hedlund and Oehrn (2000),. Beare et 38:93-99 al. (1992) and several others. This may be probably due to Hedlund, K and M.S.Oehru,2000.Tritrophic interactions in a sail consumption of detritus and grazing of microbes by diverse community enhance decamposition rates Oikos 88: 585-591. fauna which generally increases decomposition and the Ingham, R.E., J.A. Trofymow, E.R.ingham and D.C.Coleman.1985. mineralization rate by increasing the surface area of Interactions of bacteria, furgi. And their mematode grazers ; decomposing substrates for microbial attack (Verhoef and Effects on nutrient cycling and plant growth Ecol. Monogr 55 ; Brussard, 1990) and can affect fungal growth by grazing 119 – 14 and dispersal of fungal propagules (Renker et al.2005, Kaneko N, Mclean MA, Parkinson D.1998. Do mites and collembola Hanlon and Anderson, 1979, 1980). This present study was affeet pine litter fungal biomass and microbial respiration ? largely consistent with the findings of Setälä and Appl soil Ecol 9:209 – 213. Huhta(1990),Sulkava and Huhta(1998), Sulkava et al.(2001) Klironomes JN, Kendrick B 1995. Stimulative efferts of arthropods 8966 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

on endomy corrhizas of suger maple in the presence of deeaying Seastedt TR 2000. Soil fauna and controls of carbon dynamics : litter. Funel Eclo. 9 :528 – 536. Comparisons of Rangelands and forests across latitudinal Maraun M.Visser S,Schens 1998b. Oribatid mites enhance the recovery gradients. In : Coleman Dc, Hendrix PF (eds) Inverte brates as of microbial community after a strong disturbance. Applied Soil webmarters in Ecosystems. CAB International , New York, PP Ecology 9 : 175-181 293 – 312. Murphy P.W. 1962a. Effict of sample treatment and extraction SeTala H. And Huhta V 1990. Evalution of the soil fauna impact on efficiency with split funnel extractor. Progress in soil decomposition in a simulated coniferous forest floor. Biol Ferlit Zoology,(Ed.P.N.Murphy) soils 10:163 – 169. Parkinson D, Visser S, Whittaker J B1979. Effect of collembolan Smith, S.E.and Read, D.J 1997. Mycerrhizal symbiosis , Academic grazing on fungal colonization of leaf litter. Sail Biol Biochem press 11:529—535. Swift M.J, HEAL O.W , Anderson J.M 1979. Decomposition in Renker C, OHOP,Zimdars B, Schreider K, Maraun M, Busct terrestrial ecosystems. Stud. Ecol. , Volume 5, University of F.2005. Oribated mites a s potential vectors for sail microfungi. California Press, Berkeley, Microbial Ecology (in press) Tiunov AV, Scheu S 2005. Arbuscular mycorrhiza and collembola Rodin L.E. and W.I. Basilevic. 1968. World distribution of plant interact in affecting community composition of saprotrophic biomass in F.E.Eekardt(eds) Functioning of terrestrial microfungi. Oecologia 142.636—642 ecosystems at the primary production level. United Nations Verhoef H A, Brussaard L 1990. Decomposition and nitrogen Educational, Scientific an d cultural organization press Paris. P mineralization in natural and agroecosystems: the contribution .P. 193-202 of soil animals. Biogeochemistry 11:175—211

Received on 13-11-2017 Accepted on 17-11-2017 Trends in Biosciences 10(43), Print : ISSN 0974-8431, 8967-8970, 2017

Harvest Time Residues of Thiamethoxam 25% WG in Mango T. THIRUVENI1*AND P. KARTHIK2 1Department of Agricultural Entomology, Nammazhvar College of Agriculture and Technology, 2Thanthai Roever Institute of Agriculture and Rural Development *email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT (Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy) detector (Karmakar et Studies were conducted to evaluate the harvest time al., 2012). The QuEChERS (quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe) method has received the distinction as residues of thiamethoxam 25% WG on mango in Agricultural Research Station (ARS), Bhavanisagar of an AOAC (Association of analytical communities) official method for measuring multiple pesticide residues in fruits Erode district during 2013. The treatments comprised of and vegetables (Lehotay, 2007). The present investigation thiamethoxam 25% WG at 25 and 50 g a.i. ha-1 along with an untreated check. Samples of mango fruits and soil were was carried out to study the harvest time residues of collected in a random manner at harvest for analysis. The Thiamethoxam 25% WG in mango. samples were extracted with QuEChERS method and MATERIALS AND METHODS subjected to analyzed by using Gas chromatography Field experiment was conducted at Agricultural equipped with Electron Capture Detector. The retention Research Station (ARS), Bhavanisagar of Erode district time of thiamethoxam 25 % WG was 10.52 minutes with during January to February 2013 to evaluate the residues recovery ranged between 83.12 to 89.23 and 81.14 to 88.64 of thiamethoxam 25 WG in ten year old Potalma variety of for mango fruit and soil, respectively. The harvest time mango. The treatments comprised of thiamethoxam 25 % - residues of thiamethoxam 25% WG at 25 and 50 g a.i. ha WG @ 25 and 50 g a.i ha-1; an untreated control with three 1 were below detectable level in fruit and soil. replications was simultaneously maintained during the study. The field experiments were laid out in randomized Key word Thiamethoxam 25% WG, Mango, residue, block design (RBD) with spacing of 10 m x 10 m. harvest time, soil For insecticide residue analysis, sampling of mango fruit was done during first harvest from the treatments after Mango (Mangifera indica Linn.) referred to as the the last spraying. Soil samples were collected during first “King of fruits” is one of the major fruit crops of South harvest from the treated and untreated plots by using a Asia from time immemorial and still remains a prominent hand held auger driven to a plough depth of 15 cm. Control horticultural crop of India. It has enormous potential in samples were collected from untreated plots. The samples fruit processing industries and in foreign exchange apart were brought to laboratory in dry ice boxes and kept under from local consumption. Mango is usually attacked by -18 0C before analysis. pests like hoppers and mealybugs. Among the insect pests, hoppers are considered to be the most destructive pests Residues analysis affecting the quality of mangoes. Yield loss due to hopper Fruit was estimated to be about 25 to 60 per cent (Ray et al., 2008). During the last few decades, chemical control using Mango fruits were processed by Quick, Easy, Cheap, insecticides was the most efficient method to minimize Effective, Rugged and Safe (QuEChERS) method. Two fifty sucking pest damage in crop production. The repeated gram of samples were taken and blended in a blender. application of synthetic pyrethroids led to the resurgence Samples weighing 10 gram was taken in 50 ml centrifuge of mango hoppers (Sushil kumar et al., 2005). Indiscriminate tubes to which 20 ml of acetonitrile was added and shaked and consistent use of insecticides leads to environmental well. To this mixture, 4 g of MgSO4 and 1 g of sodium pollution, hazards to beneficial fauna and flora, insecticidal chloride were added, shaken vigorously by hand for one resistance, pest resurgence and sudden outbreak of pest minute and the mixture was then centrifuged at 10,000 rpm species. Moreover, people are also exposed to pesticides for 10 minute. Six ml portion of the upper layer was not only through ingestion of contaminated fruits and transferred into a 25 ml of centrifuge tube containing 100 vegetables grown, but while applying these in the field. mg Primary and Secondary Amines (PSA) and 600 mg of The second generation neonicotinoid, thiamethoxam is one MgSO4, The mixture was shaken vigorously by hand for 1 of the most effective chemical exhibiting high insecticidal minute and then centrifuged for 10 minutes at 5000 rpm to activities against homopteran pests as well as safe to separate solids from solution. Four ml of supernatant from natural enemies. the 25 ml of centrifuged tube was transferred to turbovap tube. The extract was condensed up to dryness in turbovap Pesticide residue analysis is essential to address rising evaporator and the volume was made up to one ml by hexane consumer concerns regarding possible contamination (HPLC grade). The extract was stored in glass vial for final issues. Several authors have dealt with the determination determination. of thiamethoxam residues in various samples using different method viz., GC (Gas chromatography) by using nitrogen Soil phosphorus detector (Gabriela et al., 2006), HPLC (High An air dried and seived soil sample (10 g) was taken performance liquid chromatography) coupled with UV-VIS in a 100 ml conical flask and mixed with 50 ml acetonitrile 8968 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

and shaken for 1h in a mechanical shaker. The solution was A2 = Area of compound from standard, in chromatogram filtered, condensed to near dryness and added 10 ml hexane V1 = Total volume of sample in ml and then filtered 1 ml through membrane filter and 20 ìl of C = Concentration of analytical standard in µg g-1 this sample was directly injected to GC (Model Varian CP 3800), equipped with Electron Capture Detector. W = Weight of the sample in g V = Volume of the standard injected in µl Final quantification std V= Volume of sample injected in µl Thiamethoxam 25% WG residues were estimated by s R = Recovery factor (if applicable) Gas chromatography Varian CP 3800 equipped with Electron f Capture Detector (ECD) fitted with Varian DB 5 Colum RESULTS AND DISCUSSION (length 30 m; diameter 0.25mm). The following were the The endogenous compounds interfering with the operating parameters. analyst were assessed by comparing the chromatograms of the standard, blank sample and fortified sample. There Column Varian DB 5 were no interference peaks at the retention time of Column Variable temp. (1800C, hold time 1.0 thiamethoxam which was at 10.52 min. The developed Temperature minute, ramp 2500C @ 50C min-1 method consisted of salting out extraction and GC ECD and hold time 2 minutes ) detection and was very selective in enabling analysis of Injector 2200C the analyte in the enormous matrix components. The Temperature recovery ranged between 83.12 to 89.23 and 81.14 to 88.64 Detector, Temp Electron Capture Detector -3000C for mango fruit and soil, respectively. The limit of quantification (LOQ) was 0.01 µg g -1 and the limit of Carrier Gas Nitrogen detection (LOD) was 0.003 µg g -1. The harvest time residues Flow rate 1 ml min-1 of thiamethoxam 25 WG sprayed thrice at 25 and 50 g a.i. ha- Total run time 20 minutes 1 were below detectable level (BDL) in mango fruit and soil. LOD 0.003 The present findings are in confirmation with the findings of several authors who reported that the harvest LOQ 0.01 time residue of thiamethoxam was below detectable level in tomato and citrus (Karmakar and Kulshrestha, 2009, Malhat The amount of residue was determined by comparing et al., 2014). The fate of thiamethoxam in soil might be the sample response with the response of standard by using affected by a variety of complex factors such as pesticide the formula, properties, soil characteristics, environmental conditions,

A1 X C X V1X Vstd etc. Low residues in soil at harvest time would be largely -1 due to the formulation sprayed directly on the leaves (Pateiro Residue in ppm (µg g ) = ————————— X Rf A X W X V et al., 2008). Thus the harvest time residues of thiamethoxam 2 s 25 % WG at 25 and 50 g a.i.ha-1 were found to be below the Where, determination level and hence were safe.

A1 = Area of compound from sample, in chromatogram

Table 1. Recovery of thiamethoxam in mango

Matrix/substrate Amount fortified Average recovery Crop % Recovered* (µg g-1) (%) Mango Fruit 0.10 83.12 0.30 86.36 86.23 0.50 89.23 Soil 0.10 81.14 0.30 84.23 84.67 0.50 88.64 *Mean of three replications

Table 2. Harvest time residues of thiamethoxam in mango

Residues in µg g-1 Dose Treatment (n=3) g a.i. ha-1 Fruit Soil Thiamethoxam 25 WG 25 BDL BDL Thiamethoxam 25 WG 50 BDL BDL Untreated check - BDL BDL

-1 BDL – Below detectable limit (0.01 µg g ) THIRUVENI and KARTHIK, Harvest Time Residues of Thiamethoxam 25% WG in Mango 8969

Thiamethoxam 0.003 ppm

Thiamethoxam 0.01 ppm

Thiamethoxam 0.03 ppm

Thiamethoxam 0.05 ppm

Fig.1 Standard chromatogram of thiamethoxam 8970 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

LITERATURE CITED Malhat, F. M., Watanabe, H., Loutfy, N. M. and Ahmed, M. T. 2014. Hazard assessment of the neonicotinoid insecticide Gabriela, D. R., Gilberto, C. B., Luiz, R. P., Marineia, L. H. and Nava, thiamethoxam residues in tomato: a prelude to risk assessment E. D. 2006. Residues of thiamethoxam, aldicarb and its profile. Toxicological and Environment Chemistry 96 metabolites in coffee leaves and effect on the control of (2):318-327. Leucoptera coffeella (Meneville-Guerin) (Lepidoptera: Lyonetiidae). Neotropical Entomology, 35(2): 1-12. Pateiro, M. M., Arias, E. M. Lopez, P. E., Martinez C.E. and Simal, G. J. 2008. Occurrence of an downslope mobilization of Karmakar, R. and Kulshrestha, G. 2009. Persistence, metabolism quaternary herbicide residues in vineyard devoted soils. Bulletin and safety evaluation of thiamethoxam in tomato crop. Pest of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 80: 407–411. Management Science, 65: 931-937. Ray, S. N., Kumari, K. and Singh, S. N. 2008. Crop loss assessment of Karmakar, R., Singh, S.B. and Kulshrestha, G. 2012. Water based mango (Mangifera indica) due to mango hopper, Idioscopus microwave assisted extraction of thiamethoxam residues from clypealis (Homoptera: Cicadelidae). The Orissa Journal of vegetables and soil for determination by HPLC. Bulletin of Horticulture, 36: 162- 164. Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, 88: 119-23. Sushilkumar, B., Raghavan, R. and Bhatt, R. I. 2005. Bioefficacy of Lehotay, S. J. 2007. Determination of pesticide residues in foods by newer insecticides against mango hopper complex on alphonso acetonitrile extraction and partitioning with magnesium sulphate: mango in humid topics of south Gujarat. Journal of Applied Collaborative study. Journal of AOAC International, 90(2): 485 Zoology and Research, 16(1): 64-66. - 520.

Received on 14-11-2017 Accepted on 19-11-2017 Trends in Biosciences 10(43), Print : ISSN 0974-8431, 8971-8973, 2017

The Relative Diversities and Abundance of Different Insect Pollinators on Sunflower VIKAS SINGH1 AND V.K. DUBEY2 1DKS College of Agriculture & Research Station, Bhatapara 2Proffessor & Head, Department of Entomology, IGKV, Raipur email1: vikas_igkv @gmail.com

ABSTRACT area for five minutes at 1000, 1200 and 1500 hour throughout The diversity and abundance of different insect visitors on the flowering period. The abundance of the different sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) ecosystem were studied pollinators recorded on sunflower heads and it were 2 at IGKV, Raipur. The observations of relative abundance of expressed as mean number of pollinators/m /minute. important pollinators visiting on sunflower heads were RESULTS AND DISCUSSION recorded as insect/m2/minute at different hours of the day. Diversity of pollinators/ visitors on sunflower In sunflower, the honeybee was recorded as the major ecosystem pollinator with an average of 25.11 insect visitors/m2 / min. Xylocopa was the second insect pollinator with an On sunflower, total of nine insect visitors (table 1) average of 2.74 insect visitors/m2 /min, whereas other belonging to four different orders viz., Hymenoptera, pollinators were comparatively less active. Similarly, Diptera, Lepidoptera and Coleoptera were found visiting activities of pollinators on sunflower heads were found on sunflower capitulum (head). In which three species viz., during 10:00h, 12:00h and 15:00h as 34.39, 35.27 and Apis florea, Apis dorsata and Apis cerana indica from the 34.50 insect visitors/m2 /min, respectively. The higher family Apidae and one species from the family Xylocopidae activities of honeybees and xylocopa was recorded during and one species from the family Scollidae were observed 10:00h and 12:00h, respectively. under order hymenoptera. One species Syrphus corolla from the family Syrphidae and one species Musca domestica Key words Pollinator, diversity, abundance, sunflower from the family Muscidae were observed under order Diptera. Similarly, one species Pieris brassicae from the Sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) is an important family Pieridae under order Lepidoptera and one species oilseed crop in India and ideal for cultivation in any season Coccinella septumpunctata from the family Coccinellidae because of its wider adaptability, drought tolerance, short under order Coleoptera were found, respectively. Our duration, photo and thermal insensitivity characteristics. findings are also in agreement with the findings of Deodikar Among various oilseed crops, sunflower is considered as et al. (1976), Satyanarayana and Seetharam (1982) and a third most important next to soybean and groundnut Jadhav et al.(2011) who reported several insect pollinators (Hegde et al. 2009). It has low seed rate and high seed from sunflower capitulum belonged to order Hymenoptera multiplication ratio (1:80). It is a cross pollinated crop and (Apis and non-Apis species), Lepidoptera (Moths and pollinators play an important role in getting higher yields. butterflies) and Diptera and Coleoptera. Krishna (2014) also The floral arrangement, sequence of flower opening, colored recorded different 45 pollinators on sunflower during the petals and strong scent allows them to be assisted when study, among them 12 species belonged to Hymenoptera, visited by pollinating insects such as, bees, wasps and 16 species belonged to Lepidoptera, 5 species belonged to occasionally ants, beetles, moths and butterflies and flies Diptera, 4 species belonged to Hemiptera and 8 species (Labandiera et al. 2007). Majority of insect pollinators belonged to Coleoptera. belong to three orders viz., Hymenoptera, Lepidoptera and Relative abundance of pollinators on sunflower Diptera. ecosystem MATERIALS AND METHODS On sunflower, the highest contribution of per cent The trial was carried out to document the pollinator relative abundance and average insect population (Table diversity and abundance in sunflower ecosystem at 2) (Fig. 1 & 2) were observed in the order Hymenoptera as 2 Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, IGKV, 82.46% with 28.63 insect visitors/m /min, respectively. Raipur, Chhattisgarh during 2014-15. Sunflower was raised Among Hymenoptera, maximum contribution of per cent without any insecticidal sprays with all the recommended relative abundance and average insect population was agronomic practices. Different insect visitors were collected observed in the family Apidae as 72.32% and 25.11 insect 2 by sweep method on sunflower throughout the blooming visitors/m /min, respectively. Whereas, in the family at an hourly interval from 0800 to 1700 hour and kill and Xylocopidae and Scoliidae contribution of per cent relative preserve as dry specimens. Insect collection should be abundance as 07.90% and 02.24% and average insect 2 started after 3 days of commencement of flowering and population as 2.74 and 0.78 insect visitors/m /min were continued till 90 per cent flowering is over. The collected found on sunflower capitulum (head). In the order Diptera, insects were differentiated as insect visitors and pollinators family Syrphidae the contribution of relative abundance by observing their behaviour on flowers. Similarly, and average insect population was observed as 06.38% 2 observations on frequent insect visitors to the sunflower and 2.22 insect visitors/m /min, respectively. Similarly, per capitulum (head) were recorded daily on per square meter cent relative abundance and average insect population of 8972 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Table 1. Diversity of different insect visitors on flowers of Sunflower

S No Common Name Scientific Name Order Family 1 Little honeybee Apis florea Hymenoptera Apidae 2 Rock bee Apis dorsata Hymenoptera Apidae 3 Indian honeybee Apis cerana indica Hymenoptera Apidae 4 Carpenter bee Xylocopa iridipennis Hymenoptera Xylocopidae 5 Wasp - Hymenoptera Scoliidae 6 Syrphid fly Syrphus corolla Diptera Syrphidae 7 House fly Musca domestica Diptera Muscidae 8 Cabbage butterfly Pieris brassicae Lepidoptera Pieridae 9 Ladybird beetle Coccinella septumpunctata Coleoptera Coccinellidae

Table 2. Relative abundance and average insect population on Sunflower

Insect Group Average insect population (insect visitors/m2 /min) 10:00h 12:00h 15:00h Mean Relative Abundance of Pollinators Apis bees 28.47 24.13 22.73 25.11 72.32% Xylocopa iridipennis 1.93 3.73 2.57 2.74 07.90% Wasp 0.43 1.17 0.73 0.78 02.24% Syrphus spp. 1.65 2.87 2.13 2.22 06.38% Others 1.91 3.37 6.34 3.87 11.16% Total 34.39 35.27 34.5 34.72 100.00% other insect pollinators were observed as 11.16% and 3.87 species as A. dorsata. Similarly Deodikar et al. (1976), insect visitors/m2 /min, respectively. In general the higher Panchabhavi and Devaiah (1977), and Satyanarayana and activities of honeybees and xylocopa were recorded during Seetharam (1982) and Jadhav et al. (2011) also reported A. 10:00h and 12:00h, respectively. Our findings are in dorsata was the most frequent visitor though other insects conformity with observations made by Swaminathan and viz., A. cerana, A. florea, Milipona sp., Xylocopa sp. Bharadwaj (1982) they recorded the most frequenting bee butterflies and moths did pollinate the sunflower crop.

Fig. 1. Relative abundance of Pollinators on Sunflower SINGH and DUBEY, The Relative Diversities and Abundance of Different Insect Pollinators on Sunflower 8973

Fig. 2. Average population of insect visitors/m2 /min on Sunflower

LITERATURE CITED 22 (2) : 303-305. Deodikar G B, Seethalaxmi V S and Suryanarayana M C 1976. Floral Labandiera, C. C., Kvacek, J. and Mostovski, M. B. 2007. Pollination biology of sunflower with special reference to honey bees. J. of drops, pollen and insect pollination of Mesozoic gymnosperms. Palynology, 12: 115-125. Taxon., 56(3): 663-695. Hegde, D. M., Reddy, P. S. and Pati, D. 2009. Oilseed crops. Handbook Panchabhavi K S and Devaiah M A 1977. A note on the activities of of Agriculture, 6th ed., Directorate of Information and insect pollinators on sunflower during Winter and Summer Publication of Agriculture, ICAR, New Delhi, India, pp. 942- seasons at Bangalore. Curr. Res. 6: 88-89. 1001. Satyanarayana A R and Seetharam A 1982. Studies on the method of Jadhav, J. A; Sreedevi, K. and Rajendra P. 2011. Insect pollinator hybrid seed production in oil seed sunflower (Helianthus annuus diversity and abundance in sunflower ecosystem. Current Biotica, L.) 3. Role and activity of insect visitors in pollination and seed 5(3): 344-350. set. Seed Science and Technology, 10: 13-17. Krishna 2014. Studies on pollinator fauna of Sunflower (Helianthus Swaminathan R and Bharadwaj S C 1982 Bee pollinators and their annuus L.) and their relative abundance. Ann. Pl. Protec. Sci., foraging behaviour. Indian Bee Journal, 44(2): 32-34.

Received on 16-11-2017 Accepted on 19-11-2017 Trends8974 in Biosciences 10(43), Print : ISSN 0974-8431,Trends 8974-8976, in Biosciences 2017 10 (43), 2017

Engineering Properties of Palmyrah Palm Jaggery (Borassus flabellifer L.) M.T. NIGHITHA1 AND I.P. SUDAGAR2 1F & APE , KCAET Tavanur, Malappuram 2AEC & RI TNAU Coimbatore email : [email protected]

ABSTRACT four months and reduces the market value of the jaggery. Disintegration of the raw jaggery is one of the important The jaggery granules have same characteristics of taste, sweetness and molecular structure as that of raw jaggery. unit operations in the palmyrah palm jaggery processing. The important engineering properties of palmyrah palm The overall life and quality of powdered jaggery is much better when compared to the available raw jaggery. jaggery were studied. Three different grades of jaggery were obtained and classified based on the fineness modulus MATERIALS AND METHOD values. The values range from 5.5-6.5 (coarse), 4.5-6.5 Size (medium), 4.5-6.5 (fine) respectively. Result was revealed that the mean values of size, true volume, true density, The size of palm jaggery such as height, diameter moisture content, porosity, bulk density, coefficient of was measured using a digital vernier calliper, the horizontal frictions against various surfaces was found to vary from and vertical height and diameter measured and average 4.11±0.69 mm in height, 93.0± 0.49 mm diameter, 0.00014 values noted. 3 3 ± 1.2 m , 1344.65 ± 2.4 kg/m respectively. While the True volume moisture content on different size of palmyrah palm jaggery was found to be in the range of coarse (3.23), The volume of palm jaggery was measured using water medium (3.1) and fine (2.9). Bulk density and porosity of displacement method. First dip the jaggery by using sink jaggery before and after disintegration obtained 687.08 ± rod in few seconds. The difference between the final volume 12, 765.85±31 and 48.83±2.3,42.77 ±9.3 respectively. of water displaced and the initial volume gives the volume of the jaggery Key words Palmyrah palm jaggery, disintegration, True density fineness modulus The samples were first weighed to get its mass and the volume was determined for each sample by immersing Palmyrah, widely called as Toddy palm tree’’belongs it in water, in order to get the volume of displaced water. It to the family Palmae and the sub-family Boracidae. It is is important to note that the readings were taken the one of the most common trees in India. The palm tree is immediately after the sample was immersing into the jar. considered as “karpagavirutcha “in Tamil Nadu and treated weight of displaced water (kg) as the State tree. Out of the estimated 8.59 crores of palmyrah 3 Volume (m )  3 in India, about 5.10 crores of Palmyrah is in Tamil Nadu. It is weight density of water (kg/m ) a potential centre for the growth and development of Palm Moisture content of palmyrah palm jaggery products industry to a greater extent attracting foreign Moisture content of jaggery was determined by using exchange by way of export of palm products. a hot air oven method. Five gram of jaggery with few drops Gur (Palmyrah Jaggery) is a natural, traditional of absolute alcohol was dried to constant weight at 70°C sweetener made by the concentration of palm sap or juice. The jaggery was dried for 7 h till it reached bone dry It is an unrefined non-centrifugal sugar consumed in Asia. condition (constant weight). Palm sap is manually collected from each inflorescence of Initial weightof sample -Final weightof sample the Palmyrah palm tree. Traditionally, Palm sugar M C   100 concentrate is produced by evaporating the palm sap in a (wb) Total weightof sample large open pan (approximately 60-80 litres/pan). Heating is stopped when desired consistency and colour is reached. Where,

The product would be taken out from the pan to cool down Ww - weight of water evaporated, (g) and kept in containers for moulding. The shape of the solid Wd - weight of bone dry matter present, (g) jaggery may vary from small round balls to large lumps. Bulk density The differences are based on personal hygiene, sanitary facilities, harvesting condition, heating temperature, heating Bulk density is defined as the mass of the sample to time and storage conditions. its total volume (including its pore space). Filling a container In recent times, different forms of jaggery are available of known volume with the jaggery from a height of 150 mm in the market viz., solid, liquid and powder or granular forms. at a constant rate and then weighing the content. No Price of palm jaggery is determined by its quality, colour, separate manual compaction of jaggery was done. flavour and texture. The demand of palmyrah palm jaggery Porosity granules is growing rapidly due to ease in use, handling, Porosity was calculated as the ratio of the difference packaging and storage. Raw jaggery which is large and between the true and bulk density, expressed in percentage. solid at room temperature gains the moisture after three to NIGHITHA and SUDAGAR, Engineering Properties of Palmyrah Palm Jaggery (Borassus flabellifer L.) 8975

   Coefficient of friction P  1 b 100   Stainless steel 0.476  t  Where, Mild steel 0.773

P - porosity, % Galvanized steel 0.424

3 b - bulk density, kg/m Bulk density and true density of palm jaggery

3 t - true density, kg/m The bulk density and true density of jaggery was determined to calculate the volume of feed hopper required Co-efficient of friction and quantity of jaggery retained in the disintegrating unit The co-efficient of friction for jaggery was determined during disintegration. The average value of bulk density by placing the samples on galvanized iron sheet with the and true density of the jaggery was found to be 687.08 kg help of a bottomless plastic cup. Then the cup was per m3and 1344.65 kg per m3 .Similar results were reported connected to the loading pan through a strong thread and by Jagannadha Rao et al. (2008). It was found that after the thread was allowed to move over a frictionless pulley. disintegration bulk density of jaggery was varied from Weight was added gradually until the cup started dragging. 628.93to 882.82 kg per m3 revealed that bulk density Then the weight added on the pan was noted with different increased with increasing particle size. Similar studies sheets. reported by Horng Yuan Saw et.al.(2014) relationship between powder particle size and bulk density. F   Moisture content of palm jaggery N Average moisture content of the jaggery was found Where, to be 3.42 ± 0.66% wb Similar trend was observed by ì - co-efficient of friction Velauthamurty et al.(2015) in palmyrah palm jaggery granules. Moisture content is varied before and after size F - lateral force, g reduction due to the hygroscopic nature of the jaggery it N - normal force, g absorbs moisture from the atmosphere. Analogous results RESULT AND DISCUSSION were reported by Mandal et al. (2006). Maximum moisture was observed in case of fine jaggery powder. On the basis Results of physical properties like size, shape, true of moisture it could be concluded that particle size is volume, moisture content, bulk density, true density, inversely related to the moisture absorption in jaggery similar porosity, and coefficient of friction are determined before results revealed by Unde et al. (2011). and after disintegration of jaggery are tabulated. The study on size distribution of jaggery (average of Porosity of palm jaggery three replications) is presented in Table 1.1 revealed that 88 The porosity of palm jaggery before disintegration per cent of the jaggery was in the range of 30-50 mm in varied from 34.35 to 52.87 per cent, average value of porosity height and 80-100 mm in diameter. was found to be 42.77 per cent. This clearly indicates that

Table 1. Important engineering properties of palmyrah palm jaggery

Particulars Range Mean SD

Height , mm 31.2 – 44.2 41.1 0.69 Diameter , mm 83.6 – 101.3 93.0 0.49 3 0.00012- 0.00019 0.00014 1.2 True volume,m 3 1021.89 – 2242.021 1344.65 2.4 True density , kg/m 3 Before disintegration Bulk density , kg/m 657.25 - 720.08 687.08 128.12 After disintegration 628.93-882.82 765.87 31.5 Porosity (%) Before disintegration 46.44- 51.12 48.89 2.3 After disintegration 34.35-52.87 42.77 9.37

8976 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017 in a given volume of a container, volume occupied by jaggery tapping,” Powder Technology., vol. 78, pp. 247–256, 1994. is less i.e. 42.77 per cent as compared to air. It was found Iskandar,A., Y. indah, Machfud & B.Dan. 2014. effect of temperature that after disintegration porosity of jaggery varied. and time on dry granulation process of arenga palm sugar. Jagannadha Rao et al. (2008) revealed the porosity value of International Journal of Research in Engineering & Technology. palmyrah palm jaggery granules was 65.4%. The porosity 2: 33-44 changed depending upon the shape of the material. It was Kumar.S., Tiwari, G.N.and Om Prakash. 2003. Evaluation of evident from the study conducted by Chandrasekar and convective mass transfer coefficient during drying of jaggery. Visvanathan (1999) on determining the physical properties Journal of Food Engineering. 63: 2347-4599 of coffee beans that the porosity increased with decrease Leela,C.,K.SatyaP.P.prakash. S.Srivastav and K.Bashir. 2015. in regularity in shape. physicochemical and thermal properties of candy crystals prepared from palmyra-palm jaggery. Journal of Food Process Coefficient of frictions Engineering. 1745–4530. Coefficient of frictions is essential for the movement Jaganadha, P .V. C., M.Das. S.K.Das. 2008. Effect of moisture of jaggery through the disintegrating unit surface. The content on glass transition and sticky point temperatures of average values of static coefficient of friction on various sugarcane, palmyrah palm and date palm jaggery granules. journal test surfaces viz., Stainless Steel (SS), Mild Steel (MS) and of Food Engineering. 559–566. Galvanized Iron (GI) are given in the Table1.1. The coefficient Madhava,D., Ravindra. B, Vengaiah and Hari. 2015. Optimization of friction of jaggery was high on MS surface (0.77) and of Process Parameters for Production of Palmyrah Palm Jaggery. was least (0.42) on GI surface. Among the test surfaces Journal of Agricultural Engineering, 52(1) used, the mild steel surface recorded the highest static Mandal, D., Tundu S.R. S.R.Mitra 2006. Effect of common packing coefficient of friction of 0.773 materials on keeping quality of sugarcane jaggery during mansoon season.sugar technology. 8(2&3):137-142. CONCLUSION Rao P V K , M.Das S.K Das. 2008. Thermo physical properties of Jaggery is highly priced due to its medicinal properties; sugarcane, palmyrah palm and date palm granular jaggery, J. there is a need for developing standard process as well as Food Prop., 11 (4), 876-886. mechanisation for the same. These information will be very Rao P V K ., Das M, S.K Das 2009. Changes in physical and thermo- helpful to develop the process and machinery for Palmyrah physical properties of sugarcane, palmyrah palm and date-palm juices at different concentration of sugar. Journal. Food palm jaggery production. Engineering. 90 (4), 559-566. LITERATURE CITED Roos, Y. & M.Karel. 1993. Water activity and physical state effects Adekomaya,,S.O and O.Samuel. 2014. Design and Development of on amorphous food stability. Journal of food processing and a Petrolpowered Hammer mill for rural Nigerian Farmers. Journal preservation 16:433-447 . of Energy Technologies and Policy. 4:2224-3232. Roy. 1951. Monograph of the gur industry in India. Indian Institute Ademosun, O.C. 1990. Performance evaluation of a medium-scale of Sugar Technology. Kanpur: 55-64. cocoa dehulling and winnowing Machine. Agriculture Sahay, K.M., and Singh, K.K. 1994. Engineering properties of Mechanization In Asia, Africa And Latin America. 21(2): 57- agricultural materials. Unit operation of agricultural 64. processing.Vikas publication pvtlmd., pp. 618. Chandrasekar,V. and R. Viswanathan. 1999. Physical and thermal Velauthamurty, K., S.Balaranjan. and G. Sashikesh 2014. A feasibility properties of coffee. Journal of Agricultural Engineering study for the authentication of Palmyrah Jaggery using NIR Research. 73:227-234. spectroscopy . Archives of Applied Science Research, 2014, 6 Guerra M J; Mujica M V. 2009. Physical and chemical properties of (6):55-60 cane sugar “panelas”. Cienciae Technology 30(1), 250-257. Unde, P.A., Adagale. A, Syed I. Hashmi. and Raheem. A . 2011. A. B. Yu, and J. S. Hall, “Packing of fine powders subjected to Effect of Different Particle Sizes of Jaggery Powder on Storability World Journal of Agricultural Sciences 7 (2): 157-160, 2011

Received on 16-11-2017 Accepted on 20-11-2017 Trends in Biosciences 10(43), Print : ISSN 0974-8431, 8977-8981, 2017

Effect of Blending on Colour and Sensory Qualities of Blended Jamun: Aonla Nectar During Storage

A. A. VAIDYA, P.P. RELEKAR AND K.H. PUJARI

Department of Post harvest Management of Fruit, Vegetable and Flower Crops, Post Graduate Institute of Post Harvest Management, Roha, Raigad, Maharashtra email : [email protected]

ABSTRACT convenient alternative for utilizing them in developing some value added beverages. Jamun nectar blended with aonla An investigation was carried out to study the effect of blending on colour and sensory qualities of blended jamun: juice would help to increase the nutritive value and sensory qualities of the beverage. Keeping this in view, the studies aonla nectar during storage at the Department of Post were conducted to assess the effect of blending of jamun Harvest Management, P.G. Institute of Post harvest Management, Killa-Roha, Dist. Raigad (M.S.). The blended and aonla juices on the colour and sensory qualities of the blended nectar during storage at ambient condition. nectar was prepared with different proportions of jamun and aonla juices i.e. 100:00, 90:10, 80:20, 70:30, 60:40 MATERIAL AND METHODS and 00:100 in the nectar. The a* value for colour of blended The healthy and uniform quality jamun and aonla nectar was significantly more than that of straight aonla fruits procured from local market were thoroughly washed nectar. A linear increase in the L* and b* value for colour to remove surface dirt and dust. Jamun fruits were then with decline in the a* value of the product irrespective of passed through jamun pulper and the jamun pulp was the treatments was noticed during storage period of 90 extracted whereas aonla fruits were shredded by using aonla days at ambient conditions. Among the different blends, shredder. Both the juices were extracted by pressing jamun the jamun and aonla juice in 70:30 proportion was found pulp and aonla shreds in the basket press and the juice to be the best combination with respect to the sensory extracted was then clarified through muslin cloth to get qualities like colour, flavour and overall acceptability of clear juice. The blended nectar was prepared with different the blended jamun nectar. proportions of jamun and aonla juices such as 100:00, 90:10, 80:20, 70:30, 60:40 and 00:100 in the nectar by maintaining Key words Jamun, Aonla, Blended nectar, Colour, 150 B T.S.S., 20 per cent blended juice and 0.28 per cent Sensory qualities acidity with 100 ppm sodium benzoate as preservative. Prior to the preparation of blended nectar, the clarified fresh jamun Jamun (Syzygium cuminii Linn,.) is one of the and aonla juices were analysed for their physico-chemical important underutilized fruit crops grown in India which qualities such as colour, TSS, titratable acidity, reducing belongs to family Myrtaceae. Jamun fruits are known for sugars, total sugars and ascorbic acid by using the methods their medicinal value and iIt is highly useful against bleeding described by Ranganna, (1997). The colour in terms of L* piles, correcting liver disorders, jaundice, kidney stone, a* and b* values of jamun and aonla juice as well as the asthma, blood pressure, etc. (Joshi, 2001). The ripe Jamun blended nectar was determined by using colorimeter (make fruits are usually characterized with edible portion varying Konica Minolta, Japan). The product was evaluated for its 0 from 50 to 92.30 per cent, with 10 to 18 Brix total soluble organoleptic qualities like colour, flavour and overall solids and 0.14 to 2.17 per cent acidity (Daware et al., 1985). acceptability on a hedonic scale (Amerine et al., 1965). The The jamun fruits possess very good processing qualities changes in the colour values and the organoleptic qualities and are used for the preparation of different value added were studied at an interval of 30 days for a period of three products such as squashes, jellies, wine, vinegar, juice, months. The experiment was laid out in Factorial Completely etc. (Nawaz, 2010). Aonla (Emblica officinalis Gaertn.), a Randomized Design (FCRD) with four replications and the member of the family euphorbiaceae is another dry land recorded data were statistically analyzed by the standard fruit crops which is also known for its nutritional and procedure given by Panse and Sukhatme (1985). medicinal value. Aonla fruit is a rich source of vitamin C ranging from 600 to 700mg per 100g of pulp in different RESULTS AND DISCUSSION varieties. The different value added products such as The data presented in the Table 1 indicate that the a* murrumba, candy, pickle, dehydrated aonla, chyawanprash and b* values for colour of jamun fruit juice were higher are prepared from aonla fruits traditionally. As aonla fruit is than that of the aonla juices due to deep pink colour of acidic as well as astringent in taste, the consumption of jamun juice, rich in anthocyanin pigments. Moreover, the fresh aonla fruits is generally not preferred and therefore, L* value for colour of aonla fruit juice was higher than that blending it with other fruit juices is thought to be a of the jamun fruit juice. The average total soluble solids 8978 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Table 1. Physico-chemical composition of fresh jamun (Syzygium cuminii Linn.) and aonla (Emblica officinalis Gaertn.) juice

Sr.No. Parameters Fruits

Jamun Aonla

A Physical parameters Mean*

Colour

1 L*value for colour 20.6 23.4

2 a*value for colour 8.8 3.21

3 b*value for colour 7.1 5.3

B Chemical parameters

1 T.S.S (0B) 11.4 8.5

2 Acidity (%) 0.814 1.96

3 Reducing sugars (%) 6.95 3.39

4 Total sugars (%) 8.65 4.81

5 Ascorbic acid (mg/100g) 18.2 418.6

Table 2. Effect of blending on L* and a* value for colour of blended jamun: aonla nectar during storage

Treatments L* value for colour a* value for colour

Storage period (Days) Storage period (Days)

0 30 60 90 Mean 0 30 60 90 Mean

T1 18.50 19.03 19.20 19.35 19.02 8.45 5.23 4.18 3.80 5.41

T2 18.20 18.85 19.40 19.60 19.01 8.68 5.15 4.15 3.78 5.44

T3 18.45 19.50 19.63 19.80 19.34 8.40 4.13 3.83 3.70 5.01

T4 17.55 19.43 19.58 19.75 19.08 9.73 5.65 3.93 3.60 5.73

T5 17.95 19.78 19.90 20.05 19.42 9.65 4.95 3.25 2.70 5.14

T6 22.00 22.30 22.43 22.75 22.37 2.65 1.75 1.45 1.15 1.75

Mean 18.78 19.81 20.02 20.22 7.93 4.48 3.46 3.12

S.Em. ± C.D. at 5 % S.Em. C.D. at 5 ± %

Treatment (T) 0.02 0.06 0.03 0.07

Storage (S) 0.03 0.07 0.03 0.09

Interaction (T 0.05 0.15 0.06 0.18 X S)

T1: 100 % jamun T2: 90% jamun:10% aonla T3: 80% jamun:20% aonla

T4: 70% jamun: 30% aonla T5: 60% jamun: 40% aonla T6: 100% aonla VAIDYA et al., Effect of Blending on Colour and Sensory Qualities of Blended Jamun: Aonla Nectar During Storage 8979

Table 3. Effect of blending on b* value for colour of blended jamun: aonla nectar during storage

Treatments b* value for colour

Storage period (Days)

0 30 60 90 Mean

T1 6.45 7.25 7.70 8.53 7.48

T2 6.28 7.13 7.80 8.45 7.41

T3 6.15 6.90 7.48 8.15 7.17

T4 4.50 6.48 6.80 6.93 6.18

T5 4.35 5.43 6.30 7.43 5.88

T6 5.13 5.65 5.98 6.55 5.83

Mean 5.48 6.47 7.01 7.67

S.Em. ± C.D. at 5 %

Treatment (T) 0.03 0.08

Storage (S) 0.04 0.10

Interaction (T X S) 0.07 0.20

T1: 100 % jamun T2: 90% jamun:10% aonla T3: 80% jamun:20% aonla

T4: 70% jamun: 30% aonla T5: 60% jamun: 40% aonla T6: 100% aonla

Table 4. Effect of blending on sensory qualities (colour and flavour) of blended jamun: aonla nectar during storage

Treatments Sensory score for colour Sensory score for flavour

Storage period (Days) Storage period (Days)

0 30 60 90 Mean 0 30 60 90 Mean

T1 7.43 7.30 7.18 7.05 7.24 7.75 7.38 7.00 6.75 7.22

T2 6.68 6.45 6.23 5.88 6.31 7.25 6.95 6.55 6.45 6.80

T3 7.08 6.85 6.55 6.40 6.72 7.20 6.75 6.43 6.18 6.64

T4 7.68 7.55 7.15 6.88 7.31 8.25 7.75 7.23 6.88 7.53

T5 7.58 7.33 6.88 6.75 7.13 8.05 7.45 7.18 6.50 7.29

T6 7.43 7.30 7.18 7.05 7.24 7.63 7.40 7.00 6.75 7.19

Mean 7.31 7.13 6.86 6.67 7.69 7.28 6.90 6.58

S.Em. ± C.D. at 5 % S.Em. ± C.D. at 5 %

Treatment (T) 0.04 0.12 0.07 0.20

Storage (S) 0.03 0.10 0.06 0.16

Interaction (T X 0.08 NS 0.14 NS S)

T1: 100 % jamun T2: 90% jamun:10% aonla T3: 80% jamun:20% aonla

T4: 70% jamun: 30% aonla T5: 60% jamun: 40% aonla T6: 100% aonla 8980 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Table 5. Effect of blending on sensory qualities (overall acceptability) of blended jamun: aonla nectar during storage

Treatments Sensory score for overall acceptability Storage period (Days) 0 30 60 90 Mean T1 7.59 7.34 7.09 6.90 7.23 T2 6.96 6.70 6.39 6.16 6.55 T3 7.14 6.80 6.49 6.29 6.68 T4 7.96 7.65 7.19 6.88 7.42 T5 7.81 7.39 7.03 6.63 7.21 T6 7.53 7.35 7.09 6. 90 7.22 Mean 7.50 7.20 6.88 6.63 S.Em. ± C.D. at 5 % Treatment (T) 0.04 0.19 Storage (S) 0.03 0.10 Interaction (T X S) 0.08 NS

T1: 100 % jamun T2: 90% jamun:10% aonla T3: 80% jamun:20% aonla

T4: 70% jamun: 30% aonla T5: 60% jamun: 40% aonla T6: 100% aonla content in jamun fruit juice was 11.4º B. The mean titratable A significant effect of treatments on the sensory score acidity, reducing and total sugar content in jamun fruit juice for colour of blended jamun: aonla was noticed during was 0.814, 6.95 and 8.65 per cent, respectively. The mean storage (Table 4). The highest colour score (7.31) was ascorbic acid content was 18.2 mg/100 g of jamun fruit juice. recorded by the treatment T4 which was at par with the On the contrary, the total soluble solids content in aonla treatments T6 and T1. The lowest (6.31) colour score was juice was 8.5º B with 1.96, 3.39 and 4.81 per cent titratable recorded in the blend T2, followed by T3 (6.72) and T5 acidity, reducing and total sugar content, respectively. The (7.13). The nectar with 70:30 ratio of jamun and aonla juice mean ascorbic acid content in aonla juice was 418.6 mg/100 (T4) exhibited better retention of the attractive purplish g. pink colour of the nectar which was comparatively as good Among the different blends, the L* for the colour as that of the straight jamun nectar (T1). The sensory score varied from 19.01 to 19.42 which was significantly lower for colour of the product decreased significantly up to 90 than straight aonla nectar (T6). It is clear from the data days of storage at ambient conditions. The decrease in the presented in Table 2 that the a* value for colour of blended colour score might be due to high rate of oxidative reactions nectar was significantly more than that of straight aonla at room temperature as well as less retention of antioxidants. nectar due to higher proportion of jamun juice rich in colour The sensory score for flavour of the blended nectar pigments. The highest b* value (7.48) was recorded in the was influenced by the treatments. More retention of jamun treatment T1 which was at par with T2 (7.41) but significantly flavour in the nectar was noticed when it was blended with superior to rest of the treatments. A linear increase in the L* aonla juice in ratio of 70:30 (T4). The sensory score for and b* value for colour with decline in the a* value of the flavour decreased significantly during 90 days of storage. product irrespective of the treatments was noticed during The decrease in flavour score might be due to oxidative storage period of 90 days at ambient conditions. The reactions responsible for the degradation of the flavouring changes in the colour values of the blended nectar were compounds during storage. Identical results are also probably occurred due to the oxidative and enzymatic reported by Sharma (2009) in blended guava-jamun RTS reactions during storage. The degradation of colour drink and squash. pigments during storage might have resulted into decrease Among the treatments, the highest (7.42) overall in the a* value with rise in the L* and b* value for colour of acceptability score was recorded by the nectar blend with the product. Identical observations to this finding are also 70:30 ratio of jamun and aonla juice and it was statistically reported by Kiattisak et al. (2004) while studying the colour superior to all other treatments (Table 5). The sensory score appearance of fruit juice affected by vitamin C, Patil (2013) for overall acceptability decreased significantly during the in beet root (Beta vulgaris) juice and Wissanee and Renu storage period of 90 days. Similar results are recorded by (2007) in orange juices Cv. Sai Nam Pung. Tandon et al., (2007) in blended bael-papaya RTS beverage; VAIDYA et al., Effect of Blending on Colour and Sensory Qualities of Blended Jamun: Aonla Nectar During Storage 8981 and Nagpal and Rajyalakshmi (2009) in blended Ready-To- 2004. Colour appearance of fruit juice affected by vitamin C. Serve beverage of bael and citrus fruit. AIS 2004 Interism meeting of the international colour Association, Proceedings. CONCLUSION Nagpal and P. Rajyalakshmi 2009. Quality and storage of RTS beverage The results of the present investigation indicate that from bael and citrus fruit blends. Beverage & Food World, 36(2): the L* and b* value for the colour of the blended nectar 24-26. increased with decline in the a* value irrespective of the Nawaz, M.S. 2010. Determination of mineral elements in Jamun treatments during storage period of 90 days at ambient fruit (Eugenia jambolana) products. Pakistan J. of Food Sci., conditions. Among the different blends, the jamun and aonla 20: 1-7. juice in 70:30 proportions was found to be the best Panase, V.G and P.V. Sukhatme 1985. Statistical methods for combination with respect to the sensory qualities like colour, Agricultural workers, I.C.A.R New Delhi. flavour and overall acceptability of the blended jamun Ranganna, S. 1977. Manual of analysis of fruit and vegetable products. nectar. Tata Mc Graw hill Publishing Company Ltd., New Delhi. LITERATURE CITED Sharma Megha, Gehlot R., Singh R., Siddiqui S. 2009. Studies on Development and Evaluation of Guava-jamun Ready-to-serve Amerine M.A., R.M. Pangborn and E. B. Rocssler 1965. Principle Drink and Squash Centre of Food Science and Technology, CCS of Sensory Evaluation of Food. Academic Press, London. pp. Haryana Agricultural University, Hisar (Haryana). 65-67. Tandon, D.K., Sanjay Kumar; Abhay Dikshit and D. K. Shukla 2007. Daware, S.G., V.R. Chakrawar and S.T. Borikar 1985. Variability and Storage study on Bael-Papaya blended rts beverage. Ind. Fd. correlation studies in jamun (Syzygium cuminii Skeels). Punjab Packer, 61(5): 91-97. Hort. J., 25(1-4):89-94. Wissanee Supraditareporn and Renu Pinthong 2007. Physical, Joshi, S.G. 2001. Medicinal plants, New Delhi, Oxford and IBH chemical and microbial changes during storage of orange juices Publishing Co. Cv. Sai Nam Pung and Cv. Khieo Waan in Northen Thailand. Kiattisak Duangmal*, Sekson wongsiri* and Suchitra sueeprasan. International Journal of Agriculture and Biology 9(5): pp 726- 730.

Received on 16-11-2017 Accepted on 19-11-2017 Trends8982 in Biosciences 10(43), Print : ISSN 0974-8431,Trends 8982-8990, in Biosciences 2017 10 (43), 2017

Comparative Analysis of Pigeon Pea Genotypes for Physiological Traits Under Water Logging Conditions Using Hydroponics and Pot Culture ANSHIKA TYAGI1,2, R.S. RAJE*2, SURESH CHAND3

1Department of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Banasthali University, Rajasthan 2Division of Genetics, Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi 3School of Life Sciences, Devi Ahilya University, Indore, Madhya Pradesh *email : [email protected]

ABSTRACT supplementing energy rich cereal diets in a mainly Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L. Millspaugh) is more vegetarian population (Saxena et al. 2010). However, the susceptible to water logging stress than other legumes productivity of this crop is hampered by various biotic and and is known to be one of the major factor for limiting abiotic stresses among which water-logging stress is of growth and production of pigeon pea across the globe. The major importance. In India, pigeon pea crop is generally timing and duration of water logging vary with soil type, grown in monsoon or rainy (kharif) season and is exposed frequency of heavy rainfall and risk of flooding. Therefore, to water-logging stress conditions caused by erratic and the best method for screening pigeon pea genotypes under prolonged rains. Moreover, pigeon pea is primarily grown water logging stress is important. However, there is in deep vertisols and in the areas with mean annual rainfall currently no useful and efficient selection method of of 600-1,500 mm, hence water-logging becomes a serious screening for this trait, which is an obstacle in breeding problem (Chaudhary et al. 2011). In India, about 8.5 m ha of programmes. Hydroponics is the simplest and effective arable land is prone to this problem. A recent comparative method used to study the water logging tolerance in analysis of pigeon pea growing regions revealed that almost different crops. A study of pigeon pea genotypes under all the states that grow pigeon pea in India are affected by hydroponics condition revealed that after 4 days of stress water-logging. It is estimated that around 1.1 mha of the condition (anaerobic) decrease in chlorophyll content was total area under pigeon pea is affected by excess soil observed and was correlated with relative index of root moisture, causing an annual loss of 25-30 % in production length, shoot length and shoot fresh weight under water (Chaudhary et al. 2011). logging stress and control condition while in pot condition Water-logging occurs when the water table attains a the variation was studied using various physiological and morphological parameters like plant stand, leaf level at which the soil pores in the root zone of the plants senescence, chlorophyll content, relative water content, are fully saturated and restrict normal air circulation. membrane stability index. Under hydroponics medium Consequently, oxygen level in the soil declines and carbon Pusa 992 and Pusa 2002 was found to be highly sensitive dioxide concentration increases, which adversely affects and tolerant genotypes while under pot condition Pusa 992 the growth and development of plant roots. Drastic and Pusa 2002 as moderately sensitive and tolerant reduction in oxygen level and increase in carbon dioxide genotypes respectively. The study in response to water concentrations are the primary stresses to which the plants logging stress in two pigeon pea genotypes under two are exposed under water-logging conditions (Vartapetian different medium was found to be not correlated & Jackson, 1997). The germination and vegetative growth significantly and further evaluation of this trait under field stages of pigeon pea crop are more sensitive to water- condition will help to understand their potential utility in logging stress in comparison to flowering stage. Wilting, crop improvement plan. senescence, chlorosis, and abscission of lower leaves are few symptoms begin within two days of imposing stress Key words Pigeonpea; Water logging; Hydroponics; condition which ultimately decides the crop stand and Chlorosis productivity (Else et al., 1996; Takele et al., 1995; Cho et al., 2006; Kumutha et al., 2008; Singh et al., 1986). The water- Pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L. Millspaugh) is logging stress result significant decline in RWC (Min and cultivated in tropical and sub-tropical areas between 300N Barhthalomew, 2005). Water logging have been reported to and 300S latitude. It is an important grain legume of Asia induce considerable membrane damage in different crop (especially, the Indian subcontinent), Latin America and plants such as forty times increase in solute leakage results Eastern and Southern Africa. Globally, it is grown on ~5 from four days waterlogged pea plants (Oberson et al., 1999; million hectares (mha) in about 82 countries of the world. Rawyler et al., 2002; Jackson et al., 1982). Thus, it is immediate Pigeon pea has a unique place in Indian farming and to develop pigeon pea genotypes which are high yielding accounts for about 90 % of the global production. It is the as well as are tolerant to water-logging. second most important pulse crop next to chickpea, covering Genetic analysis of tolerance to any abiotic stress an area of around 4.42 m ha (occupying about 14.5 % of can be successfully accomplished if a repeatable, precise area under pulses) and production of 2.86 mt (contributing and quick screening technique is available. Screening for to 16 % of total pulse production) and productivity of about water logging tolerance under field conditions, that too in 707 kg/ha. It is an excellent source of protein (20-22 %), TYAGI et al., Comparative Analysis of Pigeon Pea Genotypes for Physiological Traits Under Water Logging Conditions 8983

Table 1. Composition and concentration of Hoagland stock solution used under hydroponics study

Compounds Molecular Concentration of Concentration of Volume of stock solution per Weight stock solution stock solution litre of final solution (g/mol) (mM) (g/L) (ml)

A)Ca(No3)2 164.088 3.64 364.0 1.25

KNO3 101.1032 2.213 221.3 1.25

KH2PO4 136.086 0.621 62.1 1.25

MgSO4 120.366 2.176 217.6 1.25

B)CuSO4.7H2O 285.7156 0.0035 0.35

MnSO4 151.001 0.0609 6.09 0.125 ZnSO4 161.47 0.0097 0.97

H3BO3 61.83 0.1269 12.69

H2MoO4 161.973 0.04 4.0 C) Tartaric acid + 150.087+ 0.04+0.05 4+5 0.6 FeSO4 151.048 the rainy season involves complications such as un- predict water logging tolerance at later stage (Singh et al. controlled rainfall and percolation of water as well as 1986, Kumutha et al. 2008 and Li et al 2008). occurrence of diseases like phytophthora blight in pigeon However, in view of the complexity of water logging pea. In addition, genotypes interact differently with the tolerance and its great variation at intra-specific and inter- varying environment, and it is difficult to screen genotypes specific levels, it is difficult to identify single criteria, which precisely and to define the testing environment. Moreover, could be used as effective selection targets. Rather it is the results are not repeatable in natural field conditions most meaningful if morphological and physiological due to these unpredictable and uncontrolled test indicators for individual species are determined rather than conditions. By looking to these complications, it is generic indicators. It is also important to find out association necessary to standardize the screening technique for water- of morphological and physiological parameters with results logging under controlled condition which will be precise, of screening at the seedling stage. So far there are only few repeatable and free from uncertainties of natural scientific reports available on screening of water logging environment, so as to identify tolerant genotypes and for tolerance in pigeon pea under pot and field conditions, but designing genetics of the tolerance. Moreover, it has also there has been no scientific efforts made to standardize the been reported that screening of pigeon pea genotypes in screening methods using hydroponics in pigeon pea. Thus seedling stage for water logging tolerance is suitable to

Table 2. Paired t-test for comparison of mean performance for morphological parameters (RL, SL, TL, NL, RFW, SFW, LFW, TFW, RDW, SDW, LDW and TDW) of two genotypes under control and Water Logging (WL) stress conditions in hydroponics

Traits Pusa 992 Pusa 2002 Control WL stress T test Control WL stress T test RL (cm) 24.3 14.1 0.63 27.7 21.3 3.80 SL (cm) 22.3 12.9 2.44 19.2 17.9 0.88 TL (cm) 46.7 27 4.22 46.8 39.2 3.12 NL 11.0 4 8.009* 10.0 7.7 3.99 RFW (g) 0.32 0.11 6.92* 0.35 0.14 2.05 SFW (g) 0.48 0.19 4.95* 0.51 0.3 2.53 LFW (g) 0.75 0.15 7.72* 0.79 0.4 2.16 TFW (g) 1.55 0.44 6.95* 1.65 0.85 2.18 RDW (g) 0.12 0.07 0.15 0.11 0.05 2.44 SDW (g) 0.07 0.08 0.06 0.14 0.03 20.24** LDW (g) 0.18 0.35 2.48 0.16 0.06 3.35 TDW (g) 0.37 0.48 0.09 0.41 0.13 2.86

**Significant at 1%, *Significant at 5% 8984 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Table 3. Relative index (RI) of SL, RL and SFW of two genotypes under control and WL stress conditions in hydroponics

Traits Pusa 992 Pusa 2002 Control Stress RI (%) Control Stress RI (%) SL 22.3 12.9 57.8 19.2 17.9 93.2 RL 24.3 14.1 58 27.7 21.3 76.9 SFW 0.48 0.19 39.6 0.51 0.3 58.8 in the present study an effort has been made to standardize uniform plants of each genotype were selected and screening technique using hydroponics under controlled transferred in good quality of plastic duplicate trays with environment to have more precision and repeatability of size 20 x 15x 5 cm and the roots of the propagules were the results. Therefore, by keeping the above into inserted through the holes of the tray slightly large sized consideration the present study involves comparative study plastic net trays of size 30 x 20x 5 cm having holes of 5 x 5 of pigeon pea genotypes for water logging tolerance using mm were placed above the plastic container containing both hydroponics and pot culture to find correlation working nutrient solution for each water logging (anaerobic) between the traits observed under hydroponics with and control (aerobic) conditions for 2 days under biochemical and physiological parameters estimated in pot continuous light and aeration by fitted aquarium air pump culture under waterlogged condition. to produce bubbling so that continuous oxygen will be provided for respiration of the plants and solution were MATERIALS AND METHODS replaced every 5-6 days to maintain the proper nutrient Plant material and experiment level and concentration in the solution. The pH of the The plant material in the present study consists of nutrient solution was measured daily. Then first sensitive two pigeon pea genotypes viz., Pusa 992 (water-logging symptom (time/days after treatment) was noted among the sensitive) and Pusa 2002 (water-logging tolerant). These genotypes and root as well as shoot were harvested genotypes were evaluated for various morpho- separately by blotting to eliminate the entrained moisture. physiological traits viz., RL (root length), SL (shoot length), Composition and Preparation of Nutrient Solution TL (total length), NL (number of leaves), RFW (root fresh Modified Hoagland solution Epsteim (1972) prepared weight), SFW (shoot fresh weight), LFW (leaf fresh weight), as described by Taiz and Zeiger (2002) were used for TFW (total fresh weight), RDW (root dry weight), SDW hydroponic study as shown in Table 1. The stock solution (shoot dry weight), LDW (leaf dry weight) and TDW (total of each nutrient was prepared separately and appropriate dry weight) under hydroponic condition and for plant stand, volume of each was mixed together to make up the final leaf senescence, total chlorophyll content, relative water volume and concentration of the nutrient solution. The pH content and membrane stability index under pot condition of the solution was adjusted to 6.8 using 0.1 N HCl or NaOH. during the year 2013-2014 at the Division of Genetics, IARI, New Delhi and National Research Centre of Plant Sampling, drying and weighing methods Biotechnology, Pusa Campus, IARI, New Delhi. The Sampling experiment was laid out in Complete Randomised Design (CRD) with two replications, and phenotyping was carried Samples of water logging stress and control were th out for a number of traits. The standard cultivation practices collected at 8 day after creating anaerobic condition and were followed precisely. 38 days of growth. At each interval, plants were harvested from each treatment, washed thoroughly in distilled water a) Hydroponics screening and blotted to dryness. Morphological parameters such as Plant growth conditions root/shoot length, leaf area and relative index were recorded. For biochemical analyses, root, stem and leaves were Seed Germination sampled. A minimum of 6 plants of each treatment were Seeds were germinated in a tray on the germinating separately cut into pieces, randomized and sampled in paper and kept for continuous growing for 10 days then 3 duplicates for each analysis.

Table 4. Variation between two pigeonpea genotypes for morphological and physiological parameters under pot experiment for Control (C) and Water logging stress (WL)

Genotype RWC (%) MSI (%) Chlorophyll content Plant Stand Shoot Length (SPAD) (cm) C WL C WL C WL C WL C WL Pusa 992 29.5 59.9 75.4 45.3 38.0 33.6 2 1 15 14 Pusa 2002 13.4 54.5 99.5 51.8 51.3 48.75 5 4 11 11

TYAGI et al., Comparative Analysis of Pigeon Pea Genotypes for Physiological Traits Under Water Logging Conditions 8985

Table 5. Paired t-test for comparison of mean performance for physiological and biochemical parameters (RWC, MSI and Chlorophyll content) of two genotypes under control and Water Logging (WL) stress conditions in hydroponics

Genotype RWC (%) MSI (%) Chlorophyll content (SPAD) C WL T-test C WL T-test C WL T-test Pusa 992 29.5 59.9 469.38** 75.4 45.3 340.96** 38.0 33.6 8.91* Pusa 2002 13.4 54.5 202.9** 99.5 51.8 119.87** 51.3 48.75 0.272

**Significant at 1%, *Significant at 5%

Morphological measurement plant stand were calculated by Weatherley (1950), Sairam et al. 1997 and SPAD meter respectively. Growth of plants was assessed in terms of root length, stem length, and leaf area. Statistical analysis Root and stem length t-test for paired samples was carried out as per the method given by Panse and Sukhatme (1989). The results The sampled plant seedlings were washed in distilled water, and length of root, stem and number of leaves were have been presented in Table 2 and Table 5. measured manually, using a graduated scale. Measurements RESULTS AND DISCUSSION of not less than six plant seedlings were recorded each As we know that water logging induces adverse effect time. on several morphological and physiological parameters of Dry weight plants by creating deficiency in essential nutrients like Ca, Mg, K and N which lead to the formation of adventitious Samples of root stem and leaves collected as described 2 earlier were weighed in pre-weighed containers using roots, lenticels and aerenchyma formation to adapt under electronic balance. Fresh weight obtained was recorded oxygen deficient environment (Ashraf et al. 2012). Water logging stops the influx of CO , which leads to decrease in and the weighed samples were then placed in hot air oven 2 at 60° C for one week. Dry weight of each sample was taken photosynthetic parameters observed in many crops like maize, barley, mung bean, and tomato respectively (Yan et on the 8th day of drying and weighing was repeated until values become constant. al., 1996; Yordanova et al., 2001; Else et al., 1996; Cho et al., 2006). Chlorophyll content is directly influenced by Relative Index percentage reduction in photosynthesis and with increase in the Relative Index percentage was calculated according duration of stress (Bansal and Srivastava 2015) as it is to the method of Turner (1994) important part of light harvesting system in photosynthetic Observed value of a trait in solution under stress apparatus. Pezeshki (2001) reported that increase in the X 100 chlorophyllase activity under water logging stress condition is responsible for reduction in chlorophyll content RI = —————————————————————— in the plants. Reduction in chlorophyll content during water Observed value of a trait in solution under control logging stress was also reported in plants like wheat b) Pot screening (Collaku and Harrision 2002) and soybean (Sorte et al., 1996). Decrease in energy supply and altered redox state of Seed germination the cells are responsible for increase in ROS production Seeds were germinated in the pots (size 12 x 8 cm) under water logging stress condition causing oxidative containing 1kg of soil with 34° C temperature at day and 25° injury which may leads to reduction in membrane stability C at night with relative humidity approximately 68 % and a due to lipid peroxidation and it is continued to increase photoperiod of 16/8 h. Four seeds were sown per pot. The with increase in the duration of the stress (Yan et al., 1996) plants were irrigated every alternate day with normal tap reported in many plants like corn, winter rape and barley. water. After 35 days from sowing, water logging stress was Fig 1a shows the effect of water logging stress on two induced by putting the pots into the plastic trays filled with genotypes in which Pusa 2002 was shown to be the tolerant stagnant water and making the water level up to 5cm above and Pusa 992 as a susceptible genotype during hydroponics the soil upto 8 days. The intensity of the water added to the screening. The first symptom of chlorosis and wilting of pots was calculated periodically to maintain the water level susceptible genotype was noticed after 4 days of starting of the pots. After 8 days of water logging stress screening of anaerobic condition while the tolerant genotype was based on physiological and morphological parameters was remained as it is even after 21 days of continuation of stress. also studied before and after water logging. This is could be due to the adaptation of tolerant genotype Physiological Parameters by formation of lateral roots at the junction of root and shoots internode as shown in Fig 1a. The screening of Physiological parameters like relative water content, genotypes in soil/pot was also done simultaneously to membrane stability index, total chlorophyll content and compare the result in the same environment under two 8986 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

a) Hydroponics Experiment Genotypes 1) Pusa 992 2) Pusa 2002

Pusa 2002 (T)

Pusa 992 (S)

Control (aerobic condition) WL (anaerobic condition)

Lateral root

Pusa 992 (S)

Pusa 2002 (T)

Roots (under WL) Tolerant Roots (under WL) showing lateral root development at the junction of root and shoot node

b) Pot experiment Pusa 992 Pusa 2002

Control WL Stress Control WL Stress

Fig. 1. Screening of pigeon pea genotypes in control and waterlogging stress condition under hydroponics and pot experiment different methods. The comparative morphological analysis presented in Table 2. The mean values were compared by viz., chlorosis and wilting of leaves of the two genotypes ‘t’ test as per Panse and Sukhatme (1989). The results under both the screening methods was found to be similar indicated that the genotype Pusa 992 had significantly lower as shown in Fig 1a and 1b. In the present study analysis of performance under waterlogging stress for NL, RFW, SFW, paired t-test (Table 2) shows that the mean under control LFW and TFW than that under control. The second and waterlogging stress were significantly differed for the genotype Pusa 2002 had non- significant reduction in the traits RL, SL, TL, NL, RFW, SFW, LFW, TFW, RDW, SDW, performance for almost all the traits except for SDW for LDW and TDW. The mean values for various traits (RL, SL, which this genotype showed significant reduction thus, it TL, NL, RFW, SFW, LFW, TFW, RDW, SDW, LDW and could be concluded that the genotype Pusa 2002 showed TDW) recorded under control and WL stress conditions relative tolerance as compared to Pusa 992 to waterlogging for the two varieties Pusa 992 and Pusa 2002 in hydroponics stress under hydroponic conditions. These results are TYAGI et al., Comparative Analysis of Pigeon Pea Genotypes for Physiological Traits Under Water Logging Conditions 8987

Fig. 2. Graph showing relative tolerance index of SL, RL and SFW traits in two pigeon pea genotypes under control and stress condition parallel to the results obtained under pot screening should be further verified by screening large number of experiment. Thus, it revealed that hydroponics screening pigeon pea genotypes, including tolerant and sensitive to procedure may be a good substitute for pot screening test. waterlogging stress, under hydroponic condition in order However, the screening under hydroponic conditions to fine tune the protocol of screening for waterlogging

Fig. 3. Graph showing comparison of mean performance for morphological and physiological parameters of two genotypes under control (C) and Water Logging (WL) stress conditions in hydroponics a) RL b) SL c) TL d) NL e) RFW f) SFW g) LFW h) TFW i) RDW j) SDW k) LDW and l) TDW. Data shown here is the mean ± S.E. 8988 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Fig. 4. Graph showing variation between two pigeon pea genotypes for morphological and physiological parameters under pot experiment for Control (C) and Water logging stress (WL) a) Relative water content (RWC) b) Membrane stability index (MSI) c) Chlorophyll content (Chl) d) Plant stand (PS) and e) Shoot length (SL). Data shown here is the mean ± S.E. stress under hydroponics. The relative index percentage Youngsukying and Nakasathien (2008) studied the data shows that SL, RL and SFW traits for screening water four clones of Eucalyptus to water logging stress condition logging tolerance under hydroponics study shows the under hydroponics based on physiological parameters like highest variation under control [SL (57.8), RL (58.0) and net photosynthesis, maximum quantum yield, chlorophyll SFW (39.6)] and stress [SL (93.2), RL (76.9) and SFW (58.8)] content and biomass. Four two-month-old eucalyptus conditions as shown in Table 2 and Fig 2. On the other clones were grown in half-strength Hoagland’s solution hand during pot screening it was found that plant stand, and subjected to water logging conditions for 16 days. relative water content, membrane stability content and total Physiological parameters were monitored at days 0, 8 and chlorophyll content decreases after stress in comparison 16. All the parameters were decreased after 16 days of water to control condition as shown in Fig 3 and 4. Based on the logging in comparisons to control. The physiological physiological and morphological data Pusa 992 was found parameters of gas exchange and the Fv/Fm ratio were proven to be moderately sensitive while Pusa 2002 as tolerant to be suitable indicators of water logging-tolerant traits. genotype under water logging. A lot of study under Soffer and Burger (1988) studied the effect of hydroponics for screening water logging tolerance based dissolved oxygen concentrations in Aero-hydroponics on on similar study during seedling stages was also studied in the formation and growth of adventitious roots of cuttings different crops such as maize, wheat and sorghum (Qui et of woody (Ficus) and herbaceous (Chrysan thymum) in al. 2007, Singh et al. 2003 and Jordan et al. 1979). TYAGI et al., Comparative Analysis of Pigeon Pea Genotypes for Physiological Traits Under Water Logging Conditions 8989 the range of 0-8 mg/L. The result showed that the lowering reduction in performance was significantly lower compared the dissolved oxygen concentration increased the time to Pusa 992 (Fig. 2). required to form adventitious roots, reduced rooting percentage, reduced number of roots formed per cutting, Pot experiment and reduced average root lengths. The same traits viz., RWC, MSI, total chlorophyll and Zhou et al. 2011 showed that WLT was mainly SL were also studied in pot culture under water logging controlled by additive genes and had high heritability, and and control conditions, and the results are in agreement hence is suitable for screening in early generations but with that of hydroponics. The paired t-test showed that accurate phenotyping is crucial for identifying better QTL. mean performance of variety Pusa 992 differ significantly Stress tolerance is obtained indirectly by testing, at best, under water logging and control conditions for all the advanced breeding lines in multi-environmental trials and studied traits, whereas the Pusa 2002 showed significant finally by approval of cultivars with the highest mean grain difference in mean performance under two conditions for yield in variety testing. A trait-based selection method, either RWC and MSI but non-significant for the traits viz., total for root growth or for chlorophyll fluorescence, to improve chlorophyll and SL. WLT would probably be more successful than just breeding On the basis of above study it is concluded that no for yield. The risk of discarding interesting genotypes on efforts have been made so far towards standardization for the way would be reduced and it would be possible to screening techniques under hydroponics for identification introgress special alleles for high WLT. of water logging tolerant genotypes. Thus, the standardized Pang et al. 2004 suggested the use of photosynthetic protocol in this study shall be useful towards the rate or total chlorophyll for selection of parental genotypes understanding of mechanism and genetics of water logging and chlorophyll fluorescence when screening large tolerance in pigeon pea. This shall enable Plant Breeders to numbers of breeding lines. However, there are no reports screen Pigeonpea genotypes more rapidly and with more on the heritability of these traits and their use in practical precision under controlled environment condition. In the breeding. Li et al. 2008 used indices of leaf chlorosis, plant present study Pusa 2002 was found to be the tolerant survival and plant biomass reduction to identify genotype as compared to Pusa 992 which is susceptible quantitative trait loci (QTL) associated with water logging under water logging stress condition in hydroponics as in barley and found seven such QTL. Some of these QTL well as pot condition. SL, RL and SFW were found to be the affected multiple adaptations to water logging-related traits, better traits for screening water logging tolerance under e.g. by reducing leaf chlorosis and increasing plant biomass hydroponic condition as shown in Table 3. In the pot under water logging stress. screening Pusa 2002 was found to be tolerant and Pusa 992 as moderately sensitive genotype as shown in Table 4. This Bertholdsson (2013) Studied the screening for Barley is the preliminary study on standardization of water logging waterlogging tolerance in Nordic Barley cultivars (Hordeum tolerance under hydroponics on which further improvement vulgare L.) using chlorophyll fluorescence on can be made on the basis of physiological, biochemical and hydroponically grown plants. In this study water logging anatomical parameters for precise screening of the can reduce crop yield by 20-50 % or more and lack of efficient genotypes. selection methods is an obstacle in plant breeding. Methods based on root growth inhibition and on fluorescence on LITERATURE CITED plants grown hydroponically were evaluated against data Ashraf, M.A., Ashraf, M. and Shahbaz, M. 2012. Growth stage-based on biomass accumulation water logging soil. As both traits modulation in antioxidant defense system and proline were correlated and it was easier to measure fluorescence, accumulation in two hexaploid wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) this method was further evaluated. cultivars differing in salinity tolerance. Flora 207: 388–397. Hydroponics Bertholdsson, N-O,. 2013. Screening for Barley waterlogging tolerance in Nordic Barley cultivars (Hordeum vulgare L.) using In the present study analysis of paired t-test showed chlorophyll fluorescence on hydroponically grown plants. that the mean under control and water logging stress for Agronomy 3(2): 376-390. the two varieties Pusa 992 and Pusa 2002 were significantly Epstein, E., 1972. Mineral nutrition of plants: Principle and differed for the traits viz., relative water content (RWC), perspective. J. Wiley and Sons, Inc, New York 412p. moisture susceptibility index (MSI) and total chlorophyll, Jordan, W.L., Miller, F.R. and Morris, D.E. 1979. Genetic variation but non-significant for shoot length (SL) of Pusa 2002 in in root and shoot growth of sorghum in hydroponics. American hydroponic (Table 2). The mean values for the studied traits Society of Agronomy. 19 (4): 468-472. under control and WL stress conditions for varieties Pusa Kumutha, D., Sairam, R.K., Ezhilmathi, K., Chinnusamy, V. and 992 and Pusa 2002 in hydroponics are presented in Table 2. Meena, R.C. 2008. Effect of waterlogging on carbohydrate The results indicated that the genotype Pusa 992 had metabolism in pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan L.): Upregulation of significantly lower performance for all the studied traits sucrose synthase and alcohol dehydrogenase. Plant Science. 175: under water logging stress relative to control (Fig. 1). The 706-716. second genotype Pusa 2002 also showed significant Li, H., Vaillancourt, R., Mendham, N. and Zhou, M. 2008. reduction for RWC, MSI and total chlorophyll except SL Comparative mapping of quantitative trait loci associated with waterlogging tolerance in barley (Hordeum vulgareL.) BMC under water logging condition relative to control, but 8990 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Genomics. 9- 401: 1-12. root as factors influencing the tolerance of wheat to waterlogging. Pang, J., Zhou, M., Mendham, N. and Shabala, S. 2004. Growth and Australian Journal of Agri Research. 54: 969-977. physiological responses of 6 barley genotypes to waterlogging Turner, I.M., 1994. A quantitative analysis of leaf form in woody and subsequent recovery. Aust J Agric Res. 55: 895-906. plants from the world’s major broadleaved forest types. Journal Pansen, V.G. and Sukhatme, P.V. 1989. Statistical method for of Biogeography. 21: 413-419. agricultural markers. Published by Publication and Information Taiz, L. and Zeiger, E. 2002. “Plant Physiology” (Third Edn.) (L. Division, ICAR, New Delhi. Pp 58. Taiz and E. Zeiger, Eds.). Sinauer Associates, Inc., Sunderland, Qui, F., Zheng, Y., Zhang, Z. and Zu, S. 2007 Mapping of QTL Massachusetts. associated with waterlogging tolerance during the seedling stage Weatherley, P.E., 1950. Studies in water relations of cotton plants. in maize. Annals of Bot. 99: 1067-1081. The field measurement of water deficit in leaves. N. Phytol. 49: Singh, K., Sharma, S.P., Singh, T.K. and Singh, Y. 1986. Effect of 81-87. water logging on growth, yield and nutrient concentration of Yan B., Dai Q., Liu X., Huang S. and Wang Z. 1996. Flooding- black gram and green gram under subtropical condition of induced membrane damage, lipid oxidation and activated oxygen Varanasi. Ann. Agri. Res. 7: 169-177. generation in corn leaves. Plant Soil. 179: 261-268. Soffer, H. and Burger, D.W. 1988. Effects of dissolved oxygen Youngsukying, P. and Nakasathien, S. 2008 Physiological Responses concentrations in Aero-hydroponics on the formation and growth of Four Eucalyptus Camaldulensis Clones to Waterlogging in a of adventitious roots. J. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 113(2): 218-221. Hydroponic System. Kasetsart Journal: Natural Science. 42 Sairam, R.K., Deshmukh, P.S. and Shukla, D.S. 1997. Tolerance to (4): 500-610. drought and temperature stress in relation to increased Zhou, M., 2011. Accurate phenotyping reveals better QTL for antioxidant enzyme activity in whet. J. Agron. Crop Sci. 178: waterlogging tolerance in barley. Plant Breeding. 130: 203- 171-177. 208. Singh, D.K and Singh, V. 2003. Seed size and adventitious (nodal) Received on 17-11-2017 Accepted on 20-11-2017 Trends in Biosciences 10(43), Print : ISSN 0974-8431, 8991-8996, 2017

Economic Viability of Layer Poultry Farms in Navsari District Of Gujarat

J.J. MAKADIA, R.T. KHATRI AND H.H. MISTRY

Dept.of Agricultural Economics, NMCA, Navsari Agril. University, Gujarat email : [email protected]

ABSTRACT broiler farms and only one poultry farmers’ co-operative society. Where as Navsari district has 121 total poultry An attempt has been made to find out economic viability of layer poultry farms of Navsari district of Gujarat with farms. The estimated number of total poultry of Gujarat State were 110.24 lacs in the year (2011-12). (32rd Survey census sampling techniques of all 21 running poultry report on estimates of major livestock products for the year farms each of 3, 7 and 11 poultry farmers from small, medium and large groups, respectively. Economics of layers 2014-15 (Gujarat State, Director of Animal Husbandry, Gandhinagar). The estimated meat production in the year production has been worked out on the average number of 2014-15 was 30571 MT. Hence, the present study was carried birds i.e 4,000, 7,250 and 12,500 birds in small, medium and large farms. The overall project cost was calculated to out to identify the economic viability of poultry farming in Navsari district and to suggest suitable measures to the tune of Rs. 39,73,960, Rs. 71,62,915 and overcome the hurdles faced by poultry farmers. Rs.1,18,95,800 for small, medium and large poultry farms, respectively. The NPV calculated was Rs.3,77,003, Rs, MATERIALS AND METHODS 8,92,065 and Rs. 15,17,153, for small, medium and large Navsari district was selected purposively considering poultry farms, respectively. BCR was worked out to 1.17, the limited available resources. To justify the objectives, 1.28 and 1.30 for small, medium and large poultry farms, the data were collected from poultry entrepreneurs in respectively whereas internal rate of return was found to Navsari district by using pre-tested interview schedule 37%, 38% and 39% for small, medium and large poultry through personal interview in the year 2016-17. farms, respectively. The major problem faced by the poultry The selected respondents were grouped in to three farmers were high feed cost and low egg prices followed categories on the basis of number of birds on their farm as by labour problems, investment, feed and marketing, under. insufficient power supply, managerial problems, control measures, lack of export facilities, lack of transport/ Group – 1 (Small) :- Up to 5000 birds storage facilities, health coverage, availability of raw Group – 2 (Medium) :- 5001 to 10000 birds materials, extension and training facilities and non adoption Group – 3 (Large) :- 10001 and above birds of improved technology. From each group seven poultry farmers selection is decided but actually 3, 7 and 11 poultry farmers from small, Key words Poultry, Economics, layer farms medium and large groups, respectively were available and selected for study. Thus, total sample size was of 21 layer In recent years, there has been increasing recognition farms. The cost of production of layer was worked out among the development community about the role that according to the cost concepts given below. backyard poultry production can play in sustaining and (I) Fixed cost enhancing poor people’s livelihoods. There is also growing evidence which demonstrates the role of rural family poultry (II) Variable cost in enhancing food and nutritional security of the poorest, To analyses data, statistical tools like percentage, reducing their livelihood, vulnerability and insecurity and ratio, IRR, NPV & BCR etc. were used. promoting gender equity. The poultry structure in India FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION has undergone a major shift in structure and operation in the last two decades, transforming it from a mere backyard The findings obtained from the present study are activity into a major commercial activity with the presence presented below of large integrated players and successful implementation Techno economic parameters of contract poultry farming on large scale. The Indian Sr. poultry sector has been growing at around 8-10 % annually Parameters Small Medium Large No over the last decades and more than 15% in the last three years. Annual per capita consumption in India is only 53 1 No. of birds 4000 7250 12500 eggs in the year 2010-11 and 2.2 Kg of poultry meat in the Cost of day old chick (Rs./ 2 27.00 26.50 26.00 year 2014. Gujarat has three regional poultry breeding farms, bird) eight district poultry farms and seven poultry demonstration 3 Feed cost (Rs./Kg.) 20.00 20.00 19.00 centers of the Government broilers farms, 1369 private sector

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Sr. Parameters Small Medi Large birds in small, medium and large farms. The initial average No um project cost including capital cost and recurring cost for small, medium and large size poultry farms are given in Table- Feed requirement for chick 4 mash upto 8 weeks 7.00 7.00 7.00 1. It is revealed from the table that the capital cost incurred (gm/bird/day) was Rs.11,60,800 Rs.21,06,100 and Rs.36,26,250 for small ,medium and large poultry farms, respectively. Whereas, Feed requirement for recurring cost was Rs.28,13,160, Rs.50,56,815 and 5 grower mash upto 8 weeks 70.00 70.00 70.00 Rs.82,69,550 for small, medium and large poultry farms, (gm/bird/day) respectively. The overall project cost was calculated to the Feed requirement for layer tune of Rs. 39,73,960, 71,62,915 and 1,18,95,800 for small, 6 mash upto 8 weeks 110 110 110 medium and large poultry farms, respectively. (gm/bird/day) The data related to year wise income and expenditure Cost of medicines, vaccines for five years of small size poultry farms are depicted in 7 and misc.charges 15.00 14.50 14.00 Table-2. The income generated from different sources like (Rs./bird/year) sale of eggs, gunny bags, manure etc. are worked out to the Egg production per bird per st nd 8 320 320 320 tune of Rs. 30,44,003 (1 year), and for 2 year and onwards year (No.) up to 5th year Rs.46,23,271, whereas cost incurred was found 9 Sale price per egg (Rs.) 3.35 3.25 3.25 to Rs. 28,13,160 (1st year ), Rs. 35,52,260(2nd year), Rs. rd th Sale price of manure (Rs. 35,92,760(3 year), Rs. 35,52,260 (4 year) and Rs. 35,92,760 10 1200 1150 1100 th per ton) (5 year). Sale price of gunny bags The data pertaining to year wise cash inflow, cash 11 9.00 9.00 10.00 (Rs. per bag) out flow, NPV,BCR and IRR for small poultry farms are presented in Table-3. The NPV calculated was Rs. 3,77,003 12 No. of culled birds 2500 4400 7900 and BCR was worked out to be1.17 whereas, the IRR was Sale price of culled 13 90 88 87 found to 37 per cent. It indicates that, return from small size bird(Rs./bird) poultry farm was less as compared to the medium and large 14 No. of poultry farm 3 7 11 size poultry farms because of operation of law of economics of scale.

Capital Investment: The data related to year wise income and expenditure for five years of medium size poultry farms are depicted in Economics of layers production has been worked out Table-4. The income generated from different sources like on the average number of bird’s i.e 4,000, 7,250 and 12,500

Table 1. Project cost of layer production in small, medium and large size group of farms in Navsari district of Gujarat state

Amount Rs. I. Capital Cost (Fixed Cost) Small Medium Large Construction of brooder cum grower house (Rs.90/sq.ft.) 3,60,000 6,52,500 11,25,000 Construction of layer house (Rs.140/sq.ft.) 5,60,000 10,15,000 17,50,000 Purchase of brooder cum grower equipment 40,800 76,100 1,26,250 Purchase of layer equipment 2,00,000 3,62,500 6,25,000 Total (I) 11,60,800 21,06,100 36,26,250 II. Recurring Expenditure (Variable Cost) Cost of day old chicks 1,08,000 1,92,125 3,25,000 Cost of feed for chick mash up to 8 weeks 33,360 56,840 93,100 Cost of feed for grower mash for 9 to 20 weeks 4,59,200 8,32,300 13,63,250 Cost of feed for layer mash for 21 to 72 weeks 19,71,200 35,72,800 58,52,000 Cost of medicines & miscellaneous expenses 60,000 1,08,750 1,75,000 Cost of labour and electricity 1,81,400 2,94,000 4,61,200 Total (II) 28,13,160 50,56,815 82,69,550 Grand Total (I+II) 39,73,960 71,62,915 1,18,95,800

MAKADIA et al., Economic Viability of Layer Poultry Farms in Navsari District of Gujarat 8993

Table 2. Economics of layers production in small size group farms in Navsari district of Gujarat state

Item / Year 1 2 3 4 5

Income Sale of eggs 29,48,000 42,88,000 42,88,000 42,88,000 42,88,000

Sale of gunny bags 22,150 29,187 29,187 29,187 29,187

Sale of manure 73,853 81,084 81,084 81,084 81,084

Sale of culled birds 0 2,25,000 2,25,000 2,25,000 2,25,000

Total 30,44,003 46,23,271 46,23,271 46,23,271 46,23,271

Expenditure Cost of day old chicks 1,08,000 67,500 1,08,000 67,500 1,08,000 Cost of feed 24,63,760 32,43,360 32,43,360 32,43,360 32,43,360 Cost of medicines and misc. expenses 60,000 60,000 60,000 60,000 60,000 Cost of labour and electricity 1,81,400 1,81,400 1,81,400 1,81,400 1,81,400 Total 28,13,160 35,52,260 35,92,760 35,52,260 35,92,760 sale of eggs ,gunny bags, manure etc. are worked out to the sale of eggs ,gunny bags, manure etc. are worked out to the tune of Rs.53,52,189 (1st year), and for 2nd year and onwards tune of Rs. 92,47,630 (1st year), and for 2nd year and onwards up to 5th year Rs.81,15,968, whereas cost incurred was found up to 5th year Rs.1,40,58,960, whereas cost incurred was to be Rs. 50,56,815 (1st year ), Rs. 55,20,910 (2nd year), found to be Rs. 82,69,550 (1st year ), Rs. 96,06,300 (2nd year), Rs.55,96,435 (3rd year), Rs. 55,20,910 (4th year) and Rs. 97,25,900 (3rd year), Rs. 96,06,300 (4th year) and Rs. Rs.55,96,435 (5th year). 97,25,900 (5th year). The data pertaining to year wise cash inflow, cash The data pertaining to year wise cash inflow, cash out flow, NPV,BCR and IRR for medium size poultry farm out flow, NPV,BCR and IRR for large size poultry farms are are presented in Table-5. The NPV calculated was Rs. presented in Table-7. The NPV calculated was Rs. 8,92,065and BCR was worked out to be 1.28 whereas, the 15,17,153and BCR was worked out to be 1.30 whereas, the IRR was found to 38 percent. It indicates that, returns from IRR was found to 39 per cent. It indicates that, return from medium size poultry farm wereless as compared to large large size poultry farm was found to be the highest among size poultry farms because of operation of law of economies three different size of poultry farms. of scale. Poultry farmers were asked to rank the problems faced The data related to year wise income and expenditure by them while doing their farming. The problems were listed for five years of large size poultry farms are depicted in and the farmers were asked to rank these problems in their Table-6. The income generated from different sources like order of priority. The ranks corresponding to each problem

Table 3. NPV, BCR & IRR of layers production in small size group farms in Navsari district of Gujarat state

Years 1 2 3 4 5 Capital cost 11,60,800 Recurring expenses 28,13,160 35,52,260 35,92,760 35,52,260 35,92,760 Total cost 39,73,960 35,52,260 35,92,760 35,52,260 35,92,760 Income 30,44,003 46,23,271 46,23,271 46,23,271 46,23,271 Total benefits 30,44,003 46,23,271 46,23,271 46,23,271 46,23,271 Net benefits -9,29,957 10,71,011 10,35,511 10,71,011 10,30,511 Disc cost@15% 27,39,600 Disc benefits@15% 32,30,563 NPV 3,77,003 BCR 1.17 IRR 37 %

8994 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Table 4. Economics of layers production in medium size group farms in Navsari district of Gujarat state

Item / Year 1 2 3 4 5 Income Sale of eggs 51,83,750 75,40,000 75,40,000 75,40,000 75,40,000 Sale of gunny bags 40,158 45,018 45,018 45,018 45,018 Sale of manure 1,28,281 1,43,750 1,43,750 1,43,750 1,43,750 Sale of culled birds 0 3,87,200 3,87,200 3,87,200 3,87,200 Total 53,52,189 81,15,968 81,15,968 81,15,968 81,15,968 Expenditure cost of day old chicks 1,92,125 1,16,600 1,92,125 1,16,600 1,92,125 cost of feed 44,61,940 50,01,560 50,01,560 50,01,560 50,01,560 1,08,750 1,08,750, 1,08,750 1,08,750 1,08,750 Cost of medicines and misc. expenses

Cost of labour and electricity 2,94,000 2,94,000 2,94,000 2,94,000 2,94,000 Total 50,56,815 55,20,910 55,96,435 55,20,910 55,96,435

Table 5. NPV, BCR & IRR of layers production in medium size group farms in Navsari district of Gujarat state Years 1 2 3 4 5 Capital Cost 21,06,100 Recurring Expenses 50,56,815 55,20,910 55,96,435 55,20,910 55,96,435 Total Cost 71,62,915 55,20,910 55,96,435 55,20,910 55,96,435 Income 53,52,189 81,15,968 81,15,968 81,15,968 81,15,968 Total Benefits 53,52,189 81,15,968 81,15,968 81,15,968 81,15,968 Net Benefits -18,10,726 25,95,058 25,19,533 25,95,058 25,19,533 Disc cost@15% 44,09,641 Disc Benefits@15% 56,72,409 NPV 8,92,065 BCR 1.28 IRR 38 %

Table 6. Economics of Layers production in large size group farms in Navsari district of Gujarat state

Item / Year 1 2 3 4 5 Income Sale of eggs 89,37,500 1,30,00,000 1,30,00,000 1,30,00,000 1,30,00,000 Sale of gunny bags 76,930 92,260 92,260 92,260 92,260 Sale of manure 2,33,200 2,79,400 2,79,400 2,79,400 2,79,400 Sale of culled birds 0 6,87,300 6,87,300 6,87,300 6,87,300 Total 92,47,630 1,40,58,960 1,40,58,960 1,40,58,960 1,40,58,960 Expenditure Cost of day old chicks 3,25,000 2,05,400 3,25,000 2,05,400 3,25,000 Cost of day old chicks 3,25,000 2,05,400 3,25,000 2,05,400 3,25,000 cost of feed 73,08,350 87,64,700 87,64,700 87,64,700 87,64,700 Cost of medicines and misc. 1,75,000 1,75,000 1,75,000 1,75,000 1,75,000 expenses Cost of labour and 4,61,200 4,61,200 4,61,200 4,61,200 4,61,200 electricity Total 82,69,550 96,06,300 97,25,900 96,06,300 97,25,900

MAKADIA et al., Economic Viability of Layer Poultry Farms in Navsari District of Gujarat 8995

Table 7. NPV, BCR & IRR of layers production in large size group farms in Navsari district of Gujarat state

Years 1 2 3 4 5

Capital Cost 36,26,250

Recurring Expenses 82,69,550 96,06,300 97,25,900 96,06,300 97,25,900

Total Cost 1,18,95,800 96,06,300 97,25,900 96,06,300 97,25,900

Income 92,47,630 1,40,58,960 1,40,58,960 1,40,58,960 1,40,58,960

Total Benefits 92,47,630 1,40,58,960 1,40,58,960 1,40,58,960 1,40,58,960

Net Benefits -26,48,170 44,52,660 43,33,060 44,52,660 43,33,060

Disc cost@15% 75,84,030

Disc Benefits@15% 98,22,521

NPV 15,17,153

BCR 1.30

IRR 39 %

Table 8. Problems of the poultry farmers

Sr. No Problems Rank 1. Availability of raw materials 11 2. Improved technology 13 3. Control measures 7 4. High feed cost and low egg prices 1 5. Lack of transport/storage facilities 9 6. Investment 3 7. Labor problem 2 8. Power supply 5 9. Feed and marketing 4 10. Export facilities 8 11. Health coverage 10 12. Managerial problems 6 13. Extension and training facilities 12 are presented in Table-8. CONCLUSION The major problems faced by the farmers were high The poultry structure in India has undergone a major feed cost and low egg prices (1st rank), followed by labour shift in structure and operation in the last two decades, problems (2nd rank), investment (3rd rank), feed and transforming it from a mere backyard activity into a major marketing (4th rank), insufficient power supply, (5th rank), commercial activity with the presence of large integrated managerial problems,(6th rank), control measures, (7th rank), players and successful implementation of contract poultry lack of export facilities, (8th rank), lack of transport/storage farming on large scale. The results on the study of the facilities, (9th rank), health coverage, (10th rank), availability economics of layer production in Navsari District based on of raw materials, (11th rank), extension and training facilities the average number of bird’s viz., 4,000, 7,250 and 12,500 (12th rank) and inability to utilize improved technology, birds in small, medium and large farms were that the overall (13th rank). In short, the poultry farmers wanted to get project cost was calculated to the tune of Rs. 39, 73,960, 71, higher price for eggs, solution for labour problems, to 62,915 and 1, 18, 95,800 for small, medium and large poultry encourage investment and continuous power supply for farms, respectively. The income generated from different their industry production. sources like sale of eggs ,gunny bags, manure etc. Were 8996 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017 worked out to the tune of Rs. 30,44,003 (1st year), and for 2nd materials, extension and training facilities and lack of year and onwards up to 5th year Rs.46,23,271, whereas cost adoption of improved technology. incurred was found to be Rs. 28,13,160 (1st year ), Rs. LITERATURE CITED 35,52,260(2nd year), Rs. 35,92,760(3rd year), Rs. 35,52,260 (4th year) and Rs. 35,92,760 (5th year). Thus, the return from Aggarwal, C.K., Gupta, S.C., Singh, R.A. and Pal, R.N. 1981. small size poultry farm was less as compared to the medium Components of expenditure and total cost involved in producing duck and chicken for meat, Indian Veterinary J., 58:219-222. and large size poultry farms because of operation of law of economies of scale The NPV calculated was Rs. 8,92,065 Kothandaraman, P. and Narahari, D. 1982. Economics of broiler production in India. Poultry Guide, 19 (4): 45-49. and BCR was worked out to be 1.28 whereas, the IRR was found to be 38 percent. Thus, layer poultry production can Kumar, B. Ganesh and Rai, R.B. 2006. Economic status of poultry farming enterprises in Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Agric. Econ. play an important role in sustaining and enhancing poor Res. Rev., 19: 377-386. people’s livelihood. Neetha, R. 2003. Outlook for the Indian poultry sector. Robobank The major problems faced by the farmers which International. Food & Agribusiness Research, New Delhi. emerged from the study were high feed cost and low egg Thorat, V.A., Patil, H.K. and Bhosale, S.S. 2002. An economic prices followed by labour problems, investment, feed and analysis of poultry enterprise in North Konkan Coastal Zone of marketing, insufficient power supply, managerial problems, Maharashtra, J. Indian Soc. Coastal agric. Res., 20 (2): 95- control measures, lack of export facilities, lack of transport/ 101. storage facilities, health coverage, availability of raw Received on 15-11-2017 Accepted on 18-11-2017 Trends in Biosciences 10(43), Print : ISSN 0974-8431, 8997-9000, 2017

Varietal Screening of Bottle Guard Against Gummy Stem Blight Disease

MUKESH J. PATEL*, V. A. SOLANKI, K. B. RAKHOLIYA AND M. D. KHUNT

Department of Plant Pathology, N. M. College of Agriculture, Navsari Agricultural University, Navsari, Gujarat email : [email protected]

ABSTRACT investigations was undertaken to find out the resistant Seven bottle guard varieties were taken for varietal source against gummy stem blight of bottle gourd. screening against gummy stem blight disease during MATERIALS AND METHODS Kharif -2016 and Rabi2016-17. Disease appeared almost Location and experimental details: at the same time in all the varieties during initiation of flowering stage. During Kharif season, the disease Two field experiments were conducted at N.M. intensity was recorded in test varieties were in the range College of Agriculture farm, Navsari, which is located at of 24.40 to 50.40% with lowest disease incidence 20.95o North latitude (N) and 27.93o East longitude (E) under (24.40%) in Varad variety. However, it was at par with Agro climatic zone of South Gujarat, Heavy rainfall zone, Namdhari-509 (25.90%) followed by Anokhi variety. Agro Ecological Situation-III during Kharif 2016 and Rabi Disease intensity recorded in test varieties during Rabi 2016-17. Seven popular bottle guard varieties were planted season were in the range of 20.00% to 51.10%, with in plot sizes of gross 8.00m x 10.0 m and Net 6.00 m X 8.00 minimum in Varad (20.00%), and maximum in ABG-1 m with spacing of 2.00 m X 1.00 m. Recommended dose of (51.10%). Pooled data indicated that Varad showed fertilizer i.e. 200: 100: 100 kg/ha NPK was applied. All other highest tolerance against gummy stem blight followed by agronomical practices were followed as per Namdhari-509 and Anokhi varieties. recommendations. Randomly Block Design (RBD) was used in the field conditions with three replications and seven Key words Bottle gourd, Gummy stem blight, Varietal treatments. screening, Disease resistance Varietal screening against gummy stem blight disease: Seven different popular varieties viz. ABG-1, Varad, Bottle gourd [(Lagenaria siceraria (Mol.) Stand L.)] Mahyco-8, Sharda, Namdhari-509, Anokhi, Gaurav of bottle is having wide range of uses and cultivated in the tropical gourd were used for screening of disease. Varieties were and subtropical region for its edible fruits. Bottle gourd is graded on the basis of their GSB disease intensity. The Per important for health as it contributes significantly to dietary cent disease intensity at weekly interval was recorded by intake of vitamin A, B and C; carbohydrates, proteins, fats, scoring the plants in each cultivar using 0-9 scale (Gusmini calcium, iron, potassium, phosphorous, etc. In India it is et al., 2005). Types of symptoms and scale rating were cultivated in 9000 hectares with productivity of 28.90 t/ha recorded for screening bottle gourd for GSB resistance. Per (Harika et al., 2012). Gummy stem blight caused by cent disease index (PDI) was calculated by formula proposed Didymella bryoniae (Auersw) has been observed from the by Wheeler (1969). different areas of the country and has become a serious Sum of individual ratings x 100 problem in successful, and profitable cultivation of cucurbits in India (Sudisha et al., 2004; Thakare and PDI = ——————————————-—————— Gaikwad, 2014; Rajashree et al., 2014). Symptomatologically, Total number of plants x Maximum disease small spots can be observed on the leaf lamina which grade observed gradually becomes ashy brown in color with light brown periphery. Later on, it coalesces and makes papery, and burnt appearance of leaf lamina, which is responsible for RESULTS AND DISCUSSION poor photosynthesis, and respiration. Ultimately, it affects Different crop varieties shows different degree of the setting of flowers, and fruits, and finally defoliation of tolerance or susceptibility against diseases which is leaves. All commonly cultivated cucurbits are susceptible controlled by either internal or external factors. Gummy stem to gummy stem blight, although the degree of susceptibility blight disease observations were recorded from initiation differs among species and variety (Keinath, 2013; dos of disease, and then regularly at a weekly interval till the Santos et al., 2009). Use of high yielding resistant/tolerant harvesting of crop. Data pertaining to filed trails for varietal varieties is the most reliable, environmentally safe and also screening against gummy stem blight of bottle gourd during less expensive technique for management disease. Thus, it Kharif-2016 and Rabi 2016-17 are represented in Table-1 is the most remunerative to farmers. Therefore, the and Table-2, respectively. identification of the resistant source is a basic need in During Kharif-2016, the disease intensity recorded breeding for disease resistance. Hence, the present in test varieties were in the range of 24.40 % to 50.40%. The 8998 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Table 1. Gummy stem blight intensity in various popular varieties of bottle gourd (Kharif -2016)

Per Cent Disease Intensity#

Days After Sowing (DAS) Sr. No. Treatments Types of 45 52 59 66 73 80 87 Resistance

++ 1 ABG 1 7.3* 25.1 30.3 33.6 36.3 42.8 45.8 (0.7) (17.0) (24.4) (29.6) (34.1) (45.2) (50.4) (S)

++++ 2 MAHYCO-VARAD 7.3 13.3 16.9 19.7 22.8 26.1 30.3 (0.7) (4.5) (7.4) (10.4) (14.1) (18.5) (24.4) (MR)

++ 3 MAHYCO-8 5.7 14.1 19.7 27.2 29.8 33.1 37.2 (0.0) (5.2) (10.4) (20.0) (23.7) (28.9) (35.6) (MS)

++ 4 SEMINIS-SHARDA 5.7 18.3 20.3 21.6 24.6 29.6 36.3 (0.0) (8.9) (11.1) (12.6) (16.3) (23.7) (34.1) (MS)

+++ 5 NAMDHARI-509 7.3 13.3 19.0 20.3 22.8 27.2 31.0 (0.7) (4.4) (9.6) (11.1) (14.1) (20.0) (25.9) (MS)

+++ 6 NUNHEMS- ANOKHI 5.7 18.0 21.0 23.4 26.1 31.2 34.5 (0.0) (8.9) (11.8) (14.8) (18.5) (25.9) (31.1) (MS)

++ 7 BIOSEED-GAURAV 7.3 22.2 30.0 34.0 35.8 41.1 45.4 (0.7) (13.3) (24.0) (30.4) (33.3) (42.2) (49.6) (S)

SEm± 1.2 1.8 0.9 1.5 1.5 1.7 2.1

CD at 5% NS 5.4 2.7 4.6 4.5 5.3 6.6

CV% 32.1 17.1 6.8 10.1 9.0 9.1 9.9

* Figures outside parentheses are arcsine transformed values and those inside are original values # Mean of three replications Resistant (R) (<20%): +++++, Moderate Resistant (MR) (20-30%) : ++++, Moderately Susceptible (MS) (30-40%) : +++, Susceptible (S) (40-50%) : ++ Highly Susceptible (HS) (> 50%) : + Table 2. Gummy stem blight intensity in various popular varieties of bottle gourd (Rabi 2016-17)

Per Cent Disease Intensity #

Days After Sowing (DAS) Sr. No. Treatments Types of 45 52 59 66 73 80 87 Resistance

++ 1 ABG 1 7.3* 26.2 32.5 37.2 40.2 43.7 46.2 (0.7) (18.5) (28.1) (35.6) (40.7) (46.7) (51.1) (S)

++++ 2 MAHYCO-VARAD 5.7 14.4 18.9 21.5 24.6 25.1 27.3 (0.0) (5.2) (9.6) (12.6) (16.3) (17.0) (20.0) (MR)

++ 3 MAHYCO-8 7.3 18.9 21.0 25.1 28.1 29.2 32.2 (0.7) (9.6) (12.6) (17.0) (21.5) (23.0) (27.4) (S)

+++ 4 SEMINIS-SHARDA 5.7 17.4 21.0 24.3 26.5 28.7 30.8 (0.0) (8.1) (11.9) (16.3) (19.3) (22.2) (25.2) (MS)

PATEL et al., Varietal Screening of Bottle Guard Against Gummy Stem Blight Disease 8999

Per Cent Disease Intensity #

Days After Sowing (DAS) Sr. No. Treatments Types of 45 52 59 66 73 80 87 Resistance

++++ 5 NAMDHARI-509 7.3 14.2 19.7 22.2 25.1 26.1 28.3 (0.7) (5.2) (10.4) (13.3) (17.0) (18.5) (21.5) (MR)

+++ 6 NUNHEMS- ANOKHI 5.7 17.6 20.3 20.3 26.3 26.7 28.7 (0.0) (8.2) (11.1) (11.1) (18.6) (19.3) (22.2) (MR)

++ 7 BIOSEED-GAURAV 7.3 24.6 28.2 28.2 38.0 42.0 44.5 (0.7) (16.3) (21.5) (21.5) (37.0) (43.7) (48.2) (S)

SEm± 1.2 1.6 1.8 1.6 1.6 2.0 1.8

CD at 5% NS 4.8 5.4 4.6 4.8 6.2 5.6

CV% 30.2 14.1 13.2 10.4 9.1 11.1 9.3

* Figures outside parentheses are arcsine transformed values and those inside are original values # Mean of three replications

Resistant (R)(<20%): +++++, Moderate Resistant (MR) (20-30%): ++++, Moderately Susceptible (MS) (30-40%) : +++, Susceptible (S) (40-50%) : ++ Highly Susceptible (HS) (> 50%) : + disease appeared almost at the same time in all the varieties Sharda, and Mahyco-8 showed 34.1, and 35.6 per cent during initiation of flowering stage. The lowest disease disease intensity, respectively. The Gaurav and ABG-1 incidence (24.40%) was observed in variety Varad as showed maximum disease intensity of 49.60% and 50.40%, compared with other varieties, however it was at par with respectively. Namdhari-509 (25.90%) followed by Anokhi. The varieties Disease intensity recorded in test varieties during Table 3. Symptoms appeared on various plant parts of popular varieties of bottle gourd during kharif 2016 and rabi 2016-17

Symptoms on various plant parts of bottle gourd Sr. Variety Stem No. Season Leaf Stem Fruit Pycnidia development Splitting kharif ++ +++ +++ +++ +++ 1. ABG-1 rabi ++ +++ ++++ +++ +++ kharif ++++ ++++ +++++ +++++ +++++ 2. VARAD rabi ++++ +++ ++++ +++ +++ kharif +++ ++++ ++++ ++++ ++++ 3. MAHYCO-8 rabi +++ +++ +++ +++ +++ kharif +++ +++ +++ ++++ ++++ 4. SHARDA rabi +++ +++ ++++ ++++ ++++ kharif ++++ ++++ ++++ +++++ +++++ 5. NAMDHARI-509 rabi ++++ +++ ++++ ++++ ++++ kharif ++++ ++++ ++++ +++++ +++++ 6. ANOKHI rabi ++++ +++ ++++ +++ +++ kharif +++ +++ ++++ +++ +++ 7. GAURAV rabi ++ +++ +++ +++ +++

Resistant (R) (<20%): +++++, Moderate Resistant (MR) (20-30%): ++++, Moderately Susceptible (MS) (30-40%): +++, Susceptible (S) (40-50%): ++ Highly Susceptible (HS) (> 50%): + 9000 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Rabi 2016-17 were in the range of 20.00 % to 51.10%. Variety M.E. and Café-Filho, A.C. 2009. Host specificity and genetic Varad recorded lowest disease intensity of 20.00 per cent, diversity of Didymella bryoniae from cucurbitaceous in Brazil. and maximum disease intensity was recorded in ABG-1 Journal of Phytopathology, 157: 265-273. (51.10%). The varieties viz. Namdhari-509, Anokhi were Gusmini, G., Ronghao, S. and Todd, C.W. 2005. New source of showed less susceptibility to gummy stem blight. The resistance to gummy stem blight in watermelon. Crop Science, varieties Sharda and Mahyco-8 were exhibited moderate 45: 582-588. level of susceptibility to gummy stem blight. The remaining Harika, M., Gasti, V.D., Kulkarni, M.S., Mulge, R., Mastiholi, A.B., two varieties Gaurav and ABG-1 were found susceptible to Shirol, A.M. and Shantappa, T. 2012. Reaction of bottle gourd genotypes against fruit fly and downey mildew under natural gummy stem blight. Table-3 indicated symptoms on various epiphytotic conditions. Karnataka Journal of Agricultural plant parts of bottle gourd suggested that Varad was the Science, 25: 296-297. most tolerant to gummy stem blight followed by Namdhari- Keinath, A.P. 2013. Diagnostic guide for gummy stem blight and 509, and Anokhi. The varieties Sharda, and Mahyco-8 black rot of cucurbits. Plant Health Progress, doi: 10.1094/ exhibited moderate level of susceptibility against gummy PHP-2013-1024-01-DG. stem blight. Gaurav and ABG-1 were found most susceptible Rajashree, R.P., Sapkal, R.T. and Pawar, K.B. 2014. Epidemiology, to gummy stem blight. symptomology and management of the fruit rot of bottle gourd Results of the study were in accordance with Keinath (Lageneria siceraria Standl.) caused by Alternaria alternata (Fr.) (2013), and dos Santos (2009). Host resistance has the Keissler. The Bioscan, 9: 363-370. potential to provide an alternative means by which to reduce Sudisha, J., Vasanth Kumar, T., Niranjana, S.R. and Shekar Shetty, H. disease pressure in cucurbits and there have been studies 2004. First report of gummy stem blight caused by Didymella looking to find novel sources of host resistance. All bryoniae on muskmelon (Cucumis melo) in India. Plant commonly cultivated cucurbits are susceptible to gummy Pathology, 53: 533. stem blight, although the degree of susceptibility differs Thakare, C. and Gaikwad, A. 2014. Management of gummy stem among species, and variety (Keinath, 2013; dos Santos et blight of bottle gourd by bioagents. Journal of Mycology and Plant Pathology, 44(2): 225-226. al., 2009). Wheeler, B.E.J. 1969. An Introduction to plant diseases. John Wiley LITERATURE CITED and Sons Ltd. London, pp. 301. dos Santos, G.R., Ferreira, M.A.S.V., Pessoa-Filho, M.A.C.P., Ferreira, Received on 11-11-2017 Accepted on 16-11-2017 Trends in Biosciences 10(43), Print : ISSN 0974-8431, 9001-9003, 2017

Study on the Constraints Faced and Suggestions Given by the Farmers who Borrowed Croploan

GOTTEMUKKULA BHAVANI1*, D.M. MANKAR1 AND P.P. BHOPLE2

Dr. PanjabraoDeshmukhKrishiVidyapeeth, Akola, Maharashtra *email : [email protected]

ABSTRACT of them are left with perpetuated debts. There were widespread discontents among farmers against these This paper is focused on the constraints faced by the practices and there were instances of riots also (Basu.S.K farmers while availing and utilizing the crop loan along with their suggestions. An ex- post facto research design 1979).While agricultural growth will, in itself, provide the base for increasing incomes, for rural persons that are below was adopted to conduct the study in Akola district of the poverty line, additional measures are required to make Maharashtra. Two blocks were selected purposively based on highest amount of crop loan disbursement during (year). this growth inclusive.The present study was, therefore, undertaken with the specific objective to study on the From each block five villages were selected purposively constraints faced by the farmers while availing and utilizing based on highest number of crop loan farmers. From each the crop loan along with their suggestions. village 10 farmers were selected based on random sampling, thus a total of 100 respondents selected for MATERIALS AND METHODS investigation. Variables under investigation were An ex- post facto research design was adopted to considered and subjected to different statistical analysis conduct the study in Akola district of Maharashtra. Two for the purpose of categorization of respondents and other blocks were selected purposively based on highest amount related components. The data was collected by personal of crop loan disbursement during (year). From each block interview method through pre- tested structural interview five villages were selected purposively based on highest schedule. The collected data coded, tabulated and employed number of crop loan farmers. From each village 10 farmers appropriate statistical procedures to analyse and interpret were selected based on random sampling, thus a total of the data. The findings shows that,majority of the 100 respondents selected for investigation. respondents expressed insufficient loan amount (94.00%) followed by repayment is difficult, since farmers not getting RESULTS AND DISCUSSION good rates for their produce (87.00%), repayment period Constraints faced by the farmers while obtaining and is not sufficient (82.00%). Majority of the crop loan utilization of crop loan farmers suggesting thatloan amount should be enhanced An attempt was made to identify the constraints faced in according to their land value. (96.00)followed by by the farmers while obtaining and utilization of crop loan. repayment period should be enhanced (89.00%) Their responses were tabulated after calculating the Key words Crop loan, constraints, suggestion and ex- frequency and percentage as shown in following table. post facto research design. It was observed from the Table 1 that, majority of the respondents expressed that insufficient loan amount India is a global agricultural powerhouse. Indian (94.00%) followed by repayment is difficult, since farmers agriculture sector accounts for 13.9 per cent of India’s gross not getting good rates for their produce (87.00%), domestic product (GDP)during 2013-14 at 2004-05 prices repayment period is not sufficient (82.00%), no technical and employs just a little less than 54.6 per cent of the guidance (63.00%), not providing complete loan amount country’s workforce (Yearend Review for the Ministry of (55.00%), influence is required to get crop loan sanction Agriculture for the Year 2014-15, 22-December-2014, 15:28 (48.00%), loans disbursement is not in time (41.00%), and IST). Most of the developing countries like India, farmers noncooperation from bank staff (36.00%). are unable to cope up with the modernization because of The Table 1 revealed that, majority of the respondents their own limited capital. The requirements of finance in faced of insufficiency of crop loan. As the present agricultural sector is therefore required the most as very sanctioned crop loan was not covering cost of cultivations few farmers have capital of their own to invest in agriculture. of major crops. Farmer borrowers felt that present interest Therefore, a need arises to provide credit to all those farmers rate for crop loan was higher because most of the farmers who require it. Professional money lenders were the only were small and marginal farmers with low income. source of credit to agriculture till 1935. They used to charge Respondents face problem with not getting complete loan unduly exorbitant rates of interest and follow serious amount from societies they joined. The crop loan is being practices while giving loans and recovering them. As a given to the people who are from affluent section or close result, farmers were heavily burdened with debts and many to the top level officer of district administration. 9002 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Table 1. Constraints experienced by the respondents while obtaining and utilization of crop loan

Sl. Constraints Respondents (n =100) No Frequency Percentage (%) Rank 1. Insufficient loan amount 94 94.00 I 2. Repayment is difficult, since farmers not getting good rates 87 87.00 II for their produce 3. Repayment period is not sufficient 82 82.00 III 4. No technical guidance 63 63.00 IV 5. Not providing complete loan amount 55 55.00 V 6. Influence is required to get crop loan sanction 48 48.00 VI 7. Non-cooperation from bank staff 36 36.00 VII

Respondents face problem with bank staff in getting exact at obtaining crop loan and also utilization of the same, procedure of taking loan, type of insurance linkage, presented in the Table 2 authorized loan amount for different crop and how best the crop loan can be used for the intended purpose. Table 2 indicated that the, loan amount should be enhanced in according to their land value. (96.00), repayment Suggestions Given by the Farmers who Borrowed the period should be enhanced (89.00%), reduce interest rates Crop Loan for late repayment (77.00%),provide complete crop loan Suggestions elicited by the farmers to overcome their amount (64.00%),if crop failures, the recovery of loan period constraints while obtaining and utilization of crop loan should be extend (45.00%),provide technical guidance (32.00%), flexibility in the number of withdrawals An attempt was made to collect the suggestions to (26.00%),co-operation from bank staff (22.00%). overcome those constraints based on the farmer’s opinion

Distribution of the respondents according to their constraints reported while obtaining and utilization of crop loan BHAVANI et al., Study on the Constraints Faced and Suggestions Given by the Farmers who Borrowed Croploan 9003

Table 2. Suggestions elicited by the farmers to overcome their constraints while obtaining and utilization of crop loan

Sl. Suggestions Respondents (n =100) No Frequency Percentage (%) Rank 1. Loan amount should be enhanced in according to 96 96.00 I their land value. 2. Repayment period should be enhanced 89 89.00 II 3. Reduce interest rate for late repayment 77 77.00 III 4. Provide complete crop loan amount without 64 64 IV deducting share. 5. If crop failures, the recovery of loan period should be 45 45.00 V extend 6. Provide guidance 32 32.00 VI 7. Flexibility in the number of withdrawals 26 16.25 VII Co-operation from bank staff 22 22.00 VIII

LITERATURE CITED Loan Repayment Performance of Smallholder Farmers in East Hararghe, Ethiopia. Developing Country Studies ISSN 2224- Basu. S. K., 1979. “Commercial Banks and Agricultural Credit – A 607X (Paper) ISSN 2225-0565 (Online) Vol 2, No.11 study of Regional Disparity in Indian Allied Publications”, Bombay. Singh S.K., 2003. (a) Farm credit its sources and pattern of Utilization Chandracharan, V., 2005.Profile of sujala watershed project - An empirical analysis. In the Event: The 47th Annual AARES beneficiary farmers in Dharwad district. M. Sc. (Agri), Thesis, conference Tuesday 11th - Friday 14th February 2003 at Uni. Agric. Sci. Dharwad. Fremantle, Western Australia. ShashikantDivakar., 2013. A study on Attitude and utilization of Singh S.K., 2009. (b) Pattern of utilization of institutional credit in crop loan by farmers in Bihar State, M.Sc (Agri).Thesis submitted Agriculture an analysis .Economic affairs. 54(3&4):113-117. to Acharya N G Ranga Agricultural University,Rajendranagar, Hyderabad Yearend Review for the Ministry of Agriculture for the Year 2014- 15 (22-December-2014 15:28 IST) Press Information Bureau, Sileshi, M., Rose Nyikal and Sabina Wangia., 2012.Factors Affecting Government of India, Ministry of Agriculture

Received on 13-11-2017 Accepted on 18-11-2017 Trends9004 in Biosciences 10(43), Print : ISSN 0974-8431,Trends 9004-9010, in Biosciences 2017 10 (43), 2017

Economic Analysis of Chickpea Production in Ahmednagar District of Maharashtra

A. WABLE1, V. P. WAVDHANE2, AND S. C. GAWANDE3

1Department of Agricultural Economics, College of Agriculture, Latur, VNMKV, Parbhani, Maharashtra 2Department of Agricultural Economics and Statistics, PGI, Dr. PDKV,Akola Maharashtra 3College of Agriculture Akola, Maharashtra email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) believes 13,730,998 million tones of chickpea were produced around Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L) is one of the major pulse the world in 2015. And 13,307,760 million tonnes of chickpea crops grown in India. Chickpea has the richest, cheapest were produced around the word in 2014. and easiest source of best quality proteins and fats. Chickpea is also a good source of vitamins (especially B Maharashtra accounts for 13.15 lakh hectare of area, vitamins) and minerals like potassium and phosphorus. 7.54 lakh tonnes of chickpea production and 574 kg/ha yield The present investigation revealed that, average age of of chickpea crop in 2015. in Maharashtra Ahmeadnagar, high chickpea growers was 30 to 45 years. The average Akola, Amravati, Buldhana, Latur, Sangli, Dhule, Jalgaon family education high school was more 68.33 per cent. and Solapur are major chickpea gro­wing districts in The occupation is more in primary level was 53.34 per Maharashtra. In Ahmednagar district, area under chickpea cent. The land holding was more in 2 to 4 ha was 50.00 per was 135100 hectares with production of 64300 tonnes and cent. The livestock position number of more in bullock productivity of 402 kg/ha .during year 2015-16. was 43.60 per cent and the investment on commonly used MATERIALS AND METHODS assets (Rs.) 14241.60. The area under chickpea was Methodology is of vital importance in the economic observed was 0.79 ha. Per hectare use of physical inputs study. Ahmednagar is the largest district of Maharashtra in production was observed that, highest 37.73 man days State in respect of area. It is situated in the central part of of hired human labour were utilized. Per hectare return the State and lies between north latitudes 18°19’ and 19°59’ were Rs. 77817.22 while total cost of cultivation was Rs. and east longitudes 73°37’ and 75°32. The district has a 39596.37. The share of cost-A and cost-B in cost-C was geographical area of 17114 sq. km., which is 5.54 per cent of Rs. 52455.48 and 55539.52. Farm business income was the total State area. It is divided in to 14 talukas namely Rs. 38220.85. The net profit was arrived at Rs. 22277.71, Ahmednagar, Rahuri, Shrirampur, Newasa, Shevgaon, with output - input ratio of 1.70 and Per farm total Pathardi, Jamkhed, Karjat, Srigonda, Parner, Akole, production of chickpea was found 15.38 q. Sangamner, Kopargaon and Rahata. The soil types of the district are broadly divided into four categories namely Key words Economics of production, Cost of coarse shallow soil; medium black soil; deep black soil and cultivation, output - input ratio. reddish soil occupying about 38, 41, 13 and 8 per cent of the cultivated area respectively. The climate of the district Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L) is one of the major pulse is hot and dry, on whole extremely genial and is characterized crops grown in India. Domesticated chickpea has been by a hot summer and general dryness during major part of found in Turkey since 3500 BC. By the Bronze age chickpea the year except during south-west monsoon season. was known in Italy and Greece. Chickpea has the richest, cheapest and easiest source of best quality proteins and The district leads in cultivation of jowar, maize, fats. It has a vast multiplicity of uses as food and industrial blackgram, greengram, chilli, sunflower, seasamum, brinjal, products. There is a need to cultivate the crop in the irrigated lady’s finger, coriander, bitterguard, bottleguard, area as against only in the marginal land. The domestic ridgeguard, tomato, tur and soybean in kharif season. In demand and consumption, however, are much higher than rabi season crops like chickpea, wheat, onion, methi, chilli, production, mainly because, chickpea is a major source of safflower crops are taken. In the summer season under protein for a large section of the vegetarian population in irrigated condition, groundnut, fodder maize, cucumber, the country. Chickpea account for around 19.00 per cent of chilli, watermelon, muskmelon and sugarcane crops are the gross cropped area and less than 8.00 per cent of the taken. This district also leads in mango, mandarin orange, total food grain production of the country. Important sweet orange and banana as fruit crops. chickpea markets in India are Mumbai, Delhi, Chennai, Sampling Design Indore, Kanpur, Bikaner, Hapur and Hyderabad. Indian pulse Multistage sampling design was adopted for selection market is a price sensi­tive market. Chickpea is cultivated in of district, tehsil, villages and chickpea growers. At the Australia, Africa, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iran, Ame­rica, first stage, Ahmednagar district was purposely selected Ethiopia, Argentina, Italy, Greece, Turkey and India. The WABLE et al., Economic Analysis of Chickpea Production in Ahmednagar District of Maharashtra 9005

Table 1. Socio-economic characteristics of chickpea growers.

Sr. Number Particulars Per cent No. (No=60) 1. Age (year) a) Up to 30 yrs 13 21.66 b) 30 to 45 yrs 27 45.00 c) Above 45 yrs 20 33.34 2. Education (In 3 quantum number) a) Non-literate 9 15.00 b) High school 41 68.33 c) College 10 16.67 3. Family size (No.) a) Male 2.36 41.62 b) Female 2.30 40.56 c )Children 1.01 17.82 4. Occupation level (In 3 quantum number) a) Primary 32 53.34 b) Secondary 13 21.66 c)Tertiary 15 25.00 5. Land holding (ha.) a) Up to 2 ha 6 10.00 b) 2 to 4 ha 30 50.00 c) 4 and above 24 40.00 6. Livestock position (No.) a) Bullock 0.96 43.60 b) Buffalo 0.28 12.78 c) Cow 0.81 36.82 e) Goat 0.15 06.80 7. Investment on commonly used assets (Rs.) 14241.60 _ for present study because of favorable climate and cost concept viz. cost-A, cost-B and cost-C, and output availability of high area under all types of pulse crops in input ratio were used. the district In the second stage, Newasa and Shevgoan TERMS AND CONCEPTS USED tehsil of Ahmednagar district was selected on the basis of higher area under cultivation of chickpea. In the third sta­ge, A. Cost concepts From each selected thesil, three villages were selected on Terms and concepts which were used in the study the basis of highest area under chi­ckpea cultivation in the are clarified there for convenience to reader. winter season. The selected villages in Newasa and 1. COST-A: Shevgoan tehsil were namely Kukana , Taravdi, Vadule, Sukali, Bhaygaon and Hatgaon. In forth stage, growers was “Actual expenses incurred by producer farmer from obtained fr­om each village and from that each of lists, ten his pocket for the production of particular crop.” Cost –A growers were selected randomly. In such a way 60 farmers includes cost of the items viz. hired human labour, bullock were selected for present study in the year 2015-16 labour, machine labour, manures, fertilizers, plant protection, irrigation, land revenue, incidental charges. Depreciation ANALYTICAL TECHNIQUES on implements and machine used and interest on working In analytical techniques, the first objective, i.e. to capital study socio-economic characteristics of chickpea growers 2. COST-B: was achieved by tabular analysis. Simple analytical tools like average, percentage, ratios, frequency distribution etc. It includes the Cost-A plus, rental value of land and were used to analyse socio-economic characteristics of interest on fixed capital. respondents. Second objective, i.e. to estimate per hectare 3. COST-C: costs and returns of chickpea production was achieved by tabular analysis in which simple statistical tools and different It includes the Cost- B plus, imputed value of family labour. 9006 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Table 2.1. Cropping pattern of chickpea grower

Particulars Area (ha.) Per cent A) Kharif Soybean 0.61 12.29 Red gram 0.51 10.28 Red gram +soyabean 0.52 10.48 Green gram 0.16 3.22 Black gram 0.06 1.20 Cotton 1.59 32.05 Sub total 3.45 69.40 B) Rabi Chickpea 0.79 15.92 Wheat 0.37 7.45 Rabi jowar 0.10 2.01 Sub total 1.26 25.56 C) Summer Sugarcane 0.25 5.04 Sub total 0.25 5.04 i) Gross cropped area 4.96 100.00 ii) Double cropped area 1.52 30.65 iii) Net cultivated area 3.44 69.35 iv) Cropping intensity % -- 144.65

Table 2.2. Per farm land use pattern of chickpea grower

Sr. Particulars Area (ha.) Per cent No. 1. Irrigated area 2.66 66.32 2. Rain fed area 1.35 33.68 3. Net sown area 3.44 85.78 4. Total area 4.01 100 5. Gross cropped area 4.96 _ 6. Cropping intensity _ 144.65

B. Measurement and evolution of cost items study, hired bullock charge was Rs.400.00 per day for a bullock pair. 1. Hired human labour. Hired human labour was measured in Man days. One man day consists with 8 3. Machine labour. Machine labour in case of owned hours. Labour cost was evaluated at the rate of machine was evaluated as per the hired charge Rs. 200.00 per day for male and Rs.150.00 per day prevailed in the village and in case of hired machine for female. The female labour was converted into that was Rs.600.00 per hour. man day by multiplying to the number of female with 4. Seed of chickpea. The actual price with 0.67. expenditure incurred on procurement was taken into 2. Bullock labour. Hired bullock labour charge was account for purchase of seed chickpea was Rs.100.00 considered for 8 hours as a day, actually paid in the / kg . locality. Family bullock labour charge accounted equal 5. Fertilizers. Fertilizers in the form of Diammonium to the charges paid to the hired bullock pair. For the Phosphate were used and quantity of nitrogen and WABLE et al., Economic Analysis of Chickpea Production in Ahmednagar District of Maharashtra 9007

Table 3. Per hectare physical input and output of chickpea farm (Unit/ha.)

Sr. No. Particulars Unit Usase

INPUT

1. Hired human labour man days 37.73

2. Family human labour man days 15.42

3. Bullock labour pair days 1.13

4. Machine labour Hours 18.34

5. Seed kg 84.17

6. Manure q 22.89

7. Fertilizer

a. Nitrogen kg 25.48

b. Phosphorus kg 50.95

c. Potash kg 0.00

8. Plant protection L 1.66

OUTPUT

1. Main produce q 15.38

2. By produce q 3.08

Table 4. Per hectare cost of cultivation of chickpea crop (Rs/ha.)

Sr. No. Particulars Amount (Rs.) Percent 1. Hired human labour 7546.22 13.59 2. Bullock labour 453.78 0.82 3. Machine labour 11004.20 19.82 4. Seed 8476.89 15.26 5. Manure 4579.83 8.25 6. Fertilizer a. Nitrogen 332.30 0.59 b. Phosphorus 1957.83 3.53 c. Potash 0.00 0.00 7. Plant protection 1792.43 3.23 8. Land revenue 120.00 0.21 9. Incidental charges 367.44 0.66 10. Interest on working capital@13 % 1587.34 2.85 11. Depreciation on capital assets @10% 338.19 0.60 12. Irrigation 1039.92 1.87 13. Cost-A( 1to12) 39596.37 71.29 14. Rental value of land 12482.10 22.47 15. Interest on fixed capital @11% 377.01 0.68 16. Cost-B ( 3to15) 52455.48 94.44 17. Family human labour 3084.08 5.56 18. Cost-C ( 16to17) 55539.52 100.00

9008 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Table 5. Per hectare profitability in chickpea production (Rs/ha.)

Sr. Physical Particulars Physical quantity Amount (Rs.) No. unit 1 Return from a main produce q 15.38 76890.75 2 Return from by produce q 3.08 926.47 3 Gross return (? 1 to 2) _ 18.46 77817.22 4 Cost- A _ _ 39596.37 5 Cost- B _ _ 52455.48 6 Cost –C _ _ 55539.52 Farm business income 7 _ _ 38220.85 (Gross return minus cost- A) Family labour income 8 _ _ 25361.74 (Gross return minus cost- B) Net profit 9 _ _ 22277.71 (Gross return minus cost- C) Output in put ratio 10 _ _ 1.70 (Gross return divided by cost- C) Per quintal cost of production 11 (Cost-C minus by produce value divided by main produce _ _ 3551.34 quantity)

Note : ( output = Rs.5000/q)

phosphorus was calculated in order to determine the hectare basis. actual, expenditure on nitrogen and phosphorus. The 11. Rental value of land. Rental value of owned land was rate prevailing in the market for nitrogen, phosphorus estimated at 1/6 of the value of gross produce i.e. was Rs. 13.04 / kg and Rs.38.43 / kg respectively. value of main produce minus land revenue. 6. Plant protection. This includes the actual cost incurred 12. Interest on fixed capital. It was calculated by charging on purchased of inse­cticides, pesticides, fungicides interest at the rate of 10.00 per cent on investment on and their procurement. commonly used assets like plough, harrow, seed drill, 7. Land revenue. The land revenue was considered hoe, bullock cart, hand sprayer, machine sprayer and actually paid by cultivators for crop area. power sprayer. 8. Incidental expenditure. It includes minor repairs, 13. Irrigation structure. It includes capital investment refreshing charges and other ex­penditure for on well, electric motor, pipe line, electric motor shed cultivation of the crop. and dripper. Annual expenditure on irrigation 9. Interest on working capital. It was calculated by structure inclu­de electric charge, depreciation on well charging interest at the rate of 11.00 per cent on items @ 2.00 per cent, interest on well @ 10.00 per cent, of expenditure as human labour, bullock labour, depreciation on electric motor @ 10.00 per cent, machine labour, seed chickpea, fertilizer, manure, plant interest on electric motor @ 10.00 per cent, protection, irrigation, land revenue and incidental depreciation on pipeline @ 10.00 per cent, interest on chares for crop duration. pipeline @ 10.00 per cent. 10. Depreciation of asset. Depreciation means the RESULTS AND DISCUSSION decrease in the value of asset through wear and tear. The data collected from the sample farmers were Straight-line method was used for calculating analyzed as per the materials and methods. depreciation. The uniform rate of 10.00 per cent on the present value from the beginning of the year of Socio-economic characteristics of chickpea growers farm implements and machinery was taken and only Socio-economic characteristics viz. age, education, the proportionate charges were taken for the crop on family size, occupation and land holding, livestock position, WABLE et al., Economic Analysis of Chickpea Production in Ahmednagar District of Maharashtra 9009 etc. were studied and there mean values are presented in cent followed by soybean 12.29 per cent, red gram+soybean Table 1. Age wise distribution of selected samples revealed 10.48 per cent, green gram 3.22 per cent and black gram that majority of chickpea growers were in 30 to 45 years age 1.20 per cent, respectively. Among rabi crops chickpea, group i.e. 45.00 per cent, up to 30 years age group 21.66 per rabi jowar and wheat were found as major crops. The cent and above 45 years age group was 33.34 per cent. It proportionate area under chickpea was highest in Rabi means that, up to 30 years farmers are less involved in this season as 15.92 per cent, followed by wheat 7.45 per cent, profession. Distribution of selected farmers according to rabi jowar 2.01 per cent, respectively. Among summer crops, educational status revealed that, more than half sample were sugarcane was found as major crop. The proportionate area attended high school 68.33 per cent. Further, it was noticed under sugarcane was 5.04.The cropping intensity was 144.65 that 15.00 per cent sample were non-literate whereas 16.67 per cent per cent sample was attended college. Thus it is clear that, Cost and returns from chickpea production majority of sample was attended high school and few were non-literate. on an average, family size of selected sample 1. Physical inputs and outputs in chickpea production composed of 5.67 members of whom 2.36 were male, 2.30 Per hectare physical inputs and outputs of chickpea were female and 1.01 were children. production were worked out and are presented in table 3. The share of male, female and children were 41.62 per Average use of hired human labour was 37.73 and family cent, 40.56 per cent and 17.82 per cent, respectively. The labour was 15.42 on chickpea farms. Use of machine labour occupational distribution of selected sample was revealed and Bullock labour in chickpea which was 18.34 hours and that the majority of farm families i.e. 53.34 per cent had 1.13 hours, respectively. The use of seed was 84.17 kg for primary occupation agriculture as a main source of chickpea. In regard to manure farmer have used 22.89 occupation while 21.66 per cent families were engaged in quintals of manures. Use of nitrogen and phosphorus was secondary occupation business and remaining 25.00 per 25.48 kg, and 50.95 kg, respectively. The use of plant cent were engaged in tertiary occupation service. The land protection for chickpea found to be 1.66 liters. It was also holding wise distribution of selected sample revealed that observed that main produce yield of chickpea was 15.38 respondents possessing the land up to 2 ha were 10.00 per quintals and by produce yield was 3.08 quintals. cent. It was also noticed that 50.00 per cent of respondents Cost of cultivation of chickpea production were possessing the land holding between 2 to 4 ha, while 40.00 per cent respondents possessing land holding 4 ha Per hectare total cost with regards to chickpea and above. Per household total livestock position with the was Rs. 55539.52 while cost-A was Rs. 39596.37.and cost- selected farmers was 2.2 per house hold, distribution of B was Rs. 52455.48 Per cent share of cost-A was 71.29 livestock revealed that, proportion of bullock to the total per cent while cost-B was 94.44 per cent. Among the livestock was highest i.e. 43.60 per cent, buffalo i.e. 12.78 various items of expenditure, the per cent share of per cent. The per cent share of cow was 36.82 per cent. The rental value of land was predominant as 22.47 per cent proportion of buffalo and goat was 12.78 per cent and followed by hired human labour 13.59 per cent; family human 06.80 per cent, respectively. Investment on commonly used labour 5.56 per cent and machine labour 19.82 per cent for asset was Rs. 14241.60 chickpea crop. Cost-A, Cost-B and Cost-C was represented in table.4. Land use pattern Profitability in chickpea production Details regarding size of holding, net cultivated area in which irrigated and rain fed areas, gross cropped area Per hectare Profitability of chickpea was estimated and cropping intensity in relation to selected chickpea and presented in table 5. It was observed that, gross return grower farms were calculated and presented in table 4.2. was high on chickpea farm Rs.77817.22 It was clear that, Average size of holding was 4.01 hectares. The farm business income, family labour income and net profit proportionate irrigated area was 66.32 per cent while the were Rs 38220.85., Rs. 25361.74 and Rs.22277.71 for chickpea rainfed area was 33.68 per cent. Net sown area was 85.78 , respectively. It was clear that, output- input ratio was higher per cent. While Gross cropped area was 4.96 and cropping as 1.70 for chickpea farm. Per quintal cost of production intensity was 144.65. was Rs.3551.34 The per hectare profit from production was 25361.74 Cropping pattern on chickpea farm which seems to be profitable, hence the chickpea crop is a The table 2 revealed that, the gross cropped area was profitable. 4.96 hectare on chickpea farm. The area under soybean CONCLUSIONS and cotton was 0.61 and 1.59 hectares, which was 12.29 and 32.05 per cent of gross cropped area in kharif season. From the present investigation the following broad Among kharif crops soybean, cotton and red gram were conclusions are majority of respondents was in 30 to 45 found as major crops. In general, the proportionate area years age group 45.00 per cent and 68.33 per cent under cotton was highest in kharif season i.e. 32.05 per respondents were attended high school. The family 9010 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017 occupation level was 53.34 per cent respondents reported 39. that they had (Primary) agriculture as a main occupation. Chandrashekhar, D. B., 1995. Trends in production of chickpea The average area under chickpea was 0.79 ha. The gross crop in Andhra Pradesh. Agric. Situ. India, 45 (4) : 119-129. cropped area was 4.96 ha and cropping intensity was 144.65 Choudhary, Y.S. and Patel, C.D 2004. Pulse production economics per cent. Per hectare total cost of chickpea i.e. cost-C was under irrigated conditions in Ananad district of Gujarat. Rs. 35262.14 in which contribution of cost-A was Rs. International Chickpea and Pigeon pea Newsletter, 37 (8): 17- 20. 23036.28 and cost-B was Rs. 55539.52 The output –input ratio of chickpea was 1.70 which indicates that chickpea Krishna, Y.S. and Chandrika, B.M 2007. The study of cost and crop is highly profitable enterprise. returns of pulse production in Tumkur district of Karnataka. Karnataka J. Agric. Econ., 5 (2): 39-43. LITERATURE CITED Kumara, B.R., Hosamani, S.B., Desai, N.R., Megeri, S.N. and Akram, B. B. and Rajnalkar, L. 2013. Economic analysis of tur Hosamani, M.H. 2012. Costs and returns of major cropping cultivation in Karnatak, , India. Indian J. Manag. Sci. 3(1):33- systems in northern transition zone of Karnataka. Karnataka J. Agric. Sci.25 (2): 208-211.

Received on 13-11-2017 Accepted on 15-11-2017 Trends in Biosciences 10(43), Print : ISSN 0974-8431, 9011-9013, 2017

Effect of Different Levels Saline Irrigation Water on Growth and Yield of Gladiolus cv American Beauty M. P. AHIR AND ALKA SINGH Department of Floriculture and Landscape Architecture, Aspee College of Horticulture and Forestry, Navsari Agricultural University, Navsari email : [email protected]

ABSTRACT flowering plants, which can tolerate salinity up to some During 2013-2014 and 2014-2015, gladiolus cv American limit. The effort towards utilization of saline soil and water Beauty was irrigated with water of different salinity levels for growing flowering plants mainly aims to make the beauty (2.0, 4.0, 6.0, 8.0, 10.0 and 12.0) along with control (best of seashore landscape even more enchanting. Various irrigation strategies devised can be used for the purpose of available water) to evaluated for growth and yield parameters at Department of floriculture, Aspee College controlling salinity with in the threshold limit of plants, of Horticulture and Forestry, Navsari Agricultural through the conjunctive use of saline irrigation water by University, Navsari. Different levels of salinity were avoiding salt stress at critical period of their growth. significantly reduced growth and yield parameters. The MATERIAL AND METHODS growth parameters exhibited significantly reduced The experiment was carried out at Department of -1 gladiolus plant growth above 2.0 dSm salinity level. floriculture and landscape architecture, Aspee College of Flower yield, corms per plant, cormels per plant were Horticulture and Forestry, Navsari Agricultural University, -1 prominently decreased above 2.0 dSm salinity level. In Navsari (Navsari, India 200 57’ N latitude and 720 54’ E case of leaf chlorophyll content and tepal anthocyanine longitudes) during the rabi season of 2013-14 and 2014-15. contents were decreased with increase in salinity level. The soil of the experimental pots was collected from Based on results, gladiolus cv American Beauty was found Regional Horticultural Research Station, Navsari. Corms of salt sensitive flower crop. gladiolus (Gladiolus grandiflora) cv American Beauty were planted in pot having capacity of 20 kg filled with Key words Different Levels, Saline Irrigation Water, mixture of soil and FYM along with NPK as per Growth and Yield, Gladiolus cv American recommended dose (200-200-200 NPK kg/ha). Average two- Beauty three corms per pot were placed by dibbling in the soil and irrigated immediately with normal water (best available The commercial floricultural industry includes flower water). Different levels of saline water (2.0, 4.0, 6.0, 8.0, 10.0 crops, garden plants, potted flowering and foliage plants. and 12.0 dSm-1) were made up with sea water (approx. 55 A dramatic aspect of floriculture is water consumption: it dSm-1) mixed with fresh water (1.48 dSm-1). The experiment has been estimated that 100-350 kg of water are needed to was laid out in completely randomized design. Each produce 1 kg of plant dry matter, but it can vary with species treatment was applied in four separate repetitions. All the and variety, cultivation system and plant growing season plants were initially grown with fresh water up to one month; (Frornes et al., 2007). About half of the fresh water available saline water treatment was given in October, 2013 and to support a growing world population is already used for October, 2014. In each treatment, irrigation water was human consumption (Rozema and Flowers, 2008). However, checked every time for EC and pH. Appropriate drain holes the majority of water on earth is seawater (98%), with only should be kept for leaching. about 1 % being fresh-water. Ever increasing demands for The soil samples were drawn at time planting (before good quality water for domestic and industrial uses in experiment) and finally at harvesting. Growth and flowering developing countries like India create scarcity of good data were collected at regular interval during both the quality water for agriculture use. Many developing seasons, including plant height (cm), number of leaves per countries are now facing this situation, especially in arid plant, necrotic area percentage (%), leaf area (cm2), root and semiarid regions where limited water availability is length (cm), days taken to flower initiation, number of spike already a severe constraint to development. per plant, flower yield, corms per pant, cormels per plant, India has coastal line of 7516 kms, Gujarat state having chlorophyll content and anthocyanin content. The large coastal line in country covering about1660 kms. The influence of saline water irrigation on plant growth, flower misty and enchanting atmosphere of coastal area attracts production, bulb production, chlorophyll content and more and more people to build their hotels and homes at anthocyanin content were assessed through ANOVA. seashore. In saline soils, the presence of excessive salts in RESULTS AND DISCUSSION the root zone lead to various physiological changes in the plants which ultimately affect the growth and flowering of Growth parameters: the plant. Plants that are able to survive in rugged coastal The growth parameters viz., plant height, number of environment must withstand the prevailing winds, tolerate leaves per plant, leaf area and root length were affected the salt spray and be capable to set their roots in saline significantly due to different levels of salinity of irrigation conditions. Costal landscape can be enhancing by using water gladiolus cv American Beauty. No plant survival was 9012 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Effect of different levels of salinity of irrigation water on plant growth and flowering of gladiolus cv American Beauty.

Treatments Growth parameters Flowering parameters Plant No. of Leaf Root Days No. of Post No. of No. of Chlorophyll Anthocyanine height leaves/ area length taken to spike/ harvest corms/ cormels/ content (mg/g content (cm2) (cm) flower plant life of plant plant FW) (cm) plant (mg/g FW) initiation flowers Salinity 2.0 51.29 6.42 41.12 11.33 69.95 1.63 6.81 1.70 18.60 6.80 2.817 dSm-1 Salinity 4.0 43.24 6.07 38.77 8.05 76.85 1.26 5.68 1.50 17.11 6.19 2.549 dSm-1 Salinity 6.0 36.08 5.14 34.63 7.05 80.70 1.00 4.59 1.38 14.40 5.76 2.199 dSm-1 Salinity 8.0 29.55 5.12 29.55 5.70 87.30 0.67 4.18 1.28 11.71 5.03 1.923 dSm-1 Salinity 10.0 24.00 4.12 23.29 3.90 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.02 9.52 4.61 0.000 dSm-1 Salinity 12.0 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.000 dSm-1 Best 56.26 7.87 43.32 12.11 63.59 1.71 7.34 1.87 20.67 7.60 3.158 Available Water SEM + 1.65 0.21 1.70 0.32 2.89 0.03 0.16 0.07 0.79 0.12 0.052 CD at 5 % 4.86 0.61 4.99 0.95 8.49 0.08 0.46 0.19 2.33 0.36 0.152 CV 9.63 8.40 11.27 9.37 10.68 6.05 7.62 10.55 12.07 4.73 5.73 observed in irrigation treatment 12.0 dS-1 water. Necrotic was recorded in irrigation treatment 10.0 dSm-1 and above. area percentage (NAP) was also increased with increase in Gladiolus yield was prominently decreased above 2.0 dS m- salinity level of irrigation water and 100 % necrosis was 1 salinity level. recorded in treatment with 12.0 dS-1 saline water. Above 2.0 Delay in flowering due to the specific mechanism that dS m-1 salinity level of irrigation water, growth in gladiolus alter the growth stage of flowering have been known to cv American Beauty was prominently decreased. occur due to multiple stresses (osmotic imbalance, Reduced plant growth is a common phenomenon nutritional deficit and cellular toxicity) exerted by salinity when plants are grown under increased salinity and usually (Risse and Shenk, 1990; Stanton et al., 2000). Besides, expressed as stunted plant growth. The first responses of reduction in root biomass caused due to salinity has also plants to salinity is a decreased rate of plant growth primarily been indicated as a factor impeding flowering by affecting due to osmotic effect of salt around the roots, which leads energetic reserves (Van Zandt and Mopper, 2002). Saline to reduction in water supply to plant cells as explained by water irrigation reduced crop growth and production in Blum, (1986). Further, Wild (1988) and Shannon & Grieve sensitive species (Volkmar et al 1998) due to negative effects (1999) stated inhibition of root growth and its function on water and mineral relations, carbon assimilation and owing to high external salt concentration. Explaining, the biomass partitioning. Crop response to salinity depends mechanism of salt tolerance in plants, due to increasing on cultivar and growing conditions (e.g. Bass et al., 1995;

ECiw probably resulting into limited cell expansion (Munns De Kreij and Van Os, 1989; Sonneveld et al., 1999). Gladiolus and Tester, 2008). Reduction in cell elongation and division is crop sensitive to salinity (Arnold et al., 2003). In our in plant cell reduce their final size, resulting in decrease in work, gladiolus plants appeared much more sensitive to plant height, number of leaves leaf area and root growth as salinity. The use of saline water irrigation significantly elucidated by earlier workers (Cabrera, 2003; Cassaniti et reduced plant growth, flower production and bio-chemical al, 2009). Growth reduction in different ornamental plants parameters (table-1). due to salinity have been also reported in Nerium oleander CONCLUSION (Banon et al., 2005), in marigold (Valdez-Aguilar et al., 2009), in gladiolus (Haouala and Sahli 2011), in gladiolus and Based on the results of the above experiment, with heliconia (Cerquera et al., 2008) and in zinnia (Zivder et al., the data on growth and flowering parameters indicates level 2011). of salinity tolerance in gladiolus cv American Beauty has been found salt sensitive crop. Above 2.0 dSm-1 salinity Flowering parameters: level growth and flowering was prominently decreased. In flowering parameters viz. days taken to flower LITERATURE CITED initiation, number of spikes per plant, flower yield, corms per plant and cormels per plant were significantly influenced Arnold, M. A., Lesikar, B. J., McDonald, G. V., Bryan, D. L and Gross, A., 2003. Irrigating landscape bedding plants and cut by salinity levels of irrigation water. No flower production flowers with recycled nursery runoff and constructed wetland AHIR and AZAD, Effect of Different Levels Saline Irrigation Water on Growth and Yield of Gladiolus cv American Beauty 9013

treated water. J. Environ. Hort. 21(2): 89-98. New York, 1979. Bañón, S., Conesa, E., Valdés, R., Miralles, J., Martínez, J.J. and Haouala, F. and Sahli, L., 2011. NaCl effects on growth, flowering Sánchez Blanco, M.J., 2012. Effect of saline irrigation on and bulbing of gladiolus (Gladiolus grandiflorus hort.). Revue phytoregulator-treated chrysanthemum plants. Acta Hortic. 937: Suisse de viticulture arboriculture horticulture 43(6); 378-383. 307-312 Rozema, J., Flowers, T. J., 2008. Crops for Stalinized world. Science Bass, R., Nijsenn, H. M. C., Van Den Berg, T. J. M., Warmenhoven, 322, 1478-1480. M. G., 1995. Yield and quality of carnation (Dianthus Shannon, M.C. and Grieve, C. M., 1999. Tolerance of vegetable caryophyllus L) and gerbera (Gerbera jamasonii L) ia closed crops to salinity, Scientia Horticulturae 78: 5-38. nutrient system as affected by sodium chloride. Sci. Horticulturae Munns, R. and Tester, M., 2008. Mechanism of salinity tolerance, 61, 273-284. The Annual Review of Plant Biology, 59: 651-681. Blum, A., 1986. Salinity resistance, In: Plant Breeding for stress Stanton, M. L., Roy, B. A. and Thiede, D. A. 2000Evolution in environments, A Blum (Ed.), 1163-1169, CRC Press, Boca Raton. stressful environments. I. Phenotypic variability, phenotypic Cabrera, R. I., 2003. Mineral nutrition, p. 573-580. In; Roberts, A. selection and response to selection in five distinct environmental V., Debener, T. and Gudin, S (eds.). Encyclopedia of rose science. stresses. Evolution.,54: 93-111. Academic Press, Oxford, UK. - + -2 Rise, I and Shank, M. 1990. Influence of Cl , Na and SO4 in irrigation Cerqueira, L., Fadigas, F. D. S., Pereira, F. A., Gloaguen, T.V. and water on the growth of azaleas. Gartenbauwissenschaft,55: 252- Costa, J. A., 2008. Growth of Heliconia psittacorum and 258. Gladiulus hortulanus irrigated with treated domestic waste water. Sonneveld, C., Baas, R., Nijssen, H. M. C. and Hoog, J., 1999. Salt Revista Brasileira de Engenharia.,12 (6): 606-613. tolerance of flower crops grown in soilless culture. J. Plant Cassaniti, C., Leonardi, C. and Flower, T. J., 2009. The effect of Nutrition., 22 (6): 1033-1048. sodium chloride on ornamental shrubs. Sci. Hort. 122: 586-593. Valdez-Aguilar, L. A., Grieve, C. M and Poss, J. A., 2009aSalinity De Kreij, C., Van Os, P. C., 1989. Production and quality of gerbera and alkaline pH of irrigation water affect marigold plants. I. in Rockwool as affected by electrical conductivity of the nutrient Growth and shoot dry mass partitioning. Hort. Sci.44: 1719- th solution. In: Proc. 7 Int. Cong. Soilless Culture, pp 225-264. 1725 Frornes, F., Belda, R. M., Carrion, C., Noguera, V., Garcia-Agustin., Volkmar, K. m., Hu, Y., Steppihn, H., 1998. Response physiologique Abad, M., 2007. Pre-conditioning ornamental plants to draught des plantes a la salinite: Mise au point bibliographique. Can. J. by means of saline water irrigation as related to salinity tolerance. Plant Sci., 78, 19-27. Scientia Horticulturae 113, 52-59. Wild, A., 1988. Russels’s soil condition and plant growth. 11th Edn. Van Zandt, P. A. and Mopper, S. 2002. Delayed and carryover effects Harlow, Longman. of salinity on flowering in Iris haxagona. American J. Botany. Zivder, S., Khaleghi, E and Dehkordi, F. S., 2011. Effect of salinity 89: 1847-1851. and temperature on seed germination indices of Zinnia elegans Grime, J. P., 1979. Plant Strategies and Vegetation Process, Wiley, L. J. Applied Horti.13 (1); 48-51.

Received on 14-11-2017 Accepted on 17-11-2017 Trends9014 in Biosciences 10(43), Print : ISSN 0974-8431,Trends 9014-9017, in Biosciences 2017 10 (43), 2017

Problem Faced by Waste Handling Workers During Handling of Biomedical Waste

SWATI SRIVASTAVA1 AND RITU SINGHVI2

1Department of Family Resource Management, MPUAT, Udaipur email : [email protected]

ABSTRACT currently a burning issue more so with the increasing health Biomedical waste management has recently emerged as care facilities and increasing waste generation (Mathur et al.2011). an issue of major concern not only to hospitals, nursing home authorities but also to the environmental and law Approximately 75-90% of the biomedical waste is non- enforcement agencies, media and the general public. The hazardous and as harmless as any other municipal waste. waste handling workers do not follow the rules of BWM The remaining 10-25% is hazardous and can be injurious to regularly. It was observed that they were facing certain humans or animals and can be injurious to humans or health problems due to handling BW in hospitals. The animals and deleterious to environment. It is important to present investigation was conducted in Udaipur city of realize that if both these types are mixed together then the Rajasthan state to know the problems faced by waste whole waste becomes harmful(Singh et al.2007).It is handling workers in one government hospital, two private estimated that annually about 0.33 million tons of hospitals and common treatment facility. biomedical waste is generated in India and the waste generation rate ranges from0.5 to2.0 kg per bed per day Key words Biomedical waste, problem, waste handling (Patil and Shekdar ,2001).Biomedical waste is mainly workers classified as biological and non- biological waste, some waste may be infectious and some may be non- Hospital is one of the complex institutions which are infectious(Fig1).Infectious waste can be serious threat to frequented by people from every walks of life in the society human health if it is not managed in a scientific manner. without any distinction between age, sex, race and religion. This is over and above the normal inhabitants of hospital i.e patients and staff. All of them produce waste which is increasing in its amount and type due to advances in scientific knowledge and is creating its impact(Rao and Garg,1994). In country like India, where there is big and complex health care system, mixed economy, private and government hospitals working together; while providing services generate lot of waste. Till July 1998, there was no system for proper waste disposal. Most of the hospitals were disposing their waste along with general waste. For prevention of these improper practices, the government of India had launched a law known as ‘Biomedical Waste (Management and Handling) rule, 1998". Under this law the Government has given specific guidelines for management of biomedical waste. Biomedical waste is Fig 1. Composition of biomedical waste defined as any solid, fluid, liquid waste including container and intermediate product, which is generated during Biomedical waste handling and disposal is often diagnosis, treatment or immunization of human beings or considered only the job of class IV workers.These workers in research activities or in production or testing of biological are rarely provided with immunization facilities, personal products Biomedical Waste (Management and Handling) protective clothing and training related to biomedical waste Rules 1998.The government of India notification, 1998 management. Proper knowledge about the health hazard of specifies that biomedical waste management is a part of hospital waste,proper technique and methods of handling hospital hygiene and maintenance activities. the waste and practice of safety measures can go a long It is estimated that 10-25% of the health care waste way towards the safe disposal of hazardous biomedical generated is hazardous and causes serious health problems waste and protect the community from various adverse (WHO, Geneva, 1999). Biomedical waste management is effects of the hazardous waste. SRIVASTAVA and SINGHVI, Problem Faced by Waste Handling Workers During Handling of Biomedical Waste 9015

Table 1. Problems faced during the process of BWM n=255

S.No. CBWTF Private hospitals Government hospital Types of problem n3=15 n2=150 n1=90

Never Sometimes Always Never Sometimes Always Never Sometimes Always

1. 9 6 - 101 49 - 34 56 - Skin Irritation

(60) (40) (67.33) (32.66) (37.77) (62.22)

2. 7 8 - 56 61 33 38 35 17 Needle injury

(46.66) (53.33) (37.33) (40.66) (21.33) (42.22) (38.88) (18.88)

3. 6 9 - 66 39 45 40 31 19 Infection

(40) (60) (44) (26) (30) (44.44) (34.44) (21.11)

Note: Table contains multiple responses. Figures in parenthesis are percentage

MATERIAL AND METHODS segregate, handle, package, store, transport, treat and dispose biomedical waste in hospitals. Occupational The methodology of this particular study was followed at two stages: exposure to blood can result from percutaneous injury (needle stick or other sharps injury), mucocutaneous injury Stage I: In the hospital which includes generation, (splash of blood or other body fluids into the eyes, nose or segregation, collection and storage of biomedical waste mouth) or blood contact with non-intact skin. The most management in various departments. common cause of needle stick injury is two handed Stage II: Outside the hospital which includes transportation, recapping and the unsafe collection and disposal of waste treatment and final disposal of biomedical waste by common sharps. biomedical waste treatment facility The comprehensive rule covers various aspects of This investigation was conducted in Udaipur city of dealing with waste, specifying the duty of the waste Rajasthan state. This study was carried out in one handling workers of the hospital generating BW as to government, two private hospitals and common biomedical ensure safe handling, on segregation, packing, waste treatment facility. In government hospital with transportation and storage specifics, submission of annual eighteen departments and two private hospitals with fifteen report to Pollution Control Board of categories and waste departments each and one common biomedical waste generated, maintenance of records on generation, collection, treatment facility were selected. From each department 5 reception, storage, transportation, treatment and disposal, waste handling workers were selected randomly to judge type of waste to be incinerated and colour coding for the extent of health and safety practices and extent of its segregation. The waste handling workers of the hospital use. Further, these selected waste handling workers were generating BW are required to take all steps to ensure that also the sample to assess the health and safety practices such waste is handled without any adverse effect on human adopted and extent of its use in managing the biomedical health and the environment. waste in hospitals. Thus in all 240 waste handling workers The waste handling workers do not follow the rules including 90 from government and 150 from private of BWM regularly. It was observed that they were facing hospitals (75 from each private hospital) were selected certain health problems due to handling BW in hospitals. .Whereas, 15 waste handing workers from the common The above Table 4.3.3 indicates that 62.22 percent waste biomedical waste treatment facility were selected. An handling workers in government hospital, 32.66 percent interview schedule and observation schedule was respondents in both private hospitals and very few i.e.40 developed to assess the health and safety practices and percent waste handling workers in CBWTF sometime faced extent of its use by waste handling workers both at hospitals the problem of skin irritation whereas needle injury was and at common biomedical waste treatment facility. always faced by 18.88 percent and 21.33 percent waste RESULTS AND DISCUSSION handling workers in government and private hospitals There is a great risk to all those who generate, collect, respectively. The same problem was mentioned by 38.88 percent, 40.66 percent and 53.33 percent respondents 9016 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Table 2. Reporting of problems to authorities during BWM n=255

S. No. CBWTF Private hospitals Govt. hospital Authorities for reporting of

n3=15 n2=150 n1=90 problems

Never Sometimes Always Never Sometimes Always Never Sometimes Always

1. - - - - 75 - - - - Nursing Superintendent (50)

2. ------Manager

3. - - - - 75 - - - 57 In charge (50) (63.33)

4. - 15 ------Supervisor (100)

5. ------33 - - Nobody (36.66)

6. - 15 - 150 90 Total

Note: Figures in parenthesis are percentage sometimes in government and both private hospitals and DISCUSSION in CBWTF. An infectious problem was faced always by Majority of waste handling workers (62.22%) in 21.11 percent and30 percent waste handling workers in government hospital, 32.66 percent respondents in private government and both private hospitals. Whereas 34.44 hospitals and very few that was 40 percent waste handling percent, 26 percent and 60 percent respondents faced the workers in CBWTF sometime faced the problem of skin same problem sometime in government and private hospitals irritation whereas needle injury was always faced by 18.88 and CBWTF respectively. None of them have faced any percent and 21.33percent waste handling workers in all the serious accidents during the process of handling BW. The selected hospitals. The same problem was mentioned by reason may be that they were wearing proper protective 38.88 percent, 40.66 percent and 53.33 percent respondents clothing and have attended the training sometimes during sometimes in government and both private hospitals and their tannure in the institutions. in CBWTF. Infectious problems was faced always by waste During segregation special emphasis should handling workers 21.11 percent, 30 percent in government be given to infectious waste, hazardous and sharp and both private hospitals. Whereas 34.44 percent, 26 waste. From among all the categories of waste the “sharps” percent and 60 percent respondents faced the same problem which include syringes, needle, broken sometime in the all the hospitals and CBWTF respectively. glassware, scalpel, blades etc. have highest disease Nearly, 50 percent respondents reported to their nursing transmission potential. When waste handling workers were superintendent always in private hospital –A and 50 percent injured by sharps ,needles etc. they have reported to their waste handling workers reported to their Incharge in private authorities who were responsible to provide medical help. hospital-B whereas 63.33 percent respondents in The Table 4.3.4 indicates that 50 percent respondents government hospital reported to Incharge about the always reported to their nursing superintendent in private problem/injuries they faced. Although 100 percent hospital A when they faced any type of problem while respondents in CBWTF sometimes inform to their supervisor handling of BW. And 50 percent waste handling workers when they faced any problem/injuries during disposal of reported to their Incharge in private hospital-B whereas BW. 63.33 percent respondents in government hospital have CONCLUSION always reported to Incharge about the problem/injuries but 36.66 percent waste handling workers of the same hospital The study shows that problem faced by waste never reported to any authorities about their problems. handling workers during handling of biomedical waste in Although 100 respondents in CBWTF sometimes informed hospital. It can be said that several health hazards are to their supervisor when they faced any problem/injuries associated with poor management of BW like injury from during disposal of BW. Due to lack of knowledge these sharps to waste handling workers in hospital. Further, the workers do not approach authorities when they are in intervention can be done by providing training programmes, difficult situation. so that the knowledge on the biomedical waste management can be improved. SRIVASTAVA and SINGHVI, Problem Faced by Waste Handling Workers During Handling of Biomedical Waste 9017

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Indian journal of community medicine 26:5-143. The author is thankful to Department of Science and Patil, A.D. and Shekder, A.V.2001 Health care management in India. Journal of Environmental Management. 63 (2): 211- Technology, New Delhi for providing Fellowship for the 220. degree programme. The author is also give a special thanks Rao, S.K.M., Garg, R.K.1994. A studyof Hospital Waste Disposal to my revered guide Dr.(Mrs.) Ritu Singh, Professor, System in Service Hospital. Journal of Academyof Hospital Department of Family resource Management, College of Administration. 6(2):27-31. Home Science, Udaipur who has been a great source of Safe management of waste from health care activities, inspiration and towering strength for my being coherent 1999.WHO,Geneva. and concise during my research work. Saini, S., Nagarajan, S.S. and Sharma, R.K. 2005. Knowledge, attitude LITERATURE CITED and practices of biomedical waste management amongst staff of a tertiary level hospital in institute of ophthalmology, Biomedical Waste (Handling and Management) Rules, 1998, 2000, Ahmedabad, Gujarat. Indian Journal of Academy of Hospital Ministry of Environment and Forest Notification, New Delhi. Administration 17(3):8-12 Mathur, V., Dwivedi, S., Hassan, M.A.,Mishra,R.P. Singh, V.P. Biswas, G. and Sharma, J.J.2007.Biomedical waste 2011.Knowledge,Attitude and practices about biomedical waste management –An Emerging Concern in Indian management among health care personnel:A cross –sctionaltudy. Hospitals.IJFM&T.1(1):4-39.

Received on 14-11-2017 Accepted on 18-11-2017 Trends9018 in Biosciences 10(43), Print : ISSN 0974-8431,Trends 9018-9020, in Biosciences 2017 10 (43), 2017

Screening of Chickpea Genotypes Against Collar Rot of Chickpea Caused by Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. Under Field Conditions

S. S. SHIRSOLE, N. KHARE, N. LAKPALE AND A.S. KOTASTHANE

Department of Plant Pathology, IGKV, Raipur, Chattisgarh email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT identification of resistant sources in available genotypes. Collar rot of chickpea (Cicer arietinum) is caused by the MATERIAL AND MATHODS ubiquitous soil-borne pathogen Sclerotium rolfsii. Collar Isolation of pathogen Sclerotium rolfsii from diseased rot is one of the fast spreading fungal disease of chickpea samples and at seedling stage it causes heavy losses. Present study was carried out to find the resistant sources from 112 Isolation was made from the fresh diseased plant chickpea entries comprising of desi and kabuli types. The samples collected from research farm at seedling and fungus was isolated from diseased chickpea plants vegetative stage of the crop. The roots of diseased plant collected from research farm at seedling and vegetative showing symptoms were washed thoroughly with water, stage of the crop, purified and maintained on PDA for small pieces of infected roots were cut with the help of further screening process. Mass culture of the pathogen sterilized blade. These pieces were surface sterilized with was prepared on wheat grains media and inoculated in 1:1000 mercuric chloride (HgCl2) solution for one minute collar zone of chickpea plant, 15 days after sowing. All the followed by three washings with sterilized distilled water chickpea entries were susceptible to highly susceptible to to remove traces of HgCl2. The pieces were then transferred collar rot disease. aseptically to Petri plates containing sterilized PDA and incubated at 25± 20C for three to five days and examined at Key words Screening, chickpea genotypes, collar rot, frequent intervals to see the growth of the fungus Sclerotium rolfsii. developing from different pieces. As and when fungal colony appears they were transferred to PDA slant for Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is the world’s third most purification of culture. important food legume after drybean and pea. India is the Mass multiplication of Sclerotium rolfsii largest producer of chickpea, contributing more than 70 The S. rolfsii was mass multiplied in wheat grain per cent of the total world production. Among the soil borne media. Wheat grains were soaked in water for 6 hrs then diseases of chickpea, collar rot is important disease causing little boiled, drained excess water, air dried and seed rot and seeding mortality in the initial stage of crop supplemented with 50 g calcium carbonate in 1 kg wheat growth up to 45 days. The mortality ranges from 54.7-95% grains. Two hundred gram wheat grains were filled in 6 x 11 in India (Kotasthane et.al., 1976) causing significant inches polythene bags and plugged with non absorbent reduction in plant population. Collar rot caused by cotton with the support of one inch diameter PVC ring Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc., is one of the several fungal (length 1.5 inch). These bags were sterilized in autoclave diseases affecting this crop and is reported almost all over with 1.02 kg/cm2 pressure for 25-30 minutes. The sterilized the world whereever chickpea is grown (Nene et al., 1984). bags were inoculated with 2-3 mycelial discs (5 mm) taken Collar rot is a fast spreading and destructive disease of from the periphery of the with 5 days old culture of S. rolfsii chickpea. It has wide host range (Aycock, 1966 and Punja, previously grown on PDA. The inoculated bags were 1988 ) and an omnivorous soil borne fungus, parasitizing incubated in BOD incubator at 25± 20C for 15 days. root and collar region of the plant thus, producing wilt like Multiplied culture of S. rolfsii inoculated in collar zone of symptoms. Generally, the disease is severe in loamy soil chickpea plant, 15 days after sowing. regions and more prevalent in soybean- paddy based cropping system, when soil moisture is high and Screening of chickpea entries temperature is warm at the seedling stage. Affected Seeds were procured from AICRP (All India seedlings turn yellow and die. The seedlings generally Coordinated Research Project) on Chickpea, Raipur. The collapse and show rotting at the collar region and below. field experiment was laid out during rabi season 2015-16 As the genetical resistance is not available in chickpea and 2016-2017 at the research farm, IGKV Raipur. One crop till now, the only practicable and cost-effective control hundred twelve entries were screened against S. rolfsii. for such a devastating soil-borne pathogen is selection of Each test entry was sown in a plot of two rows of 5 meter cultivars. Therefore, the present study was conducted to length 30 cm apart alternating with one row of susceptible screen the chickpea entries against S. rolfsii for the check variety L 550 after every two test entry and replicated SHIRSOLE et al., Screening of Chickpea Genotypes Against Collar Rot of Chickpea Caused by Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. 9019

Table 1. IIPR rating scale S. No. Reaction Per cent mortality Score 1 R- Resistant < 10 1 2 MR- Moderately Resistant 10 – 20 2 3 T- Tolerant 21 – 30 3 4 S- Susceptible 31 – 40 4 5 HS- Highly Susceptible > 40 5 twice. Observations on emergence were recorded at ten RESULTS AND DISCUSSION and twenty DAS. Culture of S. rolfsii was artificially In present study, 112 chickpea entries were screened inoculated in collar zone 15 days after sowing. Light against collar rot pathogen under field conditions. All the irrigation was given just to activate the growth of fungus. entries were susceptible to highly susceptible to collar rot. Observations on per cent mortality were started from ten None entry was resistant or moderately resistant lines to days after inoculation and recorded at five day intervals collar rot. This shows a high level of aggressiveness of the upto marurity, finally computed as follows. pathogen or relatively narrow diversification of genetic Total infected plant material under study. Gaurkhede et al. (2015) reported that Per cent incidence = —————————————×100 in a field screening of 284 chickpea germplasm accessions against collar rot, 9 were found free from disease and 29 Total emergence of plant exhibited < 10 per cent mortality due to collar rot. Gupta and

Table 2. Reaction of chickpea entries against collar rot of chickpea

Sr. Per cent Score/ Name of entries Total No. mortality reaction entries 1 Less than10 1 (R) Nil Nil 2 10 – 20 2 (MR) Nil Nil 3 21 – 30 3 (T) Nil Nil 4 31 – 40 4 (S) AVT-1 (RF): RSG 888 (ch), CSJ 515 (ch), RSG 931 (ch), GNG 2263 27 IVT (RF):IPC 2010-142, RG 2009-01, GNG 2307, GJG 1316, BG 3066, NBeG 740, RSG 888 (ch), H 12-80, GJG 1307, GNG 2294, DBGV 104, BG 3065, CSJ 515 (ch), CSJ 872, Phule G 13107, DIBG 202, RSG 931(ch), Phule G 12113, RSG 931(ch), BGD 111-1, CSJ 870, NBeG 738, IPC 2012-31. 5 Above 40% 5 (HS) AVT-1 (DESI): GNG 2207, NBeG 471, PG 170, Phule G 12110, GNG 85 2264, Phule G 12107, AVT-2 (DESI): NBeG 4G2 Phule G 0405, BG 3043, JG 16 (ch) GAG 1107, JG 36. IVT (DESI): GL 29095, H12-26, GNG 2302, GNG 1958(ch), BG3063, AKG 1201, DIBG 201, NBeG 806, JG 74315-2, GNG 2300, CSJ 859, IPC 2011-85, PG 160, IPC 2011-141, NDG 14-11, GJG 1320, NBeG 807,Phule G 0616, Phule G 13103, AKG 1109, H12-01, CSJ 855, GNG 1581(ch), GJG 1318, PG 172, GL 12021, BG 3064. AVT-1 (LS): GNG 2261, GNG 2215, IPC 2010-134, BG 3054, RSG 963(ch), IPC 2007-28, PG 0104, AVT-2(LS): PG0109, RSG 963(ch), IPC 2010-62 IVT(LS): CSJ 887, RSG963(ch), GL 12003, IPC 2012-49, H 12-62, BG 3068, H 12-55, JG 74315, IPC 2012-98, BG 3067, NBeG 507, GJG 1319, GNG 2299, PG 158, JG 24, Phule G 0719-10, NDG 14-24, CSJ 884, GL 29098, NBeG 511, GNG 2304, Phule G 13110 Mechanical Harvesting: DBGV 3205, Phule G 08108, BG 3069, CSJ 1002, BG 3061, DBGV 3104, BG 3070, IPC 2012-30, CSJ 1001, PG 173, Phule G 0805-5, CSJ 515 (ch), BG 3062 Total entries 112 L.S.I. 4.75

9020 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Mishra, (2009) screened among 120 lines of chickpea in against collar rot caused by Sclerotium rolfsii Sacc. Pakistan disease sick fields for 3 consecutive years and 32 entries Journal of Agriculture, Agricultural Engineering and Veterinary performed consistent resistant reaction to collar rot. Twelve Sciences, 21(1): 32-34. accessions were found free from collar rot during the testing Gaurkhede J., Gupta O. and Patil M. 2015. Management of collar rot years under high disease pressure. Hussain et al., (2005), of chickpea by Pseudomonas fluorescens and identification of screened 57 cultivars and found only one genotype highly sources of resistance. Journal of Food Legumes 28(2): 51-54. resistant. Sugha et al., (1991) evaluated 210 chickpea lines/ Kotastthane, S.R., Agarwal, P.S., Joshi K.K. and Sing. L.1976. Studies cultivars from different sources. None of these were on wilt complex in Bengal gram (Cicer arietinum L.). JNKVV Res. J., 10: 257-258. resistant or even moderately resistant. Nene, Y.L., Sheila V.K. and Sharma S.B. 1984. A world list of chickpea LITERATURE CITED (Cicer arietinum L.) and pigeonpea (Cajnus cajan (L.) Millsp.) Aycock, R. A. 1966. Stem rot and other diseases caused by Sclerotium pathogens. ICRISAT Pulses Pathology Progress Report, 32, rolfsii. N. C. Agric. Exp. Stn. Tech. Bull. 17. pp.19. Gaurkhede J., Gupta O. and Patil M. 2015. Management of collar rot Punja, Z.K. 1988. Sclerotium (Athelia) rolfsii, a pathogen of many of chickpea by Pseudomonas fluorescens and identification of plant species. In: Sidhu GS, ed. Genetics of plant pathogenic sources of resistance. Journal of Food Legumes 28(2): 51-54. fungi. Vol. 6. London: Academic Press. pp. 523-534. Gupta,Om and Mishra, M. 2009. Screening of chickpea germplasm Sugha, S.K., Sharma B.K. and Tyagi, P.D. 1991. A modified technique accessions for resistance to Collar rot. J.Food Legumes. for screening chickpea (Cicer arietinum) varieties against collar 22(2):140-141. rot caused by Scerotium rolfsii. Indian J. Agric. Sci., 61(4): Hussain, A., S.M. Iqbal and N. Ayub. 2005. Screening of chickpea 289-290.

Received on 14-11-2017 Accepted on 19-11-2017 Trends in Biosciences 10(43), Print : ISSN 0974-8431, 9021-9028, 2017

Performance Evaluation of Irrigation Canals in the Middle Gujarat Region

J.B. BHIMANI1 , S.K. RAUL2 , S.V. BARIA3, A.J. PATOLIYA4 AND M.M. DAMOR5

1Department of Farm Machinery And Engineering, College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, AAU, Godhra, Gujarat 2College Of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, AAU, Godhra, Gujarat 3Polytechnic in Agricultural Engineering, Junagadh Agricultural University, Targhdia, Rajkot. 4College of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, AAU, Godhra, Gujarat 5Department of Civil Engineering, Government engineering College, Dahod, Gujarat email : [email protected]

ABSTRACT delivery system design has traditionally focused on The study was undertaken to assess the performance of specifying the carrying and regulating capacity of the the irrigation project in terms of adequacy, dependability, delivery structures and on increasing the water conveyance efficiency. Keeping all these aspects in consideration equity and efficiency. Seasonal volumetric gross irrigation requirement was estimated by using standard methodology. following objective was proposed for the Wadhwana tank Daily water delivery of the different canals for the crop irrigation system like adequacy, dependability, equity and efficiency and evaluate the overall performance of the period 2014-15 and 2015-16 was collected from potential sources and converted to monthly volumetric flow. The irrigation canals. average values of adequacy, dependability, equity and Water delivery performance of a minor under the left efficiency were found to be 0.72, 0.40, 0.38 and 0.88, main canal of Som-kagdar irrigation project was examined respectively that indicates overall “poor” performance of by Singh et al. (2006). Outlets wise performance was the irrigation project. Hence, it needs to be improved by evaluated, using the adequacy, equity, dependability and proper management and adequate maintenance including relative water supply indicators. Digital current meter was the incorporation of right irrigation scheduling strategies used to measure the outlet discharge during the season. in order to achieve this immediate objective. Crop water requirements were calculated using CROPWAT. The outlet wise water delivery performance indicators Key words performance measure; adequacy; showed poor performance of the system. The analysis of dependability; equity; efficiency; gross results of the spatial and temporal dimensions of these irrigation requirement; Wadhwana indicators showed that factors causing the problem are irrigation project derived partly due to physical state of system and partly due to improper operation and management. Pre-independence India suffered from repeated A study was conducted in the command area of famines and drought and the country was far from food Guvvalagudem major distributary of the Nagarjunasagar self-sufficiency because most of the agriculture was mainly Left Canal, Andhra Pradesh by Rao and Rajput (2006) to rain-fed and the rainfall was highly erratic due to vagaries determine weekly canal water supplies and demands and of the monsoon. Many reservoir-based irrigation projects, their possible imbalances. It was concluded that most of therefore, became operational in India in order to overcome the times canal supplies were lesser than the design severe drought conditions. The irrigated agriculture in India capacity and there were wide gaps between weekly canal that accounts for nearly 56% of all food grain production in water demands and supplies. The mismatch between the the country (Planning Commission 2002) consumes around annual supplies and the annual demands were lesser in 87% of the developed water resources of the country magnitude (up to 20%) when compared to the weekly (WWAP 2015). Besides providing water for irrigation, canals mismatches, which went up to 100% in some cases. similar also act as a source of intensive seepage into the study(Bahramloo (2007), Korkmaz et al. (2009), Akkuzu groundwater in highly pervious tracts. Continuous seepage (2012), Sarojini Devi et al. (2012)),have been done from canals and percolation losses from field irrigation performance regarding to canal over all efficiency including inadequate maintenance results in poor performance, seepage analysis and mover about the performance of the canal system, thus for project planning command area development and irrigation water and management, the objectives of water-delivery systems management study. often are viewed in terms of the desire to best meet these Study Area water requirements. The irrigation performance studies have to be carried out with the objective of improving the system The study area is located very near to the Wadhwana operation, to assess the general health of the system, to village, which comes under the periphery of Vadodara assess the impact of intervention, to diagnose the district in Gujarat state covering an area of 7,380 ha. It is o o constraints and to compare the performance of the system situated at 22.17 N latitude and 73.48 E longitude. The with other systems or with same system over time. Water altitude of the study area is about 96 m above mean sea 9022 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Fig.1. Study area map.

Table 1. Properties of Soils in the Study Area

Sr. No. Soil properties Value A Physical Bulk density (gm/cc) 1.3 – 1.5 Maximum water holding capacity (%) 46.5 – 54.7 Soil Type Medium Black B Chemical EC (micromhos/cm) 1100 pH 7.9 – 8.2

Available N2 (kg/ha) 95

Available P2O5 (kg/ha) 55

Available K2O (kg/ha) 545

Table 2. Details of the Main Canals under Wadhwana Tank

Canal No. Canal Name Length (km) CCA (ha)

C1 Bhimpura main canal 3.24 431

C2 Wadhwana Boriad main canal 5.61 824

C3 Dabhoi main canal 7.06 2398

C4 Vasai Dangiwada main canal 8.59 847

C5 Simliya canal 1.21 112

BHIMANI et al., Performance Evaluation of Irrigation Canals in the Middle Gujarat Region 9023 level. The location map of the study area is presented in MATERIALS AND METHODS Fig. 1. The climate of this district is characterized by sub- A current meter is the best instrument for measuring tropical and semi arid. Summer is very hot and winter is too the velocity of flow, and is generally and universally cold. The annual rainfall of the area varies between 800 to adopted for this purpose. the most common and widely 1000 mm. On an average there are only 35 to 40 rainy-day used in India is the Price’s current meter, which is used to per annum, which mostly falls during the period mid – June measure the velocity of flow in the Wadhwan main canal to mid –September. There are frequent dry spells occurring (Fig.2). The formula for calculating the flow velocity by a over years. January is the coldest month of the years with current meter at any depth is given by: mean monthly temperature varying from 7 to 25oC, whereas … (1) may is the hottest month of the year with maximum o temperature varying between 30 to 45 C. Mmajor crop of where, Vd = velocity of flow at any depth (m/s); N = this area are paddy, bajara, juvar, cotton and wheat. The Number of revolutions made by the wheel per second; a & CCA of the command is 4,612 ha. Paddy is the major crop b are constants given by the manufacturer. The values of a cultivated during Kharif season covering around 60 to 65% and b are 0.0397 and 0.2993, respectively, for the current of CCA, whereas wheat is the major crop practiced during meter used in this study. The depth of flow in the channel Rabi season covering about 40 to 45% of CCA. The soil was found to be more than 1.0 m, hence the following was property of the study area is shown in tablel(1) which is used to estimate the flow velocity at any section formula self explinary. The canal irrigation system is mostly in use (Murty and Jha, 2009). for irrigation water is diverted from the Jojva-Wadhwana … (2) reservoir through a main canal for storage in the Wadhwana tank. The storage capacity and the wetted area of the tank where, V0.2 = flow velocity at 20% depth of flow; V0.6 are around 453.6 million cubic feet and 1,430 acres, = flow velocity at 60% depth of flow; and V0.8 = flow velocity respectively. The water from the tank is diverted to five at 80% depth of flow. main canals Table 2, which are mostly unlined, through Canal flow rate was then estimated by using the separate outlets, from where it is conveyed to the agricultural following equation. lands either through direct outlets or through a network of … (3) unlined canals .

Fig.2. Canal Flow Velocity Measurement

Fig.3 Measurement of Flow Cross-sectional Area 9024 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Table 3. Performance Standards for Irrigation Systems

Measure Performance Classes Good Fair Poor

PIA 0.90 - 1.0 0.80 - 0.89 < 0.80

PI EF 0.85 - 1.0 0.70 - 0.84 < 0.70

PIE 0 - 0.10 0.11 - 0.25 > 0.25 PID 0 - 0.10 0.11 - 0.20 > 0.20

where, Q = canal flow rate (m3/s) and A = cross- These state variables are combined in various forms 2 sectional area of flow (m ). to develop indicators of performance viz. PIA, PID, PIE and PI (Molden and Gates, 1990). Computation of Irrigation Water Requirement EF The Point Performance function relative to adequacy The head and middle reach farmers draw more water (PI ) is given by: from the canal system, resulting in tail-reach farmers being A deprived of the minimum quantity of irrigation water. Hence … (6a) it is required to compute net irrigation requirement (NIR) of where , crops for better water management.

……………………….. (4) , if QD d” QR … (6b)

where, ETC = crop evapotranspiration (mm), which is PA = 1, otherwise equal to ( ; ET0 = reference crop … (6c) evapotranspiration (mm); K = crop coefficient; and R = C e where, P = Point performance function relative to effective rainfall (mm). A adequacy Total water requirement at the field level, which is Water-delivery efficiency incorporates the concept termed gross irrigation requirement (GIR) can be estimated of conveyance efficiency, since water requirements at a as (Raul et al., 2008). point of delivery include expected downstream losses are …...... … (5) given by; where, SPR = special purpose water requirement (mm) … (7a) (200 mm for paddy and 70 mm for other crops); E = irrigation a where, , for Q d” Q … (7b) system efficiency (product of conveyance and field R D application efficiencies) (fraction); SMC = soil moisture PEF = 1, otherwise … (7c) contribution (mm); GWC = contribution from groundwater A farmer can plan for a dependable delivery of an (mm). inadequate supply of water by planting less or growing Canal Performance Measures different crops or adjusting other farming inputs. However, The performance measures for analysis of irrigation a farmer cannot easily plan when the supply of water is unpredictable. water delivery systems in terms of adequacy (PIA), efficiency

(PIEF), dependability (PID) and equity (PIE) of water delivery. The performance indicators expressed in terms of … (8) measurable quantities are called state variables. The major state variables that determine water-delivery-system where, = temporal coefficient of performance may be defined in terms of an amount of water Q, which may refer to either rate, volume, frequency, or variation (ratio of standard deviation to mean) of the ratio duration of water delivery. In the present study, we focus on rates and volumes of water delivery. At a point x in the over the time period T. Equity has been defined as system and at time t, spatial uniformity of the ratio of the delivered amount of

QD(x, t): Actual amount of water delivered to the water to the required or scheduled amount. Performance system at a point ‘x’ in time ‘t’. measure relative to equity is given by,

QR (x, t): Actual amount of water required for consumptive and other uses downstream of the delivery …………….. (4.9) point x. where, CVT: Temporal coefficient of variation over the standard time period T. = spatial coefficient of variation (ratio

CVR : Spatial coefficient of variation over the region R. of standard deviation to mean) of the ratio over the region BHIMANI et al., Performance Evaluation of Irrigation Canals in the Middle Gujarat Region 9025

Fig. 4. Gross Irrigation Requirement of Crops during 2014-15

Fig. 5. Gross Irrigation Requirement of Crops during 2015-16.

R. The standards for these indicators are furnished in Table of the canal as well as poor maintenance causing siltation, 3. excessive weed growth and damage by the rodents and RESULT AND DISCUSSION reptiles resulting in huge water loss. The results obtained from the analysis of secondary Computation of Gross Irrigation Requirement data such as canal flow, rainfall and cropping pattern and Total volume of irrigation water required by paddy, estimation of irrigation water requirement for deriving the bajra & jowar, cotton and other crops during the Kharif canal performance measures. The Rainfall data were taking season and wheat and other crops during the Rabi season during the period 2014 and 2016 was collected from the of 2014-15 were 15.1, 0.37, 0.42, 0.71, 12.1 and 5.32 Mm3, Irrigation department, Wadhwana Tank site, Wadhwana, respectively (Fig.4). Total volume of irrigation water required

Vadodara. which was used to estimate effective rainfall (Re) by paddy, bajra & jowar, cotton and other Kharif crops and by the USDA-SCS method. Wetted area of flow was wheat and other Rabi crops during 2015-16 were 11.82, 0.074, calculated by prismoidal method. Flow velocity was 0.27, 0.67, 10.8 and 11.93 Mm3, respectively (Fig.5). measured in the head, middle and tail reach of a 880 m length Performance Measures of Wadhwana canal during canal. Discharge in the three sections was found to be 32, 2015-16 29 and 27 cusec, respectively. Accordingly, the conveyance efficiency of the selected reach of the Wadhwana Boriad The total operation periods during the crop year 2014- main canal was estimated as 84% and due to unlined nature 15 & 2015-16 for the canals C1, C2, C3, C4 and C5 were 9026 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Fig 7. Adequacy Index of Wadhwana canal during 2015-16

Fig. 8. Dependability of Wadhwana Canal during 2015-16

Fig. 9. Equity index of Wadhwana canal during 2015-16 BHIMANI et al., Performance Evaluation of Irrigation Canals in the Middle Gujarat Region 9027

Fig.10. Efficiency Index of Wadhwana canal during 2015-16

Table 4. Performance Measures of Water Delivery in the Wadhwana Canal

Year Adequacy Dependability Equity Efficiency

(PIA) (PID) (PIE) (PIEF) 2014-15 0.69 poor 0.30 poor 0.31 poor 0.95 good 2015-16 0.74 poor 0.49 poor 0.44 poor 0.81 fair

flowing average a 131, 140, 148, 128 and 68 days, Efficiency (PIEF) respectively. This variation was mainly due to supply The average values efficiency in Wadhwana canal position in the Wadhwana tank. for the year 2015-16 was 0.81 that indicates a “fair” Adequacy (PI ) A performance. The lower value of PIEF indicates that the The adequacy during the months December, January system was not efficient to meet the requirements of the

and February for the crop year 2015-16 was greater than 0.9 region. The PIEF value was 1.0 during the month of October whereas other months possessed values between 0.4 and (Fig. 10).

0.8 (Fig.6). The average value of PIA in Wadhwana canal The average values of the performance measures like was 0.74 indicating a ‘poor’ performance as far as the adequacy, dependability, equity and efficiency of the

adequacy is concerned. The low values of PIA were mainly Wadhwana canal during 2014-15 and 2015-16 are due to uneven distribution of rainfall in the season. summarized in Table 4. It can be concluded that the overall Dependability (PI ) performance of the Wadhwana tank irrigation system is D ‘poor’, which needs to be improved by proper maintenance. The average value of PI for the year 2015-16 was D Proper irrigation scheduling also required to be followed 0.49, which fall above the upper limits accounting to ‘poor’ for achieving this goal. performance (Fig.8). This indicates that the water deliveries were not in accordance with the demand over the area. CONCLUSIONS Also, sometimes, closure of irrigation canal in response to The following conclusions have been derived from high rainfall during the months of July, August and the present study are; September might have resulted in high PI values. D 1. The conveyance efficiency in 880 m reach of a main canal is only 84%, indicating very poor level of Equity (PIE) conveyance resulting from unlined nature of the canal The average values PI in Wadhwana canal for the E and poor maintenance. year 2010-11 were 0.44, which fall above the upper limits 2. Uneven spatio-temporal distribution of rainfall results that accounting to “poor” performance. The PIE values were less than 0.25 for the month October which indicate in wide variation in irrigation water requirements over equitable distribution of canal water in the Wadhwana canal, years that needs attention in regard to proper whereas higher values in other months indicate inequitable irrigation scheduling. distribution (Fig. 6). 3. Wide gap in supply and demand has resulted in “poor” performance of the irrigation project. Proper 9028 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

care and maintenance of the canal system is highly Doorenbos, J. and Pruitt, W. O. 1977. Guidelines for predicting crop essential to improve the overall performance of the water requirements. Irrig. Drain. Paper 24, FAO: Rome, Italy. project. Gidoen, C., Saeed, A. B. and Mohamed, H. I. 2007. Evaluation of hydraulic performance of major canals in the Rahad agricultural Future Scope of Study scheme. J. Sci. Tech. Sudan Univ. Sci. Tech. Future investigations may be carried out in GOI 2009. Economic Survey. Govt of India, New Delhi (India). consideration to the following aspects: Rao, B. K. and Rajput, T. B. S. 2006. Mismatch between supplies  Performance of the irrigation project in view of water and demands of canal water in a major distributary command use efficiency. area of the Nagarjunasagar left canal. J. Agr. Eng. (ISAE) 43(3): 47–51.  Loss of water due to either over-irrigation or seepage from canals leading to land degradation. Sarojini devi, B., Ranghaswami, M. V. and Mayilswami, C. 2012. Performance evaluation of water delivery system in canal LITERATURE CITED command area of PAP basin, Tamilnadu. In: India Water Week, Akkuzu, E. 2012. Usefulness of empirical equations in assessing pp: 10–14. canal losses through seepage in concrete-lined canal, J. Irrig. Tyagi, N. K., Singh, O. P. and Narayana, V. V. D. 1979. Evaluation Drain. Eng. (ASCE) 138(5): 455–460. of water management systems in a tubewell irrigated farm. Agr. Alam, M. M and Bhutta, M. N. 2004. Comparative Water Manage 2(1): 67–78. evaluation of canal seepage investigation techniques. Agr. Water WWAP 2012. Facts and figures: Managing water under uncertainty Manage. 66(1): 65–76. and risk. United Nations World Water Development Report 4, UNESCO, Paris/London.

Received on 15-11-2017 Accepted on 20-11-2017 Trends in Biosciences 10(43), Print : ISSN 0974-8431, 9029-9030, 2017

Growth Potentiality of Grass Carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) Seeds in Non Conventional Rearing Approach at Hill Zone of Karnataka A.V. SWAMY, C.RAJANNA, SRINIVAS H HULKOTI AND T H RANJITH Zonal Agricultural and Horticultural Research Station, Mudigere, Chickamagaluru, Karnataka. email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT MATERIALS AND METHODS A study was conducted to comparison of 3 different stocking The present work was conducted at Agricultural and densities used to know the good growth and survival of the Horticultural Research Station, Kademadkal, Mudigere grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella). The 3 stocking which is situated in hill zone of Karnataka. The fry were put densities of 25 m2area of six hapas were taken for this in 25 m2 fine mesh net enclosures (hapas) fixed in nursing 2 2 study treated as T1 ,T2 ,T3 (T1 – 30/m , T2 – 40/m , T3 –50/ pond to evaluate the effect of three stocking densities for m2) Each hapa stocked grass carp advance fry of 2.40 gms grass carp advance fry to reach fingerlings size. and length 5.00 cm totally 6000 No were stocked. The Pond preparation: The perennial pond having an average advance fry were fed @ the rate of 2.5% of their body depth of 12 ft and total water spread area of 800 M2 has weight. The growth attains maximum size of grass carp selected for conducting the study. Agricultural lime was 2 fingerling shows 9.2cm in 30/ m . The present study applied @20g/m2, After three days manure the pond with reveals that growth and survival of the grass carp raw cow dung @ 300 g/M2 as an initial dose, after stocking (Ctenopharyngodon idella). using 3 different stocking the fish seeds liming the pond @1/10th of the initial dose densities out of which 30/m2 shows good growth and and manured the ponds @30 g/M2 once in a month Nylon survival. hapa having a diameter of 6mtsx4mtsx1 mt has tyed to the wire which was hanged both the sides of the pond. Key words Growth Potentiality, Grass Carp, Seed Stocking: The study was carried out with three Ctenopharyngodon idella, Seeds, Non treatments of different stocking densities. The advance fry Conventional, Rearing Approach, Hill Zone, of grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) were stocked in Karnataka 2 2 2 triplicate @ 30/M (T1),40/M (T2) and 50 /M (T3) and each stocking density was served as a different treatment. The Present work reveals on utilisation of deeper ponds average initial length and weight of the advance fry were with hapa method is introducing in hill zone region for fish 5.00cm and 2.40 g. respectively. nursery is mainly depends on availability of quality fish Feeding: Conventional feed (mixture of Rice brane and fingerlings is prerequisite for rapid expansion and growth ground nut oil cake at the ratio of 1;1) was fed @ 2.5 per of aquaculture. However uncertainty in timely supply of cent of their body weight daily in the morning hours. In fish seeds is one of the major constraint. So nonconventional addition to the conventional feed, fresh Halawana leaves method will help in enhance the fish production and were chopped and fed @ 50 per cent of their body weight horizontal spreading of culture practices in the farming every day. The quantity of feed given was adjusted based community make available the fish seeds throughout the on the growth ascertained during sampling. season. Water Sampling: Once in a month water sampling was The hill zone constitutes 13.36 per cent of the total done. The collected samples were analysed the pH, free geographical area of Karnataka. It is characterized by highest carbon dioxide, dissolved oxygen & total alkalinity by rainfall (1886 mm average), undulating topography (up to following standard procedure (APHA–1995). 22%) and situated at an altitude of 1700 meters above Mean Sea Level. Chikkamagalur district has blessed with rich Measurement and analysis: The growth performance of sources of water. The district has 1800 No private owned fish in different treatment was recorded once in a month. ponds and more than 12,000 No of Krishi Hondas. Majority During every sampling day, from each treatment minimum of the water bodies are perennial and deeper in nature. 50 per cent of stocked population was collected and These sources are mainly used for irrigation purpose during individual length and weight of seed was recorded. At the peak summer. Remaining part of the year they are not utilized. end of the experiment, all the fish seeds were collected Since the ponds are deeper and perineal in nature, they from hapa and the individual length and weight of each require advanced fish fingerlings .The fish seed produced fish seed was recorded, based on that, survival percentage in conventional methods is not in a position to fulfil the and net production was calculated. seeds requirements. In addition to that non conventional Data analysis; method of seed rearing will help in increase the seed The study was carried out for a period of 120 days. production and timely available to the farming community. The water quality parameters recorded during the study It will help in enhance the fish production by utilizing period were in an acceptable range. the temperature of the aquatic weed in deeper and perennial water bodies of hill water lies between 22.00 to 26.50 0C, pH range between 6.90 zone region. to 7.30, Sechhi disc reading falls between 22.00 to 23.00 Cm 9030 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Table 1. Water quality parameters recorded during the study period.

Days Initial day 30th day 60 th day 90 th day 120th day Parameters Water Temperature ( 0C) 21.50 22.00 24.00 26.00 26.50 pH 7.30 7.20 7.00 6.90 7.20 Dissolved oxygen(mg/lt) 4.50 4.20 4.00 3.50 3.40 Sechhi disc reading(Cm) 22.00 23.00 22.00 23.00 23.00

Table 2. Growth performance in terms of average length (Cm) & average weight (g) recorded during the study period.

Sl No Stocking density Average Average Final Final Net gain Survival (%) initial initial Average Average interms length Weight Length Weight of Average ( Cm) (g) (Cm) (g) Weight 1 30/M2 5.00 2.40 9.20 14.80 12.40 78 .50 2 40/M2 5.00 2.40 7.50 9.20 6.80 62.00 3 50/M2 5.00 2.40 6.40 7.35 4.95 59.00 and dissolved oxygen was 3.40 to 4.50 mg /lt. average weight of 12.40 g obtained, based on the results of RESULTS AND DISCUSSION the present study farmers could be suggested to rear grass The study was carried out for a period of 120 days. carp fish seeds in nylon hapa at lower stocking of 30 fish After completion of study period the fish seeds were seeds /M2.to get higher growth and survival rate in a short completely harvested to calculate the survival percentage period of 120 days in hill zone. and net gain. the better survival percentage of 78.50 was LITERATURE CITED recorded in T followed by T (62.00%) and T (59%) 1 2 3 Atish Mahendra Mane, 2017. Effect of Stocking Density on the respectively. the overall growth was better in T (30/ 1 Growth, Survival and Yield of Carp Fry Reared in Pens. 2 M )(12.40 g and 9.2cm of weight and length respectively) Int.J.Curr.Microbiol.App.Sci. 6(4): 641-648. this may be due to low stocking density which provides D. N. Chattopadhyay, 2013. Effects of stocking density of Labeo sufficient dissolved oxygen throughout the period and rohita on survival, growth and production in cages. Aquaculture lowest growth performance interms of average weight of international. 21:19-29 2 7.35 g was recorded in T3( Stocking density of 50 /M ) this Md. Istiaque Hossain, 2014. Effects of fry stocking densities on may be due to fluctuation of dissolved oxygen availability growth, survival rate and production of Hypophthalmichthys similar\ findings are also obtained by Atish Mahendra Mane. molitrix, Cyprinus carpio var. specularis and Labeo rohita in Therefore the present study indicated that higher earthen ponds Inter. J. Fish. & Aquatic Studs. 2(1): 106-112. survival (78.50%) and growth performance in term of Received on 16-11-2017 Accepted on 21-11-2017 Trends in Biosciences 10(43), Print : ISSN 0974-8431, 9031-9034, 2017

Structure and Performance of Marine Fish Marketing in Cuddalore District of Tamil Nadu – An Economic Analysis R. THULASIRAM1, A. DANIEL VISWASAM SAMUEL2, M.S. RAMAN3 AND G. PARTHASARATHI4 1 Ph.D Scholar 2Dept. of Agricultural Economics, Agriculture College and Research Institute, Madurai, TNAU. 3Dept. of Agricultural Economics, College of Agriculture, Padannakkad, Kaserkode 4Dept. of Agricultural Economics, S. Thangapazham Agricultural College, Vasudevanallur, Tirunelveli email : [email protected]

ABSTRACT Fish is a perishable commodity and to greater extent the This study has been conducted in eight major coastal price depends on the demand and supply. The shelf life of villages in Cuddalore district to study the structure and fish could be extended by adopting modern technologies, which require greater investment and infrastructure that performance of domestic fish marketing and to estimate are beyond the capabilities of small fishermen. Hence, the seasonal variation of fish price and landings. The Gini marketing of fish is an important aspect which decides the concentration ratio using cumulative frequency distribution reveals that the domestic market structure extent of revenue for the fisherman’s family. An efficient for fish is “slightly concentrated oligopolistic and showed marketing system should be able to reduce the cost of that domestic trade of fish is in the hands of few large marketing and increase the producer’s share in consumer traders. The linear regression analysis on influence of rupee. In this context a study was undertaken to analyze the marketing structure of fish marketing and to know the factors on average price of fish indicated that the costs on ice and wastage, transport, loading & unloading and determinants of average price. marketing margin were the significant operations for MATERIALS AND METHODS deciding the price of fish. The behaviour of retail price Cuddalore district was purposively selected for the and quantity of fish supplied to retail outlet showed that present study since it ranked second largest coast and there is a decline in supply over the period (2012-16) and third in the overall fish productivity in Tamil Nadu. Eight that is being reflected in prices of all categories of fish. fishing villages located in Chidhambaram, Parangipettai and The seasonal variation on quantity and price proves that Cuddalore blocks of Cuddalore district were selected the percentage of deviation is found to be more in quantity randomly to study the structure of marketing. Forty of fish supplied than the price. fishermen were selected randomly from eight randomly selected fishing villages at the rate of five per village. Apart Key words Gini concentration ratio, Cumulative from this, 30 wholesalers and 30 retailers were selected frequency, Concentrated oligopolistic, Fish randomly for the study. Primary data required for the study landings, Seasonal variation were collected from the sample of fishermen, wholesalers and retailers by the personal interview method, using pre- Fish is an important part of staple diet and the major tested structured schedule. Secondary data were collected source of animal protein for a majority of countries. India from Assistant Director’s Office, Cuddalore and The Office accounted for 6.3 per cent of the global fish production. of Joint Director of Fisheries, Chennai. India is one of the major contributors in the global market Market structure analysis: The market structure analysis as far as fish is concerned. Fisheries constitute about 1.1 for the present study was carried out for the selected per cent of the GDP of the country and 5.15 per cent of domestic fish market of the district to define the nature of agricultural GDP (Economic survey, 2015). The total fish market structure of the domestic market of fish. Gini production in India during 2015-16 was 10.07 MT, an increase concentration ratio (Gini et al., 1921) was used to analyse of 5.96 per cent over 2012-13. The per capita consumption the concentration of market functionaries which shows the of fish is 15 kg against the world average of 17 kg (45 kg in market structure. It can also be glimpsed through diagram Japan and 20 kg in Myanmar). The per capita consumption using Lorenze curve (Lorenze, 1905). Larger the is the highest (over 20 kg per annum) in coastal areas of concentration, larger would be the market power. The West Bengal, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, cumulative percentages of quantity transacted by traders Karnataka, Goa, Gujarat and Daman & Diu. Tamil Nadu has were plotted against the cumulative percentage of traders a long coastline of about 1000 kms, accounting for about and the curve was drawn and compared with the line of 17 per cent of the Indian coastline. Tamil Nadu coast has equality. nearly 26 big and small urban centres and 556 marine fishing villages located along the twelve maritime districts. Marine fish landing takes place in 362 centres. Cuddalore is one of the major landing centres in Tamil Nadu. The range of Gini ratio varies from zero to one, zero Fishing forms the major livelihood of the people in indicating perfect equality and one otherwise. coastal areas and the income and employment generated Linear regression Analysis: Determinants of average price have greater implications on the standard of living, food of fish were analysed using the linear function Y = a +bx and nutritional security of the fishermen and their families. 1 +bx2 + bx3 + bx4 +bx5, 9032 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

th Where Where, Si = the seasonal index for i month (i=1to 12) and n = number of months. Y = Unit value realization; a = Intercept; X1= Quantity of fish; X2= Marketing margin X3= Transport cost; X4= cost of RESULTS AND DISCUSSION icing plus wastage; X = Loading & unloading 5 Market structure Seasonal index (SI): Seasonal variations are regularly occurring upswings and downswings in that occur with The selected traders were grouped into three some regularity during the year (Acharya and Agarwal, categories viz. small, medium and large based on the 1994). To estimate this, seasonal indices were constructed quantity of fish handled per day. The market structure for the period from 2009-10 to 2013-14 for the monthly data identified in the study area is presented in Table 1. of quantity and price of domestically traded high, medium It is clear from the table that 55 per cent of the whole and low value fish. The totalities of averages throughout sale traders of fish were under medium category with a five years are taken and standard deviation is worked out transaction of one to two tonnes of fish per day with an with the help of correction factor. average of 1.03 tonnes of fish per day per trader. On the T x C x S x I other hand the small traders contributing 30 per cent of the total number of traders transacted only about eleven per ADJUSTED SPECIFIC = ———————————X 100 cent of quantity and an average; they handled only 0.44 SEASONALINDEX T x C tonne per day. Larger traders who occupied fifteen per cent Where, T = centred moving average; C = cyclical of the total number of whole sale traders transacted almost variation; S = seasonal variation; I = irregular variation. 39 per cent of the quantity and the average deal per day for The average of these adjusted indices was worked out to larger trader was 3.38 tonnes. The Gini Concentration Ratio remove the irregular variation and showed a pattern of thus indicated that the domestic market structure for fish is seasonal variation alone. The resulting average for each “slightly concentrated oligopolistic”. month was corrected to 100. Determinants of Average price Coefficient of variation: The Coefficient of variation is a The estimated linear regression function for finding well-known statistical concept and is calculated as follows the influence of factors on average price of fish in Cuddalore district is furnished in Table 2. It is clear from the table 2

that the variables like quantity of fish, marketing margin, ice cost and wastage, transport cost and loading & Where, CV = coefficient of variation; = standard unloading costs were taken into consideration for running the function to scan the influence of variables over the deviation of seasonal price indices; = arithmetic mean of average price. seasonal price indices. Since the arithmetic mean of It could be seen from the table 2 that the coefficient seasonal price indices is always 100, the standard deviation of multiple determinations (R2) was 0.96 revealing that the itself is the coefficient of variation. The standard deviation price function model was a good fit. The R2 value of 0.96 and arithmetic mean are calculated by the following formula. indicates that about 96 per cent of the variation in fish price is influenced by the explanatory variables included in the and

Table 1. Gini Concentration Ratio (GCR)

Cumulative Percentage of quantity Cumulative percentage of S.No. % of traders GCR percentage of traders transacted quantity transacted 1. 30 30 11.42 11.42 2. 55 85 50.00 61.42 0.34 3. 15 100.00 38.58 100.00 Table 2. Influence of variables over average fish price

Regression Standard S. No. Variables T value Significance coefficient error 1. Fish quantity 0.001 0.001 1.63 NS 2. Marketing margin 2.38 1.27 1.87 * 3. Transport cost 6.5 0.53 12.25 ** 4. Cost on ice and wastage 13.4 3.04 4.41 ** 5. Loading and un loading cost 7.00 1.65 4.22 **

R2 = 0.96** Multiple R2 = 0.96** Standard error = 1.74 Note: ** - Significant at 1 per cent level, * - Significant at 5 per cent level, NS - Non-significant THULASIRAM et al., Structure and Performance of Marine Fish Marketing in Cuddalore District of Tamil Nadu 9033

Table 3. Year to year fluctuations in fish price (Rs/kg)

S. 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 Var No Actual Change % Actual Change % Actual Change % Actual Change % Actual Change % Seer 1. 190 20 11.76 205 15 7.89 225 20 9.75 270 45 20.00 350 80 30 (HV) Sankara 2. 60 10 20.00 72 12 20.00 85 13 18.06 90 5 5.88 100 10 11.11 (MV) Murrel 3. 30 5 20.00 35.00 5 16.67 40 5 14.30 45 5 12.50 55 10 22.22 (LV)

Table 4. Year to year fluctuations in fish quantity (in tonnes)

2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 S.No. Var Actual change % Actual change % Actual change % Actual change % Actual change % 1. HV 413.71 22.51 5.75 403.68 -10.03 -2.42 400.74 -2.94 -0.73 390.64 -10.14 -2.52 395.40 4.76 1.21 2. MV 890 24 2.77 1040 150 16.85 775 -265 -25.4 760 -15 -1.97 885 125 16.44 3. LV 19297 1839 10.53 21670 2373 12.29 18180 -3490 -16.10 18075 -105 -0.57 19244 1169 6.46 model. The coefficients of cost on ice and wastage, transport 12 through 2015-16 were formed and the results obtained and loading & unloading were positive and found to be are shown in Table 5. highly significant at one per cent level with 13.4, 6.5 and 7 A scan over the Table 5 implies the indices ranged respectively. Thus the result indicated, the costs on ice from 53.90 during April to a maximum of 132.94 during and wastage, transport, loading & unloading and marketing November for quantity and the values of price ranged from margin were the significant operations for deciding fish 85.58 during May to 119.39 in April. The results give price. interesting information that the indices for prices are highest Temporal behaviour of retail Price and Quantity during both the lean and peak season of fish. This is mainly due to the reason it is not alone quantity, the size of the fish The behaviour of retail price and quantity of fish also contribute for price realization i.e. to say a unit quantity supplied to retail outlet over period in the study area has of large numbers of particular variety of fish fetches low been analysed through year to year variations and the same price than that of small numbers per unit in the same variety. is furnished in Tables 3 and 4. An insight into the tables During April fishing is banned to allow for replenishment portrays, there is a decline in supply over the period (2011- but however line and hook fishing is allowed since they 12 to 2015-16) and that is being reflected in prices of all catch grown adult fish, usually bigger in size. The month of categories of fish. To get a better understanding the price November is the season for big varieties, fetching higher per unit of Seer fish (chicken of the sea), Sankara and Murrel prices in the market. Since the demand is always uniform has been taken as a proxy to represent high, medium and and on the increasing trend, the arrivals and the pattern of low value fish. Though in percentage terms the increase in arrival of fish to the retail outlet decides the fluctuation in price comes within 20 per cent, there is a sharp increase in prices. This is being further confirmed by percentage of high value fish (Seer fish) from that of 2010-11. deviation which is found to be more in quantity of fish The reason could be, besides shortage of supply, it is supplied than the price (Imran et al., 2014). being demanded by the consumer with higher purchasing power because of its tastes and preferences. The overall CONCLUSION increase in all the categories in general attributed to the The study revealed that the fishermen were in the inflational pressure, costs on production and marketing as clutches of auctioneer and had no say in the price fixation. well and there is rapid expansion of retail outlets of fish Though domestic fish marketing holds a huge potential, it market from the landing centre to around the state due to is still highly unorganized and unregulated in the study the addition of fish consuming population because of area. It has long been neglected for various reasons and increase in the health consciousness, since fish meat is an serious efforts have not been made on marketing of fish as easily digestible protein. Further, it has been observed compared to its production. Less effort has been taken on (Sekar et al, 1998) that increased income is reflected in higher the processing and retailing side of fish. There is a strict consumption of fish in urban areas indicating a positive barrier for entry of any new professional into it. Greater income elasticity of demand for fish. interventions have to be made by the government in fish Seasonal variation: marketing to enable fishermen to have a say in the price of the landing and also provide them with necessary storage, The year to year variation in quantity and price of transport and processing facilities so that they can realize fish gives an annual average picture. In order to know the better price for their landings. Hence efforts should be taken uninterrupted supply and demand of fish, the monthly by fisheries department to reduce the dominance of seasonal indices for price and quantity of fish during 2011- 9034 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Table 5. Seasonal indices of quantity and price ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I wish to thank my guide Dr. A. Daniel Viswasam Month Quantity Price Samuel for granting permission to publish this paper. His JAN 95.29 88.73 advice and co-authors help for this research is grateful to FEB 87.81 92.41 the extent. MAR 89.42 106.10 LITERATURE CITED APR 53.90 119.39 Acharya, S.S and N.L. Agarwal. 1994. “Agricultural price analysis and policy”, Oxford on LBH publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, MAY 84.05 85.58 India. JUN 104.03 97.29 Anonymous. 2015. “Economic Survey of India”, e chapter, (2): 83. JUL 99.60 95.55 Gini, Corrado. 1921. “Measurement of Inequality of Incomes”. The AUG 91.37 96.42 Economic Journal (Blackwell Publishing), 31 (121): 124-126. M.O. Lorenze. 1905. “Methods of Measuring the Concentration of SEP 110.47 100.05 Wealth” Journal of American Statistical Association, 9: 209- OCT 125.56 103.35 219. NOV 132.94 118.37 Sekar ,C., Randhir, O.T., and Meenakshisundaram, V. 1998. “Urban fish marketing – A consumption behaviour analysis”, Agricultural DEC 125.50 97.31 Marketing, 39(2). S.D. 21.84 per cent 10.45 per cent Imran Omar, Md., Syed Ariful Haque, Md.,Ashraful Islam and Mohammad Samsul Hoq, 2014. “Seasonal Price Vraiation and middlemen under fish trade and to increase the income of Market Integration of Tilapia (Oreochromis Niloticus) Fish in small scale fisher folks by way of adopting processing units Some Selected Areas of Bangladesh”. Journal of Biology, for higher unit value realization and employment. Agriculture and Healthcare, 4(3): 89-98.

Received on 16-11-2017 Accepted on 19-11-2017 Trends in Biosciences 10(43), Print : ISSN 0974-8431, 9035-9038, 2017

Utilization of Essential Oil as a Bio-Chemotherapeutant Against Tinea capitis

PIYUSH MISHRA

Department of Botany, D.A.V. College, Civil Lines Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT areas. The tinea captis infection is more likely if minor scalp Tinea capitis is a disease caused by superficial fungal injuries, do not bathe or wash hair and wet skin for a long time such as from sweating. It most often affects children infection commonly involving the scalp, eyebrows and and goes away at puberty. However it can occur at any eyelashes. It is also called ringworm of scalp and usually caused by members of genera Microsporum and age. Ringworm may involve part or the entire scalp. The affected areas are bald with small black dots due to hair Trichophyton. These fungal genera are controlled by that has broken off, round scaly areas of skin that are red or utilizing essential oils as bio-chemotherapeutant. During antifungal screening of the essential oils of some swollen(inflamed), pus-filled scores called kerions and may be very itchy3. Both the skin surface and hairs are involved angiospermic plants, oil of Artemisia maritima exhibited .Infection of hairs may be described as ectothrix (sheath of the strongest activity, completely inhibiting the mycelia arthroconidia formed on the outside of hair shaft) or growth of common scalp infecting fungi (Tinea capitis) endothrix (arthroconidia formed within the hair shaft). viz. Microsporum canis, Trichophyton rubrum and T. Mostly synthetic antifungal are used to treat these mentagrophytes at 0.5µl/ml, 0.3µl/ml and 0.4µl/ml respectively. The essential oil was found to be fungicidal infections. The leading antifungal oral medication for ringworm is griseofulvin and terbinafine hydrochloride. at 0.7µl/ml, 0.4µl/ml and 0.5µl/ml concentrations. The These are largely non-renewable, non-biodegradable and fungicidal activity of the oil was found to be thermo stable residual toxicity. Both have common side effects, including up to 700C, with no decrease in activity up to 24 months of diarrhea, fatigue, headache, itching and upset stomach. The storage. The oil also showed a broad fungi toxic spectrum, medicated shampoo contains the active antifungal inhibiting the mycelia growth of other dermatophytic fungi. viz. Aspergillus flavus, A. fumigataus, A. ustus, Candida ingredient ketoconazole or selenium sulfide. Medicated shampoo helps prevent the fungus from spreading, but it albicans, Epidermatophyton floccosum, Microsporum does not fungus. Thus, in a meaningful search for new gypseum, M. canis, M. nanum, Rhizopus nigricans, Trichophyton tonsurans and T. violaceum. Moreover, it treatments with better and cheaper substitutes, plant resources are the natural choice. Naturally occurring fungi did not exhibit any adverse effect on mammalian skin up to toxicants described to date are mostly biodegradable4and 5% concentration. As such, the oil has a potential use as an effective herbal chemotherapeutic after undergoing are devoid of side effects compared with commercially available antifungal. Recently, essential oils of higher plant successful clinical trials. origin have been shown to be an effective source of chemotherapeutic agents without undesirable side effects Key words Antidermatophytic; Artemisia maritima; and with strong fungicidal activity.5-9 The findings prompted essential oil; Tinea capitis, Microsporum, us to explore other plant products (essential oils), which Trichophyton could be utilize as effective fungi toxicants. We here report on the result of our investigation of the essential oil of Fungal infection of scalp caused by dermatophytes Artemisia maritima L. a member of the family Compositae is known as Tinea capitis. It is also called ringworm of (Asteraceae) as an effective antifungal against the scalp. The disease is considered to be form superficial Microsporum and Trichophyton causing Tinea captis. mycosis or dermatophytosis. Tinea captis is caused by fungi of species of genera Microsporum and MATERIALS AND METHODS 1 Trichophyton.(Rippon 1985) Causative agents of tinea Plant samples were collected during the month of captis include keratinophilic fungi termed dermatophytes. September from the Kullu Valley of Himanchal Pradesh, These molds are usually present in nonliving cornified India. The essential oil was extracted from the aerial parts layers of skin and some times are capable of invading the of Artemisia maritima by hydro distillation using a outermost layer of skin, stratum corneum, or other Clevenger apparatus.10A clear light-yellow-colored oily keratinized skin derived from epidermis, such as hair and layer was obtained on the top of the aqueous distillate, nails. From the site of inoculation, the fungal hyphe grow which was separated from the latter and dried over centrifugally in the stratum corneum. The fungus continues anhydrous sodium sulphate. downward growth in to the hair, invading keratin as it In in vitro studies, the minimum inhibitory formed. It is the most common pediatric dermatophyte concentrations (MICs) of the oil against test pathogens infection worldwide2. The fungi grow well in warm, moist 9036 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Table 1. Physicochemical properties of the oil of on SDA medium. Observations were recorded after 7 days Artemisia maritima of incubation. Fungal growth on the seventh day indicated a fungi static nature, while the absence of fungal growth Properties studied Observations denoted fungicidal action of the oil. The effect of inoculums Plant height (cm) Up to 1.0 m density (increased progressively up to 30 discs in multiples Oil yield (%) 0.60 of five, each of 5 mm diameter) of the test pathogens on Specific gravity at 29.50C 0.8835 – 0.9457 MICs of the oil was determined following the procedure Refractive index at 250C 1.4799 – 1.4925 outlined by Dikshit and Dixit.13 The effect of physical factors Optical rotation +4025’ - 16075’ viz. temperature and expiry of toxicity during storage of the Acid value 7.535 – 27.07 oil, was evaluated according to Shahi et al.8 Five lots of oil Ester value 71.0 – 175.0 were kept in small vials, each containing 5 ml oil; these were Carbonyl value 75.0 exposed to different temperatures (30, 50 and 700C) in an Solubility Acetone incubator for 1 h. Antifungal activity was then tested at Cineole (%) 14.0 – 22.0 MICs by the poisoned food technique.11 Expiry of toxicity of the oil was determined by storing the oil at room 11 were determined following the poisoned food technique temperature and testing antifungal activity at MICs at 8 with slight modification. The requisite quantity of the oil regular intervals of 60 days up to 24 months, following the samples were mixed in acetone (2% of the required quantity poisoned food technique.11 of the medium) and then added in pre-sterilized sabouraud The minimum killing time (MKT) of the oil was dextrose agar (SDA) medium, pH 5.6. In control sets, determined by the mycelial disc killing technique (MDKT) sterilized water (in place of the oil) and acetone were used of Shahi etal.8 Two treatment sets were maintained, one in the medium in appropriate amounts. Mycelial discs of with pure oil (PO) and the other with the minimum fungicidal 5mm diameter, cut out from the periphery of 7 day old concentrations (MCCs) of the oil. The treatment set using cultures, were aseptically inoculated upside-down on the MCCs of the oil was prepared by mixing the required agar surface of the medium. Inoculated Petri plates were quantity of the oil samples in acetone (5% of the total incubated at 27±10C and the observations were recorded quantity of the treatment solution) and then adding this to on the seventh day. Percentage of mycelial growth inhibition the appropriate quantity of distilled water. Simultaneously, (MGI) was calculated according to the formula: controls were maintained using sterilized water (in place of MGI= (dc - dt) ×100/dc the oil) and acetone, adding into the distilled water in Where dc = fungal colony diameter in control sets. dt appropriate quantities. = fungal colony diameter in treatment sets. Mycelial discs of 5 mm diameter, cut out from the The minimum fungi static /fungicidal concentrations periphery of 7 day-old cultures of the test pathogens, were of the oil at minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) were aseptically placed in the culture tubes of different treatment ascertained by the method of Garber and Houston.12 This and control sets. These mycelial discs were taken out of was done by reinoculated the inhibited fungal discs at MICs

Table 2. Mycelial growth inhibition from the oil of against test pathogens.

Concentration Mycelial growth inhibition (MGI) (%) (µl/ml) Microsporum canis Trichophyton Trichophyton mentagrophytes rubrum

1.0 100c 100c 100c 0.9 100c 100c 100c 0.8 100c 100c 100c 0.7 100c 100c 100c 0.6 100s 100c 100c 0.5 80 100c 100c 0.4 55 100c 100s 0.3 28 100s 62.2 0.2 30 87.7 46.6 0.1 - 65.7 16.6 c Fungicidal, s Static. MISHRA, Utilization of Essential Oil as a Bio-Chemotherapeutant Against Tinea capitis 9037

Table 3. Minimum killing time of the oil of Artemisia maritima against test pathogens:

Mycelial growth inhibition (MGI) (%)

Minimum killing Microsporum canis Trichophyton rubrum T. mentagrophytes time(MKT) PO MCCs PO MCCs PO MCCs

120m 100 100 100 100 100 100 80m 100 100 100 100 100 100 70m 100 80 100 100 100 100 60m 100 76 100 100 100 89 50m 100 56 100 97 100 78 40m 100 35 100 88 100 63 30m 100 - 100 78 100 50 60s 100 - 100 — 100 — 30s 100 - 100 — 100 — 20s 100 - 100 — 100 — 10s 100 - 100 — 100 — 5s 95 - 93 — 89 — 1s 87 - 58 — 52 —

PO (pure oil), MCCs (minimum fungicidal concentration) the tubes at different time intervals and washed immediately intervals of 24 h up to 3 weeks. in the washing solution (containing acetone: sterilized RESULTS AND DISCUSSION distilled water, ratio 1:2) to remove the treatment solution. These washed mycelial discs were aseptically transferred The essential oil was extracted from the aerial parts of upside-down to the SAD medium (pH 5.6) in the Petri plates. Artemisia maritima by hydro distillation using Clevenger 10 The same procedure was followed with the control sets. apparatus. A clear light-yellow-colored oil on hydro The inoculated Petri plates were incubated at 27±10C and distillation, yielded 0.6 % essential oil. The physicochemical the observations recorded as an average value of five properties of the oil are shown in Table 1. The MIC of the replicates on the seventh day. The percentage of fungal oil of Artemisia maritima as a fungicide was found to be growth inhibition (FGI) was calculated by the formula of 0.7µl/ml, 0.4µl/ml, 0.5 µl/ml against Microsporum canis, Shahi et al.8All the experiments were repeated twice, each Trichophyton rubrum, Trichophyton mentagrophytes, containing five replicates, and the data presented here are respectively (Table 2). The oil inhibited heavy doses of based on their mean values. inocula which exhibited 100% mycelial growth at their respective fungicidal concentrations. The activity of the To determined the maximum tolerable concentrations oil did not expire even up to 24 months storage and (MTCs) and long-term toxicity for irritant activity, if any, of persisted up to 700C. The pure oil (100%) killed the fungi in the oil by their topical application on human skin and nails, just 10 seconds (s) while at its minimum fungicidal we followed the patch test method as described by Shahi et concentration it required 80, 60, and 70 minutes (m) against al.8 Microsporum canis, Trichophyton rubrum and People of both sexes aged 10-30 years were selected Trichophyton mentagrophytes, respectively (Table 3). The randomly and a group of 30 individuals of each sex was oil also exhibited a broad range of antifungal activity, 2 constituted. Circular areas of 5 cm on upper hairy and lower inhibiting some other fungi, e.g. Aspergillus flavus, A. 2 glabrous surface of the palms, nail and 3 cm of neck region fumigates, A.niger, Candida albicans, Malassezia, of each individual were first washed with distilled water Epidermophyton floccosum, M. gypseum, M. nanum, T. followed by 70% ethyl alcohol and then allowed to dry for violaceum in range of 0.6- 1.2 µl/ml concentration. When 5 min. Five drops of the graded concentrations of testing tested for irritant activity and long-term toxicity on human solution were applied to each individual separately for 3 skin and nails, the oil did not show any irritation or adverse weeks. The volunteers were not allowed to wash the applied effect at 5% concentration up to 3 weeks. area. Qualitative observations were recorded afterwards at 9038 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

The essential oil of Artemisia maritima exhibiting Dikshit A., Srivastava O. P. and Husain A. 1985. J. Antibact. Antifung. strong toxicity against the test fungi causing Tinea capitis, Agent. 13: 57. it is superficial fungal infection commonly involving the Garber R. H. and Houston B. R. 1959. Phytopathology 49: 449-450. scalp, eyebrows and eyelashes. It is also called ringworm Grover R. K. and Moore J. D. 1962. Phytopathology 52: 876-880. of scalp. The oil appears to possess wide range of antifungal Isa-Isa R, Arenas R, Isa M. 2010. Inflammatory tinea captis kerion, activity. The findings suggest that they may be used for dermatophytic granuloma, and mycetoma. Clin Dermatol; 28: the cure of Tinea capitis diseases of animals and human 133. beings after suitable clinical trials. Mapelli ET, Cerri A, Bombonatoc, Mennis. 2013. Tinea captis in ACKNOWLEDGEMENT the paediatric population in Milan, Italy: the emergence of Trichophyton Mycopathologia; 176: 243 Authors are grateful to Prof. Anupam Dixit, Ex. HOD Pandey M. C., Sharma J. R. and Dikshit A. 1996. Flavour Fragr. J. Department of Botany, University of Allahabad for his 11: 257-260. inspiration, valuable suggestions and critical review. We Rippon J. W. 1985. The changing epidemiology and emerging patterns are also thankful to BSI Allahabad for plant identification of dermatophytes species. Curr. Top. Med. Mycol. 1: 209-234. and its related information. Shahi S. K., Shukla A. C. and Bajaj A. K. et al. 2000. Skin Pharm. LITERATURE CITED Appl. Skin Phys. 13: 60-64. Beye F. 1978. Plant Res. Dev. 7: 13-31. Shahi S. K., Shukla A. C. and Pandey M. C. 1996. Proceedings of the 90th All India Botanical Conference, 75: 50. Clevenger J. F. 1928. J. Am. Pharm. Assoc. 17: 346. Shahi S. K., Shukla A. C., Bajaj A. K., Midgely G. and Dikshit A. 1999 Dikshit A. and Dixit S. N. 1982. Indian Perfum. 26: 216-227. Curr. Sci. 74: 836-839.

Received on 17-11-2017 Accepted on 20-11-2017 Trends in Biosciences 10(43), Print : ISSN 0974-8431, 9039-9044, 2017

Impact of KVK Training on Development of the Vegetable Growers

B. MALLICK, A.K. PARIDA, D.K. SWAIN, AND S.PATTANAYAK*

Department of Agril. Statistics, College of Agriculture, OUAT, Bhubaneswar *Department of Agronomy, Ph.D. Scholar email : [email protected]

ABSTRACT undergone training at KVK, Jajpur on vegetable cultivation were randomly selected as the respondents for the study. Jajpur district in Odisha has the potentiality in vegetable Similarly, 40 vegetable growers not undertaking training at cultivation. The farmers had also affinity for vegetable cultivation for better income. Krishi Vigyan Kendra, KVKs were also randomly selected as the respondents for comparison. Jajpur ia also organizing training regularly on vegetable cultivation. A study conducted with 40 trained and 40 The data was collected personally through a semi- untrained vegetable growers revealed that there were structured schedule pre tested earlier. Information collected better developments of both the trained and untrained on scale point of strongly agree, agree and disagree were respondents on economical, social, technological, material analysed with score value of 3, 2, 1 respectively. The possession and farm activities in comparison to statistical tools such as mean score, Z test and multiple infrastructural and input use. However; KVK has to regressions were employed to reveal the results. strengthen its training programmes on processing and RESULTS AND DISCUSSION value addition of vegetables, establishing good marketing The trainees are usually adopting the technologies networks, sensitizing for the use of soil test based at optimum level being equipped with sufficient knowledge fertilizer, competency in producing own seeds, capacity and skills on vegetable cultivation to increase the building on use of proper dose, time and method of production and productivity. It is observed from Table-1, application of fertilizers along with permanently in there were significant differences on technological information flow for the betterment of the vegetable developments among trained and untrained respondents growers. on all aspects of the technological developments covered under study except greater exposure to sources of Key words Impact, KVK Training, Development, information and permanency in information flow which Vegetable Growers indicate the impact of KVK training. However the mean score value revealed that there was better developments Krishi Vigyan Kendra has been designed to impart on increase in production and productivity, occupational need based and skill oriented vocational training to various competency, better use of resources, management of categories of farming communities to increase farm adverse situation, adoption of recommended practices and production as well as to give social justice for the deserving greater exposure to source of information both by trained weaker section of the society. It has been observed that and untrained respondents. It indicates that the farmers there has been a significant change in the context of undertaking training at KVK on vegetable cultivation not technological adoption, income generation and regular only use the knowledge and skills gained but also expertise to the trainees undertaken training at KVKs disseminate the same to other vegetable growers at their (Kanungo and Sangramsingh, 1993, Dimple et al, 1996). locality. However; KVK has to organise training on The training has also enriched skill competency, decision processing and value addition of the produce and suitable making capabilities enabling the trainees to adopt the measures for regular flow of technological information for recommended practices (Shiva, 2001). Since KVKs are the betterment of the vegetable growers. imparting training on the essential needs of the clientele considering the resources, ecosystem and constraints, the Improvement on economic status is one of the farmers could able to use the technologies effectively and important indicators of the developments. As observed from increase productivity, production and income resulting the Table-2, there was significant developments on increase development of the farmers. Attempt was therefore made in family income, generation of employment, access to credit to assess the extent of development made to the farmers and capability for investment, increase in savings as well through vegetable cultivation after taking training at KVKs. as self sustain employment leading to improvement on living condition. Though significant developments of the trained MATERIALS AND METHODS respondents observed on increase in access to credit, self The study was undertaken in Jajpur district of Odisha sustain employment, improvement in living condition and being considered as one of the potential district on increase in savings in comparison to untrained vegetable cultivation. A sample of 40 vegetable growers respondents, but the mean score value indicated for better from four Gram Panchayats of two blocks of the district developments on all economical aspects. 9040 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Table 1. Extent of technological developments

Sl. Development Mean Score Average No. Mean Score Trained Untrained Gap P value Z value (n=80) (n=40) (n=40) (%) 1 Increase in production and 2.80 2.55 2.68 10.67 0.0451 2.0031* productivity 2 Greater expose to source of 2.35 2.08 2.22 26.00 0.0775 1.7649NS information 3 Adoption of recommended 2.60 2.15 2.38 20.67 0.0043 2.8571** practice 4 Increase in occupational 2.65 2.30 2.48 17.33 0.0017 3.1305** competency 5 Better use of resources 2.65 2.18 2.42 19.33 0.00004 4.1062** 6 Permanency in information flow 1.88 1.63 1.76 41.33 0.1265 1.5282NS 7 Management of adverse 2.53 2.25 2.39 20.33 0.0191 2.3438* situation 8 Processing and value addition of 1.90 1.55 1.73 42.33 0.0043 2.8517** produce

(Maximum obtainable score-3) ** Significant at 0.01 level *Significant at 0.05 level NS -Not Significant

The scientists of KVKs are also sensitising people developments particularly through National Horticultural on various social aspects such as community organisation, Mission. Vegetable cultivation usually requires irrigation group approach, team work, conflict resolution etc which and farm mechanisation to maximize production and facilitate cluster approach to minimize the cost and better productivity. No significant differences were observed on return. There was a significant differential development various aspects of infrastructure developments (Table-4) between trained and untrained respondents on all the social among trained and untrained respondents. However; the aspects mentioned in Table-3 except more attention of mean score value indicated that the trained farmers had developmental departments and consciousness in farming. better developments on purchasing implements and The data in the table as a whole revealed that there was a machineries, installing own irrigation facilities and efficient better social development of the trained respondents in use of resources in comparison to untrained farmers. But, comparison to untrained respondents. the untrained farmers had covered more area under The state Agriculture Department has extended vegetable cultivation than trained farmers may be due to subsidy facility and credit availability for infrastructure non-adoption of all the recommended practices. Both the

Table 2. Extent of economic development

Sl. No. Development Mean Score Average Gap P value Z value Mean Score (%) Trained Untrained (n=80) (n=40) (n=40) 1 Employment generated 2.65 2.60 2.63 12.33 0.7374 0.3352 NS 2 Family income 2.90 2.65 2.78 7.33 0.1588 1.4092 NS increased 3 Access to credit 2.90 2.58 2.74 8.67 0.0021 3.0795** increased 4 Increase in capability 2.73 2.55 2.64 12 0.1572 1.4146NS for farm investment 5 Self sustain employment 2.85 2.55 2.70 10 0.0066 2.7184** 6 Savings increased 2.85 2.58 2.72 9.33 0.0124 2.5001* 7 Improvement in living 2.88 2.48 2.68 10.67 0.0002 3.7079** condition

(Maximum obtainable score-3) ** Significant at 0.01 level *Significant at 0.05 level NS -Not Significant MALLICK et al., Impact of KVK Training on Development of the Vegetable Growers 9041

Table 3. Extent of social development

Sl. Development Mean Score Average Mean Gap P value Z value No. Score (n=80) (%) Trained Untrained (n=40) (n=40) 1 Better access to technical 2.45 2.10 2.28 24.00 0.0029 2.9813** personnel 2 Increase in team work and 2.58 2.15 2.37 21.00 0.0004 3.5098** team spirit 3 Cluster approach 2.53 2.13 2.33 22.33 0.0008 3.3418** 4 Optimum use of common 2.48 2.13 2.31 23.00 0.0051 2.8014** resource 5 More attention of the 2.38 2.25 2.32 22.67 0.3743 0.8885 NS developmental departments 6 Increase in decision 2.65 2.35 2.50 16.67 0.0084 2.6364** making capability 7 Develop consciousness in 2.55 2.35 2.45 18.33 0.0699 1.8122 NS farming

(Maximum obtainable score-3) ** Significant at 0.01 level *Significant at 0.05 level NS -Not Significant trained and untrained respondents had not expressed soil test based fertilizer as well as using proper dose of satisfactory developments on marketing network. However; fertilizers and chemicals in time. the mean score value being at lower side, satisfactory The farmers are usually purchased essential developments were not made both by trained and untrained household articles with the additional income generated. respondents in establishing infrastructures on vegetable The data in Table-6 revealed that the trained respondents cultivation. had better developments on all the aspects of material Use of recommended and quality inputs regulates possession although significant differential opinions were production and productivity for which KVK scientists not observed on better housing and fulfilling family always emphasizing for the use of recommended inputs. requirement. Much development not observed on fulfilling There was significant improvement (table-5) on use of good family requirements, better education to children and variety, quality seeds, skill competency in proper use of managing social function properly indicated that insufficient inputs although significant differential opinions observed economic status for which KVK has to further intensify the among trained and untrained respondents on various training programmes enriching knowledge and skill aspects of input use. But the KVK has to organise adequate competency in vegetable cultivation for more income training programmes for producing own seeds, adopting generation.

Table 4. Extent of infrastructure development

Sl. Development Mean Score Average Mean Gap P value Z value No. Score (n=80) (%) Trained Untrained (n=40) (n=40) 1 Develop own irrigation 2.33 2.03 2.18 27.33 0.1677 1.3798 NS facility 2 Purchase implements and 2.38 2.03 2.21 26.33 0.0656 1.8415 NS machineries 3 Purchasing additional 1.98 1.60 1.79 40.33 0.0821 1.7386 NS land 4 Increase area under 2.30 2.40 2.35 21.67 0.6368 -0.4721NS vegetable 5 Efficient use of resources 2.30 2.10 2.20 26.67 0.0773 1.7664 NS 6 Good marketing network 1.50 1.18 1.34 55.33 0.0059 2.7508** established

(Maximum obtainable score-3) ** Significant at 0.01 level *Significant at 0.05 level NS -Not Significant 9042 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Table 5. Extent of development on input use

Sl. No. Development Mean Score Average Mean Gap P value Z value Score (n=80) (%) Trained Untrained (n=40) (n=40) 1 Use of good variety 2.70 2.60 2.65 11.67 0.4201 0.8062 NS 2 Use of quality seeds 2.63 2.43 2.53 15.67 0.1434 1.4631 NS 3 Use of fertilizers and 0.1065 1.6141 NS chemicals at proper 1.98 1.78 1.88 37.33 dose and time 4 Skill competency in use 2.45 2.33 2.39 20.33 0.3727 0.8914 NS of inputs 5 Adopting soil test based 1.20 1.08 1.14 62.00 0.2335 1.1913 NS fertilizer 6 Producing own seeds 1.20 1.13 1.17 61.00 0.4695 0.7233 NS

(Maximum obtainable score-3) ** Significant at 0.01 level *Significant at 0.05 level NS -Not Significant

Table 6. Extent of development on material possession

Sl. Development Mean Score Average Mean Gap P value Z value No. Score (n=80) (%) Trained Untrained (n=40) (n=40) 1 Purchase of household 2.83 2.63 2.73 9.00 0.0424 2.0295* articles 2 Better housing 2.60 2.63 2.62 12.67 0.8434 -0.1976 NS 3 Family requirement 2.03 1.83 1.93 35.67 0.0829 1.7341NS fulfilled 4 Better education to 2.08 1.95 2.02 32.67 0.3203 0.9940 NS children 5 Increase in living 2.70 2.33 2.52 16.00 0.0021 3.0767 ** standard 6 Managing social 2.23 1.95 2.09 30.33 0.0025 3.0271 ** functions properly

(Maximum obtainable score-3) ** Significant at 0.01 level *Significant at 0.05 level NS -Not Significant

Table 7. Extent of development on farm activities

Sl. Development Mean Score Average Mean Gap P value Z value No. Score (n=80) (%) Trained (n=40) Untrained (n=40) 1 Growing remunerative enterprise 2.33 2.00 2.17 27.67 0.0131 2.4807* 2 Cropping pattern and intensive 2.23 2.03 2.13 29.00 0.1752 1.3557 NS increased 3 Growing crops round the year 2.48 2.28 2.38 20.67 0.2731 1.0960 NS 4 Diversification to better enterprise 2.40 2.05 2.23 25.67 0.0240 2.2574* 5 Fully utilization of family labours 2.48 2.55 2.52 16.00 0.6108 -0.5090NS 6 Growing suitable combination of 2.25 1.95 2.10 30 0.0527 1.9375 NS enterprise

(Maximum obtainable score-3) ** Significant at 0.01 level *Significant at 0.05 level NS -Not Significant MALLICK et al., Impact of KVK Training on Development of the Vegetable Growers 9043

Table 8. Comparative analysis of developments

Sl. Development Mean Score Average Mean Gap (%) P value Z value No. Score (n=80) Trained Untrained 1 Technological 2.42 2.09 2.26 24.67 0.0016 3.1544** Development 2 Economical 2.82 2.57 2.70 10.00 0.0100 2.5764** Development 3 Social Development 2.52 2.21 2.37 21.00 0.0011 3.2529** 4 Infrastructural 2.13 1.89 2.01 33.00 0.0665 1.8353 NS Development 5 Input use 2.03 1.89 1.96 34.67 0.1075 1.6095 NS 6 Material Possession 2.41 2.22 2.32 22.67 0.0158 2.4132* 7 Farm activities 2.36 2.14 2.25 25.00 0.0490 1.9687*

(Maximum obtainable score-3) ** Significant at 0.01 level *Significant at 0.05 level NS -Not Significant

Table 9. Multiple regression analysis of socio economic variables on developments (n=80)

Standardized Unstandardized Coefficients Coefficients

Variables B Std. Error Beta t Probability

Age -.317 2.817 -.009 -.113 .911

Caste -.007 2.018 .000 -.003 .997 Education -.926 1.666 -.054 -.556 .580

Type of family 3.214 3.338 .075 .963 .339

Family size -3.747 3.237 -.092 -1.158 .251

Social participation 1.362 .830 .254 1.641 .106 Extension contact .926 .491 .256 1.888 .063

Cosmopolitness .052 1.122 .006 .046 .963

Sources of information .963 .418 .262 2.305** .024 **-Significant at P=0.01 R2= 72.80 Adj. R2= 0.674 S.E= 10.79 House type 2.549 2.254 .090 1.131 .262

Holding size -2.710 2.310 -.118 -1.173 .245 Occupation 2.970 1.900 .107 1.563 .123

Income 4.351 1.988 .257 2.188 .032

Training usually empowered the farmers with Comparison of the various aspects of developments knowledge and skill competency along with consciousness analysed with pooled mean score value (Table-8) indicated development which in turn expands their farm activities. that the trained respondents had better developments on The findings revealed that (Table-7) there was significant all the aspects than the untrained respondents except developments on fully utilisation of family labours, growing developments on infrastructure and input use. Though the crops round the year, diversification to better enterprise, trained respondents had expressed better developments growing remunerative crops, increased in cropping pattern on all aspects, but much development were not on and cropping intensity as well as growing suitable infrastructure and input use as observed with lower mean combination of enterprise both by trained and untrained score value. respondents. However significant differences observed on Multiple regression analysis reveals that (Table-9) growing remunerative enterprise, diversification to better the best fitted regression equation could exhibit 72.80% of enterprise may be considered as the benefit of the KVK the total variance in influencing various aspects of training programmes. 9044 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017 developments. Among the thirteen variables, extension growers. However; KVK has to strengthen further its contact, sources of information and annual income could training programmes on processing and value addition of exhibit significant influence on various aspects of vegetables, establishing good marketing networks, developments. sensitizing for use of soil test based fertilizers, competency SUMMERY AND CONCLUSION development on producing own seeds, capacity building on use of proper dose, time and method of application of The study conducted with 40 respondents each of fertilizers along with permanency in information flow for trained and untrained respondents of KVK on the betterment of the vegetable growers. developments of vegetable growers has arrived at the following results. LITERATURE CITED i. Better developments were observed with trained Dipmle, D., Kumar, B.K. and Pandey, R.K. 1996: Sustainabilityof vegetable growers. Vocational Training for general farmers. Agricultural Extension Reviews, 1(2): 26-29. ii. More developments were on economical, social, Kanungo, A.P. and Sangramsingh, S. 1993: A study on the comparative technological, material possession and farm activities analysis of agricultural development before and after in comparison to infrastructural and input use. implementation of Krishi Vigyan Kendra in Keonjhar district of iii. Extension contact, sources of information and annual Odisha, M.Sc. (Ag.) Thesis, O.U.A.T., Bhubaneswar. income of the both trained and untrained respondents Ramkrishna, C. 1980: Impact of Krishi Vigyan Kendra on trained had exhibited significant influence on various aspects farmers, Unpublished M. Sc. (Ag.). Thesis, T.N.A.U., of developments. Coimbatore. It is therefore concluded that KVK training has Sibha, I. 2001: Women in Agriculture, A case study, Yojana, 45:40- 43 positive impact on the development of the vegetable

Received on 17-11-2017 Accepted on 19-11-2017 Trends in Biosciences 10(43), Print : ISSN 0974-8431, 9045-9049, 2017

The Genus Swertia L. (Gentianaceae): An important Ethnomedicinal Plant of Darjeeling Himalaya of West Bengal, India RAJENDRA YONZONE Taxonomy and Ethnobiology Research Laboratory, Cluny Women’s College, P.O. Kalimpong, District Kalimpong, West Bengal email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT Districts of Darjeeling Himalaya is Darjeeling and The present investigation was carried out in Darjeeling Kalimpong (Fig. 1). This region is blessed with wide Himalaya of West Bengal, India. The present paper variation in climatic condition and topography favouring luxuriant growth of myriad of species adding richness to discusses ethnomedicinal uses of two different species of Swertia L. (Gentianaceae) by the fringe villagers of the vegetation of the region. It harbours a large number of Darjeeling Himalaya. Detailed taxonomic description, plant species with wide range of diversity and distribution phenology, field status, bioactive compounds and exact (Das, 1995). In this region a representation of tropical, sub- existence of taxa are provided. tropical, temperate, sub-temperate and sub-alpine vegetation, with their characteristic species composition. Key words Ethnomedicinal plant, Swertia spp., Field Darjeeling Himalayan region of West Bengal, India status, Exact existence, Darjeeling Himalaya. has multilingual, multicultural and multi ethnic races. The pre inhabited ethnic group live in the villages are Lepcha, Sherpa, Limbu or Subba, Tamang, Yolmo, Khambu Rai, The people living in villages and far-flung areas are Bhujel or Khawas, Manger or Thapa, Gurung and Mukhia. directly related to the forest resources. Traditionally, local Other inhabitants of tea gardens, villages and remote rural communities worldwide are very knowledgeable about the areas are Sharma or Bhahun, Chettri, Newar or Pradhan, local plant species on which they are so intimately Kami, Damai and Sarki. To cure their different diseases, dependant. Such plant species not only supplement the they depend on their traditional knowledge on local food quantity but also providing medicine and about 80% medicinal plants. The medicinal and ethnomedicinal plants of the world population is directly dependent upon of the region and their uses are partially studied by earlier traditional or folk medicines for primary health care. workers like Biswas and Chopra, 1956, Yonzone et al. 1981, In Ayurvedic medicine, Swertia chirayita is used in 1984, 1985, Lama, 1989, Yonzone, 1996, Rai et al. 1998 and asthma and leucorrhoea and used as anthelmintic, Rai et al. 1999. Recently, many ethnomedicinal studies are antiperiodic, antipyretic and laxative and in Yunani system undertaken in the region by different workers like Yonzone of medicine, the species is used as astringent, lessens et al. 2012a, 2012b, 2012c, 2012d, Rai et al. 2013, Yonzone inflammation, stomachic, tonic, sedative to pregnant uterus and Rai, 2016, 2017 and Yonzone, 2016. and chronic fevers (Kirtikar and Basu, 1984). It is also used in British and American pharmacopoeias as infusion and MATERIALS AND METHODS tincture (Joshi and Dhawan, 2005). It was first described by Many field observation trips to the entire study area Roxburgh under the name of Gentian chyrayita in 1814 were carried out since June 2007 to November 2016 in order (Scartezzini and Speroni, 2000). to acquire knowledge of the aromatic, medicinal and Swertia belongs to the family Gentianaceae is annual, ethnomedicinal plants of Darjeeling Himalaya. During biennial or perennial, erect herb representing approximately survey, field data of ethnomedicinal plants were collected 135 species throughout the world and in India, 40 species along with two species of Swertia. The ethnomedicinal are recorded (Kirtikar and Basu, 1984). Swertia is an uses of Swertia species was collected from local inhabitants important ethnomedicinal plant used to treat different and persons with adequate knowledge. As per the disease ailments by local inhabitants of Darjeeling Himalaya. suggestion of interviewed people and the literatures, all It tastes bitter from whole plant. Stem terete, angled or the Swertia species were collected during flowering times winged. Leaves opposite, whorled, sessile or petiolate. without uprooting and disturbing the nature. The collected Flowers pedicellate in leafy panicles of axillary and terminal specimens were worked out in the field and pressed in clusters. Calyx deeply lobed. Corolla rotate, tube very short. blotting paper and pressed. The plants were processed Stamens as many as corolla lobes. Ovary 1-celled. Style into voucher specimen following standard methods of Jain slender or abscent; stigma bilobed. Fruit capsule. and Rao, 1977. Identification and authentication of identified specimens was done in the NBU herbaria, Siliguri, Study Area West Bengal. Voucher specimens were deposited in the Darjeeling Himalaya is the northernmost part of West herbarium of Cluny Women’s College, Kalimpong. Bengal which is a part of the Eastern Himalaya and a part of Necessary photographs were collected. The present paper Himalayan Hotspot and globally known as one of the mega revealed the field status, exact existence within Darjeeling biodiversity hotspot zones and is known to provide shelter Himalaya, phenology, plant parts used, bioactive to a large number of endemic, rare and interesting plant compounds, general distribution and ethnomedicinal uses species and it lies between 27º31’05" and 26º27’10" North of two Swertia species with their taxonomic accounts in latitude and between 88º53’00" and 87º59’30" East details. longitude. The total area of the district is 3254.7 sq. km. The 9046 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Fig. 1. Darjeeling Himalaya (Study regions)

Taxonomic Enumeration corymbose. Flowers many; pedicel 1.5-3.5cm long. Calyx Swertia bimaculata (Sieb. & Zucc.) Hook. f. & tube 1.2-1.6mm; lobes unequal, sepals elliptic. Corolla tube Thoms. ex Clarke, Journ. Linn. Soc. 14:449. 1875; Fl. Brit. 1.2-1.5mm; petals creamy white, broadly elliptic. Stamens inserted at base; anther hastate. Ovary ellipsoid-ovoid. Fruit Ind. 4:123. 1883; Fl. E. Him. 1:256. 1966; En. Fl. Pl. Nep. 3:96. 1982; Trans. Bose Res. Inst. 50(4):128. 1987; Fl. Bhutan ovoid, 0.9-1.2cm. 2(2):624. 1999. Ophelia bimaculata Sieb. & Zucc., Abh. Flowering and Fruiting: July - November. Akad. Wiss. Munchen. 4(3):159. 1846. Exact Existence within Darjeeling Himalaya: Algarah, Silene esquirolii H. Lev., Fl. Kouy-Tcheou 174. 1914. Damsang Gari, Lava forest, Charkhol forest, Gumbadara, Swertia bimaculata var. macrocarpa Nakai, Bot. Mag. Kafer, Neora Valley, Baggonra, Lamahatta, Sonada, Takdah, (Tokyo) 47(556): 262. 1933. Sukiapokhari, Tiger Hill, Senchel, Manaybhanjang, Dhotrey, Ramam, Tonglu, within an altitudinal range 1550-3100m. Swertia platyphylla Merr., Lingnan Sci. J. 15(3): 424- 425, f. 1. 1936. [Plate 1. A & B] Field Status: Sparse in the wild. General Distribution: Himalaya (Nepal-Bhutan), Vernacular Name: Bhale chirowto (Nepali). Meghalaya, Naga Hills, South East Tibet, China, Japan. Plant erect herb, 75-140cm tall, branches 4-angular. Leaves elliptic or ovate, 3-12×2-4.5cm, acuminate, 3-nerved, Plant parts used: Entire plant parts with roots (both fresh glabrous, base narrowed, petiolate 0.5-9cm. Inflorescence and dry). YONZONE, The Genus Swertia L. (Gentianaceae): An important Ethnomedicinal Plant of Darjeeling Himalaya 9047

A B

C D

Plate 1. A. Swertia bimaculata, full blooming stage (Close up view), B. Habitat with vegetative stage of Ageratina adenophora; C. Swertia chirayita, full blooming stage (Close up view), D. Habitat with ferns.

Ethnomedicinal uses: It is a good substitute for Swertia Sub Himalayan regions in case of headache, anorexia, chirayita. Decoction of whole plant is orally administered cough, cold, fever, malaria fever, gastritis, urinary calculi, at bed time by local people of Darjeeling Himalayan and hemorrhoids, asthma and bodyache. 9048 Trends in Biosciences 10 (43), 2017

Swertia chirayita (Roxb. ex Fleming) Karsten, Deuts. Fl. chirayita i.e., amarogentin, gentiopicrin, mangiferin, 1025. 1880-83; Fl. Brit. Ind. 4:124. 1883; Trans. Bose Res. swerchirin, sweroside and swertiamarin are helpful for Inst. 50(4):128. 1987; Fl. Bhutan 2(2):626. 1999. Gentiana human welfare (Joshi and Dhawan, 2005). The most chirayita Roxb. ex Fleming, Asiat. Research. 11. 167. 1812. important bioactives is xanthones and their derivatives like [Plate 1. C & D] alkaloids, flavonoids, lignans, iridoids, secoiridoids, Vernacular Name: Chirowto, Cherowta (Nepali); Chirata, terpenoids and other compounds like chiratin, oleic acid, Chiretta (Hindi); Rungkyong (Lepcha); Tagota (Tibetian); palmitic acid and stearic acid (Pant et al. 2000, Patil et al. Anaryatikta, Bhunimba, Chiratitka, Kairata (Sanskrit); 2013) but other secondary metabolites viz., flavonoids, Chiretta (English). iridoid glycosides and triterpenoides are also found in Swertia. These metabolites played major role in Plant annual erect branched herb, 45-90cm tall. Stem antihepatotoxic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, terete or quadrangular. Leaves sub-sessile, glabrous, ovate anticarcinogenic, antileprosy, hypoglycemic, antimalarial, or elliptic, 4-8×1.5-2.6cm, acute, 5-nerved; lower leaves often antioxidant, anticholinergic, CNS depressant, larger. Inflorescence panicles, many flowered. Flowers hepatoprotective and mutagenicity (Negi et al. 2011). tetramerous; bracts 10-24mm long. Sepals lanceolate, petals lurid, greenish yellow, purple nerved, ovate, acute. Fruit RESULTS AND DISCUSSION capsule ellipsoid. Two species of Swertia i.e., Swertia bimaculata and Flowering and Fruiting: September - November. S. chirayita are economically important since these are used Field Status: Rare in wild (due to indiscriminate collection in medicine by common people of the regions. But natural and habitat destruction). population of these species regularly depleting by means of various reasons like indiscriminate collection for illegal Exact Existence within Darjeeling Himalaya: Throughout Temperate and Sub Temperate zones (Sukiapokhari, trade, immature harvesting during monsoon, deforestation, top layer soil erosion, cattle grazing, harvesting of grasses, Baggonra, Chimney, Takdah, Ghoom, Manaybhanjang, Dhotre, Ramam, Darjeeling, Algarah, Lava forest, Gumba herbicidal effects, plantation of Cinchona and Tea gardens, dara, Neora Valley) of Darjeeling Himalaya within an frequent landslides and several fluctuating environmental factors are responsible for decrease of Swertia species from altitudinal range 1700-3000m. the regions. Habitat conservation is highly emphasized to According to the International Union of Conservation protect the species population throughout the region. of Nature (IUCN) criteria, conservation status of this species has been categorized as “Critically Endangered” LITERATURE CITED (Joshi and Dhawan, 2005). Banerjee, S., Sur, T.P., Das, P.C. and S. Sikdar. 2000. Assessment of General Distribution: Himalaya (Kashmir-Bhutan), the anti-inflammatory effects of Swertia chirita in acute and Meghalaya. chronic experimental models in male albino rats. Ind. Jour. Pharmacol. 32, 21-24. Plant parts used: Whole plant parts with roots (both fresh Biswas, K.P. and R.N. Chopra. 1956. Common medicinal plants of and dry). Darjeeling and Sikkim Himalayas, (Alipur, Calcutta), India. Ethnomedicinal uses: This species is frequently used by Chen, Y., Huang, B., He J., Han, L., Zhan, Y. and Y, Wang. 2011. In the inhabitants of Darjeeling Himalayan and Sub Himalayan vitro and in vivo antioxidant effects of the ethanolic extract of regions. Decoction of whole plant parts about 100-150ml Swertia chirayita. Jour. Ethnopharmacol. 136, 309-315. administered orally twice daily regularly upto 10 days in Dakpa, T. 2007. Tibetan Medicinal Plants. An Illustrated Guide to case of fever, malarial fever, anorexia, bronchial asthma, Identification and Practical Use. Paljor Publications, New Delhi, acidity, liver disorders, bodyache , diabetes, headache and India. as blood purifier. It is a favorite remedy for intermittent Das, A.P. 1995. Diversity of the angiospermic flora of Darjeeling fevers and in bilious dyspepsia accompanied by fever. It is hills. Taxonomy and Biodiversity (ed. A.K. Pandey), 118-127. also effective in skin diseases; the bitter plant extract is CBS. Publishers. New Delhi. orally administered in case of acidity, liver inactivity and as Gurung, B. 2002. The Medicinal Plants of the Sikkim Himalaya. febrifuge, tonic, anthelmintic, antidiaorrhoeal, stomachic, Maples, Chakung, West Sikkim, India. and laxative (Rai and Sharma, 1994, Yonzone et al. 2012b). Jain, S.K. 2015. Dictionary of Indian Folk Medicine and Ethnobotany. It is considered as astringent, stomachic, joints pain, Deep Publications, New Delhi, India. scabies, leucoderma and chronic fever (Gurung, 2002); Joshi, P. and V. Dhawan, 2005. Swertia chirayita – An Overview. asthma, gonorrhea, leprosy, thirst (Jain, 2015). It relieves Current Science. 89: 635-640. nausea and headache associated with pregnancy (Dakpa, Kirtikar, K.R. and B.D. Basu. 1984. Indian Medicinal Plants. Vol. 3, 2007). Decoction of the whole plant is also given to the Latit Mohan Basu, Leader Road, Allahabad, India, pp: 1664- local poultry incase of fever and epidemic. 1665. Whole plant is used for the treatment of anemia, Lama, P.C. 1989. A preliminary report on the ethnobotanical importance of the Sukiapokhari region of Darjeeling Himalayas. bronchial asthma, bile secretion, blood purification, chronic Jour. Beng. Nat. Hist. Soc. NS, 8 Darjeeling, 1. 56-62, India. fever, diabetes, constipation, dyspepsia, epilepsy, liver Negi, J.S., Singh, P. and B. Rawat. 2011. Chemical Constituents and disorders, gastritis, skin diseases, ulcers, hypertension and Biological Importance of Swertia: A Review. Current Research melancholia (Karan et al. 1999, Banerjee et al. 2000, Saha et in Chemistry, 3 (1): 1-15. al. 2004 and Chen et al. 2011). Pant, N., Jain, D.C. and R.S. Bhakuni. 2000. Phytochemicals from Most bitter compound isolated from Swertia genus Swertia and their biological activities. Indian Jour. Chem. YONZONE, The Genus Swertia L. (Gentianaceae): An important Ethnomedicinal Plant of Darjeeling Himalaya 9049

39, 565-586. Proc. Medicinal plants, Herbal drugs and Rural Health. pp. 102- Patil, K., Dhande, S. and V. Kadam. 2013. Therapeutic Swertia 111. Max Muller Bhavan, Calcutta. chirata – An overview. Res. Jour. Pharmacogn. Phytochem. 5, Yonzone, Rajendra., Bhujel, R.B. and S. Rai. 2012a. Genetic resources, 199-207. current ecological status and altitude wise distribution of Rai, L.K. and E. Sharma. 1994. Medicinal Plants of the Sikkim medicinal plants diversity of Darjeeling Himalaya of West Himalaya, Status, Usage and Potential. Bishen Singh Mahendra Bengal, India. Asian Pac. Jour. Trop. Biomed. pp. S439-S445. Pal Singh, Dehradun, India. Yonzone, Rajendra., Bhujel, R.B. and S. Rai. 2012b. Genetic diversity Rai, P.C., Sarkar, A., Bhujel, R. B. and A.P. Das. 1998. Ethnobotanical of Ethnobotanical and Medicinal plants resources of Darjeeling studies in some fringe areas of Sikkim and Darjeeling Himalayas. district, West Bengal, India. Int. Jour. Adv. Phrm. Res. (IJAPR). Jour. Hill Res. 11(1): 12-21. Sikkim. 3(1): 713-729. Rai, S.K. and R.B. Bhujel. 1999. Note on some less known Yonzone, Rajendra., S. Rai. and R.B. Bhujel. 2012c. Ethnomedicinal ethnomedicinal plants from the Darjeeling Himalayas. Jour. and Aromatic Plant Diversity and Resources of Darjeeling district Hill Res. 12(2):160-163. Sikkim. of Eastern Himalaya in India. Int. Jour. Adv. Phrm. Res. (IJAPR). 3(4): 859-871. Rai, Anita., Rai, Samuel, and Rajendra, Yonzone. 2013. Ethno Medicinal Plants used by the People of Darjeeling Hills in the Yonzone, Rajendra., Bhujel, R.B. and S. Rai. 2012d. Medicinal Wealth Eastern Himalaya. Univ. Jour. Pharmacy. 02(01): 122-134. of Darjeeling Hills used Against Various Ailments. Acad. Pl. Sci. 25(2): 603-607. Saha, P., Mandal, S., Das, A., Das, P.C. and S. Das. 2004. Evaluation of the anticarcinogenic activity of Swertia chirata Buch.-Ham., Yonzone, Rajendra. 2016. Present Distributional Record and an Indian Medicinal Plant, on DMBA-induced mouse skin Availability Status of Piper longum L. (Piperaceae) A Useful carcinogenesis model. Phytother. Res. 18, 373-378. Ethnomedicinal Plant of Darjeeling District of West Bengal, India. Life Sci. Bulletin. 13(1): 141-142. Scartezzini, P. and E. Speroni. 2000. Review on some plants of Indian Traditional Medicine with antioxidant activity. Jour. Yonzone, Rajendra. and S. Rai. 2016. Zanthoxylum acanthopodium Ethnopharmacol. 71, 23-42. DC. (Rutaceae) - A Favourable Ethnomedicinal Fruit for the local inhabitants of Darjeeling Himalaya of West Bengal, India. Yonzone, G.S., Yonzone, K.N. and K.K. Tamang. 1984. Medicinal Jour. Complm. Med. Altrrn. Health. 1(1): 001-004. plants of Darjeeling district. Jour. Eco. Tax. Bot. 5(3): 605-616. Jodhpur. Yonzone, Rajendra. and S. Rai. 2017. Medicinal orchid genera Satyrium Sw. and its exact existence in Darjeeling Himalayan Yonzone, G.S., Bharati, P., Yonzone, B., R.B. Bhujel. 1985. regions of Eastern Himalaya. World. Jour. Pharma. Res. 6(2): Ethnomedicinal plants of Darjeeling-Sikkim Himalayas. Proc. 979-985. (spl. issue) Vth ISHS symposium. Jour. Inter. Hort. Sci., Darjeeling, India, 193-202, India. Yonzone, Ranjana, Mondal, S., S. Chanda. 1981. A contribution to the ethnobotany of Darjeeling hills. Trans Bose Res. Inst., 44(3): Yonzone, G.S. 1996. Medicinal Plants in the Darjeeling district. 75-81.

Received on 17-11-2017 Accepted on 20-11-2017 AUTHOR INDEX

Ahir, M. P. 9011 Khare, N. 9018

Bandyopadhyay, Pradip Kumar 8962 Khatri, R.T. 8991

Baria, S.V. 9021 Khunt, M. D. 8997

Bhakare, B.D. 8929 Kotasthane, A.S. 9018

Bhavani, Gottemukkula 9001 Kumar, Dilip 8889

Bhimani, J.B. 9021 Kumar, Hirdesh 8907

Bhople, P.P. 9001 Kumar, Sudhir 8889

Borad, C. K. 8893 Kumara, B Niranjana 8944

Butt, Majid Iqbal 8925 Lakpale, N. 9018

Chand, Suresh 8982 Lunagariya, P. M. 8947

Chauhan, Deepak 8925 Makadia, J.J. 8991

Damor, M.M. 9021 Mallick, B. 9039

Deshmukh, H.S. 8937 Manjunatha, B. 8944

Deshmukh, S.G. 8937 Mankar, D.M. 9001

Dubey, V.K. 8971 Mishra, Piyush 9035

Duraisamy, V.M. 8931 Mistry, H.H. 8991

Ganapathi, D. 8931 Mobin, Sahar 8907

Gawande, S. C. 9004 Mondal, Buddhadev 8962

Gupta, Niranjan 8962 Nandanwar, R.S. 8937

Hulkoti, Srinivas H. 9029 Nighitha, M.T. 8974

Jadhav, A. C. 8919, 8952 Pandya, P. R. 8947

Kapoor, Kamal K. 8901 Parida, A.K. 9039

Karthik, P. 8967 Parthasarathi, G. 9031 Patel, A. C. 8947 Shinde, D.B. 8919, 8952

Patel, J. M. 8913 Shirsole, S. S. 9018

Patel, M. M. 8913 Singh, Alka 9011

Patel, Mukesh J. 8997 Singh, Vikas 8971

Patil, S. A. 8919, 8952 Singhvi, Ritu 9014

Patoliya, A.J. 9021 Sinha, Sudipta 8962 Pattanayak, S. 9039 Sirwal, Mohd. Yaseen 8901 Porwal, Paras 8889 Solanki, V. A. 8997 Potdukhe, N.R. 8937 Srivastava, Swati 9014 Pujari, K.H. 8977 Sudagar, I.P. 8974 Rajanna, C. 9029 Swain, D.K. 9039 Raje, R.S. 8982 Swamy, A.V. 9029 Rakholiya, K. B. 8997 Thiruveni, T. 8967 Raman, M.S. 9031 Thulasiram, R. 9031 Ranjith, T.H. 9029 Trak , Touseef Hussain 8925 Raul, S.K. 9021 Tuwar, S.S. 8929 Relekar, P.P. 8977 Tyagi, Anshika 8982 Sahay, Sanjay 8925 Usmani, Mohd. Kamil 8907 Saini, Lokesh Kumar 8913 Vaidya, A. A. 8977 Samuel, A. Daniel Viswasam 9031

Shah, S. V. 8947 Vakaliya, M.A. 8893

Shahnawaz, Mohd. 8901, 8925 Wable, A. 9004

Shehzad, Fakhar 8925 Wavdhane, V. P. 9004

Shekh, M. A. 8947 Yonzone, Rajendra 9045 Instruction to the Authors www.trendsinbiosciencesjournal.com

The journal of Trends in Biosciences is essentially devoted to the publication of original research papers on all aspects of biosciences. All papers and short communication submitted to Trends in Biosciences must be unpublished original works. The manuscripts in English should be in a finished form and typed on one side of A4 size paper and double spaced throughout with ample margins. Pages should be numbered consecutively beginning from the title page. Text in any format (tables and figure included or separately) on CD in MS word with two hard copies or sent through email to [email protected], [email protected] as attached file (s) is preferred since it saves retyping. Research Papers: Each full length of research papers should be covered within 1500 words including tables and illustrations. Short communication should be within 175 words including tables, figures and references, in case of exceeding the limit, payment has to be made for extra materials by the authors. Correct language is the responsibility of the author. No editing or materials changes at the proof stage will be permitted. While short communication will have only title, authors name, address and e-mail followed by text and references. In case of full length paper authors should have the following headings. Title : The title to be typed in capital and small letters, author names (all capital) and affiliation (capital and small letters with italics fonts). Give e-mail address in italic fonts also. Manuscript must confirm to the journal style (see latest issue) ABSTRACT : The abstract should indicate the main findings of the papers and typed in bold, single space. It should be not more than 150 words. The abstract should be typed before the main text and intended ca. 2cm to the right of it. Key words 5-6 key words in italics should be given. Tables and figures : Table should be descriptive without and references to the text with heading in bold letters. Each table should be typed on a separate sheet. Figures whether line drawing or graph should be of good quality. Legends to figures should be given on a separate sheet. Tables and figures should be numbered consequently in Arabic numerals (Table 1., Table 2., Fig.1., Fig.2.- 3) can be identified on the back by name (s) of the author(s). Introduction : This should be brief and related to aim of the study. The review of the literature should be pertinent to the theme of the paper. Extensive review and unnecessary details of earlier work should be avoided. Heading “introduction” should not be written. MATERIALS AND METHODS : When methods are well known, citation of the standard work is sufficient. All measurement should be in metric units. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION : The result should be supported by brief and adequate tables, graphs and charts, wherever needed. LITERATURE CITED : In the text, references should be cited as follows: two authors (Ali, and Pervez, 2005), three or more authors (Gaugler, et al., 2001). All references made in the text must be listed under LITERATURE CITED at the end of the text. References should be listed alphabetically by the authors, followed by the year of the publication. Journal titles should be cited in full and in italics, while for books the place of the publication should precede the name of the publisher, Example Strong, D.R. 2002. Population of entomopathogenic nematodes in food webs. In: Entomopathogenic Nematology, (ed.Randy Gaugler) CAB International, ix + 387. pp. 225-240. Fox, P.C. and Atkinson, H.J. 1984. Glucose phosphate isomerase polymorphism in field population of the potato cyst nematode, Globedera rostochiensis and G. pallida. Annals of Applied Biology, 104(1):503-506. Submission of manuscript : Duplicate copies of manuscript along with soft copy (CD) should be submitted to the Dr. R. Ahmad, Editor in Chief, Trends in Biosciences, Ivory-6 Apartment, B-1, 2nd Floor, Near Government School , Khoefiza, Bhopal-462001, Madhya Pradesh. The text may sent through e-mail to [email protected] Copyright : copyright © of all papers published in Trends in Biosciences, acceptance of manuscript for Trends in Biosciences, automatically transfers the copyright to Trends in Biosciences The use of trade name or a propriety product does not constitute a guarantee of the product by the author (s) or the society and does not simply its approval to the exclusion of the products that may be suitable. Subscription Order Form

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