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Adulteration of Cannabis with Tobacco, Calamus, and Other Cholinergic Compounds

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Adulteration of Cannabis with Tobacco, Calamus, and Other Cholinergic Compounds Cannabinoids 2008;3(4):16-20 Mini-review Adulteration of cannabis with tobacco, calamus, and other cholinergic compounds John M. McPartland Department of Family Medicine, College of Medicine, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vermont, United States Abstract A shifting demographic of people admix cannabis with cholinergic agents, intent upon enhancing cannabimimetic effects or reducing adverse effects. Augmentation of cannabimimetic effects with tobacco (or nicotine) has been corroborated by in vitro mechanistic studies, animal behaviour stud- ies, anecdotes from patients, and one clinical trial. The mechanism may be pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic. This trend of adultering cannabis with tobacco poses a problem because of the adverse effects of tobacco; solutions are suggested. The grey literature also reports admixtures of cannabis and calamus root, with the intent of reducing adverse effects of cannabis. At least one compound in calamus root (beta-asarone) blocks acetylcholinesterase (AChE). Contrary to expec- tations, AChE blockade diminishes cannabimimetic effects. Obviously more research needs to be done. Key words: Cannabis, endocannabinoid, Nicotiana tabacum, Acorus calamus, nicotinic acetyl- choline receptor, muscarinic ACh receptor, acetylcholinesterase This article can be downloaded, printed and distributed freely for any non-commercial purposes, provided the original work is prop- erly cited (see copyright info below). Available online at www.cannabis-med.org Author's address: John M. McPartland, [email protected] Introduction compounds may substitute for endogenous acetylcho- line (ACh) at nicotinic acetylcholine receptors Black market cannabis (marijuana, hashish) has a che- (nAChRs) or at muscarinic ACh receptors (mAChRs), quered history of contamination and adulteration. Con- or block acetylcholinesterase (AChE), the enzyme that tamination largely consists of fungi, bacteria, and pes- breaks down ACh. This article will focus upon two ticide residues. Contamination and adulteration differ cholinergic compounds: ubiquitous tobacco, and enig- by intent. Adulteration is volitional. Cannabis may be matic calamus (Acorus calamus). adulterated with other psychoactive compounds, for primarily two reasons: the adulterant may enhance Tobacco and nicotine efficacy in low-quality cannabis, or the adulterant may mitigate the side effects of cannabis. The case series by McPartland et al. [1] was not the This article enlarges upon a case series by McPartland first to report that tobacco augments the „cannabimi- et al. [1], who described cannabis adulterated with a metic” effects of cannabis. The English prohibitionist variety of compounds that share a common trait—cho- Whitelaw Ainslie [3] stated tobacco enhanced cannabis linergic modulation. This trend is not new. In India, intoxication. From a different perspective, O'Shaugh- cannabis has long been adulterated with cholinergic nessy [4] noted that dhatura, another cholinergic herb, dhatura (Datura metal), henbane (Hyoscyamus niger), increased the effects of cannabis. Fishbein [5] de- betel nut (Areca catechu), and it was mixed with to- scribed patients who „dipped” tobacco cigarettes in bacco (Nicotiana tabacum) shortly after the Portuguese fluid extracts of pharmaceutical-grade cannabis avail- imported tobacco to India from Brazil [2]. Cholinergic able in the early 1900s. A recent comparison of canna- 16 © International Association for Cannabis as Medicine McPartland bis-using chronic pain patients versus recreational and the inactive THC-COOH metabolite [20]. Nicotine cannabis users revealed a higher rate of admixing can- likely does not alter these enzymes (CYP2B6 is the nabis and tobacco in the chronic pain patients [6]. An main enzyme that metabolizes nicotine), but other independent chi square analysis of that data shows the compounds in tobacco might alter CYP2C9 and higher rate in chronic pain patients approached statisti- CYP3A4. In support of this hypothesis, smoking a joint cal significance (p = 0.14). containing THC 29 mg plus tobacco produced a peak Demographic trends regarding the admixture of canna- THC-COOH / 11-OH-THC ratio of 3.4 (data from bis and tobacco seem to be shifting. Fewer people in [23]), whereas smoking a joint with approximately the some European countries including Germany may add same amount of THC but no tobacco produced a peak tobacco to cannabis, as hashish consumption has been THC-COOH / 11-OH-THC ratio of 6.4 (data from replaced by marijuana consumption (F. Grotenhermen, [25]) — nearly twice the amount of inactive metabo- pers. commun., 2008). Currently, up to 80% of canna- lite. bis is mixed with tobacco in England [7]. Within the 4. Elimination of THC via the faeces and via the urine past 15 years in the US, tobacco has gained a reputa- might be affected by tobacco, by an unknown mecha- tion for enhancing the cannabis „high” amongst urban nism. youth [8]. This belief and the practice of admixing tobacco and cannabis has grown into a cross-cultural phenomenon. In a recent survey of US university stu- Tobacco pharmacodynamics dents, 40.5% of respondents admitted to mixing canna- bis and tobacco, and 18.9% reported that they smoked Instead of pharmacokinetics, McPartland et al. [1] tobacco to prolong and sustain the effects of cannabis proposed that tobacco altered the pharmacodynamics [9]. This phenomenon has been verified in animal stud- of THC (its targets and mechanism of action). Valjent ies that show nicotine enhances tetrahydrocannabinol et al. [12] argued that the effects of nicotine plus THC (THC) discrimination [10], and enhances some of the were not merely additive effects, instead the research- effects of THC or synthetic cannabinoids [11-17]. On ers proposed a synergistic interaction between the en- balance, a few studies report no interactions or negative docannabinoid and nicotinic systems. Synergistic ef- interactions (e.g., [18]). One human clinical trial re- fects are implied in studies where cannabinoids and ported that nicotine enhanced the cannabis „high” in all nicotine are simultaneously administered, whereas subjects, but caused greater stimulation in male sub- sensitising effects are implied in studies where previ- jects and greater sedation in female subjects [19]. ous administration of nicotine alters the effects of can- nabinoids. Sources of synergy between these systems Tobacco pharmacokinetics include the following: • upregulation of receptors and ligands; The mechanisms underlying this phenomenon remain • interplay and dimerisation at the receptor unknown. The literature is full of mechanistic studies level; regarding the effects of cannabis upon tobacco, but • release of third-party neurotransmitters, such rarely the reverse. Several authors have proposed a as nitric oxide; pharmacokinetic mechanism; the four facets of phar- • intertwining downstream signal transduction. macokinetic mechanisms are drug absorption, distribu- Nicotine may upregulate the density of cannabinoid tion, biotransformation, and elimination [20]. receptors in the brain, sensitising individuals to the 1. Absorption of THC may be improved by mixing effects of cannabinoids [26, 27]. Nicotine may augment hashish with tobacco. The tobacco enables hashish to the levels of endocannabinoid ligands (AEA and 2-AG) remain lit, serves as filler, and smoothes the inhalation in some brain regions [28, 29]. Endocannabinoids sub- of poor quality hashish [21]. An improvement in burn- stitute for THC in animal drug- discrimination studies ing efficiency (amount of THC released per gram of [29, 30]. Given the ability of the cannabinoid receptor cannabis in a smoking machine) was documented by (CB1) to cross-talk with other receptors [31, 32], it is van der Kooy et al. [22], who concluded that mixing tempting to speculate that CB1 and nAChR form a cannabis with 50% of tobacco might lead to inhaling a heterodimer. The combination of cannabinoid and similar amount of THC as a 100% cannabis cigarette. nicotinic drugs have been shown to release third-party 2. Distribution of THC in the blood and brain may be neurotransmitters (e.g., nitric oxide), and possibly altered by compounds in tobacco (nicotine and po- involve downstream second-messenger mechanisms lyaromatic hydrocarbons) by competing for available [12, 18]. The interaction of cannabis, endocannabi- lipoproteins and albumin in plasma. Furthermore, to- noids, and nicotine no doubt varies by species, gender, bacco compounds may alter blood-brain barrier perme- age, and brain region. The multifaceted effects of nico- ability [1]. tine may be due to the heterogeneity of nAChR subunit 3. A biotransformation mechanism was proposed by compositions, and single nucleotide polymorphisms Starks [24], who suggested tobacco transformed can- (SNPs) expressed in the population. This heterogeneity nabidiol into THC, which seems unlikely. Two cyto- is ramified by nAChR downregulation, agonist traf- chrome P450 enzymes, CYP2C9 and CYP3A4, bio- ficking, and exogenous cholinergic agents modulating transform THC into the active 11-OH-THC metabolite the synthesis of endogenous ACh [33]. Cannabinoids Vol 3, No 4 December 21, 2008 17 Mini-review Acetylcholinesterase inhibition Conflict of interest statement The author previously served as a consultant for GW Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) is an enzyme that cata- Pharmaceuticals (www.gwpharm.com/). bolises ACh. Compounds that block AChE (anti- AChE) will augment synaptic ACh and therefore en- hance nAChR signalling. AChE blockade also en- References hances signalling
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