ICES CM 2008/E:07

Existing and planned technical installations in the as an emerging pressure on marine environment and the key component for the marine spatial planning

Eugeniusz Andrulewicz * and Zbigniew Otremba **

*Sea Fisheries Institute in Gdynia, Department of Fisheries Oceanography and Marine Ecology, Kollataja 1, 81-332 Gdynia, [email protected] ** Gdynia Maritime University, Department of Physics, Morska 81-87, 81-225 Gdynia, Poland [email protected]

Abstract This paper presents an overview on environmental effects of existing and planned technical installations in the Baltic Sea. Relevant results have been obtained through data mining, screening environmental impact assessments (EIA), compilation of research results and monitoring programs. Information has also been collected through bilateral national contacts and through the international HELCOM BIO project. The authors point out that environmental pressures and effects created by the existing and planned technical installations are not well understood and propose creation of an international information exchange platform and more dedicated research. In some cases (e.g. wind power farms), there should be strategic environmental assessments (SEA) prepared to approach combined and synergic effects of these constructions. Existing and planned technical installations in the Baltic Sea are discussed versus the need for marine spatial planning. For this reason, the Polish EEZ of the Baltic Sea is used to demonstrate potential conflicts of planned constructions with marine protected areas (HELCOM BSPA and NATURA 2000). Keywords : Baltic Sea, marine spatial planning, large-scale technical installations, maritime regulations

1. Introduction Rapid developments of maritime technology has strengthened human expansion to marine areas, resulting in growing competition for sea-space and growing pressure on the Baltic ecosystem. As an effect, marine spatial planning is urgently required. This is particularly important for the Baltic Sea - small and fragile ecosystem, surrounded by nine well developed countries which are realizing intensive economical expansion at sea. Traditional uses of the sea have been limited to the sea trade and fishing in coastal and offshore areas and to construction of harbors, cargo terminals and urban agglomerations in coastal areas. Relatively new uses of the sea include extraction of mineral resources, construction of traffic links (bridges, dams and tunnels), transmission of electricity (HVDC power cables), extraction and transmission of oil and gas (platforms and pipelines), construction of new oil terminals, modernization of port activities and setting wind farms for electricity production. Marine spatial planning in the Baltic Sea is only at the beginning stage. Some useful planning have been done for the Baltic drainage basin by regional organization for spatial planning and development (VASAB 2010). Worth noting is the ongoing EU INTERREG project on marine landscapes in the Baltic Sea (BALANCE 2008). However, the most important for the development of marine spatial planning is the recent HELCOM Baltic Sea Action Plan (BSAP) and its Recommendation on the Development of Broad-Scale Marine Spatial Planning Principles in the Baltic Sea Area (HELCOM 2007) as well as the EU Maritime Directive on Integrated Maritime Policy for the European Union (EU Commission 2007). Marine spatial planning require relevant tools for its development, such as: GIS, modeling, monitoring etc. However, the first and basic step for marine spatial planning is identification of already existing constructions and existing/planned activities.

2. Overview of existing activities and technical installations in the Baltic Sea The following large-scale installations or constructions types are in use in the Baltic Sea: • A number of bridges, usually connecting mainland and . The best known is communication bridge “Öresund Link” – the longest bridge in the Baltic Sea (combined with tunnel). However, there are other impressive bridges like the Öland Bridge and/or the Great Belt Fixed Link, • Seven high voltage power cables (HVPC). Some of them are also connecting different countries. The most recent cable connections “Baltic Cable” and “SwePol Link” belong to the longest cable connections in the world, • Four oil extraction platforms: three Polish and one Russian platform, • Numerous ports, oil terminals and peers, • Many coastal defense barriers (sea walls) and beach nourishment activities, mostly in the southern part of the Baltic Sea.

2.1. Bridges The most significant environmental problems during construction of bridges are related to effects of remobilizing of sediments, sediment plumes and the reduction water exchange. After construction, vertical structures serve as a hard base for development of fouling communities (“reef effect”). Öland Bridge Öland Bridge (inaugurated in 1972) is the road bridge connecting mainland (Kalmar) and of Öland (Farjestaden). It is 6072 m long, supported on 156 pillars, ad has a characteristic hump at it western end-created to provide a vertical clearance of 36 m for shipping. The bridge is one of the longest in Europe. The bridge project received much support in , but there were also protests. The main objection was that the bridge would threaten the environment, possibly causing a huge influx of tourist to Öland and its valuable nature. Öresund Link This impressive traffic link connecting Copenhagen and Malmö (Fig. 1) was opened in 2000. Before construction went through the large number of corrections proposed by experts representing marine and environmental sciences. The original proposal of the bridge crossing the Saltholm Island (bird sanctuary) was criticized and the investors decided to build an artificial island, known as the “Peperholm” (Fig. 1). As proposed by the hydrodynamic experts, the compensate trenches were dug in the seabed to prevent the obstruction of water exchange between the North Sea and the Baltic Sea through the Öresund Straight.

Fig. 1. “Oresund Link” connecting and Sweden (left) and new seascape (right).

Great Belt Fixed Link Great Belt Fixed Link (opened in 1997/98) is the fixed link between Danish islands of Zealand (Korsør) and Funen (Nyborg) across the Great Belt. It consists of a road suspension bridge and railway tunnel between Zeland and and the islet Sprogø. Construction of the Great Belt Fixed Llink across the Great Belt become the biggest building project ever in the history of Denmark. The Great Belt Link complies with so-called “zero solution”, which has been achieved by deepening parts of the Great Belt, so the water flow section has been increased. Environmental considerations were also the reasons to establish an environmental monitoring programme in 1988. Environmental report conclusion’s was that the marine enviromnment around the bridge was at least as good as before the construction work has begun.

2.2. Power cables

The transmission of electrical energy through underwater high voltage direct current lines (HVDC) may cause several ecological effects. These include mechanical damage to bottom (during cable layering), the chemical effects related to the release of electrolysis products (particularly toxic chlorine on anode) and the influence of physical fields (particularly electromagnetic) on macrofauna and migrating fish. The present Baltic Sea cable network consists of seven power transmission lines (Fig. 2, left) One of the first cables in the world was , which connects the Swedish mainland with the Swedish island of Gotland. The Baltic Cable installation, which runs from Herrenwyk (Sweden) and Lübeck (), is the longest power transmission cable in the world (250 km). The older cables, e.g. Gotland and Konti-Scan , are systematically being replaced by new ones laid along the same routes. SwePol Link An underwater cable system (245 km long) for electricity transfer, using direct current (HVDC) of high voltage (600 megawatts), was built between Sweden and Poland in 1999-2000.

Fig. 2. High voltage electric power cables in the Baltic Sea (left), changes of SwePol Link routs due to protests of local communities and nature conservation issues (route No.1- original proposal: one cable and two electrodes, route No. 2 – second proposal: main and return cable replacing electrodes, route No. 3 - adopted solution: cable route avoiding stony reefs of the Slupsk Bank (right).

The studies conducted prior to cable installation (1999) and one year following construction (2000) demonstrated that there had been no visible changes to the surface of the sea bottom. The cable itself was buried in the soft bottom, and only on the hard stony and boulder bottom in the eastern part of the Slupsk Bank did the cable appear in some places on the surface of the bottom. Studies of macrozoobenthos indicated that one year after construction there were no obvious changes in macrozoobenthos species composition, abundance or biomass which could be related to bottom disturbance caused by cable construction. There is a concern that the magnetic field around HVDC cables may affect fish migration because some fish may use the geomagnetic field for orientation; however, some research projects have not produced definitive results. No negative effects on fish stocks or fishing have been reported in connection with the FennoSkan cable between Sweden and (County Fisheries Office, Sweden, pers. com.). The same also applies to the Gotland cable line (B. I. Dybern pers. com.) In case of Swe Pol Link, the modification of the magnetic field within a few meters from the cable line was significant, however, at a distance of more than ten meters changes in the magnetic field did not exceed the value of natural changes in the earth’s magnetic field. At present, the question of whether or not some migrating fish are indifferent to HVDCs was not studied.

2. 3. Oil and gas exploitation rigs Oil and gas in the Baltic Sea are extracted in the Polish exclusive economical zone (EEZ) and most recently in the Russian (Kaliningrad) EEZ (Fig. 3). Polish oil company, which was setup in 1990, produces about 1.9 million bbl/year (in 2006). At present exploration and exploitation of oil and gas deposits are performed with three drilling platforms: Petrobaltic , Baltic Beta and PG-1. In 2006 new platform ( D-6) in Russian sector of Kaliningrad Oblast has started oil extraction .

Fig. 3. Overall views on the Polish oil exploration platform “Petrobaltic” (left) (http://www.petrobaltic.pl ), Russian oil production platform “D-6” in the south-east of the Baltic Sea (right) ( http://www.klaipeda.aps.lt ).

Until now there was no oil pollution reported related to oil extraction. Effects on Baltic biodiversity is most probably negligible, although, there was no relevant environmental studies carried out.

2. 4. Ports, oil terminals and peers Baltic Ports Organization includes more than fifty ports (www.bpoports.com). Throughput of 51 member ports is • 400 million tons of cargo, • 3.3 million containers, • 60 million passengers, • 200 000 port calls. Baltic ports see their perspectives linked to the containers, keeping in mind other frights and cargoes. Baltic ports capacity is constantly increasing and almost all ports have raised new development projects (see section 3.3) By common experience, we know that many ports are just small scale environmental “hot spots” due to oil spills, polluted sediments, poor sanitary conditions, noise and mechanical stress, therefore biodiversity in such places is obviously reduced. Background environmental conditions for most of the ports are unknown, therefore quantification of effects on biodiversity is usually not possible. For economical reasons port activities can not be stopped or substituted by other means. The only solution is to keep port users under tough control by port authorities and to introduce measures to restore and/or improve port environmental conditions.

2.5. Barriers against flood and coastal erosion This kind of constructions usually involves massive dredging (physically affecting benthic organisms) as well as disruption of coastal dynamics. Coastal barriers and beach nourishment usually drastically change coastal landscape and living conditions in the construction area (Fig. 4). Scale of environmental effects of these constructions will depend on hydrological features of the construction area.

Fig. 4. Concrete-stone coastal protection on some parts of the Hel Peninsula in Poland (left) (photo by K. Skóra), satellite image of the St. Petersburg flood barrier (right).

Leningrad/Petersburg Flood Barrier The “Leningrad Dam” (in Russian: “ Leningradskaya Damba ”) – is the name of the dam construction which was in use in the eighties of the last century. The current name is the “ Petersburg flood barrier ” or the “ Flood Prevention Facility Complex ”. Due to degradation of the environment of the and the lack of funds, the construction of flood barrier was stopped in 1988-2003. Currently its development was resumed. The barrier complex measures 25.4 km (22.2 km over the water area and the remaining part is the road through the Kotlin Island (Fig. 4, right).

3. Planned new installations in the Baltic Sea At present we note a number of plans for the development of new installations: • Numerous wind power farms, • Two large gas pipelines, • Large development programs for ports and cargo terminals.

3.1. Wind power farms A few wind power farms already operate along the Danish and German coasts, many are planned (Fig. 5). Despite the fact that wind power farms are not a source of chemical or biological pollution, they remain controversial. They may pose many other environmental effects: the possibility of bird collisions, emission of noise and vibration (both to atmosphere and water), possible disruption of fish migration and fish spawning periods, creation of electromagnetic fields, changing conditions on sea bad, alterations of sea currents. In coastal areas, they will changes of natural landscape to “industrial landscape” and therefore they may be a serious concern for local communities. However, until now these are theoretical considerations. We still do not know how fish and mammals will react on noise, vibrations and electromagnetic fields. For sure, wind power farms will change original landscape/seascape to a new - industrialized landscape type, a landscape which might not be liked. Wind power farms will also add hard substrata to the sea. Development of sessile colonies may create a suitable habitat for some invertebrates and may attract some fish species (“reef effect”). As a result, wind power farms may enhance biodiversity within the given area.

Fig. 5. Planned wind energy farms in the Polish Exclusive Economical Zone (left), example of new seascape (right). Until now, wind power farms have been in use for a relatively short period of time, therefore, there is not sufficient empirical evidence on the impacts of wind energy farms on the marine environment. Hence, present environmental impact assessments (EIA) for the Baltic Sea wind power farms are mostly based on the theoretical considerations.

3.2. Large pipelines The pipeline network on the seabed of the North Sea and the Norwegian Sea is dense and has been operating for several decades. A variety of companies exploit/own them. The technical supervision in these seas is well managed and very advanced, as oppose to the Baltic Sea where there is no experience. As mentioned in the introduction, two large pipelines are planned in the Baltic Sea, namely: The “Baltic Pipe” to connect Polish and Western Europe pipeline network (Fig. 6, left), The “Nord Stream pipeline” to connect Russian gas extraction areas with the German gas system (Fig. 6, right). The “Baltic Pipe”, is scheduled to connect the Polish and Danish shorelines, a distance of ca. 230 km. A steel pipe with external diameter of 672 mm is planned to be the core of the construction. To compensate buoyancy forces, the concrete cover is going to be layered on the pipe, so a real size will be greater. Currently, the construction schedule, as well as detailed route and technical solution is unknown.

Fig. 6. Planned route of the Baltic Pipe (left) and planned route of the Nord Stream pipeline (right).

The best known and most publicized new pipeline project is the controversial Nord Stream gas transmission line (already under construction on land), linking and Germany. In fact, it is going to consist of two large diameter (1220 mm) and extremely long (1200 km) gas pipelines joined together. The Nord Stream pipeline will have a very high (yearly) transmission capacity – up to 55 billion cubic meters (while the Baltic Pipe yearly capacity is estimated only 8 billion cubic meters). The pipeline is designed to enter the sea in the and then to go along the Baltic Sea from Russian EEZ through Finnish, Swedish, Danish to German EEZs (Fig. 6).

3.3. Development programs for ports and cargo terminals New political situation in the Baltic Region has created new demands and opportunities for the Baltic countries. The main kick-off for port developments is building self-sufficiency of the new Baltic countries and a growing trade between Russia and the EU countries. Almost all Baltic Ports are planning modernization and developments, however the largest projects are set-up in the Eastern Baltic countries. These usually are large-scale modernization and developments and construction of new terminals (oil, LNG/LPG, multi-purpose) (Fig. 7). Large development projects are set-up for Primorsk and St Petersburg in Russia, Ventspills, Riga and Liepaja in Latvia, Kleipeda in Lithuania, Tallinn and Sillamae in , Gdansk and Swinoujscie in Poland. All these developments will introduce locally significant disturbances to marine life. Some ports are developed in the vicinity of nature conservation areas and therefore may affect valuable biotopes an/or animal communities. Ports are places of increased risk of accidental pollution, as well as emission of contaminates to atmosphere and to water. Port development programs under present legal system require preparation of EIA as well as to carry relevant monitoring programmes.

Fig. 7. Ventspils Commercial Port - the largest transit port in the Baltic (left) www.randburg.com/lv and new oil terminal in Primorsk, Eastern Gulf of Finland (right) www.unesco.org/csi .

4. Important international agreements related to new installations in the Baltic Sea The Helsinki Convention ( Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area ) is the most important international agreement for the environment protection. The Helsinki Convention is recognizing environmental concerns related to new installations as well. The article No. 7 of the Helsinki Convention requires preparation of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) for setting large-scale and/or transboundary constructions. This includes the requirement to provide full information on environmental effects, notification, international consultation and the need to undertake the joint activities of the Baltic countries. The Helsinki Commission has also developed and adopted a number of recommendations, such as the one related to installations affecting the Baltic Sea (Recommendation No. 17/3: Information and consultation with regard to construction of new installations affecting the Baltic Sea (HELCOM, 1996). HELCOM is also elaborating Guidelines for the preparation of EIA ( HELCOM Guidelines on EIA ). Besides Recommendation 17/3, the following Recommendations should be addressed: Recommendation 15/5 related to establishment of the Baltic Sea Protected Areas (BSPAs), Recommendation 19/1 related to extraction and redistribution of bottom sediments within the Baltic Sea and the Recommendation 21/4 related to the protection of marine endangered biotopes of the Baltic Sea. Other international regulations should also be taken into account: • The Espoo Convention on Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context (ESPOO 1991) has been signed and ratified by all Baltic countries except Russia. It sets out the obligations of the Contracting Parties to assess the environmental impact of certain activities at an early stage of planning. It also lays down the general obligation of the states to notify and consult one another on all major projects under consideration that are likely to have significant adverse environmental impact across borders. This convention requires: information about planned activity which may affect environment in neighboring countries, preparation and distribution of documentation relevant to the affected countries and if requested, preparation of EIA together with the affected countries, • International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1973, as modified by the Protocol of 1978 (MARPOL 73/78 1978) might be applicable in the case of oil extraction and transport, • United Nations Law of the Sea (UNCLOS 1982) which regulates the legal status of marine areas and indicates that national regulations should be respected, • Convention on Access to Information, Public Participation in Decision-Making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters, 1998 which makes obligatory the transparent information by investors to transparent on environmental hazards of the installation and how the environmental problems will be minimized, • The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, 1971 (Ramsar Convention 1971) is applicable in the case of installations in coastal lagoons and wetlands • EU Directives: Habitats Directive 92/43/EEC (EU Habitat Directive 1992); BIRD 79/409/EEC (EU Bird Directive 1979) Directive oblige to non-destructive activities in ecologically valuable areas, • EU EIA Directive 2003/35/EU (EU EIA Directive 2003))requests environmental impact assessment.

5. Pressures from construction works and large-scale installations Environmental effects related to introduction of new installations in the sea can be divided into two , types of impacts, namely: • impacts during the construction phase, • impacts during the operational phase. Introducing of new installations usually involves mechanical stress on the sea bottom, creation of new physical fields, mobilizing of deposited nutrients and chemical contaminants, partitioning of habitats, disruption of coastal dynamics (currents and sediment transport) and others. There are some specific environmental problems related to the Baltic Sea. This is a danger which may appear from dumped chemical munition and a danger of disruption of water exchange between the Baltic and the North Sea (in case of constructions at the Danish Sounds). New constructions may introduce new types of impacts, particularly in case of introducing new physical fields (acoustic, electrical and magnetic ones). Effects of this fields or disruption of existing and natural fields on marine organisms are largely unknown. Unfortunately, the present knowledge about the Baltic ecosystem in relation to the needs of the new technical installations is insufficient. There is not adequate habitat mapping and habitat classification. In many cases, there is lack of relevant knowledge on the effects of the existing and planned installations.

6. Possible conflicts In the Baltic Sea, we already face conflicts between different proposals for large scale constructions and nature conservation plans as well as between large-scale constructions and traditional uses of the sea (transport, fishery, tourism, military). Example of conflicting proposals is given for the Polish Marine Areas of the Southern Baltic Sea (Fig. 8). These conflicting interests particularly appear in coastal areas (already used for fishing and recreation) and shallow banks (already used or proposed for extraction of mineral resources). These areas are also suitable for setting large wind farms. At the some time these areas are recognized as valuable nature conservation sites and proposed as protected areas (Fig. 8). It is not clear how this conflicting proposals will be solved by decision-makers. A very good example of solved conflicts can be HVDC power cable between Poland and Sweden (Fig. 2 and 8). Due to the nature conservation needs, cable line was shifted from stony boulder parts of the Bank (proposed as HELCOM BSPA) to sand and gravel parts of the Bank) (Andrulewicz et al. 2003).

Fig. 8. Existing and/or planned large-scale installations (left) and proposed nature conservation areas (right).

7. Conclusions Density of large technical installations in the Baltic Sea will rapidly grow in the near future. This will rise new environmental concerns, competition for sea-space and new conflicts. Under these circumstances there is raising need for marine spatial planning. Marine spatial planning will require relevant tools for its development, such as: GIS, modeling, monitoring etc. However, the first and basic step for marine spatial planning is identification of already existing constructions and existing/planned activities. Some existing large scale technical installations in the Baltic Sea (e.g. “Öresund Bridge”, “Baltic Cable” and “SwePol Link”) have already been operating for several years, and they have not shown negative environmental effects. This result was achieved thanks to the careful planning, well prepared and transparent process of EIA and readiness of investors for necessary changes prior to original plans. However, the growing number of new installations rise a serious concern about environmental effects. The present knowledge about the Baltic ecosystem in relation to the needs of the new technical installations is not sufficient. There is not sufficient knowledge about the Baltic Sea (particularly in case of habitat mapping, habitat classification, biological biodiversity) and not sufficient knowledge on environmental effects of new large scale installations (such as wind power parks, pipelines or coastal constructions).

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