620 YEARBOOK OF AGRICULTURE 1957 banks of North Carolina at Cape Hat- teras. The average date of the first kill- ing frost is October 20 in parts of New Middle Atlantic Jersey, northern Delaware, and Mary- land, and November 30 along the southeastern coast of North Carolina. Coastal Plain The average dates of the last killing frost in spring are March 5 in North William J. Hanna and S. S. Obenshain Carolina, and April 25 in central New Jersey and on Long Island. The highest annual precipitation in The Middle Atlantic Coastal the region is about 56 inches in the Plain embraces parts of New vicinity of Beaufort, N. C. The lowest is about 36 inches in Calvert and St. York, New Jersey, Delaware, Mary's Counties in southern Maryland. Maryland, Virginia, and North April to September precipitation ranges from 20 inches in southern New Jersey Carolina. It begins as a narrow and southeastern Maryland to 34 inches strip at Long Island and grad- near Beaufort. Much of the summer rain comes in afternoon thunderstorms. ually widens to nearly 200 The region lies in the path of occa- miles in North CaroHna. sional hurricanes, which move up the coast from the Caribbean area in the Some of the land has been farmed for autumn. The hurricanes usually are more than 200 years. Almost all of the accompanied by heavy rain and strong present county boundary lines were winds, w^hich may be destructive. established before 1750. Because of the proximity to the ocean The region has 6 million inhabitants, and numerous bays, the relative humid- and in large cities near it are another ity is high in many coastal sections. 14 million persons. The topography is level to hilly. The Agriculture is secondary to industry hills are mostly in the inner Coastal in the northern part. A more serious Plain near the streams. The elevation reduction in agricultural areas was ranges from sea level along the many made by residential construction than tidal streams and bays to a little more by industry during the early 1950's. than 300 feet in southern Maryland. Because of the high population den- The higher elevations along the in- sity and location along the Atlantic land boundary have well-developed coast, much of the land is utilized as drainageways. North of the James recreational areas, which mostly are River and the mouth of the Chesa- along the sandy coastal beaches and peake Bay, the region is a series of rela- have little agricultural value, although tively narrow peninsulas lying between some farmland is being converted to rather deeply cut stream beds. Drain- parks and golf courses. age has been established to both sides The average January temperature of the peninsulas. varies between 48^ F. in southern North Where the Coastal Plain is wider in Carolina and 30° on Long Island in New Jersey, southern Virginia, and New York. The average July tempera- North Carolina, the seaward portions ture has a somewhat narrower range— on the lower terraces and the upland from 80° in North Carolina to 72° in flats on the intermediate terraces do New York. not have well-defined drainageways The average number of days without and therefore have extensive swampy killing frost is about 180 on Long Is- areas, notably the Dismal Swamp along land and in central New Jersey. There the Virginia-North Carolina border are 290 frost-free days on the outer and the Mattamuskeet area in North P;ilDDLE ATLANTIC COASTAL PLAIN 621 urban and industrial encroachment, especially in Nassau County, N. Y.; Camden County, N. J.; Baltimore County, Md.; and Norfolk County, Va. Production of vegetables for process- ing is an important enterprise in most of the northern part. A large part of the acreage of well-drained soils is de- voted to vegetable production, and somewhat more than half of the prod- uce goes to processing plants. The re- Carolina. Scattered swampy upland mainder is sold on the fresh market. flats, or "pocosins," also exist in Vir- Vegetable crops, including potatoes, ginia, the Carolina Bays in North are given first priority on best soils in Carolina, and swamps in the New Jer- New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, and sey "Pine Barrens." Large areas of tidal parts of Virginia. marsh and coastal beach occur along Poultry is the main farm enterprise the coastline of the bays and the sea, in the area north of Chesapeake Bay. particularly in New Jersey, Virginia, Chickens are grown on almost all and North Carolina. farms of the region, but large-scale Nearness to cities and soil type were production is concentrated in two gen- among the factors that determined eral areas—Monmouth, Ocean, At- farming systems. Modern transporta- lantic, and Cumberland Counties in tion and competition from distant areas New Jersey, and the central part of reduced the importance of nearness to Delaware and the Eastern Shore of large cities, but much of the dairying Maryland and Virginia. Egg produc- and vegetable farming are still located tion is foremost in New Jersey. around them. Poultry farms are mostly on the very Other factors that influence the farm- sandy soils. Only a small fraction of ing systems and crops are labor costs, the feed is produced on the farm. Cul- particularly near the larger cities, and tivated land, if any, is used for poultry Government controls, including price ranges or for vegetable crops. In the supports and acreage control. For ex- Delaware-Maryland-Virginia peninsu- ample, a large acreage formerly used la, where broiler production is the for tobacco, cotton, and peanuts in chief poultry enterprise, a much larger North Carolina and Virginia was shifted proportion of the feed is grown in the in the early 1950's to corn and soybeans. vicinity, but even there more than half The most common crops are corn of the grains fed to poultry come from and small grains, but many vegetables outside those States. and potatoes also are grown in much A smaller area is devoted to the of the region. In the North Carolina duckling industry of Suffolk County, Coastal Plain, cash grain, tobacco, pea- N. Y. Almost all the feed is shipped in. nuts, and cotton are the characteristic Dairying is second only to poultry types of farms. The leading crops in the production as a farm enterprise in the Coastal Plain of Virginia are cash grain, Atlantic Coastal Plain north of Chesa- peanuts, cotton, and vegetables. Poul- peake Bay. Much of the dairying is try, dairy, and vegetable farms are the concentrated on the soils that are less characteristic types in the northern part. well drained. Such areas include Bur- Vegetables to be marketed fresh have lington and Salem Counties in New long been grown on the sandy soils of Jersey, northern Delaware, and the the Coastal Plain near New York, Phil- northern part of the Eastern Shore of adelphia, Wilmington, Baltimore, and Maryland. Washington. Much of the market gar- Two major crops are white potatoes ^ den areas have been lost since 1940 to and sweetpotatoes. The value of both 622 YEARBOOK OF AGRICULTURE 1957

crops in 1949 was about the same as grains are grown in support of live- for ail vegetables. White potatoes are stock. Corn and soybeans grown for grown throughout the region. Sweet- cash sale of grain occupy a large acre- potatoes are grown on the sandier soils age of less well-drained soils in North and in areas that have a growing sea- Carolina and Virginia. In the flat- son of 190 to 200 days. woods area of northeastern North Corn is grown on more acres in the Carolina and southeastern Virginia region than any other crop. In the these are the major crops in value as part north of Virginia, corn and small well as in acreage. Even in the areas MIDDLE ATLANTIC COASTAL PLAIN 623 where cotton, peanuts, and tobacco THE COASTAL PLAIN slopes gently sea- are of greater cash value, corn occu- ward, mostly in a series of more or less pies more acres than any other crops. parallel terraces. The terraces extend In the Vh'ginia Coastal Plain north inland along the bays and streams. At of the peanut area, small grains, mostly least seven terrace levels have been dis- wheat, are grown in rotation with corn tinguished along the Coastal Plain; and soybeans. Hogs, the only livestock they are more easily recognized in the of any importance in the southern part southern part of the region. of the region, are concentrated in the The highly variable material of the peanut belt, where they are used to Coastal Plain was transported from glean the nuts not removed in normal the higher elevation of the Atlantic harvesting operations. slope and deposited in layers or uncon- Tobacco is the principal crop in solidated beds, which vary in texture southern Maryland and the central from fine-grained silts and clays to Coastal Plain of North Carolina. Be- coarse sands and gravel. The deposits cause of its high acre value, tobacco is are thought to be a mixture of marine, given first priority for well-drained alluvial, and glaciofluvial materials. soils best suited for its production. Some disturbance of the surface layers Cotton is grown only in the southern has been caused by local wind action sections and is of major importance in the northern portion. only in North Carolina, where it occu- The zonal soils include Gray-Brown pies about 15 percent of the cropland Podzolic and Red-Yellow Podzolic of the central and upper Coastal Plain. soils. They are well drained and on Peanuts are grown in the southern part the higher elevations, but they occupy of this area. This crop is more limited less than one-fourth of the area. The in distribution than either cotton or Gray-Brown Podzolic soils of the north tobacco and is important only in the and the Red-Yellow Podzolic soils of north-central Coastal Plain of North the south merge in this region with Carolina and the adjoining area in much overlapping. There are limited southern Virginia. areas of Podzols in the northern part Fruit crops of importance are apples, of the region on well-drained sections peaches, and straw^berries. Blueberries of the outer Coastal Plain. flourish in small areas of muck or near- The intrazonal soils are Ground- muck soils in New Jersey and North water Podzols, Humic Gley, and Low Carolina. Cranberries are grown in a Humic Gley soils. The Ground-water small area of soils with a high-water Podzols are in the poorly drained and table in and around Burlington Coun- very poorly drained areas of the outer ty, N. J. Most of the apples and Coastal Plain from New Jersey to peaches are grown north of Chesa- North Carolina. The Gley soils w'ere peake Bay. Strawberries are grown developed under conditions of im- throughout the region, usually on the peded drainage. These two groups of less well-drained soils of vegetable soils cover more than one-third of the farms. Watermelons and cantaloups area of the region and include more are major crops south of the Chesa- than one-half of the farmland. peake and in a small area of southern Sandy soils with little profile de- Delaware and the Eastern Shore. velopment are a characteristic of the Forest products, especially pulp- outer Coastal Plain in the region. wood, should be listed as a crop in the Where surface drainage is good, these southern part of the region, where soils arc droughty because of excessive much of the poorly drained soils are internal drainage. They are almost en- suited to woodland. tirely in forests. Specialty crops include nursery stock, Miscellaneous soils include the muskrats, and wildlife for hunting and swamps, tidal marshes, and coastal fishing. dunes—about one-third of the area. 624 YEARBOOK OF AGRICULTURE 1957 The effect of parent material on vari- predominate in the clay fraction of the ation in soil development in the Coastal soils. Many acres of sandy soils with Plain has been due largely to textural little organic matter have cation-ex- differences. The beds of sands, clays, change capacities of only 2 to 3 milli- and gravels of which the Coastal Plain equivalents per 100 grams. The fact is formed are generally thin along their that 50 percent or more of the low western edge and become deeper to- cation-exchange capacities of these soils ward the coast. resides in the soil organic matter em- The soils of the Coastal Plain-Pied- phasizes the importance of soil-manage- mont Province boundary may have ment problems associated with organic subsoil or substrata of material from matter in many Coastal Plain soils. the province other than the one from which the surface originated. That oc- MANY OF THE SOIL-MANAGEMENT curs where the Coastal Plain surface is problems arise from attempts to grow thin and where fluvial Piedmont mate- crops on soils that are not suitable. rial has been deposited over Coastal The soil property that limits adapta- Plain material on stream terraces. tion of many crops is the lack of ade- More slope to seaward occurs in the quate drainage and aeration, which more elevated western part of the re- also makes it difficult to prepare the gion, where drainageways have been land at the proper time and may pre- established, than in the seaward por- vent adequate cultivation of the crop. tion, which is nearly level. The textural The fact that bright tobacco, which composition of the deposits varies from is one of the highest acre-value crops coarse gravels to fine clays. The surface in the region, is grown in a limited texture varies from sands to silty clay area and only on selected soils, is a loam. The subsoils are sands to plastic, good illustration of soil adaptation. sticky clays. The sands generally are The same is true of alfalfa, which also unsuitable for crops other than those has a high requirement of air and w^a- of very high market value and are ter. Only minor adjustments can be mostly devoted to forests. Soils with made in fitting the soil for a particular fine texture throughout the profile are crop, even by expensive operations, usually wet, but in places where sur- such as artificial drainage. Crops that face drainage is provided they are used are less sensitive to excess water and for corn, soybeans, and other crops that lack of oxygen can be grown on a wdder are tolerant of somewhat reduced soil variety of soils and fewer adjustments aeration. are necessary in adapting unsuitable The soils of intermediate texture, with soils to their use. good surface drainage, have a wide The liming materials are an inex- adaptation but are used generally for pensive source of calcium and magne- crops of highest value. sium. Calcium deficiency by itself is Because of the effects of climate and not a problem in the region, except for parent materials, the soils are all acid peanuts. Calcium has been added to under natural conditions. The pH of the soils in phosphatic fertilizers in con- undisturbed soils ranges from somewhat siderable amounts—probably enough less than 4.0 in some of the swamps and to meet the nutritional requirements of bogs to about 5.0 in the upland sands. most crops. As the use of more concen- The content of organic matter ranges trated phosphatic fertilizers containing from less than i percent in the well- smaller amounts of calcium increases, drained sands to go percent or more in lime will become more important as a the organic soils. The cation-exchange source of calcium. capacity of the soils of this region is low The need of magnesium is widespread compared to soils of most of the other throughout the region, particularly in regions. the sandier areas. The need for mag- Vermiculite, kaolinite, and illite clays nesium in most of these soils is easily MIDDLE ATLANTIC COASTAL PLAIN 625 met by including a source of magne- ganic residues, such as small grain straw sium in the fertilizer to be used or by and stubble. Manures or legumes may the use of dolomitic limestone. If soil serve as the source of nitrogen. A win- tests indicate a need for lime and mag- ter cover crop of crimson clover is nesium, the most economical source of equivalent to 50 pounds or more of magnesium is dolomitic limestone. fertilizer nitrogen. The overuse of lime is to be avoided Continued use of phosphatic ferti- as much as the underuse. Vegetable lizer over the past century has resulted crops on sandy soils are more sensitive in building up a phosphorus supply in in this respect than most other crops the Coastal Plain soils. Surveys of re- and soils. Soils derived from glauconitic sults of soil tests indicate that in some (greensand) material in New Jersey areas more than three-fourths of the have a low content of available man- soils have a relatively high level of ganese. Their optimum pH levels are available phosphorus. They originally only slightly above 6.0 for peaches, were low in available phosphorus. This spinach, and a number of other crops. buildup in phosphorus has resulted Other Coastal Plain soils are inherently from continued use of large amounts of low in manganese, and those with low fertilizers containing phosphorus, the buffer capacity are particularly sus- low phosphorus-fixing capacity of most ceptible to manganese deficiency due Coastal Plain soils, and the low solu- to overliming. bility and leachability of most soil The soils of the region respond to phosphorus compounds. additions of nitrogen, phosphorus, and Soil tests should be used to determine potassium. the phosphorus needs of a soil and Nitrogen is probably the nutrient ele- crop. If phosphorus is badly needed, ment most often in short supply here. not more than 10 to 20 percent of the The climate and the sandy soils mean phosphorus added in fertilizers can be that soils have a low storage capacity expected to be available to the current for nitrogen. Nitrogen added to the crop. soils in organic or inorganic form is Maximum availability of phospho- converted quickly to the soluble nitrate rus occurs at about pH 6.5. In soils of a form, which is not retained by the soil moderate to low phosphorus level, a and thus is fairly rapidly lost in the more efiicient use of applied phospho- percolating rain water. rus is obtained by placing the fertilizer On very sandy soils of good drain- in concentrated bands or zones close to age, frequent small applications of ni- the plants rather than mixing uni- trogen fertilizer should be made for formly with the soil. If the crop re- some crops. The number and frequency quirements for phosphorus are high, of the applications will increase with as for sweet corn and spinach, the the sand content and the nitrogen re- whole soil must be maintained at a quirement of the crop. Control of nitro- high phosphorus level to get the most gen supply can be obtained to some profitable yields. degree by the use of less soluble ferti- Potassium fertilization is necessary lizer materials or by making use of the for almost all soils and crops of the temporary nitrogen storage capacity Middle Atlantic Coast. Despite heavy of residues and green manure crops. applications over many years, there is One must make sure that the carbon- relatively little buildup of potassium nitrogen ratio of the organic material in these soils, as is the case with phos- is low enough so that nitrogen will be phorus. Summaries of soil tests indi- supplied to the crop during decompo- cate only a slight residual effect— sition rather than to micro-organisms and that on soils of loam and finer tex- that compete with the crop for the ture that have relatively high cation- available nitrogen supply. It may be exchange capacities. necessary to add some nitrogen to or- As a general rule, a mixed fertilizer 4000.07**—57- -41 626 YEARBOOK OF AGRICULTURE 1957 containing nitrogen, phosphorus, and from previous fertilization that might potassium should be the basic appli- otherwise be lost by leaching. cation for this region for all crops other Most rotations will include corn. In than legumes. Phosphorus and potas- the northern part, the following rota- sium should be used individually only tions are most satisfactory: Corn, small in special cases, as indicated by soil tests, grain, clover—2 to 4 years; corn, small to correct unbalanced conditions.Nitro- grain, clover, corn, soybeans—5 years; gen should be added as a supplement corn, grass-legume—2 to 4 years. to the mixed fertilizer as required by A 2-year rotation of corn and soy- the crop, soil, and weather conditions. beans for grain probably is as good as The use of trace elements is of sec- any for the less well-drained soils on ondary importance here. Deficiencies level topography. A i-year rotation of of boron, iron, molybdenum, manga- small grain and soybeans is widely used nese, and zinc have been found. We do in Virginia. Rotations that include sod not recommend that they be added to should be extended on soils that are fertilizers unless a need for a. particular susceptible to erosion or if forage and element has been demonstrated for the hay requirements for livestock are high. soil and crop in question. Tomatoes fit very well into a rota- tion of small grain and sod as an alter- THE SELECTION OF ROTATIONS is one nate crop for corn. Other vegetables, of the most discussed and least under- such as sweet corn, can be added to stood of all soil-management practices. such a rotation of 3 to 4 years with i Rotations should be made to fit soil year of sod. conditions and the farming enterprise. Experiments in New Jersey and other The number of satisfactory rotations States have shown that the total yield in this region is quite large because of of crops for 3 years following a year of the wide variety of crops. sod exceeds that for 4 years of continu- One of the objectives of rotations is ous cultivation. to increase soil productivity by reduc- Winter cover crops of crimson clover, ing the incidence of diseases and insect small grain, or ryegrass should follow pests, which often build up in a soil all summer vegetables that are not to under continuous single cropping. The be followed by sod. rotation of tobacco with other crops to Potatoes do not fit into rotations with control soil diseases, particularly black most other crops because soils for pota- shank, is becoming an indispensable toes must be held at approximately pH practice in North Carolina. Serious in- 5.0 to control scab. Potatoes alternated festation of soils by nematodes in non- with soybeans in a 2-year rotation with rotated fields of sweet corn, tomatoes, winter cover crop following the pota- and other crops is forcing rotation and toes or a rotation of potatoes and small often expensive soil treatment for efíec- grain over 2 or 3 years are probably tive control. the best rotations for potatoes. An equally important objective of ro- In some vegetable soils, the main ob- tation is to maintain a supply of decom- jective of certain rotations is to reduce posing organic material in the soil. This the amount of tillage. Soil compaction is a source of plant nutrients and of from traffic is a major problem in some various organic compounds which aid areas of extensive vegetable farming. in the stabilization of soil aggregates. The best way to overcome it is to rest The importance and economic value the land with sod and reduce the cul- of the use of winter green manure crops tivation by using chemical weedkillers. in this region has been demonstrated The number of cultivations might be many times for a number of vegetable cut from four or five to two. One or crops. Winter cover crops protect the two cultivations seem to be essential soil against erosion, discourage growth to achieve adequate infiltration of water of weeds, and absorb excess nutrients and aeration of the soil. MIDDLE ATLANTIC COASTAL PLAIN 627 We have little evidence to indicate Yields of vegetables and potatoes that the moldboard plow should be re- grown in a 3-year rotation with i year placed as the basic tillage instrument of sod without irrigation equaled the here. The plow gives the only satisfac- yields from continuous cultivation of tory seedbed preparation for most crops these crops with irrigation in dry of the region. For certain vegetable years. Irrigation increased the yield of crops, where the crop residue is small, the continuously cultivated crops by however, disk harrowing gives sufficient nearly 100 percent. Any practice that land preparation. will reduce runoff and erosion and in- A different type of seedbed prepara- crease the rate of water infiltration into tion is sometimes used for corn and the soil will increase the supply of soybeans in the wet soils of North Caro- available water for the crop. It ap- lina and southern Virginia. Instead of pears, then, that only the crops of flat plowing with a moldboard plow, higher value can be profitably irri- the land is broken with listers ("middle gated. These include vegetables, po- busters") so that the rows are planted tatoes, and tobacco. on top of ridges. That does not improve The agricultural potential of the the overall drainage, but it does en- region is at least three times the 1950 able one to work the soil earlier in the production. The total area of the spring. Many farmers on these wet region is approximately 26 million soils plow and cultivate in narrow strips acres. Of this, 55 percent was in farms (150 to 200 feet wide) between lateral and only about 50 percent of the farm- drains in such a way as to make the land was in cropland and pasture in high point of the land midway between 1954. Thus, only 27 percent—7,150,- the laterals. The land slopes gently to- 000 acres—was used for crops and ward each lateral. Cross furrows made pasture. diagonally across rows after planting Another 25 percent of the acreage and each cultivation aid in removing of the region could be cleared and surface water. drained for agricultural purposes. The Deep tillage, with or without deep expense of bringing those acres into placement of lime and fertilizer, is but production was not economically justi- little used and is of doubtful value in fied in 1957 at a time of agricultural this region. surpluses of many crops in this country. Erosion from water and wind is Agriculture will meet serious com- slight to moderate here. Wind erosion petition for irrigation water in this is more prevalent on the cultivated region from industrial and urban in- very sandy soils and coastal beaches. terests before the end of this century. Very steep land near streams in the Efficient soil management, including inner Coastal Plain is almost all under rotations with sod and cover crops, permanent tree cover. Sloping land can reduce the drought damage to used for cultivation can usually be pro- crops by improving the permeability tected by contour planting with strip- and the available moisture-holding cropping to break the very long slopes. capacity of soils and increasing the Although the Middle Atlantic Coast- rooting depth of crops. al Plain has an average of about 40 One of the more urgent needs is inches of rain a year, supplemental zoning to preserve the agricultural irrigation is proving to be a profitable potential of the region. We think rural practice on many farms. Periods of 2 zoning control should be extended. weeks with less tlian 0.2 inch of rain Many thousands of acres of productive occur about once a year. Periods of 2 farmlands have been lost to highways, to 3 weeks with that amount of rain airports, industrial sites, and residen- occur about once every 2 years. Such tial areas because people have not con- dry spells during a critical growth sidered the future of soil, farming, and period may severely reduce yields. living.