The Modernization of Policy-Making Processes in National Sport Organizations: A Case Study of Athletics

Mathew Dowling1 Jim Denison2 Marvin Washington2 1University of St. Mark and St. John 2University of

This article explores the consequences of modernization on the policy-making processes of a singular National Sport Organization: . In drawing upon the works of Green and Houlihan (2005) as a baseline comparison, we examine how the organizations’ policy-making processes have changed over a 10-year period (2002-2012). Specifically, our analysis focuses on the nature and extent of these intra- organizational policy-related changes and how they have influenced the organization’s decision-making capabilities. The descriptive analysis is informed by empirical data collected from eight in-depth semi-structured interviews with senior Athletics Canada personnel and concentrates on three inter-related themes (i) the development and prioritization of Own the Podium funded policies and programs; and (ii) the development and prioritization of evidence-based policies and programs, which, in turn, has resulted in (iii) increased inter-organizational relationship strain between Athletics Canada and its key delivery partners. More broadly, our investigation contributes to recent amateur sport scholarship that has sought to better understand how these broader socio-political shifts have influenced the specific decision-making processes of sport organizations.

he examination of organizational perspectives and concepts in order to change and reform has been a understand and explain the nature and T central thread to discussions extent of change evident within amateur surrounding amateur sport. Scholars have sport organizations. These include, but are drawn upon a raft of theoretical not limited to, commercialization (e.g.,

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume One, Issue One Dowling et al., 2015 78 Slack, 2004), professionalization (e.g., related developments. The first of which Thibault, Slack, & Hinings, 1991; has been Canada’s successful bid to host the Macintosh, Bedecki, & Franks, 1987; 2010 Olympic Winter Games in . Macintosh & Whitson, 1990), and The Vancouver Winter organizational and institutional theory (e.g., were the third Olympic Games to be hosted O’Brien & Slack, 2003, 2004; Kikulis, Slack, in Canada (previously Canada hosted the & Hinings, 1992; Washington & Patterson, 1976 Summer Olympic Games 2011). Sport policy scholars have also drawn and the 1988 Winter Olympic upon a number of meso-level theoretical Games) with Canada having failed twice to concepts to explain organizational and win a single gold medal on home soil – the systemic change. These include policy only host country in Olympic history to do communities and advocacy coalitions so. In response to Canada’s successful bid (Green, 2004; Green & Houlihan, 2005), and to ensure that Canada would achieve its lesson drawing and policy transfer (Green, target of first place on the podium at the 2007), and path-dependency (Green & 2010 Olympic Winter Games and place top Collins, 2008). More recent discussions three at the 2010 Paralympic Winter Games surrounding organization and systemic (Priestner Allinger & Allinger, 2004), high change have centred on more specific issues performance stakeholders established a of corporate or organizational governance C$117 million technical program initiative (e.g., Hoye & Cuskelly, 2007; Shilbury & entitled ‘Own the Podium 2010’ (OTP) Ferkins, 2011) and much broader concerns (Priestner Allinger & Allinger, 2004). The surrounding the modernization and the following high performance stakeholders introduction of New Managerialism (NM) met in Calgary: , and New Public Management (NPM) into National/Multi-Sport Organisations, the sport which are closely linked to what has Canadian Olympic Committee (COC), the collectively become known as the Canadian Paralympic Committee (CPC), the ‘governance debate’ (Rhodes, 1996; for its Canadian Sport Centres/Institute Network, application to sport see Goodwin & Grix, and WinSport Canada (previously the 2011; Grix, 2010; Grix & Phillpots, 2011; Canadian Olympic Delivery Authority) Phillpots, Grix, & Quarmby, 2011). The initiative began in 2004, and was Within the Canadian sport context, specifically designed to ensure that Canada recent reform of the amateur sport had its most successful Olympic Games landscape in general and National Sport ever by “provid[ing] expertise and Organizations (NSOs), the national level leadership to NSOs whose athletes are sport organizations responsible for capable of winning medals at the 2010 governing over specific sports, in particular Winter Games” (OTP, n.d.b., p. 1). This has been underpinned by two major, inter- unprecedented collaborative venture

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume One, Issue One Dowling et al., 2015 79 resulted in the creation of Canada’s first required to understand how these recent ever agency for high performance sport. developments – particularly federal These developments (i.e. Vancouver government-related developments – have 2010 Winter Olympic and Paralympic influenced amateur sport organizations in Games and the creation of OTP) have also Canada. As Thibault and Harvey (2013) been paralleled, and largely supported by, a note, “contemporary analysis of substantial increase in federal government government involvement in ‘amateur’ sport investment in high performance sport in is not only warranted, it is essential given recent years (De Bosscher, Bingham, Shibli, the significant changes that have occurred in Van Bottenburg, & De Knop, 2006; Green Canadian sport” (Thibault & Harvey, 2013, & Houlihan, 2005; Grix & Carmichael, p. 11). Hence, although previous 2012; Thibault & Harvey, 2013). Over the scholarship has provided valuable previous two summer Olympic contributions to our understanding of the quadrennials, for example, Canada has nature and extent of these broader socio- witnessed a doubling of federal government political shifts (e.g., modernization and investment into Olympic summer sports governance), little is still known about the programs from C$52,297,871 during the specific consequences of these broader Beijing quadrennial to C$117,512,216 in the shifts for sport organizations further down lead up to the London 2012 Games (OTP, the delivery system (for exceptions within n.d.a). This increased levels of investment the UK context see Adams, 2011; Grix, have, however, resulted in increasing 2009). Questions that still remain involvement of federal government in sport unanswered within the Canadian sport to ensure that taxpayer funding is well spent context include, for example, how has (Green & Houlihan, 2005; Thibault & Canada’s successful bid and subsequent Harvey, 2013). The implications of this hosting influenced sport organizations in increasing involvement of government in Canada? Similarly, what influence (if any) sport generally and Canadian sport has the creation of OTP had on sport specifically has been well documented organizations? As such, the purpose of this (Green & Houlihan, 2005; Grix & investigation is to explore the influence of Carmichael, 2012; Macintosh, Bedecki, & these recent developments on the policy- Franks, 1990; Macintosh & Whitson, 1990; making processes of one NSO: Athletics Thibault & Harvey, 2013). Canada. To this end, we draw upon the In light of the ongoing amateur sport- discussions surrounding the modernization related discussions surrounding of sport and the insights generated from a organizational change and reform and the singular case study of Athletics Canada to abovementioned major developments examine how the organizations’ policy- within Canadian sport, more research is

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume One, Issue One Dowling et al., 2015 80 making processes have changed over a 10- organizations more generally and sport year period (2002-2012). organizations specifically in order to achieve its own objectives. Modernization and sport Houlihan and Green (2009) investigated Many scholars have examined the the causes and consequences of impact of modernization within sport (cf. modernization on two Non-Departmental Adams, 2011; Green & Houlihan, 2005, Public Bodies (UK Sport and Sport 2006; Grix, 2009; Grix & Parker, 2011; England) within the . The Houlihan & Green, 2009; Sam, 2009, 2011) authors found that modernization was even despite the concept’s lack of precision. primarily driven by central government, This is not to suggest that the concept of with some evidence of a perceived need for modernization is meaningless. For change within the two organizations. The Finlayson (2003), “modernisation appears to consequences of modernization (i.e. reform) refer to a large scale sense of change, for these governmental agencies were development and transformation, greater decision-making constraints on something different to what has come professional staff, the marginalization of before” (p. 16). From this perspective, certain sporting interests, and the increasing Finlayson (2003, p. 63) described adoption of business-like principles (e.g., modernization as an ‘up’ word that implies evidence-based decision making and improvement, progression and change for accountability measures). The latter (i.e. the the better. Houlihan and Green (2009, p. adoption of business-like principles), in 679) offer the closest articulation to a particular, had also resulted in a narrowing precise definition by referring to of organizational objectives – to a point that modernization as a particular set themes both organizations were increasingly (e.g., responsiveness, managerialism, adopting oversimplified strategic objectives. responsibilization), principles (e.g., Of particular relevance to the present partnership working), technologies (e.g., study are the works of Grix and colleagues performance measurements such as (Grix, 2009; Grix & Parker, 2011). Grix benchmarking, public service agreements (2009) examined the impact of and auditing), and a narrative that has been modernization on UK Athletics, the NSO used to frame and problematize the current responsible for overseeing ‘state’ of public sector management. In this athletics in the UK. The author argued that sense, modernization is a persistent aim of poor international level (i.e. world government agencies (Sam, 2009) that has championships and Olympic/Paralympic come to be viewed as one of the many ways Games) performances in the sport could, in in which governments can shape (i.e. part, be attributed to the way in which the influence) and steer public sector NSO was governed. In drawing upon the

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume One, Issue One Dowling et al., 2015 81 governance debate more broadly and the sport organizations in recent years – debates surrounding ‘New Managerialism’ specifically as they relate to the ongoing specifically, Grix (2009) concludes that the modernization process (e.g., Grix, 2009; values and practices imposed by central Houlihan & Green, 2009). Second, and in government – through its conditional building on previous scholarship, this funding agreements – effectively ‘strait- investigation provides a more detailed jacketed’ the organization (UK Athletics) in understanding of how these broader socio- its decision-making capabilities. More political shifts (such as modernization) are specifically, Grix’s (2009) analysis revealed, influencing the specific decision-making inter alia, that UK Athletics was processes of NSOs. Previous scholarship characterized by key executive-level has adopted a broader analytical focus by personnel turnover and an increasing focus attempting to examine and understand the on accountability up towards governmental nature of these socio-political influences on, agencies. According to Grix (2009), UK for example, governmental agencies (e.g., Athletics has also established a number of Houlihan & Green, 2009; Sam, 2011) or to auditing technologies; most notably legally explain the overall decline of a particular binding key performance indicators between sport (Grix & Parker, 2011) rather than UK Athletics and UK Sport. In a follow-up focusing specifically on the consequences of investigation, Grix and Parker (2011) built such reforms on the managerial and upon the findings of Grix’s UK Athletic decision-making practices of sport case study to provide three explanations for organizations further down the delivery the relative decline of Athletics within the chain (i.e. NSOs, clubs etc.). Third, and UK. These explanations included: the poor finally, this article provides an empirical case governance of UK Athletics, broader study analysis into the policy-making social/societal change, and changes within processes of one of Canada’s most school sport provision. prominent NSOs – Athletics Canada. In drawing upon the abovementioned Consequently we contribute an empirical policy-related scholarship (namely Green, insight for those interested in more specific Grix, and Houlihan), our investigation discussions surrounding the national and offers the following threefold contribution international development of track and field to the amateur sport literature. First, our athletics (henceforth athletics) (e.g., Grix, investigation further explores the 2009; Grix & Parker, 2011; Truyens, consequences of modernization within the DeBosscher, Heyndels, & Westerbeek, Canadian sport context. As such, our study 2014). contributes an in-depth empirical case study to the small but growing body of literature that has examined the reforms of amateur

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume One, Issue One Dowling et al., 2015 82 Rationale and Research Context reoccurring themes began to emerge from The empirical data presented herein the empirical data in relation to the draws from the Canadian portion of a much influence of modernization on the policy- larger, international study examining sport making processes of Athletics Canada. policy factors leading to international Athletics Canada is the national sporting success (or ‘SPLISS’) in the sport governing body for track and field athletics. of Athletics (Truyens et al., 2014). This Originally established in 1884, the not-for- broader study (Truyens et al., 2014) was a profit organization is one of Canada’s oldest sport-specific follow up investigation to NSO (Athletics Canada, n.d.b) and at the examine the competitiveness of countries in time of data collection generated the . More specifically, this approximately CAD$6 million in revenue follow-up study adapted the SPLISS per annum (e.g., CAD$6, 019,761 in 2010; framework developed by De Bosscher and Athletics Canada, 2010). Like many NSOs colleagues (De Bosscher et al., 2006) in in Canada, Athletics Canada relies heavily order to benchmark (i.e. compare) the upon government funding. Of particular development of countries across nine policy note, Athletics Canada has seen a threefold areas (or pillars) (see Table 1 for an increase in government funding over the overview of these policy-areas). A mixed past 10 years; compare for example Beijing methods approach was employed that (i.e., CAD$3,151,000) and London (i.e., involved interviewing key personnel and CAD$10,234,500) quadrennials (OTP, surveying coaches, athletes and clubs within n.d.b). Athletics Canada’s headquarters is the sport. The first phase of this broader based in and employs 15 full-time research project involved the completion of staff (at the time of data collection) with the an inventory that examined the ‘state of art’ mission to “provide leadership, of Athletics within Canada. Completion of development and competition that ensures this inventory required in-depth interviews world-level performance in athletics” with key personnel within athletics, (Athletics Canada, n.d.c). Although centrally particularly Athletics Canada. For the coordinated by Athletics Canada, the purposes of the present contribution, the delivery system of the sport in the country researchers adopted a viewpoint similar to relies heavily upon its ten provincial and that provided by Eisenhardt (1989), who two territorial branches. These branches noted that “if a new line of thinking oversee their respective jurisdictions, a emerges during the research, it makes sense majority of grass roots programs, as well as to take advantage… [of it] to provide a new the early development of athletes. This theoretical insight” (p. 539). During the decentralized system of delivery typifies the initial research process, a new line of federated delivery system of Canadian sport thinking surfaced and a number of (Thibault & Harvey, 2013). With regard to

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume One, Issue One Dowling et al., 2015 83 the delivery of elite programs, at the time of rather than to simply enumerate data collection Athletics Canada operated frequencies. four, discipline-specific, national high performance training centers across the Sampling and Procedure country. The centers are located in Victoria As a part of the case study, semi- (middle distance running), Kamloops structured interviews were conducted with (throws), Ottawa/Toronto (sprints and senior Athletics Canada personnel. relays), and Calgary (selected technical Informants were selected primarily based on events). two criteria: current or former employment in the organization and specific Methods (unparalleled) knowledge of Athletics Case Study Approach Canada policy-making processes (Gratton & A holistic, single-case study design (Yin, Jones, 2010). More specifically, informants 1994) was adopted to examine the policy- were selected due to their knowledge in one making processes of Athletics Canada. (or more) of nine policy areas as identified Rossman and Rallis (2003) defined case in the SPLISS conceptual framework (for a studies as “in-depth and detailed detailed overview of these policy areas see explorations of single examples (an event, De Bosscher et al., 2006). The individuals process, organization, group, or individual) selected for interview were either part-time that are an instance drawn from a class of or full-time employees involved in the core similar phenomena” (p. 104). Within case business or technical operations of the study research, emphasis is placed on organization. The eight interviewees were developing thick description (Geertz, 1973) between 27 and 55 years of age and of highly complex and contemporary generally had 10 or more years of phenomena (typically within their real-life experience in the sport sector. context; Yin, 1994). The utility of this Interview guides were extracted from approach lies in its ability to incorporate the SPLISS Athletics research consortium multiple data sources (Bryman, 2008; Yin, policy inventory (Truyens et al., 2014). Of 1994) and is particularly useful in the nine conducted interviews (one developing theoretical accounts (Eisenhardt, informant was interviewed twice, with each 1989; Einsenhardt & Graebner, 2007). Thus interview addressing unique policy-making the (often misunderstood) intention of processes), five were carried out face-to-face adopting a case study approach hereafter is and took place at Athletics Canada’s head to analytically generalize rather than office in Ottawa, and a high statistically generalize (Flyvbjerg, 2006; Yin, performance training camp in Phoenix, 1994) in that this approach provides the Arizona and four were conducted using the opportunity to expand and generate theory online communication program Skype. All

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume One, Issue One Dowling et al., 2015 84 interviews were conducted by the first comparison of the substance and salience of author between December 2010 and March prior policies to those established after the 2011, ranged from 38 and 150 minutes in inception of OTP. More practically, length, and were digitally recorded and however, Green and Houlihan’s (2005) transcribed verbatim. These transcripts work on Athletics Canada also provided a produced 410 double-spaced pages of data useful framework by which to reduce the for further analysis. large amount of data collected as a part of the original SPLISS Athletics study. See Understanding the Modernization of Table 1 for an overview of Green and Athletics Canada’s Policy-Making Houlihan (2005) and the SPLISS model (De Processes Bosscher et al., 2006). The work of Green and Houlihan (2005) was drawn upon as a baseline Coding comparison to examine how Athletics The primary author undertook a Canada’s policy-making processes had process of independent open coding changed over time (i.e. between 2002-2012). (Patton, 2002), specifically looking for any In particular, Green and Houlihan’s (2005) policy areas mentioned within Green and study provided a detailed examination of Houlihan’s (2005) Athletics Canada case internal policy developments and major study. As a result of this process, a total of issues faced by Athletics Canada at the turn 24 specific policy areas were identified (see of the century (for further insight see Green Table 2). These 24 policy areas were & Houlihan, 2005, pp. 110-121). In translated into codes and deductively addition, Green and Houlihan (2005) applied to the analysis of transcripts. As to developed a conceptual framework that not limit analysis, the transcripts were also considered four areas of elite sport policy: analyzed inductively, leaving open the facilities; full-time athletes; coaching, sport opportunity for identifying new and science, and sport medicine; and emerging codes (i.e., policy areas). Allowing competition opportunities. Green and for the emergence of such codes was Houlihan then applied this framework to necessary given that some policy areas were compare the development of several elite either omitted by Green and Houlihan sport organizations and systems (see Green (2005) (e.g., those regarding the school & Houlihan, 2005; Houlihan & Green, system and talent identification) or not 2008). For purposes of our present analysis, present at the time the initial study (e.g., the work of Green and Houlihan (2005) those regarding the Long Term Athlete provided a means to examine the Development Model (LTAD) or National development of Athletics Canada policy- Training Centres). As a result of this making processes and allowed for a process, a total of 41 policy areas/codes

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume One, Issue One Dowling et al., 2015 85 were identified. It was from these policy those that achieved a comparatively greater areas/first order codes that second order performance standard, received increased codes were derived. The second order codes support (e.g., partial funding, and access to were then collapsed into three broad, inter- training camps); and 2016 group athletes, related themes: (i) The development and those that ranked top eight in the world in a prioritization of OTP-funded policy-making particular sport, received a full range of processes (ii), the development and support (e.g., financing for both the athlete prioritization of evidence-based policies and and the coach to attend training camps and programs, and (iii) the further straining of competitions). inter-organizational relationships. As Athletics Canada directed funding to high performance athletes, it simultaneously Results redirected funding from athletes elsewhere (i) Development and Prioritization of along the development pathway. Chiefly OTP-Funded Policies and Programs affected in this regard was Run Jump Following the creation of OTP in 2004, Throw, the organization’s grassroots, Athletics Canada has developed and participation-based program: prioritized a number of OTP-funded When we started with Run Jump Throw policies and programs. In particular, the five or six years ago, the funding model organization has utilized OTP funds over was similar, but not quite as targeted, the past decade to develop and enhance and there was more money available athlete and coach development, as well as from Sport Canada for development. At sport science and medicine programs. In an one time, Run Jump Throw had an effort to enhance athlete development, for operating budget of over $200,000, example, Athletics Canada established the because there was a large licensing Olympic Development Program (ODP) in agreement that was struck with the 2011. The program was created in response Hershey Company, for over three or to what many respondents described as a set four years, and we were receiving over of historically inadequate talent $100,000/year from Sport Canada. And identification and development procedures. in the last couple of years, Sport Canada As part of the program, and at the time of dollars have been decreased data collection, Athletics Canada provided significantly, to about half. Also, the support to three tiers of athletes: Tier II deal with Hershey’s was re-negotiated athletes, those that achieved a minimum and there was less money there… And (internally set) performance standard, right now, if we were to say, ‘Hey, let’s received both formal recognition and start our grassroots development limited support (e.g., yearly planning and programs,’ it’d be a lot more difficult competition scheduling); Tier I athletes, than it was five years ago because the

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume One, Issue One Dowling et al., 2015 86 funding model has changed. mandated sport-specific LTAD plan. (Respondent Four, 02/25/11) Athletics Canada, as such, became Addressing the development-related issues embroiled in a strategic dilemma in whether that resulted from change to the to enhance development opportunities for aforementioned funding model was high performance athletes in accordance Respondent Eight: with the mandate of OTP on the one hand, I hear about it every year, from angry or enhance development opportunities for coaches, athletes, and parents, who say, all in accordance with the mandate more ‘How is it that my son or daughter, as consistent with Sport Canada’s LTAD on an athlete, has to pay to represent the other. Over the period of this study, the Canada?’ I wish I had a better answer organization’s focus lay in the former and for them. We just don’t have the not the latter. resources to be able to do it, and we’re The development and prioritization of in a system where those resources are OTP-funded policies and programs was also attached to strings. ‘We have a bunch of evident in Athletics Canada’s development money that we want to give you, but it of high performance coaches. This can only go into this pot. You can’t take development can be traced back to the from us to help all those people.’ And I creation of a coaching development understand targeting, and focus, but I position within Athletics Canada in 2006. just wish that there was more of an Prior to the creation of this position, understanding of the long term Athletics Canada had not assigned any development of an athlete…. I mean, individual the responsibility of overseeing there’s a long road before they get to be the development and education of relevant top eight in the world, and we need to coaches. The appointed manager, find a way to fund that. This is really responding to both the potential for important, what Own the Podium is melioration and a set of sport-wide doing, but we need to find a way to help recommendations provided by the Canadian them along that path before they get National Coaching Certification Council, there. We have this short term need to subsequently restructured Athletics win medals at the next [event], and we Canada’s coaching development system. forget to have a longer perspective for The restructured system, simply titled the 2016 and 2020 (02/04/11) New Athletics Canada National Coaching As the above quotation intimates, the Certification Program (NCCP), differed consequences resulting from the adopted from its predecessor in several regards, funding strategy extended to the most apparently in relation to curriculum organization’s ability to support athletes in a design and certification. The previous manner consistent with the Sport Canada- curriculum design comprised of five levels,

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume One, Issue One Dowling et al., 2015 87 each with three components (theory, contexts/programs, Respondent Four technical, and practical), whereas the new stated: system consisted of three streams Athletics Canada oversees… all of the (representing model coaching coach education programs in the environments; instruction, community, country, from Run Jump Throw (the competition) focused on a single sole program for both the instruction component – competency. Similarly, and community streams), which is a certification was once dispensed in grassroots program, right through to accordance with the completion of a high performance. The actual delivery of particular curriculum level. The new the Run Jump Throw and grassroots program reflects competency in a specific programs is the responsibility of the coaching stream and context (e.g., beginner [provincial] branches. We take over as instruction through to high performance). the primary provider of competition These and other such changes indicate a development and higher, so developing marked increase in the formalization of high performance and elite coaching Athletics Canada’s coaching development education…. At Level Three, the new system. competition development (the The formalized system, despite introductory program in the competition accounting for an entire spectrum of stream), we don’t really support them coaches, facilitated a narrowing of the other than by providing opportunities organization’s orientation and domain. This for education. It’s really the branches was evidenced through the development that fund them. They pay for it so there’s and prioritization of a refined high not necessarily a lot of support there for performance coaching development them… We’re working on determining program (reflective of one of six new our policy of how competition certification contexts). The program, development advanced coaches (the targeted in scope and available only to a mediate program in the competition select few participants, was developed in stream) will be supported… And then at such a manner as to align with the agenda of Level Five, the OTP level (the high OTP, and, as a consequence, better ensure performance program in the competition the continued receipt of financial support. stream), we develop an individual The distribution of such support by learning plan and apply for funding, and Athletics Canada, was not, however, when we’re successful, those inclusive; instead, it reinforced the opportunities are fully funded through increasingly salient high performance Athletics Canada/OTP. (02/25/11) agenda. In discussing the organization’s provision of support to various streams and

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume One, Issue One Dowling et al., 2015 88 The quotation indirectly highlights the earlier counterparts in that it featured an disparate levels of support that Athletics integrated support team (consisting of Canada had provided to its various coaching various clinicians), employed preventative development programs. The sole program (rather than reactive) care and science, and for both the instruction and community introduced a new set of performance-related streams, despite a sound infrastructure (e.g., tests and analyses. set of policies), operated almost exclusively These measures, as well as those outside the purview of the organization. In associated with the sport science program, contrast, the introductory and mediate were considered as integral not only to the programs in the competition stream lacked organization’s pursuit of sporting both policies and financing. The high excellence, but also to retaining the financial performance program in the competition and administrative support of OTP. stream, finally, received both significant Affirming the organization’s increased administrative and financial support. prioritization of sport science and medicine Athletics Canada, then, has, as it did with programs, and speaking to the related athlete support, prioritized high developmental role of OTP, was performance coaches at the expense of their Respondent One: sub-elite equivalents and grassroots We expect to see a sport science and participants. sport medicine program as part of The abovementioned issues, pertaining application, and it better be something to domain (i.e., areas of service provision), that’s real, something that you’re using, were exacerbated by the organization’s something that’s evolving, and increased development and prioritization of something that has impact. Would we sport science and medicine programs. The have done it without [the support of sport science program, for example, was OTP]? Yeah. But would we have been enhanced through equipment (e.g., shoe, as compelled, or as organized, or as well bodysuit) design interventions, the resourced? No. So this really helped. accumulation of “competitive intelligence” Own the Podium is very good. They (i.e., information pertaining to other [OTP] push us a bit, but they pull us countries’ developmental and competitive along, and they accompany us at the practices), and the engagement in, and same time. They’re really, really good incorporation of, biomechanical research. partners. (02/26/11) Responsible, in part, for the The organization’s sport science and communications of conducted research medicine programs, as such, reinforced the were clinicians appointed to the pursuit of a high performance mandate. It is organization’s expanded sport medicine worth noting as well that although these program. This program differed from its programs resulted in positive consequences

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume One, Issue One Dowling et al., 2015 89 for less elite athlete groups, these groups (ii) Development and Prioritization of were seldom the intended beneficiaries. As Evidence-Based Policies and Programs Respondent One, in addressing a question As Athletics Canada became further of OTP funding criteria and finance aligned with OTP’s high performance disbursement, remarked: objectives, it has also began to develop and The criteria are, ‘Will they impact prioritize a set of related, evidence-based podium performance at a major games?’ policy-making processes. Developments in That’s the starting and ending point, relation to Athletics Canada specifically quite frankly… Well, there always is an involved the increased incorporation and element of, ‘How will this impact future employment of objective performance performances? Does this have a broad measures. The use of such measures was enough application that it can be integral to the organization not only in brought to the sport as a whole, and not projecting a form of accountability and just the elite level in this particular responsiveness to the leading national sport timeframe?’ The work we’re doing right agencies (e.g., Sport Canada, Canadian now in the relay exchange area is Olympic Committee, and Own the something that will have a broad Podium), but also in determining the application to all of our relay teams; manners and streams in which the agencies’ whether they’re a youth or junior team, it financing would be utilized. Addressing the would refine our relay protocols to a interrelationship between the employment smaller or greater degree… Some of of objective measures (i.e., “evidence”) and them would parlay into greater system the organization’s financing of particular change, better system thinking, but quite high performance sport streams was a bit of it would be individual athlete Respondent Five: specific. (02/26/11) Every decision we’re taking, when we’re The assumption being made by the putting the blocks of our strategic plan respondent here, and the assumption of the in the high performance area, we need organization’s development and to have evidence…. And we had prioritization of high performance-related enough evidence in terms of long policy-making processes more generally, is distance running and race walking to say that the development of elite athlete and that we just don’t have the athletes…. coach programs (in line with the mandate of Again, it all goes back to, ‘We need to OTP) will, in turn, have knock-on or ‘spill- have evidence to decide what to do. We over’ effects on those further down the cannot just go on impression.’ delivery system. (02/04/11) For Athletics Canada, then, decisions pertaining to high performance sport

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume One, Issue One Dowling et al., 2015 90 became increasingly tied to measurable those types of things. And it worked in results. terms of being defendable, defensible, Nowhere was this increasingly evidence- objective, and clear to people based approach to decision-making more (02/04/11) apparent than in an organizational policy Although Athletics Canada’s AAP policy that pertained to the country’s Athlete was subsequently revised to what one Assistance Program (AAP). Developed and respondent referred to as “something that’s managed by Sport Canada, the program a little more subjective” (Respondent Eight, supports select athletes through the 02/04/11), it retained a far more stringent provision of living, training allowances, and set of criteria than any of its pre-2002 academic scholarships (Athletics Canada, equivalents. The evidence-based policy thus n.d.a). Athletics Canada’s role in this reinforced the newly adopted organizational program is the identification and selection value of objective and evidence-based of eligible, sport-specific beneficiaries decision-making. (colloquially referred to as ‘card recipients’) The impact of the revised policy’s who can then be recommended to Sport formality was also particularly evident in the Canada. It is in this regard that the organization’s talent identification and organization has increased its incorporation athlete development procedures. Prior to and employment of objective performance the policy’s revision, these procedures were measures. Describing in detail the manner in generally lacking in stringent guidelines and which the organization’s AAP policy has criteria for identifying and segmenting elite been revised was Respondent Eight: athletes. The same, however, could not be … The way the criteria (for selecting said for these procedures following the beneficiaries) were done and written policy’s revision. Retracing the development was not clear. It was not objective of these procedures and the related impact enough in the minds of the people who of the revised AAP policy (i.e., “criteria,” were out there… So at that time (2005), “carding streams”) was Respondent Two: I gathered as much information as I What I believe is that we worked very could from people, and I created a hard in creating our high performance point system which ranked athletes…. structure, and setting out all the There were different categories, and a strategies, and criteria, and very specific part of it was training, coaching goals of top eight at podium, and that environment, but then there was also the development part was not matching how you did at nationals (national it; it was just something out there, with events), how you did at international no rhyme or reason, that needed to be events, what your top three organized more and aligned with performances averaged out to, and everything that we were doing.... We

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume One, Issue One Dowling et al., 2015 91 had no direction before. And we had no organization’s decreased support of its Run criteria proof that we had talent... Jump Throw program. The program was Sometimes we got suckered into being originally assembled some 20 years ago in an convinced that we had talent. Now, effort to enhance the physical fitness, because everything is aligned with the health, and maturation of Canadian children carding streams, and everything is six to twelve years of age. Despite its directed through top eight, we can longevity and merits, the program as actually confidently say, ‘This is some historically lacked a catalogue of objective serious talent. This talent is staying on performance measures (e.g., rates of stream. It’s showing all the signs, and continued participation, club memberships we know we can put some effort and resulting from program participation). It money in to that.’ (02/26/11) was as a result of this decreased support In aligning talent identification and athlete that the program saw reductions in both development procedures with the revised funding and responsible personnel, with its AAP policy, Athletics Canada was ultimately implementation increasingly outsourced to able to set in place the framework for the provincial and territorial branches. Short of previously described Olympic Development any intervention, the established future Program (ODP). It was also suggested, by at trajectory of the program is unlikely to least one respondent, that this alignment experience any significant alteration. The could ease the process by which the fate of Run Jump Throw, as such, can organization narrowed its domain (from one therefore be viewed as emblematic of that emphasized high performance sport in Athletics Canada’s increased development general to one that emphasized a select few and prioritization of high performance- high performance sport sub-disciplines, e.g., related, evidence-based policy-making sprint, middle distance, and relay track processes. events). The development of high performance-related, evidence-based policy- (iii) Strained Inter-organizational making processes thus included the Relationships formalization of a beneficiary plan, the As illustrated by the above example of creation of the ODP, and may yet still result continued outsourcing of the Run Jump in the narrowing of focus to support select Throw program, the narrowing of Athletics high performance sport disciplines. Canada strategic focus has also had Athletics Canada’s development and consequences that extended beyond the prioritization of evidence-based, high operations of the organization. This was performance-related policy-making particularly evident through Athletic processes was apparent not only in the Canada’s attempts to create a strategic plan above examples, but also in the that incorporated provincial and territorial

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume One, Issue One Dowling et al., 2015 92 branches. Also affected by this plan were kind of things, so sometimes they local clubs and Canadian interuniversity cannot [commit] time to that. And athletic programs. For Athletics Canada, the secondly, they are so - They’re trying to advancement of its high performance survive, in some cases, and so for them agenda necessitated the introduction of a to do these kind of things is not a strategic plan that incorporated both priority, because they have other things provincial and territorial branches. It can be to do rather than trying to align. And argued that the particular grounds for such a also, some have a tough time plan stemmed from a disconnect in understanding what we’re doing at the organizational domains: whereas the high performance level. (Respondent national organization increasingly valued Five, 02/04/11) those programs and activities that supported Impediments relating to the implementation high performance sport, some provincial of the plan were therefore numerous; and territorial branches valued those included among these were a disconnected programs and activities that encouraged set of organizational domains and general participation. The concern for orientations, as well as a limited amount of Athletics Canada, then, was how to align all organizational capacity. The variance in provincial and territorial branches with a organizational values ultimately undermined high performance feeder system. According any potential for compromise, with a select to one respondent, Athletics Canada initially few respondents suggesting that this had led attempted to achieve alignment through the to an increasingly strained relationship use of individual, province-by- between the involved parties. province/territory-by-territory Local clubs, much like provincial and memorandums of understanding. When territorial branches, were also expected to these attempts failed, the organization be aligned with a high performance feeder sought to develop, with the assistance of system. In some respects, Athletics Canada individual branches, a singular, cohesive achieved this end. Talent identification plan. One respondent’s optimism relating to efforts at the level of local clubs were the prospects of implementing this plan increased, and identified athletes were were, however, rather limited: regularly moved into one of several national It’s going to be challenging. It’s going to training centres. According to some be challenging because… (searching for respondents, the interventions on the part the words). The reality is that the of Athletics Canada to move athletes to members (provincial/territorial nationally recognized training centres, were branches) don’t have the capacity to not, however, always well received by local work on these kinds of things. It’s club managers or coaches. For some always the same people doing the same coaches, intervention primarily resulted in a

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume One, Issue One Dowling et al., 2015 93 diminished sense of autonomy (local club showing some success, in the centres. managers and coaches no longer held the And because the centre concept is so exclusive responsibility of identifying and new it’s going to take time. (02/26/11) developing elite junior athletes, but rather For this Athletics Canada employee, then, had to share this responsibility with NSO intervention to move athletes to Athletics Canada and national training nationally recognized training centres in the centre personnel). This matter was further operation of local clubs, despite any complicated as Athletics Canada had not resultant benefits (e.g., improved athlete endeavoured to garner the explicit training opportunities, decreased club cooperation of club personnel. The expenditures), led to strained cumulative effect of these actions was, interorganizational relationships. according to Respondent 2, the creation of The final group of organizations a distrusting relationship, one that required expected to be aligned with a high the attention of Athletics Canada: performance feeder system was to come Early on, at the age of 17, the biggest from Canadian Interuniversity Sport. The role for Athletics Canada is to create alignment of interuniversity sport programs relationships with those clubs and was particularly integral to Athletics Canada coaches - to create a trusting for two primary reasons: the provision of communication relationship - and to [let proximate and meaningful training them know] that, ‘I am not here to steal opportunities, and the availability of support your athlete. I’m recognizing that (e.g., educational and expert resources) for you’ve done something very positive, athlete retention efforts. Athletics Canada, and let me help you to continue to however, experienced difficulties in their ensure that that athlete stays on that relationships with these programs. high performance stream’…. The one Addressing these difficulties, as well as the thing that we’re struggling with is need for related amelioration, was, again, getting those clubs to realize that they Respondent Two: have maxed out on what they can offer The relationship, and I don’t an athlete, and when it is time to understand why, has been strained. And consider either creating a relationship I think primarily just because the with a national association, or a national universities have one major focus, on event group, or moving an athlete to a the indoor season, and we have our [national training] centre, and that’s a focus, on the outdoor season. I don’t piece that Canada seems to not like. understand. There’s a whole bunch of They don’t really want to go there. And history. But I see - for recruiting, the only way I think that we can retention, and talent development - that convince people is that we start has to become a stronger relationship,

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume One, Issue One Dowling et al., 2015 94 because they are taking the athletes in many of the developments that have the first half of my ODP program. So occurred within Athletics Canada over the it’s a weakness right now that I’m past decade have been governmental-driven, desperately trying to sort out. high performance focused, and increasingly (02/26/11) evidence-based. Furthermore, the programs The response from Canadian interuniversity and policies that have seen the most athletic programs, to Athletics Canada’s development (i.e. have been prioritized) by intervention, was therefore similar to those Athletics Canada, have primarily been those that came from provincial/territorial that are heavily supported and facilitated by branches and local clubs. In each example, OTP. In particular, programs that have seen the strategic plan presented a novel set of most support in recent years have been organizational values, challenged existent those surrounding high performance athlete modes of operation, and threatened to support (e.g., sport science and medicine reduce levels of autonomy. Given such programs) and athlete and development conditions, it should not be surprising that (e.g., the ODP and AAP carding criteria). the advancement of a high performance It also apparent, from our data at least, agenda resulted in several strained that the nurturing and development of high interorganizational relationships. performance related and OTP-driven programs and policies has often come at the Discussion and Conclusion expense or at least reduced support of other This article examined the consequences wider-social and participation based of modernization on the policy-making programs. This finding was emblematic in processes of a singular NSO: Athletics the above discussions surrounding the Canada. In drawing upon the works of decreased support of the Run Jump Throw Green and Houlihan (2005) as a baseline program since the mid-2000s. More broadly, comparison, this article provided a then, our empirical case study of Athletics descriptive case study analysis of how the Canada lends support for Green and policy-making processes of an NSO have Houlihan’s (2005) viewpoint that mass and changed over a 10-year period (2002-2012). elite objectives are fundamentally not The above analysis brings to the forefront a compatible. As Green and Houlihan (2005) number of key points of discussion that can conclude in their seminal study of sport be can be drawn out from the research policy change, “it is hard to avoid the findings. First and foremost, consistent with conclusion that elite sport development and previous modernization-related works achievement on the one hand and mass (Adams, 2011; Green & Houlihan, 2005, participation and club development on the 2006; Grix, 2009; Grix & Parker, 2011; other are deeply incompatible functions Houlihan & Green, 2009), it is evident that within the policy frameworks current in

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume One, Issue One Dowling et al., 2015 95 Australia, Canada and the UK” (p. 189). from government down to NGBs [NSOs] Our case study supports Green and has effectively strait-jacketed UKA into Houlihan’s (2005) notion of incompatibility delivering a narrow, Olympic-driven sports in that we revealed a number of specific policy to meet government set targets, examples of decision-making (e.g., the which leaves little time and resources to ODP, RJT, and AAP carding) whereby address the factors behind the sports’ Athletics Canada has had to prioritize the general decline” (p. 46). Similarly, our pursuit of high performance sport at the analysis of Athletics Canada suggests that expense of participation-based objectives. the organization is now operating under Furthermore, these incompatibilities were heavy constraint – most apparently by Own also evident within the requirements the Podium – to focus on and deliver short, imposed by Canada’s two lead governing term, Olympic-medal success. As such, agencies themselves. To provide an many of the decisions by Athletics Canada example, there is a clear dilemma for professional staff since the turn of the Athletics Canada to achieve the short-term, century can be viewed as attempts to ensure medal driven targets set by Own the compliance with its funding partners and Podium on the one hand, versus Sport ultimately to ensure the organizations’ Canada’s requirement to adopt and survival. In brief, Athletics Canada’s implement the long-term, holistic LTAD decision-making capabilities are very much model approach on the other. constrained within the ‘rules of the game’ Perhaps one of the more pertinent currently dictated by federal government findings of our case study analysis of (via Own the Podium and Sport Canada) Athletics Canada, and closely linked to the (Green & Houlihan, 2006). above discussion regarding the development What can also be drawn from the above of select policies and programs, is further review are the apparent similarities of the evidence to support the notion that the characteristics of reform evident within decision-making capabilities of the Athletics Canada compared to those organization are heavily constrained by its experienced by UK Athletics (as reported by governmental agency funding dependencies Grix, 2009). It is apparent from our analysis (namely Own the Podium and Sport that both organizations have undergone Canada). These funding dependencies, in strikingly similar reforms since the turn of turn, effectively ensure that allocation of the century. To provide examples of a few public funding comes with ‘strings attached’ instances: to ensure that taxpayers funding is well • Both organizations (UK Athletics spent (Green & Houlihan, 2005). As Grix and Athletics Canada) have been (2009) notes in his analysis of UK Athletics the subject of organizational (UKA), “the hierarchical chain of power

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume One, Issue One Dowling et al., 2015 96 reform and key personnel & Harvey, 2013) and the relative turnover; independence of the provincial/territorial • Both organizations have branches compared to the UK. undergone a narrowing of their The latter part of our review (i.e. strategic focus – specifically to discussions surrounding inter-organizational Olympic-driven medal success; strain) bring to the forefront what Sam • Due to funding and resource (2009) described as the ‘wicked nature’ of constraints, both organizations are sport policy, particularly as they relate to the increasingly adopting a more modernization of NSOs. Specifically, strategic approach in terms of Athletics Canada’s inability to formulate and athletes and sub-discipline agree-upon coherent development pathway investment; plans with its provincial/territorial • Both organizations exhibit a shift branches, the growing lack of trust between in accountability away from its Athletics Canada and clubs, and the strained members and clubs (i.e. grassroots relationship between Athletics Canada and stakeholders) and upwards towards the CIS can all collectively be viewed as the governmental agencies (via Own ‘unintended consequences’ (i.e. product) of the Podium and Sport Canada); an NSO seeking to develop partnerships under the assumptions of a managerialist • Both organizations have logic. For Sam (2009), increasingly adopted an evidence- “given the resounding justification for based (i.e. ‘New Managerial’) the modernizing agenda is for NSOs to approach to their policy/decision- be better attuned to the needs and making processes. demands of stakeholders, it remains to One notable difference between our analysis be seen whether more modern and of Athletics Canada and Grix’s (2009) commercialized practices will indeed analysis within the UK equivalent NSO, raise their capacities to do so” (p. 510). however, is that UKA and English Athletics From the data collected, it seems apparent specifically have been able to set key that the modernization of Athletics Canada performance indicators between itself and is shifting the organizations’ focus up to its regional branches. As Grix (2009) notes, governmental agencies and away from the “English Athletics, for example sets some needs and demands of its stakeholders 130 KPIs to be met by its regional further down the delivery chain. The branches” (p. 40). In contrast, Athletics concern here, is the production of a Canada has been unable to impose such ‘democratic deficit’ (Houlihan & Green, targets on its member branches to date. 2009) whereby decision-making in relation This can in part, be explained by Canada’s to the development of the sport is made multi-level, federalist sport system (Thibault

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume One, Issue One Dowling et al., 2015 97 top-down rather than bottom-up and often playing in terms of modernizing NSOs at the expense or marginalization of certain within the Canadian sporting context. It is stakeholders and groups. evident from our case study of Athletics In turning to the contributions of our Canada that OTP is now a key driving force case study analysis to the literature, this for the modernisation agenda evident within investigation explored further the Canada and more needs to be done to consequences of modernization within the understand how this nascent organization is Canadian sport context. More specifically, influencing the Canadian sporting our analysis built upon the works of Green landscape. and Houlihan (2005) to examine the --- consequences of modernization over a ten year period (2002-2012), and in doing so, contributes an in-depth empirical case study to the small but growing body of literature that has examined the reforms of amateur sport organizations in recent years (e.g., Adams, 2011; Grix, 2009; Houlihan & Green, 2009; Sam, 2009, 2011). In relation to limitations and directions for future research, it is acknowledged that this investigation did not originally set out to study the consequences of NSO reform. Future studies should therefore be constructed specifically to do so. Furthermore, the analysis was methodologically limited in that it only considered one organization. Future research could therefore expand the empirical site to include more NSOs (although valuable work has already been done here, cf Kikulis et al., 1992; Green & Houlihan, 2005), and to examine the influence of modernization on sports organizations further down the delivery system (i.e., provincial/ territorial branches and clubs). Finally, this research highlighted the continued and notable role that OTP is

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume One, Issue One Dowling et al., 2015 98 References Opportunities and challenges. Adams, A. (2011). Between modernization Academy of Management Journal, 50, 25- and mutual aid: the changing 32. perceptions of voluntary sports clubs doi:D10.5465/AMJ.2007.24160888 in England. International Journal of Sport Finlayson, A. (2003).The meaning of Policy and Politics, 3, 23-43. modernization. Soundings, 23, 62-83. doi:10/1080/19406940.2010.54463 Flyvbjerg, B. (2006). Five Athletics Canada (n.d.a). Athlete Assistance misunderstandings about case-study Program (carding). Retrieved January research. Qualitative Inquiry, 12(2), 14, 2013, from 219-245. doi: http://www.athletics.ca/page.asp?id 10.1177/1077800405284363 =155 Geertz, C. (1973). Thick description: Athletics Canada (n.d.b). History. Retrieved Toward an interpretive theory of November 9, 2012, from culture. In C. Geertz (Ed.), The http://www.athletics.ca/page.asp?id interpretation of cultures (pp. 3-30). New =44 York: Basic Books. Athletics Canada (n.d.c). Who we are. Goodwin, M., & Grix, J. (2011). Bringing Retrieved November 9, 2012, from structures back in: the ‘governance http://www.athletics.ca/page.asp?id narrative’, the ‘decentred approach’ =9 and ‘asymmetrical network Bryman, A. (2008). Social Research Methods. governance’ in the education and (2nd Edn.). Oxford: Oxford sport policy communities. Public University Press Administration, 89(2), 537-556. De Bosscher, V., De Knop, P., Van Gratton, C., & Jones, I. (2010). Research Bottenburg, M., & Shibli, S. (2006). A methods for sport studies (2nd Edn.). conceptual framework for analysing London: Routledge. sports policy factors leading to Green, M. (2004). Changing policy priorities international sporting success. for : the emergence European Sport Management Quarterly, 6, of elite sport development as a key 185-215. policy concern. Leisure Studies, 23(4), doi:10.1080/16184740600955087 365-385. Eisenhardt, K. M. (1989). Building theories Green, M. (2007). Policy transfer, lesson from case study research. Academy of drawing and perspective on elite Management Review, 14, 532-550. sport development systems. doi:10.5465/AMR.1989.4308385 International Journal of Sport Marketing Eisenhardt, K. M., & Graebner, M. E. and Management, 2(4), 426-441. (2007). Theory building from cases: doi:10.1504/IJSMM.2007.013715

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Tables Table 1

Comparative Elite Sport Policy Model Factors

Green & Houlihan (2005) De Bosscher et al. (2006) 1. Financial Support 1. Development of Elite Facilities 2. Policy Development 3. Participation 2. Emergence of ‘Full-Time’ Athletes 4. Talent ID and Development 5. Athletic & Post-Career Support 3. Developments in Coaching, Sport Science & 6. Training Facilities Medicine 7. Coaching Provision & Coach Development 8. (Inter)national Competition 4. Competition Opportunities for Elite Athletes 9. Scientific Research

Table 2

Extracted Athletics Canada Themes from Green & Houlihan (2005)

Development of Elite Level Emergence of ‘full time’ Developments in Coaching, Competition Opportunities Facilities Athletes Sport Science & Medicine for Elite Athletes a. No National e. Athlete going to US j. Few ‘Full-Time’ r. Variance in Strategic Facility Plan + over reliance on Coaches Employed Competition at all AAP levels b. Public Perception of f. Non-Eligibility of k. Concerns Over s. Competition Athletics AAP for NCAA Coach Education jurisdiction issues Canadians Structure c. Commercial g. ACs Ambiguity l. Key Hires as a t. Low Levels of Sponsorship Volatility Over ‘Full-Time’ Significant Change of Domestic Competition Athletes Ethos d. ACs ambiguous h. AC struggling with m. Volunteer Ethos u. Suitable attitude towards CSCs low federal funding Prevalence Competition for Elite Athletes issue i. Restricted Athlete n. Christie Report v. Competing funding to AAP (2001) as a Catalyst Competition Schedules o. Sport Science w. Elite + Sub-Elite Legitimization in 1988 Competition divide p. Sport Science x. No Comprehensive Problematic for AC Competition Structure q. Sport Science y. AC emerging from a Internally Developed Policy Void

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