BOWEN UNIVERSITY, IWO
COLLEGE OF COMPUTING AND COMMUNICATION STUDIES
2019/2020 SECOND SEMESTER
COURSE NOTE
COURSE TITLE: THE FUNDAMENTALS OF SCHOLARLY WRITING
COURSE CODE: CMA 312
Week 1&2
Before you commence your research project, consider answering the following questions;
• Issue: In broad terms, what is the overarching issue or topic? • Problem: What is the specific problem or piece of the issue I am addressing? • So What: Why does this matter to my audience? Why should they care? • Solution: What are the potential solutions to the problem? • Benefits: What are the potential benefits if the problem is resolved?
Identifying and justifying chapters of a research project
Chapter 1: This is the foundational chapter, where you introduce what you want to study, and why. The research objectives and significance are also stated. Let’s briefly look into the possible subheadings in the first chapter.
Introduction/Background to the Study
In this section, you paint the picture of your area of study and or concern. You can sprinkle the reason(s) for this study in this section as well. This could be done in three to four paragraphs or more.
Problem Statement
Following from the motivation for the study that you have discussed in the background to the study, you will then state the problem clearly. You may ask questions that can lead to research questions in this section.
Research Objective
In this section, you will state what you intend to achieve in bullet format. It is these objectives that will guide the formation of your research questions.
Research questions
Your research questions are essentially arrived at by turning your research objectives into questions. Ensure that your research questions are not questions that could be answered by a simple Yes or No. A research question should be in the form of a question, it should suggest a relationship among variables, and should be empirically testable. For example; How do adolescents with dyslexia cope with the effects of their learning disabilities? What is the level of influence that group assignment has on communication apprehension?
Significance of the Study
Here, you discuss the policy relevance, and or the people who will be benefiting from the study and how. Are there expected theoretical or practical implications from the study? In other words, you will be discussing why the study is important. If it is not important, why carry out the study in the first instance? This section doesn’t contain too many paragraphs but it is an extremely crucial part of your project.
Operation Definition of Terms
Should there be any word or concept used to mean something different from conventional knowledge, you state it here.
Chapter 2
In the introduction to this second chapter, you talk about things you want to do in the chapter. So it's more of a summary of what you’ll be doing. In the second chapter, the researcher is expected to carry out the conceptual review, theoretical review, and empirical review. In this chapter also you can discuss your variables for the study, and also review the concept(s) as it/they relate(s) to your work. Remember the variables are phenomena or events, concepts or constructs that you can measure, and you can relate all that value changes for your research. You may require examining the intersection of only a subset of variables and repeating the process with another subset of variables because the literature does not have all variables incorporated in extant research. Few examples of variables are; age gender success status and things like that. For example, in the conceptual review aspect, if your work has to do with perception, you may want to discuss what perception is with examples, and how it is related to your work.
For the second part which is the theoretical review, you are going to be talking about the theory or theories you are using, while making a case for why the theory or those theories are relevant for your study. The third part is the empirical review. In this part, you do a review of studies related to your study. You talk about their conclusions, their recommendations, or their suggestions. Remember that research is a global conversation. You mention why you agree with them or why you disagree. Ensure that you analyze only very relevant literature. In case your review is not up to date you are likely to be conducting research that has been conducted and duplicating what is not necessary. Although there is a place of replication in research however you must also be up to the date on what is going on about the area you are researching globally. This should be more than a listing of studies. Identify the common thread hold them together. Use transitions to effectively tie one section with another. Incorporate discussion of strengths/weaknesses of methodology in previous studies and on which you are building on/hoping to avoid/improve upon in your study. Use headings and subheadings liberally to organize this section. This section should be reflective of deductive reasoning; starting broadly and narrowing the focus as the chapter progresses
Chapter 3
Method
The method chapter should give sufficient detail about the methodology used so that the study could be replicated. Sections in Chapter 3 can include but are not limited to, the following: methodology, instrumentation, Population, sampling procedure, and data analysis plan.
Chapter 4
Results and Analysis
After the collection of data, this chapter presents the results of the data collection. This is done usually in the order of the research question. This will be followed by any results of further analyses (that is, analyses that were not proposed but which were carried out). Results should be presented with the analysis of the report. In some cases, only result is presented, while analysis or interpretation is to be done in the discussion in chapter 5.
Chapter 5.
Discussion of Findings and Conclusion
Results are interpreted in light of the research questions and discussed in conjunction with other literature. Limitations of interpretation and implications for further research may be presented. You are expected to briefly summarize the results, discuss results in non-statistical terms, and then answer the research questions. Explicitly discuss the implications of the results. Integrate your results with the theoretical background and very relevant literature findings. You should also relate findings to the literature review while pointing out consistencies and inconsistencies it has with the results of those studies reported in the literature you cited in Chapter 2. You should also provide answers to whether your findings provide support or differ from extant theoretical positions.
You can also have a section called Limitations
A limitation is a weakness or handicap that potentially limits the internal or external validity of the results, such as using a sample with a particular characteristic such as all males. Most limitations should have been considered when the study was conceptualized. Therefore, limitations in this section are those that were largely outside the control of the researcher. You should not mention finance as a limitation. Limitations often include a statement of the generalizability of the results, controls that may be impossible to meet, etc. For example, if you must use intact groups rather than random assignment, how might this affect the interpretation of your results?
Recommendations for Future Research
You should provide specific suggestions for research in the future based on the findings of your study. You may also mention why the proposed research is needed and what form should it take.
References: Sources from which you have cited or quoted. The style to be used is dependent on the journal, or department to which the research is to be submitted.
Appendices: Materials such as your research instruments and other relevant materials used in the study.
Week 2&3: How to improve as an academic writer (Project)
This largely applies to other areas of academic writing, and not just your final year undergraduate project. When you are writing a dissertation, thesis or research paper, many words and phrases that are acceptable in conversations or informal writing are considered inappropriate.
You should try to avoid expressions that are too informal, unsophisticated, vague, exaggerated, or subjective, as well as those that are generally unnecessary or incorrect. Bear in mind, however, that these guidelines do not apply to text you are directly quoting from your sources (including interviews).
1. Avoid too Broad Statements
Focus and precision are essential in essay writing. That is why it is unacceptable to include too many details in the statement that serves as the main focus of your argument. You may think that broad statement ensures covering a larger scope of issues. Thinking deeply, by writing a statement too broad, you may not meet the expectations of the readers.
An example of too broad thesis: People who live in poverty face many challenges.
It is necessary to narrow down the focus of the broad thesis by underlining certain aspects of the problem you want to discuss in the essay. Improved example; According to Upkoho (2019) most residents of the Ajegunle community live below the poverty line, and lack access to good health facilities and portable water.
2. Avoid informal sentence starts
Some words are acceptable in certain contexts but become too informal when used at the beginning of a sentence. You can replace these with appropriate transition words or simply remove them from the beginning of the sentence.
Also
Also, the participants were in agreement on the third question
(Moreover/Furthermore), the participants were in agreement on the third question
So
So it can be concluded that the model needs further refinement
Therefore it can be concluded that the model needs further refinement
And
And the participants were all over the age of 30
The participants were all over the age of 30
3. Avoid too unsophisticated expressions
Using too many simple terms can make your writing feel elementary, so take care not to overuse them. It’s also better to replace phrasal verbs with their one-word alternatives. Having said that, some of the below terms do have their place in academic writing. For example, writing “Figure 4 shows that…” or “Table B gives an overview of…” from time to time is perfectly fine. Longer, more complex words aren’t necessarily better than shorter words: good academic writing should aim to be concise and use varied language.
Bad
A bad result
A (poor/negative) result
Big, humongous
A big sample
A (large/sizable) sample
Get
This model gets attention
This model receives attention
Give
This chapter gives an overview
This chapter (provides/offers/presents) an overview
Good
A good example
A (useful/prime) example
Show
The below figure shows
The below figure (illustrates/demonstrates/reveals)
What can proofreading do for your paper?
4. Avoid statement that does not represent the contents of the paper adequately
This mistake is connected to the first error. Broad statements fail to introduce the main points described in the text properly. Narrow and specific thesis statements better serve the purpose of representing the essence of the paper. In case the statement differs from the paper content, it creates confusion among readers because there is no coherence and unity throughout the essay. When writing the thesis, the author should remember that he/she creates a roadmap of the paper. So, it should perfectly match the contents of the text.
5. Avoid expressions that offer personal opinion using terms such as “In my opinion” or “I believe”
This is a common error among novices in academic writing. Although the terms “In my opinion” or “I believe” are good for stating the author’s main point that will be argued throughout the paper, they understate the strength of the dispute offered in academic writing. Besides, these terms underline the subjectivity of the author’s idea that cannot be the object of academic research.
6. Avoid Making Poor Language Choices
Slang, abbreviations, and poor spelling have no place in a clear thesis statement. Use professional language to make your point. Too informal
Academic writing is generally more formal than the writing we see in non-academic materials (including on websites). It is also more formal than how we normally speak. The following words and phrases are considered too informal for a dissertation or academic paper.
A bit
The interviews were a bit difficult to schedule
The interviews were (difficult/somewhat difficult) to schedule
A lot of, a couple of
A lot of studies
(Many/several/a great number of/eight) studies
Isn’t, can’t, doesn’t, would’ve (or any other contraction)
The sample isn’t The sample is not
Kind of, sort of
The findings were kind of significant
The findings were (somewhat significant/significant to some degree)
Til, till
From 2008 till 2012
From 2008 (until/to) 2012
You, your (i.e. the second-person point of view)
You can clearly see the results
One can clearly see the results
The results can clearly be seen
Example statement: The best comedians should make you LOL 24-7.
Improved statement: To be a quality comedian, you must develop your craft in a way that inspires laughter and smiles at every performance.
7. Avoid terms that are too vague
Using vague terms makes your writing imprecise and may cause people to interpret it in different ways. Always try to be as specific as possible.
Stuff
People are concerned about their stuff
People are concerned about their (belongings/possessions/personal effects)
Thing
The report presents many things
The report presents many (details/findings/recommendations)
A long time, a while
This topic has interested researchers for a long time
This topic has interested researchers for more than 30 years
Do not exaggerate
Academic writing is usually unadorned and direct. Some adverbs of frequency (such as always and never), superlatives (terms that indicate something is of the highest degree, such as the best), and intensifiers (words that create emphasis, such as very) are often too dramatic. They may also not be accurate – you’re making a significant claim when you say something is perfect or never happens.
These terms do sometimes add value but try to use them sparingly.
Always, never
Researchers always argue that
Researchers (often/frequently/commonly/ typically) argue that
Perfect, best, worst, most (or any other superlative)
The perfect solution to the problem
(An ideal solution/one of the best solutions) to the problem
Very, extremely, really, too, so (or any other intensifier)
This theory is extremely important
This theory is (important/critical/crucial)
8. Avoid highly subjective expressions
Some words and phrases reveal your own bias. For instance, if you state that something will happen, you are indicating that you think the occurrence is obvious – not stating a fact.
Expressing your opinion is appropriate in certain sections of a dissertation and particular types of academic text (such as personal statements and reflective or argumentative essays). In most cases, though, take care when using words and phrases such as those below – try to let the facts speak for themselves, or emphasize your point with less biased language.
Beautiful, ugly, wonderful, horrible, good, bad
A review of the literature yielded many good articles
A review of the literature yielded many relevant articles
Naturally
The participants naturally wanted to know
The participants wanted to know
Obviously, of course
The results obviously indicate
The results clearly indicate
9. Avoid the generally unnecessary expressions
You should strive to make your academic writing as concise as possible. Avoid adding words and phrases that do not add meaning, even if you think they give your writing a more refined feel.
Has got/have got
This dissertation has got four chapters
This dissertation has four chapters Serves to, helps to
This chapter serves to explain
This chapter explains
10. Avoid the generally incorrect words
Certain words and phrases are often used incorrectly, even by native speakers of a language. If you’re exposed to such mistakes often enough, you may start to assume they are correct – but it’s important that you don’t let them creep into your writing. You should also bear in mind that some of these mistakes relate to things we all frequently mishear (for instance, we often think the speaker is saying would of instead of would have).
Literally
The students were literally dying to participate
The students were (very eager) to participate
Would of
The study would of considered
The study would have considered
11. Avoid using words and phrases that fall into the following categories:
Jargon (i.e., “insider” terminology that may be difficult for readers from other fields to understand)
Clichés (i.e., expressions that are heavily overused, such as think outside of the box, and at the end of the day)
Everyday abbreviations (e.g. photos, fridge, phone, info) Slang (e.g. cops, cool)
Gender-biased language (e.g. firemen, mankind)
There are however some exceptions;
Reflective reports and personal statements sometimes have a less formal tone. In these types of writing, you may not have to follow these guidelines as strictly. The preface or acknowledgements of a dissertation also often have a less formal and more personal voice than the rest of the document.
12. Avoid Statements that lack connection to the rest of the essay.
Even if you have a decent thesis statement, it will mean nothing if the rest of the essay strays from your main idea. Always connect your thoughts back to the thesis statement. The paper needs to be coherent and stay on target with your original argument.
13. Ensure the presence of strong, relevant data to support statements.
All supporting statements in a paper should be backed up by relevant sources that substantiate the point of view put forward by the thesis statement. Your supporting statements should flesh out your original thesis statement and have a basis in strong, factual data that you cite and the reader can easily verify.
14. Avoid failure to properly cite sources.
Proper credit must be given for all data and references used within a paper. Specific requirements for doing so can vary depending upon the instructor. Whether you’re working in the APA style or some other format, each style has specific parameters and guidelines for citing sources. Be sure to check with your instructor for specifics so that you can cite sources within the required guidelines.
Week 4
Identifying Variables in Academic writing
As earlier pointed out in weeks 1 and 2, a variable is simply something that can change and or can also have more than one value. A variable is something that can vary. It could be anxiety levels, body temperature, height, weight, age, income, religion, demographic, language, fashion, physical or social status, occupation, food, blood group types, humidity, gender, birth order, and so on. Some variables can appear concrete, while some may seem abstract. Some variables could be a group of variables, for example, 14-year-old male students. Such a complex variable will mean that boys that are either younger than or older than 14 years are not what the study is about. It is critical that a researcher should know how certain variables within a study are related to each other. It is thus important to define the variables to facilitate an accurate explanation of the relationship between the variables.
As much as there is no restriction on the number of variables that a researcher can measure, the more variables, the more complex the study becomes and the more complex the statistical analysis required for the study. Furthermore, the more the variables, the more the time required to carry out the study.
There are different types of variables. These variables can influence a study directly or indirectly. These variables include; Independent & dependent variables, Active and attribute variables, Continuous, discrete and categorical variables, Extraneous variables and Demographic variables. For this course, we shall be focusing on independent and dependent variables. You are however advised to read up on other types of variables.
Independent & Dependent Variables
Independent Variable:
Independent variables are antecedent, while the dependent variable is the consequent. Independent variables can be defined as a characteristic that the researchers manipulate to identify a particular factor. Independent variables are also called factor or prediction variables. In every research, there is usually at least one independent variable. You are advised to have at most two independent variables in an experiment. Multiple independent variables will interact in a study and that has the ability to mess up your study while making it lack focus at the same time.
Here are some examples;
Example 1:
Research Statement: A study to determine which method of pointing is more accurate.
Independent Variable: Method of pointing
Example 2:
Research Statement: A study to determine which age group is most familiar with pointing devices.
Independent Variable: Pointing devices
Example 3:
Research Statement: A study to determine which mode of feedback is most suitable.
Independent Variable: Feedback mode
Example 4:
We can alter the anxiety levels to see if responsiveness to pain reduction medication is enhanced. Independent Variable: Anxiety level.
Dependent Variable:
The dependent variable is the variable that is affected by the independent variable. Responsiveness to pain reduction medication is the dependent variable in the above example. As the name implies, the dependent variable is dependent on the independent variable. Dependent variables usually answer the question: What is it that we are testing? The number of dependent variables may be more than the independent variables.
Examples:
Example 1:
Research Topic: A study of the role of colour in preschool learning
Dependent Variable: colour
Example 2:
Research Topic: Influence of Speech Apprehension on Oral Communication among Undergraduates
Dependent Variable: Speech Apprehension
Example 3:
Research Topic: Role of Interpersonal Communication on Consumer Retention
Dependent Variable: Interpersonal communication
Assignment
Write down a research problem you want to solve. Ensure that you have summarized it into not more than a paragraph. Come with the same to class in the 5th week.
Week 5
1st CA Week 6
Casting Research Titles
A mistake many make when they want to start a project is to start worrying themselves about the title of their research. The first thing to identify a problem that you want your study to address. When this is done, you will notice that at least two variables have come into play. Those variables you have identified will definitely be part of what will inform the casting of your project title.
This class will be largely practical-based. Students are expected to identify research problems they want to solve, and the project topic will then be formed. Students must have written down a problem they want to solve before coming to the class.
Assignment
Write a short description of one of the topics below in no more than 20 words.
(a) A book you have enjoyed
(b) A town or city you know well
(c) A film you have recently watched
Week 7
Summarizing and Paraphrasing
According to Bailey (2015:43):
Summarizing and paraphrasing are normally used together in essay writing. Summarizing aims to reduce information to a suitable length, allowing the writer to condense lengthy sources into a concise form, while paraphrasing means changing the wording of a text so that it is significantly different from the original source, without changing the meaning. Both are needed to avoid the risk of plagiarism.
A summary is simply the description of the main features of a subject, event or piece of information. Generally, a summary pays attention to the main themes and leaves out supporting information or examples. Here are suggested steps to follow when attempting to summarize a piece of information;
i. Read the original text carefully and check any new or difficult vocabulary. ii. Mark the key points by underlining or highlighting. iii. Make notes of the key points, paraphrasing where possible. iv. Write the summary from your notes, reorganizing the structure if needed. v. Check the summary to ensure it is accurate and nothing important has been changed or lost.
Exercise: Summarize the following text:
Independent variables are those that influence or affect outcomes in experimental studies. They are described as “independent” because they are variables that are manipulated in an experiment and thus independent of all other influences. Using the earlier example, you may decide to run an eight-week experimental study where you ask some participants to drink one glass of red wine daily (red wine group), whereas other participants in a comparison group are instructed to maintain their normal consumption patterns (control group). You are systematically manipulating red wine consumption, and thus moderate red wine consumption is an independent variable in this study. Independent variables are also commonly referred to as treatment or manipulated variables in experimental studies.
Dependent variables are those that depend on the independent variables; they are the outcomes or results of the influence of the independent variables. We recommend that one aim to measure multiple dependent measures in experimental studies, and in the red wine example a researcher might consider measuring dependent variables such as heart attack incidence, strokes, and/or the amount of arterial atherosclerotic plaque formations.
Predictor variables (also called antecedent variables) are variables that are used to predict an outcome of interest in survey method studies. Predictor variables are similar to independent variables in that they are hypothesized to affect outcomes in a study, but dissimilar because the researcher is not able to systematically manipulate a predictor variable. It may not be possible or feasible to assign individuals to a red wine consumption or control group (as an independent variable) but it may be possible to measure naturally occurring red wine consumption in a community sample as a predictor variable. Outcome variables (also called criterion or response variables) are variables that are considered outcomes or results of predictor variables in survey method studies. They share the same properties as dependent variables (described above). Other types of variables provide a supporting cast in quantitative research, and we recommend that you make efforts to identify and measure these variables in your quantitative research study: Intervening or mediating variables (Intervening or mediating variables) stand between the independent and dependent variables, and they transmit the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable (for a review, see MacKinnon, Fairchild, & Fritz, 2007). A mediating variable can be tested using different kinds of statistical mediation analyses (see MacKinnon et al., 2007, for some examples), and provides a quantitative assessment of how the independent variable is exerting its effects on the dependent variable (or in the case of survey method studies how a predictor variable may be exerting its effects on an outcome variable of interest). One leading idea is that the polyphenol compounds in red wine are what is driving the health benefits of moderate red wine consumption (e.g., Szmitko & Verma, 2005), so one possibility could be to measure the amount of polyphenols occurring in a red wine consumption study as a mediating variable. Researchers use statistical procedures (e.g., analysis of covariance [ANCOVA]) to control for these variables.
Moderating variables are predictor variables that affect the direction and/or the strength of the relationship between independent and dependent variables, or between predictor and outcome variables (Thompson, 2006). These variables act on or intersect with the independent variables, and then together in combination with the independent variables influence the dependent variables. Moderating variables are powerful in that they can identify potential boundary conditions (e.g., participant gender; are the effects of moderate red wine consumption on heart attacks much larger for males compared to females?) of the effect of interest.
Paraphrasing
Paraphrasing and summarizing are normally used together in essay writing, but while summarizing aims to reduce information to a suitable length, paraphrasing attempts to restate the relevant information. For example, the following sentence: There has been much debate about the reasons for the Industrial Revolution happening in eighteenth-century Britain, rather than in France or Germany. It could be paraphrased thus:
Why the Industrial Revolution occurred in Britain in the eighteenth century, instead of on the continent, has been the subject of considerable discussion.
According to Bailey (2015), an effective paraphrase usually
• has a different structure to the original
• has a mainly different vocabulary
• retains the same meaning
• keeps some phrases from the original that are in common use (e.g. ‘Industrial Revolution’ or ‘eighteenth-century’)
Therefore, when you want to paraphrase, consider the following paraphrasing techniques;
(1) Change vocabulary by using synonyms. Here are some examples:
Argues = claims, contends, claims
Eighteenth-century = 1700s
Wages = remunerations, labour costs, earnings
Economize > conserve, save
(2) Change the word class: You can change from noun to verb, adjective to a verb, or adjective to noun, and so on. The following are some examples:
Explanation (n.) to explain (v.)
Mechanical (adj.) to mechanize (v.)
Profitable (adj.) to profitability (n.)
(3) You can also change the word order:
. . . the best explanation for the British location of the Industrial Revolution is found by studying demand factors. An examination of demand may assist in explaining the UK origin of the Industrial Revolution.
NB: In practice, all these three techniques are used at the same time. However, you should not paraphrase every word. This is because some words such as demand and economy have no true synonym.
Week 8
2nd CA
Week 9
Introduction to different Manuals of Style with a focus on APA
A manual of style, or style guide can be described as a set of rules or standards for the writing, formatting, and design of documents. The standards can be applied either for general use, or be required usage for an individual publication, a particular organization, or a specific field.
In order to ensure consistency, the style guide sets acceptable style requirements to improve communication. As practices differ, a manual of style may set out rules guiding areas such as punctuation, capitalization, citing sources, the arrangement of numbers and dates, table appearance and so on.
One manual of style is usually different from the other. The Communication Arts Programme has subscribed to one of the manuals of style which is the APA style. Below is a list of different manuals of style;
1. ACS Style Guide (American Chemical Society) 2. AMA Manual of Style (American Medical Association) 3. AP Stylebook (Associated Press) 4. APA Style (American Psychological Association) 5. The ASA Style Guide (American Sociological Association) 6. The Business Style Handbook 7. The Cambridge Guide to English Usage 8. The Chicago Manual of Style (CMS) 9. Citing Medicine 10. The Elements of Style 11. The Elements of Typographic Style 12. Fowler's Modern English Usage 13. IEEE style 14. ISO 690 15. MHRA Style Guide (Modern Humanities Research Association) 16. The Microsoft Manual of Style 17. MLA Handbook (Modern Language Association of America) 18. The Style Manual for Political Science 19. The New York Times Manual 20. The Oxford Guide to Style/New Hart's Rules 21. Scientific Style and Format (CSE style) 22. The Sense of Style 23. Turabian: A Manual for Writers 24. A&A Author’s Guide (Astronomy & Astrophysics)
The APA Style Guide is often used in the social sciences. The style is published by the American Psychological Association. It is a common style used for papers written in the social sciences. The Communication Arts Programme at Bowen University currently uses this manual of style. The 6th Edition of the APA Style Guide has been uploaded unto the school hub, so you can consult it for guidance. We shall now discuss some aspects of the APA manual of style.
Assignment: Write a short note on each of the 24 manuals of style listed above.
Week 10
APA Manual of Style
This class will be a discussion/question and answer session on the 6th Edition of the APA Style Guide which was uploaded unto the school hub.
Week 11
Referencing and Citation
Why do scholarly writers use references?
According to Bailey (2015), there are three fundamental reasons why researchers need to supply references and citations. They are;
(1) To show that the scholar didn’t work in isolation, but consulted other existing materials in the area of study. This study of literature assists the writer in making informed navigations throughout the research. The empirical review will also give breadth to the writing.
(2) To allow readers of the work to find the source of the cited work, in case they intend to consult them and study the issue more.
(3) To avoid plagiarism. Plagiarism is a crime, and at this level, you understand this already. Every good piece of scholarly writing is a result of hours of study in other literature. No man has all the knowledge.
Your bibliography or reference section at the end of your project is usually referred to as your external citation, while the citations in the body of the work are often referred to as the internal citation. Here’s an example;
Smith (2009) argues that the popularity of the Sports Utility Vehicle (SUV) is irrational, as despite their high cost most are never driven off-road. In his view, “they are bad for road safety, the environment and road congestion” (Smith, 2009: 37).
You should be familiar with the type of referencing above by now after going through the APA manual of style. Here is paraphrasing followed by a direct quotation. The quotation marks were used because the exact words of the writer were copied and pasted. When this is done, you have to include not just the year of publication but also the page in the internal citation. For the reference page usually located at the end of the writing, here’s what you will have;
References
Smith, M. (2009) Power and the State. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Remember that when citing with a quotation you should have; Author’s name, date of publication, page number (Smith, 2009: 37). However, when citing without a quotation you should have;
Author’s name, date of publication Smith (2009).
When doing a summary of paraphrasing, they are often introduced by Reference Verbs. For example, Smith (2009) argues that... .; Janovic (1972) claimed that... .; Okpoho (2020) posited that….and so on. These verbs can be either in the present or the past tense.
Recommended Book
-Bailey. S. (2015). Academic Writing: A Handbook for International Students. London and New York: Routledge.