Language and Culture in the Development of Society Theory and Practice William A. Smalley

he Burmese Bible, translated over a period of about individual translators grow out of cultural attitudes, education, T twenty-five years by the legendary Adoniram Judson and experience. They also come from personal predispositions, and published finally in 1840, was one of several contemporary as when some translators are cautious, others innovative. Theo­ Bible into languages without Christian traditions. logical assumptions, particularly those about the composition, Unlike most of those translations, however, a rival to Judson's nature, and use of Scripture, are foundational. And views of Burmese Bible did not begin to appear until the beginning of the language and culture are critical. twentieth century, and neither it nor any other translation has For various reasons, most Bible translators start with a everfully supplantedJudson'swork. In contrast,WilliamCarey's predisposition toward literal translation-some out of convic­ primary translation-his Bengali Bible in many revisions-had tion, others because they do not know what else to do. They use a rival before the middle of the nineteenth century,' and succes­ the vernacular butnot the idiom of the vernacular. But almost all sors to RobertMorrison'sChinese translationwerealreadyin use Bible translators with any sensitivity to the receptor language by then also, to cite two of Judson's illustrious contemporaries. recognize that a translation will not do if it says, for example, Judson's long-lasting success at any initial translation in a new "The womanwho is believingon the Lord is being savedby him" language is rare in the history of Bible translation.' or "Take up your bed and go on walking ... and he took up his Many factors contribute to making a translation lose out, and bed and was walking."? They know that such literalism must be an unsuccessful attempt to replace Judson's work illustrates one tempered, but they believe that if they"go too far" from a literal of them: inadequate translation theory, which often vitiates rendering, the result will be what they call paraphrase! rather translation efforts. When the British and Foreign Bible Society than translation. The more sensitive they are to the receptor began to publish what they expected would become a replace­ language and culture, the more they may be torn by the tension ment for the Judson translation, missionary ideas about what between the literalism in which they believe and the need for translation should be like had come under the influence of the communication that they perceive. This is a pervasive transla­ English Revised Version of 1881-85. This revision of the Autho­ tors'dilemma.5 rized, or King James, Version was touted as being far more The need to translate into languages without Christian tra­ accurate in its wording thanits predecessor,butpartof wha twas ditions and languages with structures significantly different called"accuracy" was a heavy literalism with none of the sensi­ from Semitic and Indo-European greatly compounds the prob­ tivity to English style that characterizes many passages of the lem." European languages have long been accommodated to King James. The people who made the new Burmese translation biblical translationisms. Terms like "propitiation" and "sanctifi­ adopted not only the improved textual base of the ERV but also cation" may not be clear, but they are deceptively familiar if one what was considered its "modern" and "scholarly" approach to reads certain translations or goes to certain churches. The Bible is translation, so that like their model, their work sank under its full of fresh problems for less "biblicized" languages. own wooden literalness. A whole era of missionary translators Whattranslators lacked until themiddleof this centurywere tended to do much the same. broad cross-linguistic and cross-cultural criteria by which to All Bible translators have assumptions about what transla­ judge when a translation is both natural and faithful to the tion should be like and how to achieve valid results. In many original. Nobodyhad studied the task of Bible translation world­ cases their assumptions are not fully articulated, often showing wide from the perspective of the receptor languages in an at­ up primarily in gut reactions to translation problems. Sometimes tempt to find solutions to the translators' dilemma. Clearly, a single translator may hold incompatible assumptions, as when knowledge of the original languages and of the text, available to many have believed both that a translation should be narrowly scholarship through the centuries, was not enough. Neither was literal and also that it should be highly intelligible to the reader. suchknowledgeenoughwhencombined witha profoundknowl­ Sometimes a translator's assumptions are inconsistent, as when edge of the receptor language, as may be seen in the struggle some want to translate the texts as they stand but also occasion­ many native speakers havehad when translating into their own ally seek to harmonize passages that are or seem to be contradic­ languages. tory. Assumptions about what constitutes translation, the pur­ Language and Culture in Translation Theory pose of translation, what translations should be like, and how translation should be done are here called theories of translation Bible translation involves accommodating three sets of lan­ or translation theories, whether they are consciously developed guages and cultures-those of the original documents, those of and carefully articulated or not. The translation theories of the readers, and those by which the Bible and the faith were mediated to the translator (and in somecases to the local ). Idiosyncratic interpretations in translations of this intermediary William A. Smalley is an anthropological linguist whoparticipated in some of thedevelopments described in thisarticlefrom 1947 to1978. For thelasttwenty­ category tend to be reproduced in the translations of the people three years of that timehewasa translation consultant, first for theAmerican they influenced. Archaic or flat and stilted translations tend to Bible Society, and then for the United Bible Societies. This paper was first become models for new translations. Anyone who tries a fresh presented at the conference Language, Culture, and Translation: Further translation into some languages finds that the previous transla­ Studiesin theMissionary Movement, heldat the DayMissions Library, Yale tions have set bounds to what people expect and will accept. Divinity School, September 9-11, 1993. Breaking out of the Elizabethan English of the Authorized Ver­

April 1995 61 sion, for example, was slow in coming and is still not yet accept- munity. But the need to translate forced many missionaries to able to all English-speaking Christians. take the language and culture more seriously than they might Translations for minority groups, furthermore, are often otherwise have done. Out of the repeated struggle to translate the constrained by preexisting translation in the major language of story appropriately in that new medium has arisen much of the the country. In Vietnam, for example, if a translation in a lan- missionary exploration oflanguage and culture over the past two guage of one of the minority peoples did not match the Vietnam- hundred years, constrained by several overlapping types of ese translation rather literally, it became suspect. Translators missionary contexts:" Context one is the context of the pioneer who sought to communicate the meaning of Scripture by using missionary; context two is that of the well-established mission- the full resources of the minority language were cramped by the ary community; context three is the social science context. more narrow translation theories of their readers, who based Context one is represented in the work of Judson, Carey, their judgments on a translation in an intermediary language, Morrison, and their contemporaries. A few others preceded good or bad. them, and many followed. These translators were forced to Problematic as the effects of the mediating languages and explore new languages and cultures in order to survive and to cultures may be, ultimately the greatest difficulties that transla- communicate at all. Carey passed harsh judgment on many tion theories must address come primarily from differences aspects of Bengali culture but was nevertheless an insatiable between source and receptor languages and cultures. More than student of it all of his life in India. 8 Judson is said to have" abjured once, for example, new or prospective translators have told me English preaching, English reading, English society" for years to that the language they were learning was so defective that it did immerse himself in his single-minded pursuit of Burmese," not have a word for "love." I asked them if parents do not love Native speakers, members of the local culture, were the their children and talk about it. Well, yes, but they use verbs, but primary sources of information for context-one missionaries, they do not have a noun for "love." The new translators do not yet although in many cases the missionaries also learned from see that "God is love" may be translated naturally in such a colonial officials and others who had been on the local scene language with a grammatical construction like "God loves" or longer. But even in the latter case these missionaries drew "God is the one who loves." information from the people around them rather than being Similarly, differing cultural attitudes toward sheep in differ- taught predigested knowledge. How they used what they leamed ent parts of the world contrast with the biblical stories and figures in their translations varied partly because their theories of trans- depicting idealized sheep. In some societies people see sheep as lation varied. Their translational decisions resulted primarily from the assumptions they brought with them intersecting with what they learned from local people. Some results were remark- ably good, others remarkably bad. The Gospel has forever Not all pioneer context missionaries learned enough from been clothed in multiple native speakers to influence their work significantly, however, for several reasons: many died too soon; the home-grown theo- languages and has been ries of others were too strong; and some missionaries were in too colored by them. much of a hurry. For example, Carl A. F. Gutzlaff (of later fame in China) spent less than three years in Siam, during which time he translated the whole Bible into "imperfect Siamese" and rather stupid animals, as dirty, and as the property of undesir- portions into Lao and Cambodian.'? able aliens. But sheep are essential to and pervasive in the text The second context consists of missionary communities being translated. What does a translator do with nonequivalent already in place, usually with churches already established, sheep? some translation already done, patterns of communicating the Ever since the Christian message was expressed in tongues Gospel already habitualized. In this consolidation context new other than its original ones in the first half of the first century, the missionaries often learned as much or more from their senior Gospel has been clothed in multiple languages and has also been colleagues as from local peop le. In any case, the new missionaries colored by those languages and by the cultures of which they are were expected to conform to the ways and ideas of the earlier a part. We cannot translate into Thai without Buddhist terminol- missionaries. Native speakers were still their language tutors, ogy, which then gives the Christian message a Buddhist cast but experienced missionaries set up the curriculum for their different from the Jewish and Greco-Roman cast of the original, study, examined them on it, set the bounds of what was consid- or the cast given by Muslim or Hindu or Confucian terminology, ered important to learn, and taught them how the missionary or the cast of the mediating North Atlantic culture. Even the community judged aspects of the language and culture. word for "God" is weak in Thai because deity is not strong in For example, one young second-generation missionary re- Buddhism. But although the Bible is colored by the Buddhist turned to the African language she had spoken until she went to medium, it also challenges the medium because the Bible rever- the States for college. Like all new missionaries in her mission, berates with the story of a strong God, and if that story is before she could be accepted as a full-fledged colleague, she was translated powerfully, it partially changes the coloring for those required to complete a two-year language course designed by who hear. missionaries of her parents' genera tion and to pass examinations given by those missionaries. On the one hand, senior missionar- Missionary Translator Response to Language ies recognized that her knowledge of the language was in some and Culture ways already superior to their own and soon appointed her to the Bible translation committee. They also recognized that she was Missionary translator response in the face of languages and doubtless right when she pointed out mistakes in the language cultures that are radically different from their own has varied course. On the other hand, instead of freeing her to explore almost as widely as the response of the larger missionary com- deeper aspects of the language than she had known as a teen-

62 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEARCH ager-thatis, giving her an opportunity for experience in context the local culture, but they do so equipped with new tools and one-they made her memorize the established course, mistakes insights gained from disciplines that specialize in that kind of and all, because it was a mission requirement. And since it would learning. They usually have some significant degree of training not be as difficult for her to learn the material as for other new in linguistics, some influence from anthropology, and some missionaries, they also gave her the task of simultaneously exposure to the translation theory that has been developing in rewriting the same language course for the use of· those who their same environment. Today the long-standing flow of infor­ would come after her, so that her successors would not have to mation from translators to anthropology and linguistics also memorizethe samemistakesshe did. She wouldthenbecomethe meets another tide of information flowing from those disciplines new "language examiner." Thus her seniors neatly co-opted her and others into Bible translation. into a context-two missionary role. Severalearlier people had noted and promoted the possibili­ Many scholarly missionary translators in the second context ties especially of linguistics in the formation of missionaries, but sought to "clean up" earlier translations by revising them both it was W. Cameron Townsend who in 1934 started what became linguistically and culturally. Most of these earlier translations the most extensive context-three training program for prospec­ did need revision or replacement. They were hard to understand tive Bible translators. It was built on the emerging field of and contained errors. But consolidation-context missionaries descriptive linguistics,whichTownsendhad found helpfulwhen were sometimes more concerned about what they felt to be the translating the into Cakchiquel of Guatemala. illegitimate coloring that the local languages and cultures gave to The SummerInstitute of Linguistics (Wycliffe Bible Transla­ the translations than about their wooden communication of the tors) grew rapidly and has trained several thousand would-be Gospel. In that climate came many translations like the attempt social-science-context missionary translators around the world, of the British and Foreign Bible Society's to replace Judson's work with something less Burmese. At its worst extremes, context two fosters a "missionary knows best" attitude. This was symbolized in a few translation Where missionary committees when missionaries sat around a table where they communities were well held their discussions in English, while native speakers, even pastors and teachers, sat around the wall of the room to be established, a "missionary consulted when the missionaries thought it appropriate. Never­ knows best" attitude theless, in spite of much severe linguistic and cultural narrow­ ness in context two, many missionary translators did make sometimes prevailed. important contributions. In the meantime, however, not all later missionaries became trapped by context two. A number continued to live and work in sponsoring many of them to translate under its own auspices. pioneer contexts as contemporaries of the consolidation-context Much of this success became possible primarily because by 1939 people. Some were forced to do so because they worked where two unusually gifted young men were regular teachers at the other missionaries had not preceded them. But curiosity, the summer training program. Of these, Kenneth L. Pike ultimately challenge to understand ways of life other than their own, and developed into a leading linguistic theoretician and the intellec­ the desire to communicate meaningfully also drove them on. tual flag bearer of SIL. And Eugene A. Nida, who first shared Some explored the local language and culture in spite of withPike the leadershiprole in SILlinguistics, eventually moved opposition from senior context-two people who did not want out and led in the formulation of an applicable, teachable theory them wasting their time with "heathen" things. Some of them of translation within the Bible societies. fulfilled the mission study requirements set by their seniors but Ostensible context-three missionary translators around the learned vastly more from local people as well. Some wrote world vary widely in the depth of their commitment to, and their valuable ethnographies or grammars or dictionaries based on skill in learning from, local people. Some have great aptitude, years of investigation. Ironically, these added not only to the others not. They range in training from doctorates in linguistics contemporary development of anthropology and of linguistics or anthropology to one three-month course or less. Many do not butalso to the material that later context-two missionaries would balance their efforts to learn and analyze the local language with study in place of learning directly from the people themselves. equal sophistication in the original biblical languages. Many do For example, Maurice Leenhardt of the Paris Missionary not balance their linguistics with equal sensitivity to local Societywas a notable pioneer-context missionary scholar in New nonlinguistic culture. Manywhohave had context-three training Caledonia in the first quarter of the twentieth century-one still act like context-two missionaries. But without question, in hundred years after Carey, Morrison, and Judson. Every step he the aggregate social-science-context missionary translators have made in translating the NewTestament, in teaching the Christian radically changed Bible translation." leaders, and in leading the congregationswas markedby his own The context-threeapproachto missionary translation, which intensive search within New Caledonian language and culture got its first major impetus in SIL, was adapted to a wider and by drawing the New Caledonians into the discussion of constituencywhenNidabeganworkingwiththe AmericanBible alternative ways of saying things. But oldercontext-two mission­ Society in 1944 and eventually became executive secretary for aries in the Loyalty Islands 150 miles away knew better and translations. Instead of waitingin NewYork for manuscripts and forced changes more to their liking. Leenhardt did not return to inquiries to come to him, as his predecessors had done, in true New Caledonia butbecame a leading French anthropologist and context-three fashion he traveled all over the world for months at authority on Pacific cultures." a time, working with translators, studying the linguistic and The third, or social science, context developed in the mid­ cultural problems they faced, seeking to generalize the search for twentieth century. Context-three missionary translators are like solutions,andinfluencingthe processof translationbefore manu­ those of context one in that they focus on learning from people in scripts ever arrived at the Bible society for publication. This was

April 1995 63 the watershed point in the development of Bible society transla­ The third facet of dynamic equivalence translation is its tion theory and practice. communicative and missiologicalfocus. It assumes that the Bible Nidasoonbeganwritingandteachingwhathe waslearning, as translated into any language should be accessible to all kinds with books entitled Bible Translating, Toward a Science ofTranslat­ of people, and that the message of the Bible should be clear and ing, and TheTheory andPractice ofTranslation. 13 Under his leader­ convincing on all levels of society. The Bible should be read and ship, translation consultants of the and understood by non-Christians as well as by Christians, by new later the United Bible Societies conducted translator seminars all Christians as well as by ones with long Christian experience, by over the world, published manyhelps for translators, and issued laityas well as the theologically trained,by working-class people a quarterly journal called the Bible Translator. They criticized and and the unemployed as well as by the elite, by people of limited taught his ideas, adding refinements (or at least variations) of education as well as by the well educated, by people with fragile their own. In the early days most of them were anthropological literacy as well as those who read well. It should be suitable for linguists, soonjoined by biblical scholars. Substantially the same hearing when read aloud as well as for private reading and theoretical point of view was also held and taught by some study. The ultimate measure of any translation is to compare members of SIL, a few of whom also contributed textbooks. what varied readers of the translation actually understand with During the 1950s the translations department of the ABS also what the original readers are believed to have understood, and indirectly sponsored Practical Anthropology, a small journal in which context-three missionaries could share what they were learning about culture and cultures." Nida also published Cus­ The ultimate measure of tomsandCultures." an influential book among missionary trans­ lators." any translation is to make modern readers feel what Dynamic Equivalence Translation Context three was thus the climate in which developed what is the original readers now the body of translation theory most widely applied to Bible probably felt. translation around the world. It came after and was informed by 150 years of explosion in the number of translations into new languages. It added roots in linguistics, anthropology, and com­ what the modern readers feel with what the original readers munication theory to the roots in biblical studies already nurtur­ probably felt. Such an assumption entails not only the question ing Bible translation. Nida first called the theory dynamic equiva­ of equivalence again but adds complications like, How can any lence translaiion" switching tofunctional equivalence translation in translation be made equivalent for people with such an array of the 1980s.18 Mildred L. Larson of SIL calls it meaning-based trans­ linguistic and cultural levels of experience, and if it cannot, how lation in what currently seems to be the best textbook on the can the need be met? Concepts such as "common language subject.19 translation" and "popular language translation" have grown up Dynamic equivalence translation, as I will continue to call it, within dynamic equivalent translation to suggest partial an­ is like a stone with at least six major, mutually interreflecting swers." At present, also, an ABS team is engaged in intensive facets. Each of them, in turn, has many subfacets and angles, study and experimentation with computer-interactive audiovi­ which we cannot explore here. sual hypertexts for selections from the Bible." Dynamicequivalencetranslationfirst assumesthatthe trans­ The fourth facet of the theory is the assumption that texts are lator will do everything possible to arrive at and translate a well­ structured in many meaningful ways and that equivalency ap­ founded understanding of the meaning of the text, based on the plies in some degree to the meaning of each type of structure, but best resources available from biblical studies." But as the history most fully to the meaning of the whole. Thus, the Bible in the of translation and of biblical studies has shown, this assumption original languages has grammatical structures, meaning struc­ raises some difficult questions, like How is the text to be trans­ tures, the structural organization of ideas, poetry/prose struc­ lated in light of the complexity of the Bible's composition and tures, rhetorical structures, genre structures, plus others. Literal transmission? and Whose interpretation of the meaning do we translation tends to restrict its consideration of equivalency to follow? In practice, answers to the first question are partially words and phrases, maybe sentences. It rarely considers equiva­ suggested by the Greek and Hebrew texts that were edited by lency of paragraphs or of stories or of whole books. Dynamic ecumenical committees of scholars and published by the United equivalence translation struggles with some of these multiple Bible Societies. Answers to the second question are partially layers of equivalency and asks, for example, Is the translation of suggested in translators' handbooks concerning the various Ruth in a given language an equivalent story to the original books of the Bible. story?"Ordoesit comeoutas a plotbetweenanalienwomanand The second facet of dynamic equivalence translation is its her scheming mother-in-law to gain security and status by insistence that to translate means not only to understand the seducing a wealthy landowner?" Does the translation of any meaning of the source text but also to express that meaning in particular psalm provide the modern reader with an equivalent clear natural equivalents. Most earlier translations around the expressionto that providedearlyHebrewsbythe Hebrewpsalm? world did not meet this criterion, for literalness does not lead to Research into this growing area of the theory, often called dis­ naturalness." The questions posedby this facet are monumental: course analysis, is not yet as fully developed as some of the What does faithfulness to the biblical text mean in light of others. ' culturaland linguisticdifferencesWesternbiblicalscholarsnever The fifth facet of the theory of dynamic equivalence transla­ dreamedof?Whatiscross-culturallinguisticandculturalequiva­ tion results from the fact that cultural behavior has meaning and lence? Much of the discussion and experimentation within dy­ that behavior depicted in the Bible may be misinterpreted be­ namic equivalence theory has dealt with ways of handling such cause it conveys a different meaning to the reader. When people issues. beat their breasts in sorrow in the Bible, that action in another

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Here are justafew ofover 30 largest-residentdaculty ofanyschool of courses that will be offered this world-inission. All who teach are ~ summer a C' ... •. inary in Pasa­ seasonea'veterans ofthe mission field. Cali ." ' Fuller is theologically evangelical andcommitted to the authority of owth, " "" Scripture. Ourstudentbody is made up urch Gro ~~i t: ' , ofmen,and.women from over 80 t . nations.and.m than125denomina­ culture may mean that they were exhibiting macho bravado. Or istics that God used historically to carry God's message. Biblical behavior depicted in the Bible may be incomprehensible to the cultures, biblical societies, and biblically recounted behavior are reader. How can you imagine Peter sleeping on the roof of a themselves oftenintegral parts of the history of faith, thus part of house if all the houses you have ever seen have sloping thatched the message. So how can translation be made meaningfully or corrugated metal roofs? To the greatest degree possible in equivalent without distorting the biblical cultures that carry the message? This question remains one of the most perplexing facets of the theory. Finally, the sixth facet, the one at the center of the stone and Behavior depicted in the touching on all the others, is that meaning takes precedence over Bible may be wrongly form, over literalism, that a formal correspondence that does not adequately convey the meaning of the source text to the reader in interpreted because it natural fashion is not suitably equivalent. However, when the conveys a different form itself has significant meaning, that meaning of the form should be reflected in the translation as much as possible. Thus meaning to the reader. biblicalparallelism,repetition, and chiasticstructuresoftencarry their own meanings in the original, with different parts of the structuresoften highlighting,reinforcing, or clarifyingeach other. keeping with other criteria, the translation should enable the Such meaning is not usually captured in the translation unless readerto understand the eventsdepicted. Yetthe Bibleis describ­ the translator uses equivalent ways of highlighting, reinforcing ing particularsets of peopleswith their ownparticularcharacter- and clarifying characteristics of the receptor language. Literal Noteworthy Announcing Joseph Chaphadzika Chakanza, University of Malawi: "Reli­ gious Innovation in Malawi: The African Initiative" The Overseas Ministries StudyCenter, New Haven, Connecti­ Richard H. Elphick, Wesleyan University: "Mission Chris­ cut, announces the 1995grantees of the Research Enablement tians and South African Social Thought" Program. Eighteen scholars, representing Argentina, Austra­ Juan Samuel Escobar, Eastern Baptist Theological Seminary: lia, Brazil, Canada, Ecuador, Germany, Hong Kong, Indone­ "FromMillennial Dreams to Socio-PoliticalAgendas: The sia, Malawi, Myanmar, Nigeria, Peru, the United States, and Coming of Age of Peruvian Protestantism" Vietnam received awards for research projects in the study of Gail O. King, Brigham Young University: "Candida Xu and Christian Mission and World Christianity. The Research the GrowthofChristianityin SeventeenthCenturyChina" Enablement Programis funded by The Pew Charitable Trusts, Matthews Akintunde Ojo, Obafemi Awolowo University: Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and administered by OMSC. The "Perspectives on Missions and Missionary Enterprises grants, which will be dispensed for work in the 1995-1996 among Nigerian Charismatic Movements" academic year, total approximately $252,000. Peter Cho Phan, Catholic University of America: "Religious Gerald H. Anderson, OMSC's director who also serves as Inculturation into the Vietnamese Society: A Study of director of the REP and chair of the Review and Selection Alexandre de Rhodes' Contribution to Vietnamese Cul­ Committee, states, "The number of high quality applications ture" from the non-Western world dramatically increased this year. Adelbert Agustin Sitompul, Nommensen University: "Batak The Committee is particularly pleased to have awarded over Proverbs: Resources for Contextual Mission, Education half of the grants to scholars from the southern and eastern and Worship in ChristianChurches of NorthernSumatra, continents." Indonesia" This year the REP received 139 applications. Twenty per­ cent of the applicants were women, and over fifty percent Dissertation Field Research were citizens of countries outside and North America. May M. Cheng, University of Hong Kong: "Christianity Fe­ The grantees represent a variety of ecclesial communities. ver: Contagion and Constraint of a Religious Movement The REP is designed to support both younger scholars in Contemporary China" undertaking dissertation field research and established schol­ Lars Peter Laamann, School of Oriental & African Studies, ars engaged in major writing projects dealing with Christian University of London: "The Acculturation and Develop­ missionandChristianityin the non-Westernworld. The grant­ ment of Chinese Christianity during the Eighteenth Cen­ ees, listed by category, are as follows: tury" Lance D. Laird, Harvard Divinity School: "Christianity and Postdoctoral Book Research and Writing Islam in Context: Reinterpreting Religion in Palestinian Waldo Aranha Lenz Cesar, Universidade Federal do Rio de Experience" Janeiro: "Pentecostal Responses in Brazil to the Suffering Susan E. Malone, Indiana University: "Cooperating for Lit­ of the Poor: An Interdisciplinary Study of Recent Theo­ eracy: The Relationship between Government and Non­ logical Developments" Government Organizations in Papua New Guinea"

66 INTERNATIONAL BULLETIN OF MISSIONARY RESEAR¢H translation will not usually do it. But biblical scholarship does tion reflects the message in different ways as it is turned in the not always provide answers to what purposes the literary struc­ light. In some translations one or more of the facets is more tures of the Bible served. We ask, "How should the structural prominent than the others. Some facets are more adequately meanings be translated if we are not sure what they are?" developed and implemented in the theory than others. Transla­ Dynamic equivalence translation thus takes age-old prob­ tors exercise considerable "elasticity" in their application" and lems of Bible translation and studies them from several angles: have different levels of skill. The combination of these facets missionary purpose, worldwide missionary experience, linguis­ makes the translator's task far more complex than the task of tics, cultural anthropology, and communication theory, in addi­ anyone who translates literally. The missiological result, how­ tion to biblical exegesis. It also includes new, nontraditional ever, is also far more profound. concerns coming from recent study of language, culture, and In a recent insightful critical review of the theory, Carson communication. None of its assumptions can ever be imple­ judges that with a minimal number of deliberate exceptions, mented in full, for there is always loss in translation, and the aspects of dynamic equivalence translation have largely pre­ translator must weigh the sometimes conflicting demands of vailed even in Western language translations that are not in­ different facets. Overall, however, it has elevated the level of tended for missionary purposes and even when the translators translation problems from superficial words, phrases, and sen­ judge their own work to be literal." Although some of these tences to deeper issues of structure, style, and culture. Some­ translators still prefer the more literal end of the continuum, times, to be sure, it is weakly applied and notvery successful, but under the influence of dynamic equivalence theory, that end has in most cases it has led to more readily accessible translations and itself shifted more toward what was the center. Once more in has occasionally been applied with brilliance. history, creative forces first felt on the frontiers of the world The multifaceted stone that is dynamic equivalence transla­ church have spread back to older parts of the church as well.

Daniel P. Miguez, Free University of Amsterdam: "Pentecos­ The 1995 annual meetings of the American Society of tal Growth, Faith and Community in the Suburbs of Missiology and the Association of Professors of Missionwill Buenos Aires" be held jointly, June 15-18, at Techny, Illinois (near Chicago). PeterVonDoepp,Universityof Florida: "ChurchesandPoliti­ The theme of the meeting will be "Mission Studies: Taking cal Change in Malawi" Stock, Charting the Course." Wilbert R. Shenk is president of the ASM and Anthony Gittins, C.S.Sp., is president of the Missiological Consultations APM. For further informationandregistration,contactGeorge L. R. Bawla, Presbyterian Church of Myanmar: "First Ecu­ R. Hunsberger, Western Theological Seminary, 101 East 13th menical Missiological Consultation, Myanmar" Street, Holland Michigan 49423-3622. (Fax: 616-392-7717). C. Rene Padilla, Kairos Foundation: "Biblical Perspectives on Mission: A American Contextual Approach" Personalia Andrew Wainwright Thornley, Pacific Theological College: OnMay I, 1995,Joachim Wietzke will become General Secre­ "One Hundred and Sixty Years of Methodism in Fiji: tary of the Northelbian Center for World Mission and Church Retrospect and Prospect" WorldService ofthe NorthelbianEvangelical-LutheranChurch (NMZ) in Hamburg, Germany. Since 1984 he has been Direc­ Planning Grant for Major Interdisciplinary Project tor of Evangelischen Missionswerk (EMW) in Hamburg, and Jonathan J. Bonk, Providence Theological Seminary: "Inter­ also General Secretary of the International Association for national Dictionary of Non-Western Christian Biogra­ Mission Studies (lAMS). His successor in the EMW and lAMS phy. Volume I: Africa" posts is Klaus Schafer, former missionary in India who has a doctorate in New Testament from Hamburg University. In addition to these mission research grants, the PewChari­ table Trusts have announced the awarding of a $310,000three­ Died. David G. Scotchmer, 51, Presbyterian missionary and year grant in support of a major collaborative missiological linguist of the Mam language (Mayan) of Guatemala, research project. The "University of South Africa Project on 1969-1983, and Associate Professor of Mission and Evan­ African Mission Initiatives," with Inus Daneel (University of gelism, University of Dubuque Theological Seminary, on SouthAfrica) as its internationalcoordinator,has beenawarded February 25, 1995, in Dubuque, Iowa. through Boston University, Boston, Massachusetts. A second Died. James E. Goff, 78, Presbyterian missionary for 38 years major project, "EmergenceofPopularCatholicismin the World in Colombia, Mexico, Peru and Nicaragua, on July 23, Christian Movement," headed by Jean-Paul Wiest (Catholic 1994, in Claremont, California. Foreign Mission Society of America, Inc. a.k.a. Maryknoll Died. Norman Anderson, 86, British lawyer, scholar of Is­ Fathers and Brothers), has been awarded $304,000 over three lamic law, missionary to Egypt, December 2, 1994. years. The members of the Review and Selection Committee Died. Christian G. Baeta, 86, one of the most eminent African for the 1994round of grantmakingin this field of collaborative churchmen and scholars of his generation, on December research were: Joel A. Carpenter (PCT Religion Director), 29, 1994, in Ghana. Alan Neely (PrincetonTheologicalSeminary), Lamin Sanneh Died. Ephriam Amu, 95, pioneer African liturgist, on January (YaleUniversity, DivinitySchool), and A. ChristopherSmith. 2, 1995, in Ghana.

April 1995 67 Education and Application his particular time and place. Idioms may have culturally appro­ priate local equivalences, but a historical event does not, only Theory without skillful application will not produce good trans­ analogues. The translation is made in order to tell what hap­ lations, so the Bible society translation consultants work to pened when it happened, and the way it happened. educate translators in the theory and to help them to apply it to In its most profound sense, dynamic equivalence transla­ their translation problems. But from the beginning the most tion, like most other missionary translation, grows from roots helpful influence on translators has come from a process of deep in the local culture. For example, adopting a local term for guiding them to discover for themselves sample inadequacies in God makes a powerful statement about cultural equivalence," their own translations and from suggesting how each example evenas the translationalterswha t people understandabout God. could be overcome. Native speakers become the measuring stick In Thai the weak term for God occurs in such preposterous as the translation consultant (who usually does not know the sentences, from a Buddhist point of view, as "God is love." In language) asks them to explain in some language they have in Buddhism love attaches and engages, and thus brings sorrow, common the meaning of passages taken from their translation. trouble, and suffering, the antithesis of ideal Buddhist detach­ As misunderstandings or lack of clarity emerge, the consultant ment." But the Bible tells the story of an active God, saving, analyzes the probable cause and makes suggestions that the defending, and above all loving so much that Jesus died for translators tryout on the spot so that they gradually learn some people, having participated in their sorrow, trouble, and suffer­ of the theory through its application. Missionaries learn to ask ing. This is new fruit grafted on Buddhist cultural roots. The more helpful questions. Both missionaries and native speakers famous missionary controversy over a name for God in Chinese work with more assurance, having learned better to resolve their illustrates both missionary fear of the coloring that the local problems. culture brings to the translation and missionary uncertainty Simply to illustrate how the theory has helped Bible transla­ about equivalency." tors all over the world, I will mention two elementary concepts Unquestionably,dynamicequivalence translationhas spread that come up immediately when translators begin to learn to use widely in partbecause it was aggressively promotedby the Bible it. One of these deals with problems like the lament that "there is societies, which have clout ranging from the authority of "ex­ no word for 'love' in this language," mentioned earlier:" or more perts" to publication subsidies. But anyone who has seen the generally, that some nouns in Greek or English do not corre­ relief with which many translators learned and adopted dy­ spond to nouns in the receptor language. Many translators have namic equivalence cannot doubt that it went a long way toward tried to coin artificial terms with which to translate such nouns easing the translators' dilemma. Translators often knew that literally. their literal translations did notcommunicate as they should, but OneofNida's favorite illustrations of this fundamental issue with the assumptions they formerly had, they did not dare to do comes from Mark 1:4 (NRSV), "John [person] the baptizer [event better lest they not be faithful to the Word of God. The theory and person] appeared [event] in the wilderness, proclaiming provided criteria for judging equivalence, taught them how to [event] a baptism [event] of repentance [event] for the forgive­ achieve it, and gave them permission to do so. ness [event] of sins [event]." The mostnatural translation of such events into many languages requires rendering some or all of From Missionary Translators to Native Speakers them as verbs. Thus, "John, who baptized people, appeared in as Translators the wilderness. He preached that they should repent and be baptized, and that God would forgive the evil they had done." In keeping with the times in which dynamic equivalence theory This example also illustrates another entry-level concept of developed among Bible translators, I have emphasized the mis­ wide applicability for translators. None of the words thatseemto sionary role. But even context-two translators normally worked havebeen "added" in the "translation" above-suchas "people" and "God" in various places-actually added to or changed the meaning. These meanings were already implicit in the meanings of the English (and Greek) string of events representedbynouns. Today native speakers have Translating events as verbs usually requires that the implicit taken over much of the task participants be made explicit. of Bible translation from Similarly, on one level of culture, "inone of the languages of central New Guinea one can speak of God's forgiveness only by missionaries around the saying, 'Goddoesn'thangupjawbones.'In Englishwe 'lovewith world. the heart,' but in many languages in West Africa one must 'love with the liver.' Strangely enough we speak of the larynx as 'Adam's apple,' while the Uduks of the Sudan call it 'the thing at least to some degree with native speakers, although mission­ that loves beer."?" Such idioms carry the color of culture, but the aries normally controlled the process and made the decisions, reality of language. They are local means of expression, the use especially in earlier times. Today native speakers have taken of which may be important in translation. over much of the task of Bible translation from missionaries But cultural equivalences in the receptor language cannot around the world. In many translation projects all of the transla­ always be so readily used. The cross, for example, was a cultural tors are now na tive speakers, and in manyothersna tive speakers instrument of torture and execution characteristic of a particular carry a full share, if not most of the responsibility. Missionary civilization, a particular time and place. Dynamic equivalence translators are still at work, but their proportion has diminished translation rejects using a noose, an electric chair, burial up to the steadily over the past twenty years, and some of those who are neck in sand near a colony of fire ants, stoning, spearing, or any left are training their native-speaker colleagues and successors. other such cultural equivalent, as a translation of "cross." The In the larger languages the transition evolved rather natu­ meaning to be translated is precisely what was done to Jesus in rally as native speakers gained theological education equivalent

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------~~ ­ to that of the missionaries, and as fewer missionaries had a African and Latin American countries. profound knowledge of the language. But even where not much On the one hand, the worldwidechurch is returning steadily of a church yet exists and education is low, responsibility for to an older pattern, the one usually followed before the nine­ translation has often shifted completely or in part to native teenth century, when most translation was done by people speakers. One way of marking the beginning of this trend is by translating into their own languages. On the other hand, the the first article to describe and advocate it in the BibleTranslator, church now generally sees the process of translation through in 1969.33 different eyes. Whether native speakers or missionaries, transla­ The advantages that native speakers have over missionaries tors can now learn about, debate, and apply the linguistic and as Bible translators are weighty, but they do not eliminate the cultural sides of translation issues with more conscious sophis­ need for a coherent and applicable theory of translation. Several tication than could Carey, Morrison, Judson, or their native­ hundred who are translating into their own native languages speaker predecessors. Still, we also know that much more is yet have learned dynamic equivalence translation in UBS and SIL to be learned and that translation remains a multifaceted art that workshops and other training programs and follow it to varying some people practice with skill and insight but that others fail to degrees. Present UBS translation consultants work a great deal apply at a suitable normal and eloquent level of equivalence. with such people. And we remember Judson, Leenhardt, and others ahead of their Some people from the younger churches are also contribut­ times who discovered for themselves enough about language ing to the development and spread of dynamic equivalence and culture in meaningful translation to stand far above most of translation theory as UBS translation consultants now include their contemporaries, and also of ours. people from the Philippines, Taiwan, Burma, Ceylon, and some Notes------­ ------1. In fairn ess to Carey, we should note that one reason why his Bengali gressonLanguageLearning, August8-12,1993);William A.Smalley, translation spawned rival s so soon lay in ecclesiastical politics; he Linguistic Diversityand National Unity: Language Ecology in Thaila nd was a Baptist in a country where most missionaries were Anglican. (Chicago: Univ . of Chicago Press, 1994), pp . 343-45. Nevertheless, the limitations of his translation were severe. See 13. Eugene A. Nida, Bible Translating: An Analysis of Principles and William A. Smalley, Translation as Mission: Bible Translation in the Procedures, with Special Reference to Aboriginal Languages (New York: Modern Missionary Movement (Macon, Ga.:MercerUniv.Press, 1991), American Bible Society, 1947); Eugene A. Nida, Toward a Science of pp .47-52. Translating, with Special Referenceto Principles and Procedures Involved 2. I do not mean to imply that longevity is neces sarily good for a Bible in Bible Translating (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1964); Eugene A. Nida and translation. Languages change, and new insights into the Bible need Charles R. Taber, The Theoryand Practice of Translation (Leiden: E. J. to be brought into new translations. Longevity also tends to create an Brill, 1969). unhealthy "King James effect," where people assume anything 14. Practical Anthropology was started by Robert Taylor in 1953 as a different from the old translation is wrong. forum for communication between Christians in acad emic anthro­ 3. Paul L. Kaufman, An Introductory Grammar of New Testament Greek pology. About 1956, after becoming an associate of Nida, I became (Palm Springs, Calif.: Ronald N. Ha yne s, 1982), pp. 77, 123. editor and shifted its focus to deal primarily with the cross-cultural 4. I do not believe this term has any place in serious discussion of communication problems of missionaries. translation. All translation is paraphrase in the sense of "saying the 15. Eugene A. Nida, Customs and Cultures (New York: Harper & Row, same thing in different words," and the use of "paraphrase" as a 1954). pejorative term is not preci se enough for identifying what ma yor 16. SIL and the Bible societies were not alon e in expanding social­ may not be wrong with an attempted translation. science-context miss ionary translation in its earl y years. For a time, 5. Bruce M. Metzger, "Theories of the Translation Process," Bibliotheca for example, the Kennedy Schoo l of Missions of the Hartford Semi­ Sacra 150 (1993):140-50. nar y Foundation had an excellent linguistics/anthropology pro­ 6. For a rich source of examples illustrating the problems created, and gram, and Fuller Theological Seminary later continued some of that a thoughtful discussion of their solutions,see Ernst R. Wendland,The tradition, especially in anthropology. See, for example, Charles H. Cultural Factor in Bible Translation (London: United Bible Societies, Kraft, Christianity in Culture:A Study in Dynamic Biblical Theologizing 1987). in Cross-Cultural Perspective (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1981). 7. I should make it explicit here that I am talking about Protestant 17. Nida, Towarda Science;Nida and Taber, Theoryand Practice. missionaries. I do not know how closely such contexts constrained 18. Jan de Waard and Eugene A. Nida, From One Language to Another: Catholics. Functional Equivalencein BibleTranslating (Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 8. Smalley, Translation asMission, pp. 43-47. 1986). 9. Francis Wayland, A MemoireoftheLifeand LaborsoftheRev.Adoniram 19. Mildred L. Larson, Meaning-Based Translation: A Guide to Cross­ Judson, D.O., 2 vols. (Boston: Phillips, Sampson, 1853),2:393. Language Equivalence(Lanham, Md .: Univ. Press of America, 1984). 10. Kenneth E. Wells, History of Protestant Work in Thailand, 1828-1958 20. Different translators have different levels of competence in biblical (Bangkok: Church of Christ in Thailand, 1958), pp. 6-7. studies and therefore make use of different resources. 11. James Clifford, PersonandMyth: Maurice Leenhardt in the Melanesian 21. Note the NRSV mandate, "As literal as possible, as free as neces­ World (Berkeley: Univ. of California Press , 1982). sary," in Bruce M. Metzger, "To the Reader," New Revised Standard 12. The development of English as a world language widely known and Version (1989). soughtafterby peopleeverywhere has morerecentlycreated context 22. William L. Wonderly, Bible Translationsfor Popular Use (New York: four , the language-avoidance context. With the increasing accessibil­ United Bible Societies, 1968). ity of many people who speak English, it is often easy now for 23. Richard M. Harley, "New Media for Communicating the Bible:The missionariesto find excuses for notlearning the local languageat any Potential and the Problems," in The Bible in the TwentYlirst Century, depth. Also, as native speakers have developed into translators, ed . Howard Clark Key (New York: American Bible Society, 1993), many Westerners-even ones serving as biblica l exegetes on the pp . 159-78; Thomas E. Boomershine, "Biblical Megatrends:Toward translationcommittee-sometimes now thinkthattheycan get away a Paradigm for the Interpretation of the Bible in Electronic Med ia," with less knowled ge of local languages and cultures than their in ibid, pp . 209-30 . precursors could. See William A. Smalley, "Missionary Language 24. Ernst R. Wendland, The Cultural Factor in Bible Translation (London: Learning in a World Hierarchy of Languages" (paper read to Con- United Bible Societies, 1987), pp. 166-88 .

70 INTERNATIONAL B ULLETIN OF MISSION ARY RESEARCH 25. Norman Mundhenk and Jan de Waard, "Missing the Whole Point 30. Lamin Sanneh, Translating the Message: The Missionary Impact on and What to Do About It-with Special Reference to the Book of Culture (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1989). Ruth," the Bible Translator 26 (1975): 420-33. 31. Kosuke Koyama, "Aristotelian Pepper and Buddhist Salt," in Read­ 26. Donald A. Carson, "New : An Assessment and ingsin Missionary Anthropology II,ed. William A. Smalley (Pasadena, Prospect," in TheBible in theTwenty-firstCentury,ed. Howard Clark Calif.: William Carey Library, 1978), pp. 109-14. Key (New York: American Bible Society, 1993), pp. 37-67. 32. Ralph R. Covell, Confucius, the Buddha, and Christ: A History of the 27. Ibid., pp. 38-41. Gospel inChinese (Maryknoll, N.Y.:Orbis Books,1986):61-62;Marshall 28. First proposed in Eugene A. Nida, "A New Method of Biblical Broomhall, The Bible in China (San Francisco: Chinese Materials Exegesis," the Bible Translator 3 (1952): 79-110. Center, 1977 [1934]), pp. 36-39. 29. Eugene A. Nida and William D. Reyburn, MeaningAcrossCultures 33. Jacob A. Loewen, "The Training of National Translators," Bible (Maryknoll, N.Y.: Orbis Books, 1981), p. 1. Translator 20 (1969): 131-42; 21 (1970):10-20.

Betsey Stockton: Pioneer American Missionary Eileen F. Moffett

orn to a slave mother about 1798 in Princeton, New it. Betsey gave no evidence of piety, or of any permanent serious­ B Jersey, Betsey Stockton was the first unmarried woman ness till she was near twenty years old. On the contrary, she was, missionary ever sent by a North American mission agency at least till the age of thirteen or fourteen, wild and thoughtless, beyond the borders of the United States.' She went to the Sand­ if not vicious. She always, however, manifested a great degree of wich Islands back in 1822,whenJames Monroe was president of natural sensibility, and of attachment to me and to her first this young Republic.' mistress; and a great aptitude for mental improvement.:" We know little about Betsey's family except that her mother So we know that Elizabeth and Ashbel Green had discussed was owned by Robert Stockton, one of Princeton's distinguished the question of her baptism. There was, however, some ambigu­ citizens whose home was "Constitution Hill." Robert was a ity in Presbyterian Church law as to whether believing masters cousin of Richard Stockton, one of the signers of the Declaration and mistresses who had slave children under their care should of Independence, and both of them were grandsons of one of the see it as their duty and responsibility to baptize themand oversee original pioneer settlers of the town. There is no record of their Christian nurture-or whether such children might be Betsey's father at all, and it seems likely that she never knew who presented only by believing parents.' For whatever reason, the he was, though either her father or grandfather was probably a Greens decided not to sponsor her baptism, even though they white man, since in her will she describes herself as a mulatto. took seriously their responsibility to instruct and nurture herand But her story, even with some pieces lost, is particularly their other domestics in Christian faith and life." fascinating because of its precedent-breaking character. A black, Of Betsey's growing-up years we have only snatches of a slave, a woman, and the first single woman missionary from information. We know that she was precocious and, by Dr. North America. When Betsey was a small child, Robert Stockton gave her as a little servant girl to his oldest daughter, Elizabeth, who was the wife of a Presbyterian minister in Philadelphia named Ashbel The first single woman Green. The Greens had three sons, Robert, Jacob, and James. missionary from North James, the youngest, was six years old when, backin Princetonon his grandfatherStockton's farm, the little slave girl, Betsey Stock­ America was a black ton, was born. former slave. Much later, Dr. Green, in a letter of recommendation for Betsey, supporting her application as a missionary candidate, wrote: "By me and my wife she was never intended to be held as Green's account, became alarmingly wild and willful. She was a slave." Dr. Green was a strong antislavery advocate of his day, treated in their household kindly as a little servant girl, and one as was his Presbyterian minister father before him. Green's letter for whom they had a growing affection. She was systematically continued: "We deliberated seriously on the subject of dedicat­ tutored in the academic and spiritual disciplines given their own ing her to God in baptism. But on the whole concluded not to do children. Elizabeth Stockton Green died in 1807, when Betsey was about nine years old. Betsey stayed on with the family for all but Eileen Moffett,a graduate of Princeton Theological Seminary and missionary three or four of her childhood and early teenage years. She was in Korea (Presbyterian Church, USA) from 1956 to 1981, taught courses in included in family prayers and "home-schooled" by Dr. Green, English and Christian Education at the Presbyterian Theological College in who often heard her catechism lessons, and by his son, James, Seoul, served asdirector oftheKorea Bible ClubMovementfrom 1976 to 1981, who took a particular interest in her education. She developed a and is theauthorof an illustrated book for children, Korean Ways. Shelives sisterly affection for James and his older brother, Jacob, and later with herhusband, Samuel H. Moffett,in Princeton, New Jersey. in Hawaii took pains to collect and send home to Jacob from the

April 1995 71