JURNAL AQLAM – Journal of and Plurality –Volume 4, Nomor 2, Desember 2019

RELIGIOUS PLURALISM IN PREMODERN AND CONTEMPORARY PERSPECTIVES

Mark Woodward [email protected] Center for the Study of and Conflict Arizona State University

Abstract: This paper describes two modes of civic in Bali. The first is adaptive pluralism in which elements of Islam were incorporated into pre-modern Balinese states. Analysis focuses on the way in which Gusti Ayu Made Rai, an eighteenth-century Balinese princess became Raden Ayu Siti Khotijah, one ’s few widely recognized female Muslim saints. This leads to an alternative reading of Balinese religious history, countering the view that it is a static monolithically Hindu tradition. Rather than turning inward as the surrounding areas embraced Islam, Balinese kingdoms included Muslims and Islam in scared narratives and geographies. Today this integrative strategy functions only at the local level. Pilgrimage to her grave by Indonesian Muslims integrates Hindu Bali into Indonesian society defined in terms of the national ideology Pancasila. The establishment of Pancasila as a hegemonic symbology has led to a new form of parallel pluralism in which all are subject to state regulation. Keywords: Bali, , Islam, Female Saints, Pluralism, State Symbologies

Abstrak: Makalah ini menggambarkan dua bentuk keragaman beragama masyarakat di Bali. Yang pertama adalah keragaman adaptif di mana unsur-unsur Islam tergabung dalam kerajaan pra-modern Bali. Analisa berfokus pada saat di mana Gusti Ayu Made Rai, seorang puteri kerajaan Bali abad kedelapan belas menjadi Raden Ayu Siti Khotijah, salah seorang wanita Muslim yang dianggap wali di Indonesia. Hal ini mengarah kepada wacana alternatif tentang sejarah agama orang Bali, yang berlawanan dengan pandangan yang meyakini bahwa Bali merupakan tradisi Hindu yang statis secara monolitis. Alih-alih menutup diri saat wilayah-wilayah di sekitarnya memeluk Islam, kerajaan-kerajaan Bali merangkul kaum Muslim dan ajaran Islam dalam kisah-kisah dan kawasan-kawasan sakral. Saat ini strategi integratif tersebut hanya berfungsi di tingkat lokal. Para peziarah Muslim Indonesia ke makam Sang Puteri menyatukan Bali Hindu ke dalam masyarakat Indonesia mempertegas ideologi nasional Pancasila. Pembentukan Pancasila sebagai sebuah simbologi hegemoni telah mengarah kepada bentuk baru keragaman paralel di mana semua agama tunduk kepada peraturan negara. Kata Kunci: Bali, Hinduisme, Islam, Wali perempuan, Keberagaman, Simbol-simbol Negara.

291

JURNAL AQLAM – Journal of Islam and Plurality –Volume 4, Nomor 2, Desember 2019

This paper describes two modes of Theological pluralism is Balinese and Indonesian religious commitment to the premise that pluralism: Adaptive pluralism in which religions are alternative narratives and elements of Islam were incorporated symbolic systems speaking to a common into pre-modern Balinese states. truth. It has emerged in socio-political Analysis focuses on the transformation contexts including contemporary Gusti Ayu Made Rai, an eighteenth- secular democracies and Muslim century Hindu Balinese princess into monarchies in 12th century Spain. Raden Ayu Siti Khotijah, an Indonesian Examples include Christian theologian Muslim saint. Parallel pluralism in John Hicks (1922-2012) and Muslim which religions are subordinated to the mystic Ibn al-Arabi (1185-1240).3 Hicks Indonesian state ideology Pancasila. came to this position pondering the This process involved the question of how a just could punish transformation of Balinese Hinduism, moral people who do not accept the bringing it into conformity with totality of his teachings. His pluralistic Pancasila . Mandala, an hypothesis presumes that all religions inter- religious complex in Kuta are authentic, manifestations of “The that is more Indonesian than Balinese. Real.” Differences, even on fundamental questions concerning the nature of the Religious Pluralism afterlife, are the consequence of the inability of humans to fully comprehend Pluralism is social and political this reality.4 Ibn al-Arabi arrived at validation of religious diversity. It takes similar conclusion based on his monistic many forms and is located in many conception of Allah and the related different social and political contexts. At position that contradictory least, it requires recognition of diversity understandings of reality are as a social fact.1 Religious pluralism can emanations from divine reality. Hence be approached from at least two his conclusion that Allah can be found in perspectives. One is internal to an churches, synagogues and temples as abstract variety of religious thought easily as in mosques.5 concerning the problem of how moral There are few instances of states individuals and just societies based adopting theological pluralism a shared behavioural standards but with mutually exclusive metaphysical postulates. A second brackets philosophical considerations and is concerned with managing diversity to and Vision in the Study of Religion”, (Journal of avoid communal conflict. Eck refers to the American Academy of Religion, 2007). 3 Hick, J., and Other this distinction as that between Religions: Selected Readings (London: One “theological” and “civic” pluralism.2 World, 2001). Chittick, W., Ibn al-Arabi’s Metaphysics of Imagination: The Sufi Path of Knowledge, Albany”, (State University of New 1 Durkheim defines social facts as: "a York Press, 1989). category of facts which present very special 4 Hick, J., An Interpretation of Religion characteristics: they consist of manners of (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989) acting, thinking, and feeling external to the 5 Chittick, W., “A Sufi Approach to individual, which are invested with a coercive Religious Diversity: Ibn al-Arabi on the power by virtue of which they exercise control Metaphysics of Revelation”, (1991) In: Nasr, S. over him." Durkheim, E., The Rules of and Stoddart, W., Religion of the Heart: Essays Sociological Method (New York: Free Press, Presented to Frithjor Schuon on His Eightieth 1895/1982) Birthday (Washington D.C.: Foundation for 2 Eck, D., “Prospects for Pluralism: Voice Traditional Studies). 292

JURNAL AQLAM – Journal of Islam and Plurality –Volume 4, Nomor 2, Desember 2019

strategy for regulating religion.6 The Additive civic pluralism is based Mughal emperor Akbar (1542-1605) on the set theoretical concept of was a patron of India’s many and intersection. It identifies traits shared in 1582 founded Din i Ilahi (Divine by two bounded sets. Public validation Faith) combining elements of Hinduism, of this intersection provides legitimacy. Islam, Christianity and .7 The Balinese Hindu polity identified an Akbar’s intentions were as much intersection with Islam and absorbed it political as religious. The establishment in much the same way that successive of Din i Ilahi was part of a more general western (, strategy to use theological pluralism to Christianity and Islam) absorbed guard religious harmony in a multi- elements of antecedent traditions. religious empire governed by a Muslim Parallel pluralism is a social formation minority.8 in which two bounded, non-intersecting Civic pluralism is not concerned traditions are incorporated into a larger with truth claims. It is the recognition structure defined by the union of two that multiple religious groups are (or more) sets that are subordinated to legitimate social and political actors. a higher order symbolic structure. Both Civic pluralism allows religious problematize concepts of pluralism communities to coexist peacefully even rooted in the social sciences and while disagreeing on basic religious . The first case issues. It can be an effective strategy for demonstrates that the boundary managing religion because it does not between civic and theological pluralism require people to compromise high level is not always entirely clear because it metaphysical assumptions.9 While builds on limited religious theological pluralisms share a common commonalities. The second logic, there are many possible civic demonstrates that pluralism is not pluralisms. This paper considers two necessarily rooted in shared religious forms of Balinese civic pluralism: beliefs. additive pluralism that incorporated Islam and Muslims into Hindu-Balinese Balinese Hinduism and Orientalist states and parallel pluralism that Romanticism subordinates Islam to both the religious framework of the Indonesian state and Bali is often called the “Island of the local dominance of Balinese . the .” Western representations of Bali have been tinged with romantic longing since the days of the 6 Berger, P., “The Political Management 10 of Pluralism”, (Society, 2014). Netherlands East India Company. 7 Habib, I., Akbar and His India (New Tropes of Rousseau’s “noble savage” : Oxford University Press, 1997). and a longing for an other than Muslim 8 Roy, C., The Din-i-Ilahi or The Religion Indonesia are the implicit subtexts of of Akbar, (Calcutta: University of Calcutta Press, much of the academic and popular 1941). 9 Conversations I have had with writing about Balinese religion and Indonesian Salafis since the 1980s are examples. culture. Bali is often seen as a Hindu When asked about working jointly with island in a sea of Islam and as a Christians, a Dewan Dakwah Islamiyah Indonesia (DDII) leader replied this this was possible even though Christians were certain to 10 Boone, J., The Anthropological burn in Hell. Another made similar comments Romance of Bali 1597-1972: Dynamic about Muslims who engage in religious practices Perspectives in Marriage and Caste, Politics and such as visiting graves that many Salafis Religion (Cambridge: Cambridge University consider to be unbelief. Press, 1972). 293

JURNAL AQLAM – Journal of Islam and Plurality –Volume 4, Nomor 2, Desember 2019

fossilized version of what Java used to more than a fishing village to support of be. 11 Vickers mentions that the first his expansionist colonialist policies in Dutch mariners to visit Bali were the early nineteenth century.15 Since pleased to discover that Balinese, unlike the 1920’s Bali has been depicted as “a Turkish Muslims, ate pork and unlike utopia where tired could refresh Portuguese Roman Catholics, did not itself and find spiritual harmony.”16 fast on Fridays.12 These cultural Geertz and others fixed this image in similarities led them to conclude anthropological imagination, depicting (incorrectly) that Balinese kingdoms Bali as a tranquil, agrarian civilization were natural allies in their struggle obsessed with and the performing against these rivals and Muslim arts, self-consciously distancing itself Mataram.13 Following Raffles’ lead, from its political and economic generations of orientalists described the environments and the Islamicate Bali as a refuge from the fall of the civilizations surrounding it.17 Geertz’s Hindu-Javanese kingdom Majapahit to description of Balinese kingdoms as “Goth-like Muslims.”14 Dutch “theatre states” replicating the Hindu- Orientalism constructed an illusionary Balinese cosmos and more concerned image of Bali as “Little India” to impede with ritual than realpolitik builds on this the spread of Islam and the growth of Orientalist tradition.18 nationalism in the same way that Raffles Romanticized representations of constructed an image of a less than “exotic” cultures rarely stand up to close Islamic Java and Singapore as nothing scrutiny. Vickers and Andaya have shown that far from being bastions of a besieged Indic civilization, pre-colonial 11 Geertz, C., Local Knowledge: Further Balinese states were engaged with Essays in Interpretive Anthropology (New York: Basic Books, 1985). neighbouring Muslim states. They also 12 The Ottomans, Portuguese, British supported the development of Muslim and Dutch were rivals for control of the communities. Here, I carry this analysis Southeast Asian spice trade. On the Ottoman a step further, showing that Muslim presence in see: Peacock, A. and themes, symbols and at least one saint, Gallop, A., From Anatolia to : Ottomans, Turks, and Southeast Asia (Oxford: Oxford were incorporated into the symbology University Press, 2015); and Bulut, M., “The Role of Hindu-Balinese kingdoms. of the Ottomans and Dutch in the Commercial Integration between the Levant and Atlantic in the Seventeenth Century,” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 2002); Tulips, long iconic of Dutch culture, were 15 Guermonprez, J., “La Religion originally imported from Ottoman Turkey Balinaise dans le Miroir de Hindouism”, where they were national symbols. See: (Bulletin de Ecole Frangaise d'Extreme Orient, Theunissen, H, and Roding, M. (eds.) The Tulip, A 2001). Smith, B. and Woodward, M., Symbol of Two Nations (Utrecht: Istanbul Turco- Decolonizing Islam and Feminism, (2014) in: Dutch Friendship Association Press, 1993). The Smith, B. and Woodward, M., Gender and Power world’s greatest spice market was, and still is, in in Indonesian Islam: Leaders, Feminists, Sufis and Istanbul. Pesantren Selves (London: Routledge, 2014). 13 Vickers, A., “Hinduism and Islam in 16 Vickers, A., Bali: A Paradise Created Indonesia: Bali and the Pasisir World”, (North Clarendon: Tuttle Publishing, 2012). (Indonesia, 1987). 17 Geertz, C., “Person Time and Conduct 14 Raffles, T., The history of Java in Bali: An Essay in Cultural Analysis”, (London: Black, 1917), Parbury, and Allen, Day, (American Anthropologist, 1967); Lansing, S., A., "Islam and Literature in South-East Asia: Three Worlds of Bali, (New York: Praeger, 1983). Some Pre-Modern, Mainly Javanese 18 Geertz, C., Negara: The Theatre State Perspectives", (1983); in: Islam in South-Eat in Nineteenth-Century Bali (Princeton: Princeton Asia, Hooker, M., Leiden: E. J. Brill. University Press, 1981). 294

JURNAL AQLAM – Journal of Islam and Plurality –Volume 4, Nomor 2, Desember 2019

Theoretical Perspectives temples were constructed as mandala, a central point surrounded by multiples of Theoretical myopia is among the four at cardinal and directions, challenges confronting analysis of replicating Buddhist or Hindu cultural complexity. It often leads to cosmologies. Kings were incarnations of neglect of elements of complexity that Hindu gods (Devaraja) or just kings who cannot be explained by a single theory. rule in accordance with Buddhist Here I rely on struc vturalist theory in teachings (Dharmaraja).22 Tambiah calls the analysis of the spatial orientation of these kingdoms “Galactic Polities.” They Hindu-Balinese states and performance were totalizing institutions in which theory in the analysis of how a Balinese administrative and other aspects of Hindu space is transformed to state technologies and identity spaces incorporate Islam. These approaches are subordinated to and structured in are united by an overarching complexity terms of symbologies. 23 Balinese states theory based model of state systems were exceptional only because of the including three components: 1.) extent to which this pattern of spatial Symbologies: institutionalized meaning pervades daily life.24 systems including narratives, symbols Premodern Southeast Asian states and that establish legitimacy a; were, however, more than replicas of 2.) Technologies security forces, Indian prototypes. In most instances, education, infrastructure; 3.) Identity Southeast Asian Galactic Polities spaces that includes face to face and absorbed elements of non-dominant imagined communities that support, religions as components of sacred contest for, or elude symbologies and geography and state ceremonies. In technologies.19 Burma, indigenous spirits (nat), some

believed to be reincarnations of foreign Sacred Geography and Indianized Muslims, figured significantly in sacred States geography and popular Buddhist 25 The equation of microcosm and piety. In Burma and Thailand Hindu macrocosm in a basic structural principle the “Indianized States” of Asia, (Ithaca: Cornell University Southeast Asia Southeast Asia.20 Heine-Geldern Program, 1956). 22 scholars following him have taken this On Devaraja see: Kulke, H., The Devaraja Cult (Ithaca: Cornell University cosmic equation as a point of departure Southeast Asia Program, 1978); On Dharmaraja for exploring the dynamics of Southeast see: Smith, B., (ed.) Religion and Legitimation of Asian states.21 States, palaces and Power in Thailand, Laos, and Burma, (Chambersburg: ANIMA, 1978). 23 Tambiah, S., “The Galactic Polity in 19 This is a slightly modified version of a Southeast Asia”. In Culture, Thought, and Social model developed by Liu, Fisher-Onar and Action (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, Woodward. Liu, J., Fisher-Onar, N. and 1973); World Conqueror and World Renouncer: A Woodward, M., “Critical junctures? Complexity Study of and Polity in Thailand against and the Post-Colonial Nation-state”, a Historical Background (Cambridge: Cambridge (International Journal of Intercultural Relations, University Press, 1977). 2014). 24 Hauser-Schäublin, B., “The Politics of 20 Coedes, G., The Indianized States of Sacred Space; Using Conceptual Models of Space Southeast Asia (Honolulu: University of Hawaii for Socio-political Transformations in Bali”, Press, 1968). (Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, 21 Heine-Geldern, R., (1930) “Weltbild 2004). und Bauform in Südostasien'”, (Wener Beitrage 25 Brown, G., “The Taungbyon Festival, zur Kunst- und Kulturgeschichte Asiens, 1930); Burma”, (The Journal of the Royal Conceptions of Sate and Kingship in Southeast Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and 295

JURNAL AQLAM – Journal of Islam and Plurality –Volume 4, Nomor 2, Desember 2019

Brahmins played vital roles in state structured social groups ranging from ceremonies. This still the case in the the military to social clubs. Turner modern Thai kingdom.26 The 15th-18th describes three phases common to most century Arakanese kingdom Mrauk U rites of passage: 1.) separation, in which carried this integrative tendency further previously existing social roles are than most. While it was primarily dissolved, 2.) a period of liminality Buddhist, Muslim scholars and marked by the absence of well-defined symbolism were fully incorporated into social roles in which initiates receive the royal cult of glory.27 It should, instruction, and 3.) reintegration where therefore, come as no surprise that they assume new social roles.28 Here I Balinese kingdoms drew on Muslim as use this model to explain the process well as Hindu sources of legitimacy and through which Gusti Ayu Made Rai provided for the establishment of became not only a Muslim but also an Muslim and communities, and in exemplary Muslim woman and a saint so doing, establishing multi-religious or friend of Allah. Galactic Polities. In his analysis of social dramas Turner develops a theory of social Ritual and Social Transformations transformation based on the performative structure of conflict Victor Turner is known best for his situations.29 His model includes four theories of the transformative power of stages: 1.) breach; 2.) crisis; 3.) redress; ritual and social dramas. Rites of and 4.) reintegration. He is especially passage are rituals that move people concerned with the third phase which is from one position to another in well- characterized by reflexivity. Here social defined social structures. Social dramas actors reconsider the structure of social transform societies at critical junctures institutions and consider options for in social and political history. Critical reintegration. Turner’s model is junctures are points in time where incomplete and overly optimistic significant reconfiguration of system because it does not allow for the parameters is possible, necessary and in possibility that reflexivity and redress some cases inevitable. They range for may fail, leading to the renewal of critical points in the lives of important conflict or that the social restructuring it individuals to cataclysmic events such produces will sow the seeds of future as state failures leading to the conflict. Another less than optimal reconfiguration of social systems. outcome is that reintegration efforts will Rites of passage mark critical become irrelevant because of transitions in the life cycle including unforeseeable social or political change. birth, puberty, marriage and death. This appears to be the true in the case of Analogous rituals mark entry into Siti Khotijah. The seventeenth century restructuring of the sacred geography Ireland, 1915); Spiro, M., Burmese Supernaturalism (Englewood Cliffs: Prentice and symbology of Badung does not Hall, 1967); Woodward, Mark, “When One provide an adequate model for Wheel Stops: Buddhism and the maintaining Hindu-Muslim congeniality British Raj in Upper Burma”, (Crossroads, 1988). 26 Quaritch-Wales, H., Siamese State Ceremonies: Their History and Function (London: 28 Turner, V., The Ritual Process: Bernard Quaritch, 1931). Structure and Anti-Structure (Chicago: Aldine, 27 Gutman, P., “Symbolism of Kingship in 1969). Arakan,” in: Marr, D. and Milner, A. Southeast 29 Turner, V., Dramas, Fields and Asia in the 9th to 14th Centuries (Singapore: Metaphors: Symbolic Action in Human Society Institute for Southeast Asian Studies, 1986). Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1980). 296

JURNAL AQLAM – Journal of Islam and Plurality –Volume 4, Nomor 2, Desember 2019

in contemporary Bali. Hindu cemetery in the Pemecutan district of Denpasar and is known as “Keramat Agung Pemecutan” (The Great Raden Ayu Siti Khotijah, the Balinese Holy Place of Pemecutan). Galactic Polity, Social Transformation There are several versions of her and Additive Pluralism sacred biography.32 Here, I rely primarily on one included in a booklet Raden Ayu Siti Khotijah was a by Mangku I Made Puger and princess from the kingdom of Badung in conversations with him. He is the the Denpasar area. Her tomb is a current caretaker (juru cunci) of the pilgrimage site for Hindus and Muslims. and distributes the booklet to There are thousands of Muslim holy Muslim and Hindu pilgrims. I (keramat) graves throughout Indonesia. supplement these accounts with Pilgrimage (ziyarah) to them is an materials collected from Muslim and element of traditional Southeast Asian Hindu pilgrims themselves. Islam. Some are of only local The section describing Gusti Ayu significance. Others, especially those of Made Rai can be analysed as a rite of the Wali Songo, the nine saints passage. It begins with a description of instrumental in establishing Islam as the her social position as a Balinese Hindu religion of Java, attract millions of princess and a health crisis that led to pilgrims from throughout Indonesia and her transformation into a Madurese 30 neighbouring countries. Women are Muslim queen. buried at many of these shrines, most Raden Ayu Siti Khotijah was born often because they are the wives or Gusti Ayu Made Rai or Raden Ayu daughters of the male saint. Quinn Pemecutan in the mid-seventeenth estimates that there are no more than a century. She was the daughter of the dozen widely recognized women saints Balinese king of Badung, I Gusti Ngurah in all of Indonesia.31 The fact that there Gede Pemecutan, who was also the is a steady stream of buses bringing founder of the modern city of Denpasar. pilgrims from Java to Siti Khotijah’s The exact dates of her birth and death tomb indicates that she has become a are not known. national phenomenon. Her tomb is There are at least two accounts of located in a walled compound inside a how she came to be a Muslim. The one most commonly told to Muslim pilgrims visiting her grave and which is included 30 On the Wali Songo see: Sunyoto, Agus., Atlas Wali Songo: Buku Pertama yang in Mangku I Made Puger’s booklet is: Mengungkap Wali Songo Sebagai Fakta Sejarah When she was a young woman, (Depok: Pustaka IIMaN, 2014); Quinn, G., Raden Ayu Pemecutan became “Throwing Money at the Holy Door”, (2007) In: Greg Fealy, G. and White, S., (eds.) Expressing 32 I refer to this as a “sacred biography” Islam: Religious Life and Politics in Indonesia. because it cannot be independently verified. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies; Historians are inclined to dismiss scared Rinkes, D., Nine Saints of Java (Malaysian Kuala biographies as “pious fictions.” Regardless of the Lumpur: Sociological Research Institute, 1996); degree to which they include accurate accounts Woodward, M., “Jerusalem in Java,” In: Adelman, of the lives of actual individuals, they are M. and Elman, M., Jerusalem: Conflict and enormously important in the lived experience of Cooperation in a Contested City (Syracuse: religion. People who value them do not merely Syracuse University Press, 1994). believe them to be true. They know them it be 31 Quinn, G., The Veneration of Female factual. On the concept of sacred biography see: Saints in Indonesia, in: Joseph, S. et. al. (eds.) Heffernan, T., Sacred Biography: Saints and Their Encyclopaedia of Women and Islamic Cultures Biographers in the Middle Ages (Oxford: Oxford (Leiden: Brill, 2012). University Press, 1992). 297

JURNAL AQLAM – Journal of Islam and Plurality –Volume 4, Nomor 2, Desember 2019

seriously ill with hepatitis. None of When he arrived at Pemecutan he the Balinese healers could cure the presented himself to the king, who disease. They tried various received him warmly. The prince traditional medicines including asked what had happened and how antidotes for poison and efforts to he could help. The king explained combat sorcery, but none of them that his daughter Gusti Ayu Made were successful.33 The king went to Rai had been suffering from meditate (tapa semadi) at a holy hepatitis for several years. He place located inside the palace. He asked if the prince could treat and received a pawisik (message) that cure the illness his daughter was he should hold a competition to see suffering from. The prince replied who could cure his daughter. The that he would do what the king had following day he ordered the prime asked.35 minister to prepare an The king summoned his beloved announcement of a competition daughter and introduced her to not only for the people of Badung, Pangeran Cakrangingrat. From the but also for all of Bali and moment she met him the princess’s kingdoms outside Bali. The heart trembled and the treatment announcement stated: “Whoever began. After several treatments, can treat and cure my child: If it is the illness she had suffered from a woman she will be the king’s for years began to be cured. She adopted daughter. If it is a man and revealed the feelings of her heart the two are mates they will be to her father. married.” The king called Pangeran This came to the attention of an Cakrangingrat to appear before ulama/syech from Yogyakarta. This him and in their meeting thanked ulama was a person with great him for his help treating and curing mystical knowledge (ilmu his daughter and asked if he had kebatinan). Pangeran fallen in love with her. Pangeran Cakrangingrat IV (1718-1746) of Cakrangingrat replied that from the Madurese kingdom of their first meeting he had been Bangkalan was his student and entranced with the princess and close associate.34 The syech sent that he loved her. Recognizing that him a message instructing him to their feelings were the same, the come to Yogyakarta as quickly as two were married in the possible. After receiving the Pemecutan palace in the presence message from his teacher, of the prince’s forty bodyguards Pangeran Cakrangingrat came to and the entire royal family of Yogyakarta with forty soldiers. Pemecutan. When he arrived, the prince Her marriage and journey to appeared before his teacher and Madura with her husband marks asked him what had happened. The the first of the stages, separation, syech told him what he had in Turner’s model of rites of received a message from the King passage. In this instance, the of Pemecutan in Bali. He then separation is geographic – out of ordered the prince to go to Bali to Bali – and socio-religious – out of meet the king. Hinduism Pangeran Cakrangingrat IV said The prince then asked permission farewell to and asked for blessing to return to Bangkalan with his (pamit dan mohon doa restu) from his teacher before leaving for Bali. 35 Vickers (1987) op. cit. mentions that in some areas in Bali Muslims are highly 33 Another version of the story does not regarded as healers. It seems unlikely that a mention the miraculous healing and states that monarch would have undertaken such a the king gave Raden Ayu Pemecutan in marriage journey. The tale is however congruent with to the Madurese prince after he provide Balinese understandings of Muslims as healers. assistance in a war against a rival kingdom. It is reasonable to suggest that the ranks and 34 The Sultanate of Yogyakarta was not titles of some of the characters in the story were established until 1755. inflated to enhance its prestige. 298

JURNAL AQLAM – Journal of Islam and Plurality –Volume 4, Nomor 2, Desember 2019

wife. purified ancestors are located; 2.) Living quarters (pura desa) and 3.) The death What follows is the second, liminal, temple/cemetery (pura dalem). They phase in which she learns about Islam. are structured by a hierarchy of purity, This is not described in detail. It is the most impure being the pura desa simply stated that: and the purest the pura puseh. The pura Gusti Ayu Made Rai became a desa occupies an intermediate Muslim and changed her name to position.38 Hobart shows that the life Raden Ayu Siti Khotijah.36 cycle is conceptualized as movement Her reincorporation and subsequent from the pura puseh where rites for new position as a proper seventeenth new-borns a performed, through the century Muslim woman are described in pura desa where the child comes to greater detail. adulthood and with death to the pura After embracing Islam, she became dalem. The maligia ritual is performed very devoted the Shari’ah including praying five times per day. Even to purify the of the dead, often though she was Pangeran long after they have been cremated, and Cakrangingrat’s fourth wife, she return them to the pura puseh. lived harmoniously with the After living with her husband for others. As a Muslim, she was very many years she finally became devoted to pengajian (religious homesick for the father, mother talks) dakwah (propagation of and family. She came before her Islam) and other religious husband to ask his blessing and activities.37 permission to visit them. Pangeran Cakrangingrat understood her desires very well. Although he had Social Drama, Siti Khotijah and the heavy duties and obligations he Reconfiguration of Badung’s Sacred granted Raden Ayu Siti Khotijah Geography permission to visit her father, mother and family in Pemecutan. Setting the Stage He ordered some of his bodyguards and ladies of the court to accompany her on the journey The next section of the text sets to Bali. Forty of these male and the stage for the social drama leading to female attendants accompanied the reconfiguration of Badung’s Raden Ayu Siti Khotijah on her symbology. The stage for this social journey even though Pangeran drama is the palace (puri) of Badung. Cakrangingrat did not. Before Raden Ayu Siti Khotijah left he The sacred geography of a Balinese gave her a ceramic jar, a keris palace is based on the kahyangan tiga (dagger) and several pusaka (three temples) system that also (sacred heirlooms) that she structures villages and domestic concealed in her hair. Then Raden compounds. It includes three principle Ayu Siti Khotijah and her companions left on their journey to shrines: 1.) The household shrine or Bali. temple of origin (pura puseh) where At the time Raden Ayu Siti Khotijah left Bangkalan to visit Bali, the Pemecutan kingdom was 36 The name chose for her was that of preparing for the large maligia the Prophet Muhammad’s first wife Khadijah ritual the purpose of which is to who is commonly known as the “Mother of the purify the spirits of the dead. This Believers.” was an auspicious time for her to 37 Here she is depicted as the ideal traditional Muslim woman. Wives living harmoniously in plural marriages is an ideal that is frequently not a social reality. 38 Hauser-Schäublin op. cit. 299

JURNAL AQLAM – Journal of Islam and Plurality –Volume 4, Nomor 2, Desember 2019

visit and meet with her family. 39 When she and her companions The Crisis arrived in Pemecutan her family greeted them warmly. Raden Ayu A crisis, the second stage in Siti Khotijah slept in the palace Turner’s model, ensues when Siti (pura desa) while her companions Khotijah’s breach of Hindu Balinese stayed in the adjacent courtyard. custom and intrusion of Muslim ritual into Hindu space is discovered. Her

father responds in a violent manner, The Breach though one appropriate given the A breach, the first stage in Turner’ religious assumptions on which model of social drams, occurs because Balinese concepts of sacred space are there is no place for Muslim piety in the based. confines of Hindu-Balinese sacred space. The prime minister reported what Siti Khotijah’s attempt to appropriate he had seen to the king. After he received the report and then saw the Badung pura puseh for Muslim her praying himself, the king was purposes leads to the illusion of a very angry. Without asking Raden symbolic reversal in which Muslim piety Ayu Siti Khotijah what she was is (mis) understood as Balinese doing, he ordered the prime sorcery.40 minister to take her to the graveyard (pura dalem) together Because she had become a Muslim, with the bodyguards and the when the time for the evening female companions who had come (maghrib) came, she prayed in the with her from Bangkalan. sacred place (pura puseh) inside the palace. She prayed wearing a white Redress and Reflexivity mukena (women’s prayer garment) The critical redress/reflexivity facing west in the direction of the kiblat stage commences when she responds to (Mecca). The prime minister saw her her father’s accusations and acquiesces praying without a prayer rug. What he to his verdict. saw surprised him because very few When they arrived at the graveyard, people in Bali had ever seen a Muslim Raden Ayu Siti Khotijah addressed the pray. The prime minister thought that prime minister. she was practicing black magic (ilmu My uncle the prime minister, I have hitam/ngeleak).41 the feeling, I already know, that I have been brought here to be killed. Because this is my father’s 39 See: Wiener, M., Visible and Invisible order as the king and authority, Realms: Power, Magic and Colonial Conquest in please, uncle prime minister, carry Bali (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, out his order. 1994). Know uncle prime minister that I 40 On symbolic reversal and witchcraft was praying in the holy place see: Babcock, B., (ed.) The Reversible World: according the practice of the Symbolic Inversion in Art and Society (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1978) On witchcraft and symbolic reversals see: Ginzburg, G. The performance traditions. Stephen, M., Night Battles: Witches and Agrarian Cults in the "Witchcraft, Grief, and the Ambivalence of Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries (Baltimore: Emotions", (American Ethnologist, 1999); Mead, Johns Hopkins University Press, 2013). M. and Bateson, G., Trance and Dance in Bali 41 Balinese believe than many physical (Washington DC: United States Library of and mental illnesses are caused by witchcraft. Congress, 1951). Rangda is usually depicted as a Intense fear of witches (leyak) is common in all woman very long flowing white hair that could social strata. Conflict between Rangda, the be confused with a mukena. A leyak practicing queen of the leyak, and Barong, a lion spirit, is a black magic in the pura puseh is a symbolic common theme in Balinese literary and reversal that Balinese might well find horrifying. 300

JURNAL AQLAM – Journal of Islam and Plurality –Volume 4, Nomor 2, Desember 2019

religion that I believe in, Islam. I This passage shows that Raden was fulfilling the ritual Ayu Siti Khotijah has become not just a requirements of my religion. This was her message to the prime Muslim, but also a saint. She did not minister: fear, and indeed embraced, death and Do not kill me with a sharp weapon had at least limited powers of because I cannot be killed in that invulnerability. This is in keeping with way. Instead use my hairpin. It has Javanese and Madurese traditions been wrapped in a betel leaf decorated with the colours of the concerning the invulnerability of saints Tri Datu -- black, white and red. and the teachings of many Sufi masters (This symbolizes the three Hindu who understood death as a step on the gods: , Visnu and Siva.)42 journey to Allah. Schimmel quotes the Stick it in the left side of my ninth century woman saint Rabia al chest. After I am dead, smoke will come out from my body. If it smells Adawiyya in her comments on Sufi bad, please uncle prime minister, understandings of death. just bury me. But if the smoke that Rabia taught that the believers comes out of my body smells should love God not from hope or fear sweet, please build me a holy place but for the sake of his own eternal to be known as keramat. After Raden Ayu Siti Khotijah said beauty: out of pure love. “The lovers of this and had conveyed her message God no longer dreaded death but rather to the prime minister she gave the longed for it, for death is a bridge that hair pin to him. She raised her leads the lover to the beloved.”45 hands in sembah (both hands held The idea that the bodies of saints together in front of the face) to Allah. She asked the prime are fragrant, smelling of flowers and minister to stab the left side of her incense is also deeply rooted in Middle chest with the hairpin. Eastern and Southeast Asian .46 It is often said that the bodies of Muslim This indicates that Siti Khotijah saints smell of flowers and incense a understood that the incompatibility of that can be traced to Prophetic Muslim piety and Hindu sacred traditions about the fragrance of the geography. She accepts death but in so Prophet Muhammad.47 Javanese Sufi doing proposes restructuring the texts and tradition also mention the Badung galactic polity.43 limited invulnerability of the fifteenth Then, the prime minister stabbed century saintly martyr Syech Siti Jenar her in the left side of the chest with and sweet smell of his corpse.48 The the hairpin. She fell down, breathing her last breath. Very sweet smoke smelling like honey 45 Schimmel, A., Rumi’s World: The Life and Arabian incense came from and Work of the Great Sufi Poet (Boulder: her body and filled the entire Shambhala Publications, 2001). Badung graveyard that is eleven 46 Asher, B., “The Sufi Shrines of Shahul hectares in size so that it smelled Hamid in India and Southeast Asia”, (Artibus very sweet.44 Asie, 2009). 47 Thurlkill, M., Sacred Scents in Early Christianity and Islam (Lexington: Lexington Books, 2016). 48 Syech Siti Jenar is sometimes 42 This is the only reference to Hindu considered to have been one of the Wali Songo. concepts in the text. He was executed for openly proclaiming the 43 This type of confusion would not mystical truth of Ibn al-Arabi’s teaching of have happened in Klungkung because there is a waḥdat al-wujūd, the unity of the divine essence mosque located inside the palace. and the human soul, Hadisuwarno, S., Biografi 44 An alternative version of the story is Lengkap Syekh Siti Jenar (Yogyakarta: Laksana, that she was stabbed in the back with a spear. 2018). In this respect, Siti Jenar resembles 301

JURNAL AQLAM – Journal of Islam and Plurality –Volume 4, Nomor 2, Desember 2019

smell of incense (menyan) and flowers conveyed Raden Ayu Siti Khotijah’s is associated with purity and holiness. words and the message she gave before Pilgrims visiting holy graves often burn she died to the king. it. This would also appear to connect the The king appointed a juru kunci story of Raden Ayu Siti Khadija’s death (care taker) for her grave and ordered with the Balinese Hindu maligia ritual. that he and his descendants should care There is, however, a stark contrast for it. between the fragrance of her body The man chosen for these tasks (purity) and the foul smell of Balinese was a Hindu. The current care taker, cemeteries that are used as cremation Mangku I Made Puger, is the grandson of grounds (impurity).49 However, Siti the first juru kunci. Like his father and Khatija’s spirit does not require grandfather, he is a Hindu. He takes his purification because she has become a responsibility to care for the grave and saint and has been purified in life in meet the needs of Muslim pilgrims very ways that are not possible in Balinese seriously. He explained that he travelled Hinduism. to East Java to “learn how to care for Muslim graves.” Put in theoretical terms Reintegration he learned the modes of ritual practice appropriate for Muslim sacred space. Reintegration, the final stage in The bodyguards and female Turner’s model, involves the attendants did not return to Bangkalan construction of purified Muslim space in Madura. They were given land to within the defile space of the Hindu settle on in the area that is now pura dalem. It transforms Badung Kampung Jawa in North Denpasar and symbology by creating a Muslim enclave Kampung Islam Kepaon in South in the Hindu-Balinese Galactic Polity. It Denpasar.50 also redefines the identity space of the The day after she died, Raden Ayu Balinese kingdom through the creation Siti Khotijah’s grave was cleaned and of formally recognized Muslim the new juru kunci and his wife covered residential spaces. it with the flowers used at Javanese and Some of the people who Madurese Muslim graves. That night accompanied her cried hysterically and there was an unexpected miracle. A tree others fainted. Later that evening approximately fifty centimetres tall Muslim funeral were held and grew from Raden Ayu Siti Khotijah’s her body was buried. When this was grave. The next morning the juru kunci finished the prime minister and Raden and his wife cut it down, but it grew Ayu Siti Khotijah’s companions back the next night at the same size and presented themselves to the king of in the same place. This happened three Pemecutan. The prime minister times. They were not brave enough to cut the tree that grew from Raden Ayu Mansur al-Hallaj, the Persian Sufi executed in Baghdad in 922. There is not, however, a direct Siti Khotijah’s grave again. That night historical connection between them, Feener, M., the juru kunci and his wife meditated “A Re-examination of the Place of al-Hallaj in the Development of Southeast Asian Islam”, (Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, 50 Muslims from Java, Sulawesi and 1998). other parts of Indonesia have settled in these 49 Balinese bury their dead until they kampung. Islam and Muslims were integrated have sufficient resources to cremate them. into the sacred space of Klungkung is a more When a wealthy and powerful person is systematic way. There, the palace is surrounded cremated, the bodies of relatives and retainers by concentric circles of alternating Hindu and are often cremated with him/her. Muslim villages. 302

JURNAL AQLAM – Journal of Islam and Plurality –Volume 4, Nomor 2, Desember 2019

(terakat/ bersemedi) at the grave. While not resemble those typically presented meditating they heard Raden Ayu Siti to spirits in Java (sajen). Khotijah’s voice and received a message The inner compound and the gate from her. leading to it are Muslim space. They are She said that the tree that had almost indistinguishable from Muslim grown from the middle of her grave graves in Java, Madura, elsewhere in should be cared for because it had Indonesia and those in Muslim societies grown from her hair and that Allah in Africa, the Middle East and South would grant miracles (mukjizat) and Asia. The only distinctive feature of Siti blessing (rejeki) to his communities Khotijah’s grave is the “hair tree” that (umat) that perform pilgrimage has grown through the roof of the (berziyarah) to her grave. Because of enclosure. Ritual practices associated this message the tree has be honoured with ziyarah to the grave are entirely and well cared for. It is now known as conventional, including tahlil -- the Pohon Rambut (Hair Tree). rhythmic recitation of the first phrase of The tree is approximately 16 the Muslim Confession of Faith meters tall. Like Raden Ayu Siti (shahada) La ilaha illa Lah (There is no Khotijah’s grave, it is sacred (keramat). god but God) reciting or reading Surah It is said that its leaves never fall on the Yasin of the Qur’an and do’a grave and that they have medicinal (supplications asking Allah for properties. Mangku I Made Puger assistance), burning incense and collects them and gives them to Hindu scattering red and white flowers on the and Muslim pilgrims. tomb.51 Only Muslim pilgrims engage in these practices. Hindu pilgrims pay The Grave Complex: Containing their respects with a sembah. There is Muslim Space no apparent blending of devotional practices as there are at some Hindu- The grave complex is located Muslim shrines in India.52 Hindus visit within the Badung pura dalem. Like an unambiguously Muslim shrine other Balinese cemeteries it is primarily because of its healing powers. overgrown with tree and brush and has the appearance of being abandoned. In Contemporary Pilgrimage Practices contrast, the compound including Raden Ayu Siti Khotijah’s grave is carefully In the eighteenth-century maintained. The grave complex narratives concerning Siti Khotijah and includes two walled compounds. incorporation of her grave into the The outer compound is liminal Badung Galactic polity were local, or at space. It is a passage way from the most regional, Balinese phenomena. defiled Balinese Hindu space of the pura Colonialism, post-colonial nation dalem to the purified grave site that can building and internal migration have be understood as a distinctively Muslim transformed Balinese identity spaces. pura puseh. This entryway is mixed Hindu-Muslim space. There are signs 51 The practices are remarkably uniform indicating that it is the entry to Siti across otherwise vastly different Muslim Khotijah’s grave, but it is a site for Hindu cultures. I have observed them throughout or at least Hindu style devotions. There Southeast Asia, in Niger and Nigeria in West Africa and in the United Kingdom. are statues of Hindu guardian spirits. 52 Gold, D., “The Sufi Shrines of Gwalior Daily offerings () made to City: Communal Sensibilities and the Accessible them are distinctively Balinese. They do Exotic under Hindu Rule”, (The Journal of Asian Studies, 2005). 303

JURNAL AQLAM – Journal of Islam and Plurality –Volume 4, Nomor 2, Desember 2019

Bali is far less culturally and political its tourism promotion efforts. As many autonomous than it was in the as twenty of these tours, each of which eighteenth century. At least fifteen includes as many as two hundred percent of the population is now pilgrims/tourists, visit the shrine every Muslim. In Denpasar, some estimates week. Many of these tours also visit place it as high as twenty-five percent. other Muslim holy sites in Bali, Economic opportunity resulting from especially the graves of the Wali Pitu the development of Bali as global tourist (seven saints) who are said to have been destination sparked a wave of Muslim influential in spreading Islam in Bali. immigration from East Java, Lombok Internationally renowned Muslim and Madura beginning in the mid- leaders including Syech Hisham Kabbani 1980s. This has led to the of the transnational Naqshbandi nationalization of pilgrimage to Siti Haqqani Sufi order have also visited the Khotijah’s grave and the development of shrine.54 As many as twenty of these a Bali based Muslim pilgrimage tours, each of which includes as many as network. two hundred pilgrims/tourists, visit the Muslim and Hindu Balinese visit shrine every week. Many of these tours Siti Khotijah’s shrine individually or in also visit other Muslim holy sites in Bali, small groups. These pilgrimages are especially the graves of the Seven Wali especially common during Ramadan. who were influential in bringing Islam Larger groups of Balinese Muslims and to Bali. others from Java, Lombok, Madura and Pilgrimage to the graves of the Sulawesi come to celebrate her Wali Pitu emerged in the 1990s. These birthday. These commemorations saints were discovered and promoted include a large slametan (prayer meal) by Toyib Zain Zaen Arif, an Indonesian similar to those held in Java. Objects that Muslim of Hadhrami Arab descent from belonged to Raden Ayu Siti Khotijah East Java.55 His program had as much to including her prayer rug, sandals, and do with bringing Bali into Javanese and other personal items that are said to be Hadhrami Islamic identity spaces as charged with barakah (blessing) are with bringing Islam into Balinese displayed on these occasions.53 The date identity space.56 The Wali Pitu are of these celebrations is fixed by the modelled on the Javanese Wali Songo Balinese Pakuwon calendar and occurs every 210 days. 54 There are larger organized Syech Hisham Kabbani has large followings in Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore. pilgrimage tours from Java and He visits Southeast Asia on a regular basis. Sulawesi. Muslim religious leaders 55 Slama, M., From Wali Songo to Wali organize some of these. Java based Pitu: The Traveling of Islamic Saint Veneration to travel agencies specializing in Bali (2014) in: Hauser-Schäublin, B. and pilgrimage tourism organize others. The Harnish, D., Between Harmony and Discrimination: Negotiating Identities within Balinese provincial government actively Majority-Minority Relationships in Bali and encourages Muslim pilgrimage as part of Lombok (Leiden: Brill, 2014). 56 On Hadhrami Islam in Indonesia see: Alatas, F., Hadhramaut and the Hadhrami 53 The practice of displaying items Diaspora: Problems in Theoretical History (1997) belonging to the saint is common throughout the in: Freitag, W., Hadhrami Traders, Scholars and Muslim world. Swords and other items Statemen in the Indian Ocean 1750s-1960s belonging to the Prophet Muhammad and his (Leiden: Brill, 1997); and Woodward, M., companions are on display at the Topkapi palace Rohmaniyah, I., Amin, A., Ma’arif, S., Murtaugh in Istanbul. Jalaluddin Rumi’s caps and sandals Coleman, D. and Umar, S., Indonesian Affairs, are displayed at his shrine in Konya. (2013). 304

JURNAL AQLAM – Journal of Islam and Plurality –Volume 4, Nomor 2, Desember 2019

(nine saints), most of whom are could promote tolerance and pluralism believed to have been of Hadhrami in modern Bali. A local government descent, who were instrumental in website from Sukolilo Baru where her establishing Islam as the religion of Java. grave is located states:58 Unlike Siti Khotijah, the Wali Pitu do not have roots in Balinese history and The sacred grave at Pemecutan is a tradition and are more closely Muslim grave located in the middle of a Hindu cemetery in Pemecutan associated with Javanese tradition. All in Denpasar. This grave is that of a but one is said to have been Hahdramis. descendant of the king of The seventh is said to have been an Pemecutan. It is holy for both Indonesian Muslim of Chinese descent. Hindus and Muslims. This grave is also a symbol of how communities with different religious beliefs can Contemporary Bali, Indonesian State be united. Neither Hindus nor Symbology and Parallel Pluralism Muslims claim exclusive understandings. They are like two The additive transformation of the colours brought together in one Badung Galactic Polity to include pot. The situation at the grave of Muslim space incorporated a Muslim Siti Khotijah is a tool for unifying Muslims with Hindus, who are the minority into Hindu society. It required majority religion on the island of transforming symbologies and Bali. technologies that legitimize identity spaces characterized by ethnic and/or This is perhaps an overly religious diversity. Constructing Muslim optimistic assessment. It is likely to be space within the Badung Galactic Polity the case for Balinese Hindu devotees, served this purpose. The integration of but evidence suggests that a provincial Hindu and Muslim sacred space and level a form parallel civic pluralism pilgrimage approaches what Eck calls located within national level Indonesian theological pluralism. In the case of Siti identity space and symbology Khotijah these truth claims are limited supersedes locally defined additive civic to belief in the healing power of her pluralism. grave. It is important to note that the story of her death could have been, but Indonesian Parallel Pluralism as was not, frame as a martyrdom State Symbology narrative. She is instead depicted as a Muslim saint whose spiritual powers Indonesia was first imagined, in benefit Hindus as well as Muslims. This Anderson’s sense of the term, and establishes the possibility of parallel subsequently constructed as a successor pluralism. Framing it as a martyrdom state to the Netherlands Indies.59 It’s story would define Hindu-Muslim territorial boundaries and identity space relations in conflictual terms.57 were imagined by Dutch educated Some Balinese Hindus think that intellectuals in the early twentieth greater recognition of Siti Khotijah 58 https://kimbaharisukolilobaru.blogspot.com/20 57 Healing can provide an entry point 18/03/makam-raden-ayu-pemecutan-atau- for parallel pluralism even in areas with raden.html histories of violent conflict. In the neighboring 59 Anderson, B., Imagined Communities: Lombok, where there is a history of conflict Reflections on the Origin and Spread of between Balinese Hindus and indigenous Sasak Nationalism (London: Verso, 1983); Kahin, G., Muslims Hindus regularly visit Muslim shrines Nationalism and Revolution in Indonesia, known for healing powers. (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1952) 305

JURNAL AQLAM – Journal of Islam and Plurality –Volume 4, Nomor 2, Desember 2019

century. They were explicitly articulated These debates were resolved, at the 1928 Youth Conference at which tentatively as it turned out, only shortly delegates from Ambon, Java, Sulawesi before the proclamation of and Sumatra, pledged to put aside ethic independence on August 17th 1945 with and religious differences and recognize the establishment of Pancasila as the one motherland and one nation and basic nationalist principle and strategy Indonesian as the language of national for managing diversity. Indonesia unity.60 emerged as religious state without an Questions concerning the place of official religion. Indonesian , and especially Islam, in the symbology is based on Pancasila (Five emerging Indonesian symbology were Principles) formulated by the country’s debated throughout the remainder of first president Soekarno on the eve of the colonial era. Muslim nationalists, Independence62 It was intended to among whom Mohamed Natsir (1908- bring a measure of unity to a vast, 1993) was the most influential were in diverse ethnoreligious identity space. As favour of an explicitly Islamic state Madjid observes, the five principles: 1.) while secular nationalists including Ketuhanan Yang Maha Esa (Devotion to Indonesia’s first president Soekarno the all-powerful God), 2.) Kemanusiaan (1901-1970, president 1945-1967) yang adil dan beradab (Just, well- advocated the formal separation of mannered humanism), 3.) Persatuan religion and the state. A debate between Indonesia (Indonesian unity), 4.) Natsir and Soekarno in the pages of Kerakyatan yang dipimpin oleh hikmat Pandji Islam and other Islamic and kebijaksanaan dalam Nationalist periodicals was emblematic permusyawaratan/perwakilan of a larger political conflict about what (Populism/democracy with wise symbology would dominate the newly leadership assisted by consultation imagined nation. 61 [with the people] and 5.) Keadilan sosial bagi seluruh rakyat Indonesia (Social justice for all of the Indonesian people) 60 Foulcher, K., “Sumpah Pemuda: The are deconfessionalized versions of Making and Meaning of a Symbol of Indonesian Nationhood”, (Asian Studies Review, 2000). common Islamic principles including the 61 Nurdin, A., “Revisiting Discourse on unity of God (tawhid) and justice (adl).63 Islam and State Relations in Indonesia: The ). The first principle originally included Views of Soekarno, Natsir and Nurcholish Madjid”, (Journal of Indonesian Islam, 2016) As Effendy notes this does not suggest that Biography (London: Allen Lane, 1972); and Soekarno and other secular nationalists were Soekarno and Soekarno., Under the Banner of any less committed to Islam than Natsir and his Revolution (: Publication Committee, compatriots, but rather that they felt that there 1966); On Natsir and his political and religious is a critical distinction between religion and views see: Kahin, A., Islam, Nationalism and politics. Soekarno’s position was that Islam Democracy: A Political Biography of Mohammad could only flourish as a religion if it was free Natsir (Singapore: National University of from political interference and manipulation. Singapore Press, 2012); and Burns, P., Natsir, was among the most influential leasers of Revelation and Revolution: Natsir and the Panca Islamic political party Masyumi until Soekarno Sila (Cairns: Committee of South-East Asian banned it in 1960 and later founded the Islamist Studies, James Cook University, 1981). organization Dewan Dakwah Islamiyah 62 Boland, B., The Struggle of Islam in Indonesia, held that Islam is a totalistic way of Modern Indonesia (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, life and that, as such, it is necessarily political. 1982). Effendy, B., Islam and the State in Indonesia 63 Madjid, N., (1996) op. cit. There have (Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, been many translations of the wording of the 2003); On Soekarno and his political and Pancasila principles. I have chosen to remain as religious views see: Legge, J. Sukarno: A Political close as possible to the Indonesian original. 306

JURNAL AQLAM – Journal of Islam and Plurality –Volume 4, Nomor 2, Desember 2019

what has come to be known as the consistently.67 In 2018 the Islamist Jakarta Charter (Piagam Jakarta) that group Hizbul Tahrir Indonesia was states: “with the obligation for Muslims banned for advocating abandoning to abide by the Shari’ah.” This would Pancasila and establishing a Caliphate. have established Indonesia as a quasi- Muslim organizations including Islamic state. It was deleted to secure Nahdlatul Ulama, Muhammadiyah and the agreement of Christian minorities. 64 the semi-official Majelis Ulama The primacy of Muslim inspired Indonesia supported this move. None monotheism would require the consider HTI to be theologically deviant, reformulation of Buddhism, Hinduism, and as such subject to Indonesia’s and most recently indigenous religions, blasphemy law, but find its opposition in monotheistic terms to bring them to Pancasila to be unacceptable.68 under the Pancasila umbrella. This was As formulated Pancasila was vague seemingly not an important enough to allow for diverse consideration in 1945 because the interpretations. Soekarno stressed the Japanese appointed Badan Penyelidik third principle, national unity, and Usaha Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia wanted it to be the first. He was vague (Body for the Study of Activities leading about the other sila because national towards Indonesian Independence) was unity and identity were his priorities. composed of Christians and Muslims. His goal was to make unity out of Pancasila is often described as an diversity. ideology, but as Morfit notes, it lacks the Soekarno spoke of Pancasila in a specificity characteristic of political prophetic, utopian mode characteristic ideologies.65 Precisely because of its of revitalization movements. In ambiguity, it can be described more emotionally charged speeches including accurately as a symbology. It has been “The Birth of Pancasila” he claimed not the subject of diverse interpretations to have invented Pancasila, but to have and often intense debate and has been a discovered it, looking into the collective source of both unity and discord.66 The soul of the Indonesian people.69 He primacy of Pancasila is a constant in

Indonesian political thought and 67 Elson, R., “Another Look at the Jakarta symbology that has legitimized regimes Charter Controversy of 1945”, (Indonesia, with radically different agendas. It is 2009). also used as a symbol of real life 68 NU Online, “HTI Tidak Sesat, Tapi pluralism. Families resulting from Tidak Tepat di Indonesia”, https://www.google.co.id/search?q=hti+sesat& religiously mixed marriages of refer to oq=HTI&aqs=chrome.1.69i59l2j69i60j0l3.5653j themselves as Pancasila families. 0j4&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8 (2018); Attempts to Islamicize it by reinstating Tribune News (2017) “HTI Dibubarkabn, the Jakarta Charter have failed Ini Kata Ketua Umum Muhammadiyah”, http://bogor.tribunnews.com/2017/05/08/hti- dibubarkan-ini-kata-ketua-umum- muhammadiyah (2018); Kompas.com, “Menurut 64 Al-Hamdi, R., “The Jakarta Charter in MUI, Ideologi dan Aktivitas HTI Bertentangan Post-Soeharto Indonesia: Political Thoughts of dengan Pancasila,” the Elites in Muhammadiyah”, (Masyarakat https://nasional.kompas.com/read/2017/07/2 Indonesia, 2015). 1/05100001/menurut-mui-ideologi-dan- 65 Morfit, M., “Pancasila: The Indonesian aktivitas-hti-bertentangan-dengan-pancasila State Ideology According to the New Order (2018). Government”, (Asian Survey, 1981). 69 Steenbrink, K., “Pancasila as an 66 Vatikiotis, M., Indonesian Politics Ambiguous Instrument for Interreligious Under Suharto: The Rise and Fall of the New Harmony and Development in Indonesia, 1945- Order (London: Routledge, 2013). 2015”, (Nagoya: Bulletin of the Nazan Center for 307

JURNAL AQLAM – Journal of Islam and Plurality –Volume 4, Nomor 2, Desember 2019

claimed that Pancasila was his gift to God according to the the Indonesian people. Religion was his teachings of Christ; Muslims according to the teachings of the gift to the Communists who rejected it. Prophet Muhammad; Buddhists Marxism was his gift to the Muslim should discharge their religious rites community who feared it. according to their own books. But let He often invoked the image of the us all have believe in God. The ratu adil (just king) who, according to Indonesian state shall be a state where every person can worship God in Javanese , would establish freedom ... without ‘religious egoism’. justice and prosperity after a time of And the State of Indonesia should be a chaos and oppression.70 He was an avid State incorporating the belief in God. fan of the Javanese (shadow Let us observe, let us practice religion, play) and saw himself as Gatokaca, the whether Islam or Christianity, in a civilised way ... the way of mutual protagonist in a cosmic war pitting good respect.72 71 against evil. Gatokaca is a popular warrior character known for great Sperber shows that symbolism strength and magical powers. Unlike evokes rather than transmits meaning.73 other wayang characters he is It also evokes emotion. An ambiguously somewhat coarse (kasar) making him an structured symbology allows for a ideal populist warrior hero which fitted greater range of evocations that with Soekarno’s presentation of self. promotes social inclusivity. This was In the Birth of Pancasila, he spoke especially important for the first and of a parallel pluralism that fell short of fifth Pancasila principles, belief in God Indonesia’s diversity: and social justice. The first principle was Not only should the people of Indonesia have belief in God, but every so vague that Christians and Muslims Indonesian should believe in his own could identify with it. Buddhism and particular God. The Christian should Hinduism did not fit as well and required creative to make them monotheistic. Social justice was so Asia-Pacific Studies, 2015). 70 Friend, T., Indonesian Destinies vaguely stated it could unite (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003); Communists, Liberal Democrats, Dahm, B. Sukarno and the Struggle for Christian and Muslim religious groups Indonesian Independence (Ithaca: Cornell monarchists. Appeals to the spirit of University Press, 1969); Revitalization revolutionary struggle moved people of movements predicting the imminent arrival of a ratu adil were common in the colonial era and different religious and political have continued to emerge in post-colonial orientations to disregard difference and Indonesia. Van der Kroef, “The Messiah in unite in a common cause. Indonesia and Melanesia”, (Scientific Monthly, This vague, evocative symbology 1952); Kartodirdjo, S., The Peasants Revolt in was less suited to the tasks of nation Banten in 1888: A Case of Social Movements in Indonesia (The Hague: KTLV, 1966); Woodward, building regulating political M., The Javanese Dukun: Healing and Moral competition.74 In the post-revolutionary Ambiguity, in: Java, Indonesia and Islam period Soekarno’s ideological and (Springer: New York, 2011). symbolic creativity were incapable of 71 Wayang plays are Islamicized meeting Indonesia’s political and versions of the and epics. Anderson observes thwayang characters figure significantly in metaphoric 72 Friend, op.cit. forms of Javanese and Indonesian political 73 Sperber, D., Rethinking Symbolism discourse. They are so well known that many (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975). Javanese instantly recognize personality traits 74 Feith, H., The Decline of Constitutional associated with them. See: Anderson, B., Democracy in Indonesia (Ithaca: Cornell Mythology and Tolerance of the Javanese. University Press, 1964). 308

JURNAL AQLAM – Journal of Islam and Plurality –Volume 4, Nomor 2, Desember 2019

economic challenges. Increasingly Implementing Pancasila, Suharto complex symbologies such as Nasakom operated in a priestly mode. The New in which he attempted to bring Order developed an authorative nationalism, religion and communism interpretation of Pancasila. In 1978, it combined with the personalist rule of introduced the P-4 (Pedoman Guided Democracy were not up to the Penghayatan dan Pengalaman tasks at hand.75 Pancasila) program that required civil Soekarno’s symbology collapsed in servants, religious leaders and others to the wake of a failed coupe on September attend courses on official 30, 1965 that led to spasms of religion interpretations of Pancasila.78 No matter and class based violence in which how it is interpreted, Pancasila hundreds of thousands were killed. The symbology affirms parallel civic outcome was establishment of the pluralism linking bounded religious authoritarian, military backed New traditions. The constitution and Order regime of Indonesia’s second subsequent legislation require that president Suharto which was to last every citizen profession one of six until 1998.76 Suharto was as dedicated religions: Islam, Protestant and Roman to Pancasila as his predecessor, but Catholic Christianity, Buddhism, understood it very differently. His New Hinduism and . The Order (1966-1998) was an official definition of religion applies an authoritarian, managerial regime that Islamic understanding of monotheism to did not brook dissent or ideological other religions, especially Buddhism, debate. It was single-mindedly focused Indigenous Religions and Hinduism, to on economic development and “rest and which it is not well suited because it order” policies similar to those of the requires that every religion be Dutch colonial era. It relied on state monotheistic and recognize a prophet technologies including brute force and a holy book.79 Official recognition is rather than symbology and charisma to important because without it, people buttress the third and fourth Pancasila principles: national unity and wise 78 77 Mofit, M., “Pancasila, The Indonesian leadership. For Suharto, consultation State Ideology According to the New Order meant efforts to forge elite consensus Government”, (Asian Survey, 1981). rather than participatory democracy. 79 Woodward, M., “Textual Exegesis as Elections were celebrated as “festivals Social Commentary: Religious, Social and of democracy” and were more festive Political Meanings of Indonesian Translations of Arabic Hadith Texts”, (The Journal of Asian than democratic. Studies, 1993); Madjid, N., The Search of the Islamic Roots for Modern Pluralism: The Indonesian Experiences (1998) In: Woodward, M., Toward a New Paradigm: Recent 75 On Guided Democracy see: Feith, H. Developments in Indonesian Islamic Thought and Castles, L., Indonesian political thinking (Tempe AZ: Arizona State University Program 1945-1965 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, for Southeast Asian Studies Monograph Series, 1970); and Lev, D., The Transition to Guided 1996); Java, Indonesia and Islam, New York: Democracy: Indonesian Politics, 1957-1959 Springer, 2011); Brown, I., “Contemporary (Ithaca: Cornell Modern Indonesia Project, Indonesian Buddhism and Monotheism”, 1966). (Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 1987), 76 Robinson, G., The Killing Season: A Abalahin, A., A Sixth Religion? Confucianism and History of the Indonesian Massacres, 1965-66 the Negotiation of Indonesian-Chinese Identity (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2018). under the Pancasila State (2005) In: Willford, A. 77 Weatherbee, D., “Indonesia in 1984: and George, K., (Eds.) Spirited Politics: Religion Pancasila, Politics, and Power”, (Asian Survey, and Public Life in Contemporary Southeast Asia 1985). (Ithaca: Cornel University Press). 309

JURNAL AQLAM – Journal of Islam and Plurality –Volume 4, Nomor 2, Desember 2019

cannot obtain national identification incorporated South Asian Sanskrit texts cards, register marriages, obtain including the into their version of passports, bury their dead in public Balinese Hinduism and reduced the cemeteries or enrol their children in importance of household and temple public schools. rituals. This shift to bounded textuality Indonesia has used increasingly limits pluralism. Parallel civic pluralism powerful and efficient state is maintained by the deployment of technologies define Balinese religion in integrative and potentially coercive ways that would have hardly been state technologies. The hardening of recognizable in the seventeenth century. confessional boundaries makes additive There has been a shift from ritual to pluralism difficult, if not impossible, to textuality and a move from polytheism establish or maintain. towards monotheism.80 This transformative effort has been so Post-New Order Decentralization and successful that many Balinese now the Emergence of Provincial believe that Sang Widhi Wasa, Symbologies the term used for “God” is an indigenous concept. In fact, it was invented by Decentralization policies put in Christian . Balinese place following the 1998 democratic intellectuals adapted it in the 1950s to transition have led to the establishment align their traditions with Indonesia’s of religiously and culturally exclusivist monotheistic state symbology.81 There provincial and local level symbologies is now also considerable tension throughout Indonesia.83 In some between factions stressing Balinese Muslim majority areas including Aceh, Hinduism as a variant of a “universal” South Sulawesi and Perda Hinduism rooted in South Asian Shari’ah (Regional Shari’ah Regulations) traditions and others promoting a have been used to reinforce Muslim return to “authentic” Balinese identities. These regulations, such as tradition.82 Universalists have those put in force in South Sulawesi, requiring Muslim couples to be able to read the Qur’an prior to marriage, and 80 McDaniel, J., “Agama Hindu Indonesia as a : in West Java requiring civil servants to Hinduism Recreated in the Image of Islam”, wear “Muslim” clothing on Fridays, have (Nova Religio: The Journal of Alternative and little to do with Shari’ah, but have Emergent Religions, 2005)., In 2017 the become elements of provincial Indonesian Constitutional Court ruled that the symbologies.84 An Acehnese Shari’ah government must recognize indigenous religions. The ruling remains controversial and implementing regulations have not yet been Indonesia. Syncretism, Orthodoxy and Religious formulated. Maarif, S., Pasang Surut Rekognisi Contention in Java and Bali (London: Routledge). Agama Leluhur dalam Politik Agama di Indonesia 83 On decentralization see: Bell, G., “The (Yogyakarta: CRCS, 2017); The Baha’i faith was New Indonesian Laws Relating to Regional recognized as a religion in 2014; Nurish, A., Autonomy: Good Intentions, Confusing Laws”, “Welcoming Baha'i: New official religion in (Asian Pacific Law and Policy Journal, 2001); Indonesia”, (Jakarta Post, August 8, 2014). and Holzappel, C. and Ramstedt, M., 81 Bakker, F., “Balinese Hinduism and (eds) Decentralization and Regional Autonomy in the Indonesian State: Recent Developments”, Indonesia: Implementation and (Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, Challenges (Singapore: Institute of Southeast 1997). Asian Studies, 2008). 82 Picard, M., From Agama Hindu Bali to 84 On Perda Shari’ah see: Bush, R., Agama Hindu and Back: Towards a Relocation of Regional “Sharia” Regulations in Indonesia: the Balinese Religion (2011) In: Picard, M. and Anomaly or Symptom? (2008) In: Fealy, G & Madinie, R., (eds.) The Politics of Religion in White, S., (eds.) Expressing Islam: Religious life 310

JURNAL AQLAM – Journal of Islam and Plurality –Volume 4, Nomor 2, Desember 2019

specialist trained at al-Azhar University but its Garuda also symbolizes in Cairo I spoke with in 2010 put it this Indonesia’s national unity in its multiple way: “We had great hopes for Shari’ah, diversity.”86 Bhinneka Tunggal Ika but in Aceh today, Shariah is about (Unity in Diversity) is the Indonesian nothing more than women’s clothing.” national motto. A Garuda adorned with Increasingly strict enforcement of a shield with symbols representing the Bali’s Day of Silence (), observed five principles of Pancasila is the for twenty-four hours on the eve of the national emblem. GWK is a multivocal Balinese New Year, serves similar symbol of local Hindu hegemony and purposes. Work, travel and national unity. entertainment are forbidden. These In Bali Muslims are subordinated were traditionally voluntary religious in the same ways that non-Muslims are observances but are now required and in some Muslim majority areas. The enforced by the provincial government. subordination of Balinese Muslims is Muslim prayers are exempt from these apparent in difficulties they have restrictions in recognition of the need to securing permission to build mosques maintain civic pluralism. and the requirement that domestic The construction of provincial immigrants have special residency and mosques also contributes to Muslim work permits.87 Some Hindu extremists provincial symbolies. Some of these, see Islam and Muslims as a threat to including the one in West Sumatra, are Balinese cultural and religious purity, based on local architectural tradition and warn of the danger of Muslim and ethnic symbolism. Others are violence. Memories of the 2002 and notable only for their size. There have 2005 terrorist attacks fuel these been similar developments in Bali and sentiments. There is a tendency to view in Christian majority areas including even ethnically Balinese Muslims as Manado in North Sulawesi where an “foreigners.” The provincial enormous statue of Jesus dominates the government and elements of the Hindu city’s skyline.85 An enormous (120 elite promote an exclusivist Hindu meter) statue of the Hindu God Visnu identity based on religious homogeneity seated on a Garuda (mythological bird and ’s mount in Balinese and 86 Government of Indonesia Ministry of South Asian Hinduism) located near the Tourism, “Spectacular Garuda Wisnu Kencana international airport was completed in Statue on Bali in Final Stage of Completion.” August 2018. It is named Garuda Wisnu https://www.indonesia.travel/gb/en/news/spe ctacular-garuda-wisnu-kencana-statue-on-bali- Kencana (Golden Garuda Visnu) and in-final-stage-of-completion, (2018). abbreviated GWK. The Indonesian 87 Religious minorities often find it Ministry of Tourism describes it as “an difficult to secure permission to build “houses of icon of the paradisiacal island of Bali, worship” in many parts of Indonesia because of a 2006 decree by the Ministry of Religion requiring community approval for their and politics in Indonesia (Singapore: Institute of construction. Because minorities are Southeast Asian Studies, 2008). geographically localized this means that all 85 Meuleman, J., “From New Order to religious groups have difficulties securing National Disintegration. The Religious Factor permission to build houses of worship in areas between Reality, Manipulation, and in which they are minorities. See Crouch, M., Rationalization”, (Archipel, 2002); Swazey, K., “A “Implementing the Regulation on Places of Place for Harmonious Difference: Christianity Worship in Indonesia: New Problems, Local and the Mediation of Minahasan Identity in the Politics and Court Action”, (Asian Studies North Sulawesi Public”, (Ph.D. Dissertation, Review, 2010). This decree was intended to Department of Anthropology, University of ameliorate religious tension, but has had to Hawai’i at Manoa, 2013). opposite effect. 311

JURNAL AQLAM – Journal of Islam and Plurality –Volume 4, Nomor 2, Desember 2019

and a return to the “true” Bali.88 Nusa Dusa that includes Roman Catholic References to Kebalian (Balineseness) and Protestant Churches, a Buddhist and slogans such as “Bali for the Temple, a Mosque and a Hindu Balinese Balinese” are increasingly common. Temple. Construction of this inter-faith These sentiments have given rise to a complex began in 1997. It was not an nativist social movement known as Bali expression of “grass roots” pluralism Ajeg that would severely limit civic but an element President Suharto’s pluralism. Bagus observes that this strategy to control religion and impose movement shares many exclusivist Pancasila based civic pluralism.90 It was features with Indonesian Islamism also intended to convince tourists that harassing people who fail to comply Bali was a peaceful, religiously tolerant with newly imagined religious norms.89 destination. It was financed by the Should it become the dominant force in Ministry of Religion and the government provincial politics, this nativist owned Bali Tourism Development symbology would allow only for a Corporation. Significantly Nusa Dusa is limited form of parallel civic pluralism an upmarket self-contained destination in which other religions, especially resort complex. Puja Mandala is an Islam, would be subject to increased aspect of the “touristification” or discrimination. “Disneyfication” of Bali. Promoting Balinese Muslims increasingly see pluralism serves to enhance the themselves as second class citizens. politically constructed image Bali as an Large Muslim organizations including island of tranquillity removed from the Muhammadiyah and Nahdlatul Ulama conflicts and tensions of modernity. It circumvent regulations limiting mosque shows tourists what the Suharto construction by using other terms for government wanted them to see. buildings that are obviously mosques. Controversies surrounding the Many, especially Salafis, avoid social complex indicate that it’s symbolism is encounters with Balinese Hindus. Many more pluralistic than Balinese society. feel compelled to explain that they are Muslim and Christian leaders were not extremists or terrorists. These more enthusiastic about the project tensions are especially apparent in the than Hindus for two reasons: First Denpasar area where there are because it acknowledged diversity. substantial numbers of Muslim Second, it enabled them to build places immigrants from Java, Lombok and of worship without going through the Sulawesi. They are less pronounced in arduous permission process. Some the Klungkung area where there are Hindus opposed the project because centuries old Muslim communities and they felt that it would dilute Balinese much smaller immigrant communities. Hindu identity by moving from diversity Parallel pluralism is symbolized by to pluralism. Others added a hegemonic the Puja Mandala, a religious complex in

90 Putra, N., Puja Mandala: An Invented 88 Allen, P., and Palermo, C., “Ajeg Bali: Icon of Balinese (2014); in Multiple Meanings, Diverse Agendas,” Hauser-Schäublin, B. and Harnish, D., Between (Indonesia and the Malay World, 2005); Rhoads, Harmony and Discrimination: Negotiating E., “Bali Standing Strong”, (Inside Indonesia, Identities within Majority-Minority Relationships 2007). in Bali and Lombok (Leiden: Brill, 2014); On the 89 Bagus, M., “Getting the Monkey off New Order’s attempts to establish a hegemonic Your Back: Women and the Intensification of Indonesian state symbology see also: Hitchcock, Religious Identities in Post-bomb Bali, M., “Tourism, Taman Mini, and National Indonesia”, (Women’s Studies International Identity,” (Indonesia and the Malay World, Forum, 2010). 1998). 312

JURNAL AQLAM – Journal of Islam and Plurality –Volume 4, Nomor 2, Desember 2019

gloss to parallel pluralism by establishes identity spaces for mentioning Puja Mandala as a uniquely subordinate traditions. It is an Balinese example of tolerance and attractive option for states in two pluralism. Others state that Hinduism political contexts. The first is when the requires tolerance of other religions. state lacks the capacity to establish Apologetics such as these ignore the religious uniformity. The second is inconvenient truth that parallel when it is the state’s interest to make pluralism was established by an space for religious minorities. authoritarian Muslim regime. They also Premodern Buddhist states in Southeast include tropes of the colonial and Asia used captive Hindu minorities to contemporary touristic image of Bali as perform essential rituals. Balinese a tranquil spiritual haven. Hindu states incorporated Muslims and elements of Islam to avoid conflict with Conclusions Muslim minorities. The hardening of religious boundaries under conditions The cases described in this paper of modernity has made additive are examples of two very different kinds pluralism increasing difficult, if not of civic pluralism. The additive impossible, for contemporary states. pluralism of Siti Khotijah’s tomb Most, including Indonesia, use some borders on theological pluralism. It form of parallel pluralism to manage brings elements of Islam into the state religious difference. symbology of a Hindu polity. This Two theoretical conclusions can be promoted the development of a drawn from these observations. The pilgrimage site shared by Hindus and first is that theological pluralism rooted Muslims. The religious convergence that is not a necessary condition for the brings Hindus and Muslims together establishment of civic pluralism and does not concern abstract, text based social harmony. The second is that when theological propositions, but rather the personal and collective identities are more mundane, and for pilgrims, more defined in terms of ethnic and/or immediate concern with healing. The religion symbologies, neutral, effective parallel pluralism of modern Bali is state technologies including security quite different. It is a political necessity forces are a necessary condition for designed establish harmonious establishing and maintaining civic relationships between bounded pluralism.91 religious communities all of which are subordinated to a nominally secular, religiously neutral state. This is perhaps the only viable form of pluralism in a religious environment in which religion is defined in reference to texts based on mutually exclusive metaphysical propositions and truth claims. More generally, civic pluralism is a strategy for managing the religious difference. Additive pluralism incorporates minorities into hegemonic 91 Tambiah, S., Buddhism Betrayed? socio-religious systems in which one Religion, Politics, and Violence in religious tradition informs state (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Leveling Crowds: Ethnonationalist Conflicts and symbologies and adherents of that Collective Violence in South Asia (Berkeley: tradition control state technologies. It University of California Press, 1996). 313

JURNAL AQLAM – Journal of Islam and Plurality –Volume 4, Nomor 2, Desember 2019

BIBLIOGRAPHY Indonesia”, Women’s Studies International Forum, 2010.

Abalahin, A., A Sixth Religion? Bakker, F., “Balinese Hinduism and the Confucianism and the Negotiation Indonesian State: Recent of Indonesian-Chinese Identity Developments”, Bijdragen tot de under the Pancasila State, 2005. Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, 1997.

Adelman, M. and Elman, M., Jerusalem: Bell, G., “The New Indonesian Laws Conflict and Cooperation in a Relating to Regional Autonomy: Contested City, Syracuse: Syracuse Good Intentions, Confusing Laws”, University Press, 1994. Asian Pacific Law and Policy Journal, 2001. Alatas, F., Hadhramaut and the Hadhrami Diaspora: Problems in Berger, P., “The Political Management of Theoretical History, 1997. Pluralism”, Society, 2014.

Al-Hamdi, R., “The Jakarta Charter in Boland, B., The Struggle of Islam in Post-Soeharto Indonesia: Political Modern Indonesia, The Hague: Martinus Thoughts of the Elites in Nijhoff, 1982. Muhammadiyah”, Masyarakat Indonesia, 2015. Boone, J., The Anthropological Romance of Bali 1597-1972: Dynamic Allen, P., and Palermo, C., “Ajeg Bali: Perspectives in Marriage and Caste, Multiple Meanings, Diverse Politics and Religion, Cambridge: Agendas,” Indonesia and the Malay Cambridge University Press, 1972. World, 2005. Brown, G., “The Taungbyon Festival, Anderson, B., Imagined Communities: Burma”, The Journal of the Royal Reflections on the Origin and Anthropological Institute of Great Spread of Nationalism, London: Britain and Ireland, 1915. Verso, 1983. Brown, I., “Contemporary Indonesian Anderson, B., Mythology and Tolerance Buddhism and Monotheism”, of the Javanese. Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 1987. Asher, B., “The Sufi Shrines of Shahul Bulut, M., “The Role of the Ottomans and Hamid in India and Southeast Dutch in the Commercial Asia”, Artibus Asie, 2009. Integration between the Levant and Atlantic in the Seventeenth Babcock, B., (ed.) The Reversible World: Century,” Journal of the Economic Symbolic Inversion in Art and and Social History of the Orient, Society, Ithaca: Cornell University 2002. Press, 1978. Burns, P., Revelation and Revolution: Bagus, M., “Getting the Monkey off Your Natsir and the Panca Sila, Cairns: Back: Women and the Committee of South-East Asian Intensification of Religious Studies, James Cook University, Identities in Post-bomb Bali, 1981.

314

JURNAL AQLAM – Journal of Islam and Plurality –Volume 4, Nomor 2, Desember 2019

Development of Southeast Asian Bush, R. Regional “Sharia” Regulations in Islam”, Bijdragen tot de Taal-, Indonesia: Anomaly or Symptom?, 2008. Land- en Volkenkunde, 1998.

Chittick, W., “A Sufi Approach to Feith, H. and Castles, L., Indonesian Religious Diversity: Ibn al-Arabi on political thinking 1945-1965, Ithaca: the Metaphysics of Revelation”, Cornell University Press, 1970. (1991). Feith, H., The Decline of Constitutional Chittick, W., Ibn al-Arabi’s Metaphysics of Democracy in Indonesia, Ithaca: Imagination: The Sufi Path of Cornell University Press, 1964. Knowledge, Albany, State University of New York Press, Foulcher, K., “Sumpah Pemuda: The 1989. Making and Meaning of a Symbol of Indonesian Nationhood”, Asian Coedes, G., The Indianized States of Studies Review, 2000. Southeast Asia, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1968. Freitag, W., Hadhrami Traders, Scholars and Statemen in the Indian Ocean Crouch, M., “Implementing the 1750s-1960s, Leiden: Brill and Regulation on Places of Worship in Woodward, 1997. Indonesia: New Problems, Local Politics and Court Action”, Asian Friend, T., Indonesian Destinies, Studies Review, 2010. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2003. Dahm, B. Sukarno and the Struggle for Geertz, C., “Person Time and Conduct in Indonesian Independence, Bali: An Essay in Cultural Ithaca: Cornell University Press, Analysis”, American 1969. Anthropologist, 1967.

Durkheim, E., The Rules of Sociological Geertz, C., Local Knowledge: Further Method, New York: Free Press, Essays in Interpretive 1895/1982. Anthropology, New York: Basic Books, 1985. Eck, D., “Prospects for Pluralism: Voice and Vision in the Study of Geertz, C., Negara: The Theatre State in Religion”, Journal of the American Nineteenth-Century Bali, Princeton: Academy of Religion, 2007. Princeton University Press, 1981.

Effendy, B., Islam and the State in Ginzburg, G. The Night Battles: Witches Indonesia, Singapore: Institute of and Agrarian Cults in the Sixteenth Southeast Asian Studies, 2003. and Seventeenth Centuries, Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Elson, R., “Another Look at the Jakarta University Press, 2013. Charter Controversy of 1945”, Indonesia, 2009. Gold, D., “The Sufi Shrines of Gwalior City: Communal Sensibilities and Feener, M., “A Re-examination of the the Accessible Exotic under Hindu Place of al-Hallaj in the

315

JURNAL AQLAM – Journal of Islam and Plurality –Volume 4, Nomor 2, Desember 2019

Rule”, The Journal of Asian Studies, tot de Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde, 2005. 2004.

Government of Indonesia Ministry of Heffernan, T., Sacred Biography: Saints Tourism, “Spectacular Garuda and Their Biographers in the Wisnu Kencana Statue Middle Age, Oxford: Oxford https://www.indonesia.travel/gb/ University Press, 1992. en/news/spectacular-garuda- wisnu-kencana-statue-on-bali-in- Heine-Geldern, R., “Weltbild und final-stage-of-completion (2018). Bauform in Südostasien'”, (Wener Beitrage zur Kunst- und Greg Fealy, G. and White, S., (eds.) Kulturgeschichte Asiens, 1930. Expressing Islam: Religious Life and Politics in Indonesia, Singapore: Heine-Geldern, R., Conceptions of Sate Institute of Southeast Asian and Kingship in Southeast Asia, Studies. Ithaca: Cornell University Southeast Asia Program, 1956. Guermonprez, J., "La Religion Balinaise dans le Miroir de Hindouism”, Hick, J., An Interpretation of Religion, Bulletin de Ecole Frangaise New Haven: Yale University Press, 1989. d'Extreme Orient, 2001. Hick, J., Christianity and Other Religions: Gutman, P., Symbolism of Kingship in Selected Readings, London: One World, Arakan. 2001.

Habib, I., Akbar and His India, : Hitchcock, M., “Tourism, Taman Mini, Oxford University Press, 1997. and National Identity,” Indonesia and the Malay World, 1998. Hadisuwarno, S., Biografi Lengkap Syekh Siti Jenar, Yogyakarta: Laksana, 2018. Holzappel, C. and Ramstedt, M., (eds) Decentralization and Hauser-Schäublin, B. and Harnish, D., Regional Autonomy in Indonesia: Between Harmony and Implementation and Discrimination: Negotiating Challenges, Singapore: Institute of Identities within Majority-Minority Southeast Asian Studies, 2008. Relationships in Bali and Lombok, Leiden: Brill, 2014. https://kimbaharisukolilobaru.blogspot .com/2018/03/makam-raden- Hauser-Schäublin, B. and Harnish, D., ayu-pemecutan-atau-raden.html Between Harmony and Discrimination: Negotiating In: Fealy, G & White, S., (eds.) Identities within Majority-Minority Expressing Islam: Religious life and Relationships in Bali and Lombok, politics in Indonesia, Singapore: Leiden: Brill, 2014. Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2008. Hauser-Schäublin, B., “The Politics of Sacred Space; Using Conceptual Joseph, S. et. al. (eds.) Encyclopaedia of Models of Space for Socio-political Women and Islamic Cultures, Leiden: Transformations in Bali”, Bijdragen Brill, 2012.

316

JURNAL AQLAM – Journal of Islam and Plurality –Volume 4, Nomor 2, Desember 2019

M., Rohmaniyah, I., Amin, A., Ma’arif, S., Kahin, A., Islam, Nationalism and Murtaugh Coleman, D. and Umar, Democracy: A Political Biography S., Indonesian Affairs, 2013. of Mohammad Natsir, Singapore: National University of Singapore Maarif, S., Pasang Surut Rekognisi Press, 2012. Agama Leluhur dalam Politik Agama di Indonesia, Yogyakarta: Kahin, G., Nationalism and Revolution in CRCS, 2017. Indonesia, Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1952. Madjid, N., The Search of the Islamic Roots for Modern Pluralism: The Kartodirdjo, S., The Peasants Revolt in Indonesian Experiences, 1998. Banten in 1888: A Case of Social Movements in Indonesia, The Marr, D. and Milner, A. Southeast Asia in Hague: KTLV, 1966. the 9th to 14th Centuries, Singapore: Institute for Southeast Kompas.com, “Menurut MUI, Ideologi Asian Studies, 1986. dan Aktivitas HTI Bertentangan dengan Pancasila,” McDaniel, J., “Agama Hindu Dharma https://nasional.kompas.com/rea Indonesia as a New Religious d/2017/07/21/05100001/menur Movement: Hinduism Recreated in ut-mui-ideologi-dan-aktivitas-hti- the Image of Islam”, Nova Religio: bertentangan-dengan-pancasila, The Journal of Alternative and 2018. Emergent Religions, 2005.

Kulke, H., The Devaraja Cult, Ithaca: Mead, M. and Bateson, G., Trance and Cornell University Southeast Asia Dance in Bali, Washington DC: Program, 1978. United States Library of Congress, 1951. Lansing, S., Three Worlds of Bali, New York: Praeger, 1983. Meuleman, J., “From New Order to National Disintegration. The Legge, J. Sukarno: A Political Biography, Religious Factor between Reality, London: Allen Lane, 1972. Manipulation, and Rationalization”, Archipel, 2002. Lev, D., The Transition to Guided Democracy: Indonesian Politics, Mofit, M., “Pancasila, The Indonesian 1957-1959, Ithaca: Cornell Modern State Ideology According to the Indonesia Project, 1966. New Order Government”, Asian Survey, 1981. Liu, Fisher-Onar and Woodward, Liu, J., Fisher-Onar, N. and Woodward, M., Morfit, M., “Pancasila: The Indonesian “Critical junctures? Complexity State Ideology According to the and the Post-Colonial Nation- New Order Government”, Asian state”, International Journal of Survey, 1981. Intercultural Relations, 2014. Nasr, S. and Stoddart, W., Religion of the Heart: Essays Presented to Frithjor Schuon on His Eightieth Birthday,

317

JURNAL AQLAM – Journal of Islam and Plurality –Volume 4, Nomor 2, Desember 2019

Washington D.C.: Foundation for Function, London: Bernard Traditional Studies. Quaritch, 1931.

NU Online, “HTI Tidak Sesat, Tapi Tidak Quinn, G., The Veneration of Female Tepat di Indonesia”, Saints in Indonesia. https://www.google.co.id/search? q=hti+sesat&oq=HTI&aqs=chrome Quinn, G., Throwing Money at the Holy .1.69i59l2j69i60j0l3.5653j0j4&sou Door, 2007. rceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8, 2018. Raffles, T., The history of Java, London: Nurdin, A., “Revisiting Discourse on Black, 1917. Islam and State Relations in Indonesia: The Views of Soekarno, Rhoads, E., “Bali Standing Strong”, Inside Natsir and Nurcholish Madjid”, Indonesia, 2007. Journal of Indonesian Islam, 2016. Rinkes, D., Nine Saints of Java, Malaysian Nurish, A., “Welcoming Baha'i: New Kuala Lumpur: Sociological official ”, Research Institute, 1996. Jakarta Post, August 8, 2014. Robinson, G., The Killing Season: A Parbury, and Allen, Day, A., "Islam and History of the Indonesian Literature in South-East Asia: Massacres, 1965-66, Princeton: Some Pre-Modern, Mainly Princeton University Press, 2018. Javanese Perspectives", (1983) Islam in South-Eat Asia, Hooker, Roy, C., The Din-i-Ilahi or The Religion of M., Leiden: E. J. Brill. Akbar, Calcutta: University of Calcutta Press, 1941. Peacock, A. and Gallop, A., From Anatolia to Aceh: Ottomans, Turks, and Schimmel, A., Rumi’s World: The Life and Southeast Asia, Oxford: Oxford Work of the Great Sufi Poet, University Press, 2015. Boulder: Shambhala Publications, 2001. Picard, M. and Madinie, R., (eds.) The Politics of Religion in Indonesia. Slama, M., From Wai Songo to Wali Pitu: Syncretism, Orthodoxy and The Traveling of Islamic Saint Religious Contention in Java and Veneration to Bali, 2014. Bali, London: Routledge. Smith, B. and Woodward, M., Picard, M., From Agama Hindu Bali to Decolonizing Islam and Feminism, 2014. Agama Hindu and Back: Towards a Relocation of the Balinese Religion, Smith, B. and Woodward, M., Gender and 2011. Power in Indonesian Islam: Leaders, Feminists, Sufis and Putra, N., Puja Mandala: An Invented Pesantren Selves, London: Icon of Balinese Religious Tolerance, Routledge, 2014. 2014. Smith, B., (ed.) Religion and Legitimation Quaritch-Wales, H., Siamese State of Power in Thailand, Laos, and Ceremonies: Their History and

318

JURNAL AQLAM – Journal of Islam and Plurality –Volume 4, Nomor 2, Desember 2019

Burma, Chambersburg: ANIMA, Tambiah, S., Leveling 1978. Crowds: Ethnonationalist Conflicts and Collective Violence in South Soekarno and Soekarno, Under the Asia, Berkeley: University of Banner of Revolution, Jakarta: California Press, 1996. Publication Committee, 1966. Tambiah, S., The Galactic Polity in Sperber, D., Rethinking Symbolism, Southeast Asia. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1975. Tambiah, S., World Conqueror and World Renouncer: A Study of Buddhism Spiro, M., Burmese Supernaturalism, and Polity in Thailand against a Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, 1967. Historical Background, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977. Steenbrink, K., “Pancasila as an Ambiguous Instrument for Theunissen, H, and Roding, M. (eds.) The Interreligious Harmony and Tulip, A Symbol of Two Nations, Development in Indonesia, 1945- Utrecht: Istanbul Turco-Dutch 2015”, Nagoya: Bulletin of the Friendship Association Press, Nazan Center for Asia-Pacific 1993. Studies, 2015. Thurlkill, M., Sacred Scents in Early Stephen, M., “Witchcraft, Grief, and the Christianity and Islam, Lexington: Ambivalence of Emotions”, Lexington Books, 2016. American Ethnologist, 1999. Tribune News Bogor (2017) “HTI Sunyoto, Agus., Atlas Wali Songo: Buku Dibubarkabn, Ini Kata Ketua Umum Pertama yang Mengungkap Wali Muhammadiyah”, Songo Sebagai Fakta Sejarah, http://bogor.tribunnews.com/201 Depok: Pustaka IIMaN, 2014. 7/05/08/hti-dibubarkan-ini-kata- ketua-umum-muhammadiyah, Swazey, K., “A Place for Harmonious 2018. Difference: Christianity and the Mediation of Minahasan Identity in Turner, V., Dramas, Fields and the North Sulawesi Public”, Ph.D. Metaphors: Symbolic Action in Dissertation, Department of Human Society, Ithaca: Cornell Anthropology, University of University Press, 1980. Hawai’i at Manoa, 2013. Turner, V., The Ritual Process: Structure Tambiah, S., Buddhism Betrayed? and Anti-Structure, Chicago: Aldine, Religion, Politics, and Violence in 1969. Sri Lanka, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992. Van der Kroef, “The Messiah in Indonesia and Melanesia”, Scientific Tambiah, S., Culture, Thought, and Social Monthly, 1952. Action, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1973. Vatikiotis, M., Indonesian Politics Under Suharto: The Rise and Fall of the

319

JURNAL AQLAM – Journal of Islam and Plurality –Volume 4, Nomor 2, Desember 2019

New Order, London: Routledge, 2013. Woodward, Mark, “When One Wheel Stops: Theravada Buddhism and Vickers, A., “Hinduism and Islam in the British Raj in Upper Burma”, Indonesia: Bali and the Pasisir World”, Crossroads, 1988. Indonesia, 1987.

Vickers, A., Bali: A Paradise Created, North Clarendon: Tuttle Publishing, 2012.

Weatherbee, D., “Indonesia in 1984: Pancasila, Politics, and Power”, Asian Survey, 1985.

Wiener, M., Visible and Invisible Realms: Power, Magic and Colonial Conquest in Bali, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1994.

Willford, A. and George, K. (Eds.) Spirited Politics: Religion and Public Life in Contemporary Southeast Asia, Ithaca: Cornel University Press.

Woodward, M., “Textual Exegesis as Social Commentary: Religious, Social and Political Meanings of Indonesian Translations of Arabic Hadith Texts”, The Journal of Asian Studies, 1993.

Woodward, M., “The Javanese Dukun: Healing and Moral Ambiguity,” in: Java, Indonesia and Islam, Springer: New York, 2011.

Woodward, M., Java, Indonesia and Islam, New York: Springer, 2011.

Woodward, M., Jerusalem in Java.

Woodward, M., Toward a New Paradigm: Recent Developments in Indonesian Islamic Thought, Tempe AZ: Arizona State University Program for Southeast Asian Studies Monograph Series, 1996.

320