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Quaternary Glacial and Climate History of Antarctica

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Quaternary Glacial and Climate History of Antarctica Quaternary glacial and climate history of Antarctica Ólafur Ingólfsson University of Iceland, Department of Geology and Geography, Is-101 Reykjavík, Iceland e-mail: [email protected] 1. Introduction 1981; Anderson & Bartek, 1992; Shipp & Andersen, 1994; Licht et al., 1996; Bentley & Anderson, 1998; Anderson, The Antarctic Ice Sheet, containing 25-30 x 106 km3 of 1999; Domack et al., 1991, 2001), as a consequence of the glacial ice (Drewry et al., 1982; Vaughan 2000), is the scarcity of chronologically well constrained geological data largest glacial system on Earth. The western part of the on land. However, the last two decades have seen present Antarctic ice sheet (West Antarctic Ice Sheet, increasingly more sophisticated evidence from ice-free WAIS), west of the Transantarctic Mountains (Fig. 1), is areas in Antarctica, based on glacial stratigraphical and largely marine-based, currently very dynamic and morphological investigations, studies of lake sediment and discharges huge volumes of ice to floating ice shelves moss-bank cores, and of fossil penguin rookeries (reviews through large ice-stream systems. To the east of the in Ingólfsson et al. (1998) and Bentley (1999)). Current Transantarctic Mountains the current East Antarctic Ice knowledge primarily concerns the ‘postglacial’ develop- Sheet (EAIS) is predominantly terrestrial, relatively stable ments, i.e. from Late Wisconsinan and Holocene, because and has limited discharge into surrounding ice shelves (Fig. those geological archives, although few and far between, 2). The WAIS and EAIS contain about 3.3 x 106 km3 and are the best preserved. 26 x 106 km3 of ice, respectively (Drewry, 1983; Denton et The purpose of this paper is to review the current al., 1991). The Antarctic ice sheet, potentially containing knowledge of the glacial and climate history of Antarctica. 57-66 m of sea level equivalent (Denton et al., 1991; Since large-scale glaciations there are not restricted to the Vaughan 2000), is a critical factor in regulating, modifying Quaternary Period, the paper will first present a brief and forcing the global climate and oceanographic system. summary of the pre-Quaternary history, then proceed with a During most of the late Cenozoic the Antarctic ice sheet has general overview of the Pleistocene record, and finish with driven global eustasy and deep-ocean circulation, and acted more detailed reviews of the Late Quaternary (including the as a regulator of global climate (Anderson, 1999). Holocene) glacial and climatic development, with focus on However, the influences of Antarctic Ice Sheet fluctuations the Antarctic Peninsula and the Ross Sea/Victoria Land in the Quaternary history of global climate, after initiation regions. The focus of the review is on the terrestrial record of major glaciations in the Northern Hemisphere, are not of the glacial and climate history of Antarctica, with yet well understood. More than 98% of the Antarctic reference to the marine record as given in excellent reviews continent is today covered by glacier ice, and the potential by e.g. Anderson (1999) and Anderson et al. (2002). on land for obtaining high-resolution geological data pertaining to its glacial history is poor. A fundamental question is what caused the glacial fluctuations observed in 2. Pre-Quaternary glacial history of Antarctica the records? Antarctic glaciers respond both to global sea level fluctuations, mainly controlled during the Quaternary The Antarctic ice sheet has existed for about 35-40 million by developments in the Northern Hemisphere, and to years, since the mid-Tertiary, and it is widely believed that Southern Hemisphere climate changes. A good un- in East Antarctica it reached continental proportions by the derstanding of the Late Quaternary glacial and climate latest Eocene-Early Oligocene (Hambrey et al., 1989; history of Antarctica will constrain the contribution of Birkenmayer, 1987, 1991; Prentice & Mathews, 1988; Antarctic ice to the global sea-level- and marine oxygen- Barrera & Huber, 1993; Barrett et al., 1991; Denton et al., isotope records, and is important for understanding the 1991). The nature and timing of the initial glaciation of relative timing of climate changes between the polar Antarctica is not well known, and the evolution and nature hemispheres (Denton et al., 1989; Clapperton & Sugden, of the WAIS remains controversial (Wilson, 1995). 1990; Andrews, 1992; Colhoun et al., 1992; Moriwaki et Existing reconstructions of pre-Quaternary Antarctic ice al., 1992; Quilty, 1992; Blunier et al., 1998; Steig et al., volumes and ice-extent rely heavily on interpretations of 1998). Ocean Drilling Program (ODP) data from offshore cores, Studies of Late Quaternary climate changes in such as oxygen isotope (d18O) concentrations, ice-rafted Antarctica have been focused on ice-core (e.g. Jouzel et al., detritus (IRD) concentrations, sediment type and clay 1987; Ciais et al., 1994; Blunier et al., 1998, Thompson et mineralogy, mic rofossil assemblages and occurrences of al., 1998; Steig et al., 1998, 2000; Petit et al., 1999; hiatuses (Fig. 3). The geological literature on Antarctic pre- Masson et al., 2000) and marine records (e.g. Elverhøi, Quaternary glacial history and palaeoceanography is vast, 2 Ólafur Ingólfsson Figure 1. Map of Antarctica and its continental shelf. and the following review relies heavily on overviews by ODP-data from northern Weddell Sea suggests bottom and Denton et al. (1991), Kennett & Hodell (1993) and surface waters there were relatively warm throughout most Anderson (1999). of Paleocene (Kennett & Stott, 1990; Robert & Kennett, 1994). There is no conclusive evidence for the existence of a large ice sheet on Antarctica during the Late Cretaceous 2.1. Onset of Antarctic glaciations. or early Tertiary. Fluctuations in global sea level during late Paleocene might, however, record ice-sheet fluctuations in The onset of glaciations in Antarctica in the mid-Tertiary interior East Antarctica (Anderson, 1999). was probably related to the breakup of Gondwana, pole- Deep-sea oxygen isotope records show a steady increase ward drift of Antarctica and the development of ocean in d18O concentrations during the Eocene, which have been passages around the continent (Kennett, 1977). Plate- interpreted to signify buildup of ice-sheet in Antarctica tectonic and palaeoceanographic isolation of the Antarctic (Prentice & Mathews, 1988; Denton et al., 1991; Abreu & continent successively led to cooling and glaciations. Anderson, 1998). Seismic records of a major unconformity Macro- and microfossil evidence from Late Cretaceous and related to glacial diamictons in ODP drill cores from the Paleocene deposits on James Ross Island and Vega Island East Antarctic continental shelf provide strong evidence for (Fig. 5) suggest that climate there was warm to cool an ice sheet on East Antarctica by Late Eocene to Early temperate and humid (Askin, 1992). ODP results from the Miocene (Fig. 3) (Barron et al, 1991; Andersen, 1999). Queen Maud Land margin suggest temperate to subtropical Birkenmajer (1988, 1991) described Eocene glacial Late Cretaceous climate (Kennett & Barker, 1990), and deposits from King George Island (Fig. 5). These probably Antarctica 3 Figure 2. Drainage map of the Antarctic ice sheet. Modified after Anderson et al. (2002). relate to a local glaciation rather than an extensive West Pliocene, which have been interpreted to signify step-like Antarctic glaciation, since other data from that region build-up of ice volumes on Antarctica (Miller et al., 1991). suggest relatively warm Eocene conditions (Askin, 1992). Results of ODP drillings, seismic records and terrestrial There is strong evidence for an ice sheet on East Antarctica stratigraphical records provide strong evidence for the during the Oligocene (Denton et al., 1991; Hambrey et al., presence of large ice sheets on both West and East 1991), and ice spread into the western Ross Sea by the Late Antarctica during the Miocene (Hambrey et al., 1991; Oligocene (Hambrey, 1993; Wilson et al, 1998). On West Anderson, 1999). Miocene glacial and glaciomarine strata Antarctica, there existed at least mountain glaciers and recorded in drill sites on the Ross Sea continental shelf and localized ice caps (Birkenmajer, 1998; Anderson, 1999), in the westernmost Ross Sea are interbedded with but the existence of an Oligocene WAIS has not been meltwater deposits and diatomaceous oozes, indicating proven. shifts from temperate to sub-polar or polar climates throughout the Miocene (Anderson, 1991). The recent Cape Roberts Project provides evidence for the expansion of 2.2 Miocene – Extensive glaciations in both East and polythermal glaciers from the Transantarctic Mountains West Antarctica towards and beyond the Cape Roberts drill-site (Powell et al., 1998), as well as subsequent ice recession during the Deep-sea oxygen isotope records show stepwise increase in younger part of the Miocene. Larter & Barker (1989, 1991) d18O concentrations during the Miocene and into the and Bart & Anderson (1995) provided data to suggest that 4 Ólafur Ingólfsson Figure 3. The ODP record of Tertiary glaciations in Antarctica (downloaded from: http://www.oceandrilling.org/Documents/Oceanus/Paleo/OceanusPal16HR.html). ice had expanded out on the Antarctic Peninsula continental however, no clear evidence, in the form of delta deposits or shelf by Middle or Late Miocene, and there is also onshore river-valleys, showing significant meltwater discharge in evidence for large Miocene ice caps in the Antarctic connection
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