Creation Research Society Quarterly Volume 43 September 2006 Number 2 Departments Articles Editorial ...... 65 The Elimination of Mutations by the Cell’s Notes from the Panorama of Science Elaborate Protein Quality Control Factory: The Rationality of Hypothesized A Major Problem for Neo-Darwinism ...... 68 Immaterial Mental Processes ...... 127 Jerry Bergman A Subaqueous Tectonic and Hydrothermal Origin Letters to the Editor ...... 130 for Colossal Cave, Arizona ...... 75 Carl R. Froede, Jr. Book Reviews The Genesis Trilogy by Kacy Barnett-Gramckow ...... 67 Pioneering 14C Dating of Wyoming Amber and The Planets by Dava Sobel ...... 74 Its Implications for a Young Earth and Missionaries and Monsters Global Catastrophism ...... 84 by William J. Gibbons ...... 83 Hugh R. Miller, J.R. Michaels, and Matt M. Miller Saints and Scholars (DVD) ...... 125 Photographic Essay—Hanson Ranch Wyoming Dinosaur and Amber Excavation of 1996 ...... 95 Instructions to Authors ...... 133 Hugh R. Miller, J.R. Michaels, and Matt M. Miller Membership/Subscription Application ...... 135 Isotopic Analysis of Fruitland Formation Coal Bed Carbon Dioxide and Methane ...... 105 Order Blank for Past Issues ...... 136 John R. Doughty More Precise Calculations of the Cost of Substitution ... 111 Cover design by Michael Erkel: Walter ReMine Michael Erkel and Associates, 1171 Carter Street, Author and Title Index for Volume 42, 2005–2006 ...... 121 Crozet, Virginia 22932 Lazella M. Lawson The Creation Research Society Quarterly is published Editorial Staff by the Creation Research Society, 6801 N. Highway 89, Chino Valley, AZ 86323, and it is indexed in the Chris- Kevin L. Anderson, Editor tian Periodical Index and the Zoological Record. George F. Howe, Biology Editor John K. Reed, Geology Editor Send papers on all subjects to the Editor: Eugene F. Chaffin, Physics Editor Kevin L. Anderson, Van Andel Creation Research Cen- Ronald G. Samec, Astronomy Editor ter, 6801 N. Highway 89, Chino Valley, AZ 86323. Don B. DeYoung, Book Review Editor Send book reviews to the Book Review Editor: Don B. Jarl Waggoner, Managing Editor DeYoung, 200 Seminary Dr., Winona Lake, IN 46590. Robert Mullin, Assistant Managing Editor

Authors’ opinions expressed in the Quarterly are not nec- Board of Directors essarily those of anyone else associated with the Creation Don B. DeYoung, President Research Society. Eugene F. Chaffin,Vice-President David A. Kaufmann, Secretary Copyright © 2006 by Creation Research Society. All Theodore Aufdemberge, Financial Secretary rights to the articles published in the Creation Research Society Quarterly are reserved to the Creation Research Gary Locklair, Treasurer Society. Permission to reprint material in any form, in- Glen W. Wolfrom, Membership Secretary cluding the Internet, must be obtained from the Editor. Danny Faulkner George F. Howe D. Russell Humphreys Michael J. Oard ISSN 0092-9166 John K. Reed David Rodabaugh Ron G. Samec Printed in the United States of America

Haec Credimus For in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that in them is, and rested on the seventh.—Exodus 20:11 ResourcesCREATION RESEARCH SOCIETY Thousands…Not Billions Radioisotopes and the Age Don DeYoung. 2005. Master of the Earth, Volume II Books, 190 pages. $14.00. Larry Vardiman, Andrew This non-technical book is the laymen’s Snelling, and Eugene Chaffin guide to the Radioisotopes and the Age (editors). 2005. Institute of the Earth (RATE) project. It has been for Creation Research and written to equip the layperson to defend Creation Research Society, scientific six-day creation and refute approximately 876 pages. modern dating techniques. $80.00 (hard cover). The age of the earth is an important issue in Christianity today. If the Thousands… six-day Genesis account is fallacious, then how Not Billions DVD can the rest of Scripture be relied upon? Radioisotopes and the RATE Group. 2005. Institute Age of the Earth: Results of a Young-Earth Creationist Research for Creation Research, 48 Initiative addresses the issues raised by the first RATE technical minutes. DVD. $20.00. book in 2000. The RATE team dared to ask tough questions and See and hear the radioisotopic evidence has discovered that radioactive dating methods and their results for a young earth! Loaded with are not thorough, consistent, or reliable. One of the “pillars” of detailed animations, illustrations, and old-earth evolution really supports the Scriptural account of “in photos, this documentary summarizes the beginning.” the findings and amazing discoveries of the Radioisotopes and the Age of the Earth (RATE) Project. For advanced high school ages and up. Orders can by placed through Creation Research Society 6801 N. Highway 89 Road Guide to Yellowstone Chino Valley, AZ 86323-9186 National Park and Adjacent Phone: 1-877-CRS-BOOK (1-877-277-2665) Areas From a Creationist Fax: (928) 636-9921 Perspective www.creationresearch.org Harold Coffin, John Hergenrather, Dennis For U.S. orders, add 20% for S/H (min $4, max $10)* Bokovoy, and Michael Oard. For Canadian orders, add 20% for S/H (min. $5, no max.)* 2005. Creation Research For foreign orders, add 25% for S/H (min. $9, no max.)* Society, 101 pages. $12.00. This is the second in a series of geologi- Orders must be pre-paid. cal road guides for National Parks, National Monuments, and other significant geological regions frequented by a large For credit card payments, (Visa, MasterCard, Discover, and number of tourists. The guide is a mile-by-mile log of significant American Express), please include the card number, expira- geological sites, along with biological and historical tidbits, all tion date (month/year), and your phone number. from a creationist perspective. In addition to the major roads in the Park, the road guide includes the Beartooth Highway between Red Lodge and Cooke City, Montana, northeast of Yellowstone Park—one of the most spectacular drives in the United States. The A free catalog of books and videos is available. guide contains numerous color pictures and diagrams of Yellow- Send your e-mail request to [email protected] stone Park in beautiful half-page size, with a spiral binding. or call 1-877-CRS-BOOK. Volume 43, September 2006 65

Intelligent Design Answers Its Critics…Mostly

n May of 2006, Biola University (La In that vein, a common criticism re- Mirada, CA) hosted an “Intelligent peatedly offered by the critics’ panel was are negatively addressing it (especially IDesign Answers Its Critics” seminar. that ID is not science because articles Behe’s concept of “irreducible complex- A panel of five proponents of Intelligent supportive of ID are not published in re- ity;” see Behe, 1996). Proponents of ID Design (ID) squared off against a panel spected scientific journals. The same ar- are simply not being provided opportu- of critics (some more critical than oth- gument, of course, is constantly leveled nity to respond. Even though this is a ers). Dr. Stephen Meyer began the at creation science. Dr. Meyer offered common tactic in evolutionist circles, evening with a brief overview of ID, ex- his own experience of publishing a pro- is it scientifically appropriate to discuss plaining what he considered ID to mean, ID article in a science journal (Meyer, only the negative aspects of ID/creation, and the scientific basis for the idea. He 2004) as a counter example of this and not allow discussion of its positive emphasized that ID was not based upon claim. But, he also used it as evidence aspects? If it is scientific to discuss the Genesis or any biblical perspective. He for the difficulty of publishing such negative, how is it not scientific to dis- also offered several examples of ID “re- articles in journals. Even though his cuss the positive? search,” which were subsequently woven article went through the journal’s nor- Creation scientists are fully aware into some of the arguments throughout mal peer-review process, the mere fact of this level of prejudice in publishing the remainder of the evening. such a pro-ID paper was even published articles. For example, in the July/August With a few exceptions, the critics was met with loud outrage among the 2002 issue of Research News the editor seemed to be far less interested in deal- evolutionary community. This outrage declared that he would never publish ing with the scientific evidence, instead ultimately caused the journal’s editorial a paper supporting “scientific creation- wanting to focus more on their claim board to offer an “official apology.” This ism” and even considered it completely that ID is merely a religious viewpoint. was an unprecedented decision since appropriate to allow negative comments In fact, there were several occasions such apologies are almost exclusively about “creationism” without giving cre- when the evolutionists appeared to sense reserved for articles involving fraud or ationists any opportunity for response. the ID panel was gaining the scientific other ethical violations. He justified this on what he called the “upper hand,” and they quickly worked Not surprisingly, the panel of critics editor’s “higher calling.” Apparently to move the subject away from argu- at the Biola event generally took a dis- this “higher calling” is the calling to ments of scientific evidence. I have often missive attitude toward Meyer’s account. protect evolution from its critics and noticed this tactic among evolutionists Such a “hand-waving” tactic is common the journal’s readers from exposure to and have suggested that it illustrates among evolutionists when dealing with alternative positions. their unwillingness (inability?) to ad- arguments and evidence that they are Dr. Jonathan Wells, sitting on the ID dress the topic strictly in terms of the unwilling or unable to counter. In fact, panel, interjected that many aspects of scientific merit. Rather than confront at a recent debate I was involved in, my Darwin’s arguments in Origin of Species the scientific data for or against ID, or opponent attempted to dismiss the rel- (and even some arguments still made creation, or evolution (i.e., common evance of Meyer’s experience, claiming today) involved comparisons to intel- descent), they seem to be content in that it only represented one example. ligent design. Wells suggested that part stonewalling the discussion with claims Ironically, if the evolutionists had their of Darwin’s reasoning was his conviction of how ID/creation is not science. This way, there would not even have been that certain biological systems were becomes their refuge from the “storm” this one example. poorly designed, therefore “God would of trying to defend against scientifically What is more, ID is already found in not have done it that way.” Hence, Dar- based challenges (and what a storm that the scientific literature, because an in- win concluded that life had developed can be for evolutionists). creasing number of papers and textbooks by a less intelligent and more random 66 Creation Research Society Quarterly process than by design. Aside from his a very ill informed misconception of al- aspect of ID is its attempt to be a “big great ignorance of the sophisticated and ternative views. Most, in fact, are grossly tent” for all those who recognize all the complex biological world he was observ- unaware of the flaws and shortcomings evidence of design in the cosmos. This ing, Darwin clearly used an approach of of evolution, since such are almost never also means that the ID movement is contrasting different views of origins as taught and rarely appear in the scientific represented by a wide variety of differ- a means of explaining and developing literature. Yet, virtually any concept or ing views. Some of these views were his own ideas, a practice that scientists teaching in science is “fair game” for represented on the ID panel at Biola; apparently are no longer allowed. Wells critical analysis, except evolution. Why from Dr. Michael Behe’s acceptance of then asked whether parts of Darwin’s is evolution exempt? Comparative criti- evolutionary common descent, to Dr. Origin of Species must be considered too cism between two ideas almost always Meyer’s form of “old-earth” progressive religious for science classes today (some serves to enhance and sharpen current creation, to Dr. Paul Nelson’s young- of the critics agreed they might). scientific thought, helping to sort out the earth creation position. Not surprisingly, The critics also tried to suggest that “deadwood.” And, evolution contains the panel of critics occasionally worked as the minority position among scientists, an enormous amount of “deadwood.” to exploit these differences among the ID cannot be accepted as legitimate sci- (As a result of creationists’ and IDers’ ID panelists and probably were the most ence. Again, such arguments frequently criticisms, evolutionists have removed successful when they posed the question, have been used against creationists as a little of the deadwood—more or “Does ID need to make scientific predic- well, along with an attempt to convey less—although most evolutionists would tions?” This caused an almost equal divi- the idea that scientific truth is based not publicly acknowledge this.) sion among the ID panelists between the on popular consensus among scientists. Meyer asked whether science was negative and affirmative positions. (I have been a practicing scientist for ever advanced if the minority position Certainly, Behe’s “irreducible com- over 20 years and do not seem to recall always remained quiet. In fact, he plexity” does make scientific predictions ever “voting” on a scientific truth.) The challenged that one of the best ways (Behe, 1996), and evolutionists have primary purpose of this strategy again for science to protect itself from “bad” engaged in a contradictory attack upon seems to be to insulate evolution from ideas is not censorship but full disclo- it: deny that it makes any scientific pre- criticism and challenge. Interestingly, sure and argumentation. Yet, science is dictions and at the same time attempt many major contemporary scientific sometimes viewed as a noble effort that to refute the predictions it does make. concepts and breakthroughs were not is somehow above human pettiness and There are now numerous journal ar- initially very popular, some languish- shortcomings. As such, this provides ticles dealing with so-called refutations ing in various levels of obscurity for science an amazing ability for “self-cor- of “irreducible complexity.” If it makes decades. The day that scientific “truth” rection.” However, science is merely an no scientific predictions, how can they becomes merely a function of popular investigative process to understand the refute it? acceptance is the day that science no world around us. Those engaged in this But I think ID has struggled to offer longer functions. process are scientists, and sometimes more than a few scientific predictions. What is more, I would challenge they can be just as petty and flawed as The ID panel’s division over the need that evolution (i.e., common descent) anyone else. Thus, this “self-correction” for such predictions reflects this conflict. has achieved its level of popular accep- in science does not result from the no- I would suspect such predictions are tance more through intimidation by its bility of science or scientists but rather difficult to develop within such a “big ardent supporters than by its scientific from the dogged determination of those tent” as ID. Any predictions it makes veracity. Using processes of professional who disagree with a current paradigm. cannot contradict “common descent,” or bullying and intimidation (ex. threats of “Self-correction” is dependent on the address the age of the earth or the age of tenure denial, etc., see Bergman, 1984 ability of scientists to express opinions the human genome, or deal very specifi- for specific examples), proponents of and offer challenges without fear of cally with the standard geologic column. evolution have achieved a dramatic reprisal. If this freedom is dampened, Such specific predictions would reduce chilling effect on questions and chal- so is this “self-correction.” Bad ideas this “big tent,” sending at least one lenges to the orthodoxy of evolution. then become insulated, and linger as group in the ID camp packing. Such It has been my experience that the vast accepted paradigms long after their sci- lack of specific predictions will certainly majority of scientists are evolutionists entific value and usefulness is exhausted continue to be a source of evolutionists’ simply because that is what they were (spontaneous generation is an excellent criticism. taught. Often they have not even con- historical example). In this area, a young-earth creation sidered an alternative view, or they have On the other hand, an interesting (YEC) model is far superior. Even Volume 43, September 2006 67

though evolutionists usually refuse to We do not claim to have answers to Behe, M. 1996. Darwin’s Black Box. The acknowledge it, YEC makes numerous every question. But ongoing research Free Press (Simon & Shuster), New specifi c predictions. All these predictions efforts by the Creation Research Society York, NY. can be (and are being) subjected to (and other sister organizations) continue Bergman, J. 1984. The Criterion: Religious scientifi c analysis and experimentation. to address questions in the creation mod- Discrimination in America. Onesimus For example, some YEC predictions are el, strengthen our understanding of cre- Publishing, Richfi eld, MN. that the earth is young, the human ge- ation, and offer ever greater challenges Meyer, S. 2004. The origin of biological nome is young and degrading, mutations to evolution (i.e., common descent). In information and the higher taxonomic are almost always (always?) degenerative fact, the genetics arguments for creation categories. Proceedings of the Biological (even so-called “benefi cial” ones), and are becoming so strong they may soon Society of Washington 117(2):213–239. there are systematic gaps in the fossil become, dare I say, “overwhelming.” record between all major phyla. Kevin Anderson, Ph.D. Editor Creation Research Society Quarterly

Book Review The Genesis Trilogy by Kacy Barnett-Gramckow Moody Press, Chicago, 2004, Book I, 384 pp; Book II, 400 pp; Book III, 424 pp, $13 each.

Th e a u t h o r o f considered it, but the publisher thought Others involve creationist speculations the Genesis Tril- the idea a bit too avant-garde for most such as the dispersion of people groups ogy, Kacy Barnett- readers. So the settings for the stories to North and South America. None of Gramckow, fills a need in Christian were in an agrarian society governed by these are outside of what we might know literature by painting a picture of three tribes. The plots of each book paint a tap- from the Bible. biblical events in a historical novel form. estry of complicated sets of interpersonal The novels are not only a marvelous Her approach is unique in that she writes relationships within a wicked society. read, they provide a new perspective the novels from the point of view of the Kacy related to me that the most diffi cult for creation thinkers who typically read women that participated in the events. problem in writing the fi rst book was research papers from a male point of When we interviewed Kacy on the that she knew that all of the characters view. Here is a set of novels that start Revolution Against Evolution television except Noah and his family would die with a biblical foundation, mixed in with show, she indicated that the inspiration in the Flood. imagination that is consistent with that for these novels came from sources such Kacy employs an interesting effect foundation. They are woven together as the Creation Research Society, Insti- in changing the King James spelling with a set of interpersonal relation- tute for Creation Research and Answers of the names of the biblical characters ships that is generally perceived from in Genesis, as well as my own web site. to refl ect the correct pronunciation in a feminine viewpoint. This produces John Woodmorappe’s book, Noah’s Ark: Hebrew. Noah became Noakh, Ham a unique perspective of the conditions a Feasibility Study, was a resource she was Khawm, and Japheth became at the Flood, before and afterward, and consulted as she constructed the plot Yepheth. Kacy’s intent was to remain why God was justifi ed in sending his for her stories. true to the biblical story and introduce judgment on the earth. I asked Kacy if she had considered very little in the way of speculation. crafting these stories with the possibility She succeeded in her mission. Some Douglas B. Sharp that there may have been an advanced of the plots include events from Jewish 5511 Birchwood Way technology before the Flood. She had tradition such as the death of Nimrod. Lansing MI 48917 68 Creation Research Society Quarterly

The Elimination of Mutations by the Cell’s Elaborate Protein Quality Control Factory: A Major Problem for Neo-Darwinism

Jerry Bergman*

Abstract roper protein folding requires specific “chaperones” and other molecular Pmachinery called “folding factors.” Both the genomic code and the fold- ing machinery are required in order to produce a functional protein. The cell also has an elaborate quality control system to ensure that the cellular parts are manufactured to the required specifications. Recent research has added new levels of complexity to our current level of understanding of cell biology quality control. One important role of this newly discovered system is the removal and recycling of improperly folded proteins caused by any number of factors including mutations. Mutations are assumed by neo-Darwinists to be the ultimate source of all new genetic information. In order to produce a new protein by mutations, however, both appropriate folding and quality control systems also must adapt. Without them, a mutant is useless, even if it produces a selective advantage. Quality control results in many, if not most, mutated proteins being repaired or cut up and recycled, even if they are beneficial to the organism. This detail manifests irreducible complexity that favors intel- ligent design.

Introduction Natural selection cannot produce new to neo-Darwinism this genetic variety (1999, 2000) under the designation of genetic information, but can only select enabled natural selection to evolve all “symmetric variation.” Assuming that from what already exists in the genome. life over vast time periods. But many mutation and natural selection could Mutation now is believed to be the changes in the DNA base sequence produce new proteins, a method must only significant mechanism capable of never result in amino acid changes evolve simultaneously to process the new producing new genetic information. within the protein because several dif- proteins properly. For this reason, mutations are believed ferent DNA codons translate the same Protein processing is a complex pro- to be the ultimate source of all genetic amino acid. This built-in stability factor cedure that is just now beginning to be variety (Mayr, 1967, 2001). According has been discussed by Colin Brown understood (Lee and Yu, 2005; Houry, et al., 1999). It involves folding a newly synthesized amino acid polymer chain into its proper physical shape, called * Jerry Bergman, Ph.D., Biology Department Northwest State College, its “conformation.” It also requires a Archbold, OH 43502, [email protected] complex cellular quality control system Accepted for publication: December 16, 2005 present in the cell. The existing system Volume 43, September 2006 69 would eliminate many, if not most, new has steadily increased (Lee and Tsai, in the genes. Other structures also may proteins, even if they were beneficial in 2005, p. 259). aid in folding so that there is a whole the organism and even if they conferred Promoting protein assembly requires protein folding system ensuring that a selective advantage. The system exists constantly controlling the flurry of newly sequenced proteins are folded because many aberrant proteins are cellular activity necessary to maintain into their correct shapes. This is critical extremely harmful to cells and, for this the cellular state of dynamic equilib- because, as noted above, improper fold- reason, are cut up and recycled (Lee and rium called homeostasis (Ellis, 1996; ing of a particular protein can produce Yu, 2005; Sitia and Braakman, 2003). Morimoto, 1996). This control system, death or disease. Potentially beneficial proteins caused by together with the cell’s elaborate repair Johnson (1994) asserted that this mutations are also cut up and recycled system, blocks the expression of nearly entire complex folding system is required by the ubiquitin-proteasome degradation all mutations that produced significant because the supposed “age of the Uni- system designed to ensure a high fidelity conformational changes (Lee and Yu, verse is short compared with the time of protein expression (Lee and Yu, 2005). 2005). This process works against evolu- it would take even a small protein to The process of “cutting up” proteins tion by mutations. A family of illnesses, sample the many billion possible folds involves enzymes that break the peptide called conformation diseases, results en route to the right one” (p. 29). As the bonds between the amino acids that when certain misfolded proteins escape unfolded protein chain of amino acid make up the protein chain. The result the degradation process (Lee and Yu, residues move toward its final folded is “amino-acid monomers” that are then 2005). Examples include amyloidosis, form, numerous factors could render it reused to make other proteins. Creutzfeldt-Jakob’s disease, scurvy, cystic useless because Many mutational changes in pro- fibrosis, sickle-cell anemia, Alzheimer’s amino acids attract all manner of teins that might be beneficial are not syndrome, and certain other degenera- other molecules intent on illicit seen in living organisms because they tive diseases (Selkoe, 2003). chemical liaisons. Anyone who has do not make it through the cell’s quality had to deal with unfolded proteins control system, part of which is described in a test tube knows the hazards below. Many mutations that could be The Folding Requirement only too well: rather than ending beneficial to an adult block an embryo In the words of Pennisi (1996), a cell is up with fully functioning protein from progressing past the first cell divi- like a “crowded marketplace, with pro- molecules, you are more likely to sions because the mutant interferes with teins hustling from one job to the next, get a glutinous tangled mess, the normal cellular function (Lee and Tsai, jostling and potentially interfering with chemical equivalent of a plateful of 2005). If they pass this hurdle, the sys- one another along the way” (p. 1613). overcooked spaghetti. But in cells, tems described below are activated. Proteins consist of hundreds of amino proteins do fold correctly, or we acids that first are sequentially assembled wouldn’t be here to wonder about by ribosomes according to a sequence them (Johnson, 1994, p. 29). Proper Processing Required based on the mRNA code template. The The folding is double-checked sev- Proper protein production required for long amino acid chains are then folded eral times by numerous other quality cell survival and growth requires an into specific, intricate, three-dimen- control systems, many of which involve elaborate quality control system (Col- sional shapes that contain all the twists, enzymes produced by ribosomes, requir- let and Bardwell, 2002). This system turns, folds, pockets, and loops essential ing the proper gene sequence. Mutation- entails the involvement of a host of for performing the numerous functions al changes sufficient to produce a new regulators that function as monitors, required by the cell. protein would also likely require a new ushers, transporters, inspectors, security Each protein can fold myriads of dif- set of custom chaperones and enzymes guards, and “emergency technicians” ferent ways, and for this reason require to fold the new protein properly. Many (Xu, et al., 1997). It is described as guidance to fold correctly. This guid- mutations may be expected to interfere “wonderfully complex and highly dy- ance is often provided by large complex with this process of quality control and namic ... the details of which are only machine-like molecules called chaper- would produce a non-functional protein beginning to emerge” (Lorimer, 1997, ones. The chaperones are equipped to until the quality control system also p. 720). Research in the decade since properly fold specific proteins or specific evolved to fold and process the new Lorimer made this observation has types of proteins (Lee and Tsai, 2005; protein properly. In the meantime, the confirmed his prediction. For example, Ellis, et al., 2000). The chaperones are misfolded protein would be recycled or “the number of proteins that can be themselves produced by ribosomes ac- could potentially cause disease or even classified as molecular chaperones” cording to a code sequence contained death. 70 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Some proteins in mammalian cells A mechanism exists to help ensure to help regulate the level of chaperone begin folding with the assistance of that proteins are not ejected from the ER production. This is a basic, but very specialized chaperones while still being before they are completely folded. Both important, feedback mechanism. translated, a condition called co-trans- when folding occurs, and during assem- lational folding. This folding occurs in bly, special chemical compounds expose MicroRNA Regulation Control networked tunnels in the endoplasmic the amino acid’s hydrophobic surfaces, MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small, short reticulum (ER) found throughout the unpaired cysteines, or immature glycans, strings of RNA existing in large numbers cell near the nucleus. Sequential inter- allowing ER-resident chaperones or in every cell type. They bind to mRNA actions with a set of specific chaperones oxidoreductases to interact with them molecules in order to regulate their often are required for each folding step. to help ensure proper folding. As a con- function, either by inhibiting them from Folding is then completed after the sequence of this interaction, altered or making proteins, or by targeting them for protein is produced (called post-trans- damaged proteins are retained in the ER destruction (Enright, et al., 2003). Many lational folding), and individual protein or are retrieved from an organelle called fundamental development processes are subunits are usually folded before the the Golgi complex and chauffeured microRNA regulated. For a new protein assembly of multiple different chains, a back to the ER to be repaired. The Golgi to exist, it must evolve a compatible mi- process known as oligomerization (Sitia complex is part of the protein processing croRNA regulation system, or it must be and Braakman, 2003). and modification system. Incompletely properly regulated by an existing system. Final folding is completed inside the folded proteins can also form aggregates Without this system, too much or too ER next to where the protein assembly that prevent them from entering the little protein will result, causing injury ribosomes are located. The finished vesicles used to transport properly pro- or death to cell or organism. protein is then transported elsewhere by cessed proteins away from the ER. This special membrane-bound containers for system works against neo-Darwinian evo- Location Specificity further processing. The finished protein lution by mutations because “mutations Although most folding factors are “ubiq- may perform its role in the body either or even unbalanced subunit synthesis uitously expressed throughout the body, in the cell or outside, as is the case with make folding or assembly—and hence some are tissue-type specific or cell-type secreted proteins. A multitude of other exit from the ER—impossible” (Sitia specific, and probably fulfill a particular processes involving both software-like and Braakman, 2003, p. 892). synthetic task” (Sitia and Braakman, and hardware-like systems must all work 2003, p. 891). Collagen is a fibrous together to ensure successful protein Workforce Regulation protein used for a glue function in con- manufacture. This system would need The cell keeps track of how many of nective tissue, bone, skin and cartilage. to be adjusted and/or greatly modified to each specific kind of chaperone is avail- Efficient collagen production requires properly process a new protein produced able for use. It uses this information to the expression of a chaperone called by mutations (Ibba and Söll, 1999). regulate the number of each chaperone heat shock protein 47 (hsp47). On a Some of the sequential interactions and type by sending signals to the nucleus wider level, “a tissue-specific protein-di- the specifically designed chaperones to increase, or decrease, the number sulphide-isomerase-like protein, PDIp, is required for each one of these steps will of specific chaperones to be produced. produced in the pancreas and probably now be discussed. To maintain the effectiveness of its permits the massive secretion of digestive quality-control mechanisms in a variety enzymes” (Sitia and Braakman, 2003, p. Recognition of Correct Folding of physiological environments, cells 891). Heat shock proteins (hsp) are a su- Although a strand of amino acid residues have “regulatory circuits that monitor perfamily of proteins that help to refold can fold in a large number of ways, the levels of available chaperones” in proteins in specific locations where heat, the chaperones are able to distinguish both the cytosol (the cell part that lacks acid-base imbalances, or other factors the one correct way, called the “native membranes or particulate sub cellular cause distortions (called denaturations) folding arrangement” from the many components) and the ER (Sitia and of the protein’s conformation. incorrect patterns (Sitia and Braakman, Braakman, 2003, p. 893). Optimal levels 2003). Chaperones are especially critical of the desired folding factors are also Fail-safe Inspection in discriminating between native and regulated in each area of the cell. After folding, a protein must then suc- nonnative protein foldings. Multimo- cessfully pass through multiple layers lecular complexes, called folding factors, Feedback Regulation of monitoring before it can be sent to provide matrices that couple retention in Part of the ER quality control involves the location in the cell, or the body as a the ER to proper folding and assembly. sending messages back to the nucleus whole, where it is to be used. Sitia and Volume 43, September 2006 71

Braakman (2003) call this a “fail-safe” emanating from different compart- because of a lack of vitamin C. In an inspection system. ments are coordinated. And redox attempt to produce a needed protein, reactions with opposite electron higher levels of the relevant signal are Time Limits fluxes must take place in the ER to sent because mutated proteins that do The cell is able to determine when a pro- mediate formation, isomerization not function are unable to provide the tein has had enough time to fold prop- and reduction of disulphides. The feedback needed to stop the signals. As erly. It must then discriminate between wealth of redox assistants allows these a result, a drastic increase in defective or those that have the needed time from fluxes to be separate, and channels nonfunctional proteins takes place. those that have not yet folded properly electron transport through specific but will do so with more time. protein–protein interactions (Sitia Meltdown Regulation and Braakman, 2003, p. 892). When damage is so great that further op- Bridge Builders eration of the cell could be lethal to the Disulfide bridges are one of the four Emergency Response organism, three independent controls types of chemical bonds used to produce At least two examples exist of the cell’s insure that an orderly slowdown occur to the final stable protein structure. Sulfur complex rapid-response traffic control try to prevent cell death. These controls bonds are commonly used to stabilize teams: “[1.] The accumulation of aber- are the ER sensors, Ire1, and PERK plus protein folds and must be maintained rant proteins in the cytosol triggers the ATF6, which together by a host of oxidoreductase enzymes. heat-shock response, resulting in de novo guarantee a tripartite response with The large number of oxidoreductases synthesis of hsp70 and other cytosolic synergic strategies. By phosphorylat- in the ER indicates that regulation of chaperones. [2.] But if aberrant proteins ing eIF2alpha, PERK transiently disulfide-bond formation is critical for accumulate in the ER, cells activate a attenuates translation [stops protein proper folding. A disulfide bond is a weak different response, the Unfolded Protein synthesis], limiting protein load. bond, only slightly stronger than that of a Response (UPR)” that results in the ATF6 drives the transcriptional single hydrogen bond, yet these bonds are coordinated synthesis of both specific upregulation of many ER-resident crucial to produce native conformations ER-resident chaperones and enzymes proteins and folding assistants [these for many proteins because the disulfide (Sitia and Braakman, 2003, p. 893, proteins help to direct the orderly bond helps create the needed loops and brackets added). cell shutdown]. Ire1 activates XBP-1, folds in the protein molecules. Native A variety of signals can lead to the which in turn induces transcription and nonnative disulfide cross-links are UPR pathway (Obeng and Boise, 2005). of factors that facilitate ER-associated transiently formed; both correct and in- How the diverse unfolded (or misfolded) degradation (ERAD) [this causes the correct disulfide links can easily form and proteins that accumulate in the ER pro- destruction of the ER system itself]. break. Stability is usually achieved only voke the UPR pathway is complex. Sitia The two-step activation of XBP-1 when the total system is folded. Correct and Braakman explain that the UPR is a (transcriptionally induced by ATF6 folding also requires guidance, for which multifaceted system that regulates both and post-transcriptionally regulated continuous oxidoreductase activity helps the proteins involved in quality control by Ire1) guarantees the proper tim- to ensure that these covalent disulfide and many other aspects of the entire ing of the UPR [unfolded protein links remain flexible until the complete secretory pathway system (Sitia and response]; attempts to fold proteins correct folding has been completed. Braakman, 2003). precede the decision to degrade them [the cell tries to fold them, and if this Redox Regulation Consequences of Failure fails, only then do they break them A sensitive chemical balance must be When the system becomes swamped by down for destruction]. If the response maintained between reducing and oxidiz- having too few of the needed structural fails to clear the ER, apoptosis [cell ing (redox) conditions along the protein’s components, or when it is sent defective death] is induced through several pathway throughout the entire folding parts, ER stress can result, a condition in pathways (Sitia and Braakman, 2003, process. The redox gradient between the which the folding ER machinery cannot p. 893, brackets added). ER and the cytosol is important for many cope with its protein load (Wickner, et reasons including intercompartmental al., 1999). Stress can also be caused by Mutations and Folding signaling. Redox regulation is particularly synthesis of mutated or orphan proteins, When a protein is not folded properly, important in the cell’s or the absence of the required cofactors. even after repeated attempts, special- integrated response to oxidative An example of the latter is scurvy, in ized proteins exist to ensure its proper stress, in which adaptive responses which collagen cannot fold properly dismantling and recycling (Goldberg, 72 Creation Research Society Quarterly

2003). A mutant or unbalanced subunit 1999). How misfolded proteins are quality control could cure the pa- that adversely affects proper folding or recognized and selectively degraded is tient. But disease can also originate assembly, triggers this process. These just beginning to be understood. We do from defective degradation. If the proteins, and all terminally misfolded know that it is a very intricate process rate of synthesis of a protein exceeds molecules, are “retrotranslocated” or (Goldberg, 2003). the combined rates of folding and “dislocated” across the ER membrane These quality control mechanisms degradation, a fraction of it will ac- “to be degraded by cytosolic proteos- all must be tightly regulated and serious cumulate intracellularly (Sitia and omes” (Sitia and Braakman, 2003, p. consequences result from loss of this Braakman, 2003, p. 893). 892). The proteosomes are complex bar- regulation. Misfolded proteins must move across rel-shaped macromolecules designed to Quality control must be a balance the ER membrane rapidly enough and break down improperly folded proteins between retaining and degrading be degraded fast enough by the proteo- and recycle their usable parts (Chin, potentially harmful products and some to prevent aggregations (called 2000). Not only are most abnormal, in- not preventing export of biologically aggresomes) from building up inside (or completely synthesized, or incompletely active proteins. CFTR mutants in outside) of the ER. The importance of assembled proteins degraded, but even cystic fibrosis illustrate an overzeal- this process is illustrated by what results incorrectly distributed proteins also are ous quality control, where biologi- if the system does not work properly; degraded by adenosine triphosphate cally active mutants cannot leave “ER storage diseases” are examples. dependent proteases (Wickner, et al., the ER. In this case, relaxing the Much has now been “learned about how

Table 1. The Cell’s Quality Control System. Most of the Quality Control Systems Reduce the Number of Mutations.

Step Requirements

1. Proper Protein Processing: monitors, transporters, and feedback systems Quality Control Features: inspectors, security guards, and emergency technicians

2. Protein Folding: chaperones and other protein folding machinery Quality Control Features: checking systems, correct folding recognition system

3. Workforce Regulation: chaperone number control system Quality Control Features: feedback systems to control up-down regulation system,

4. Location Specificity: systems to regulate levels of specific protein in specific locations Quality Control Features: feedback systems, up-down regulation systems, such as the fail-safe inspection system.

5. Recycling: time limit systems to regulate protein-folding progress Quality Control Features: quality and damage monitoring and repair systems.

6. Emergency Response: heat-shock systems, refolding protein response pathway Quality Control Features: pathway regulation systems

7. Meltdown Regulation: three independent systems designed to produce an orderly slowdown of protein production

Quality Control Features: tightly regulated quality control and systems to regulate the three slowdown pro- tein regulation systems Volume 43, September 2006 73

proteins are handled by the ER folding from control comes at a price for mul- ogy/Oncology Clinics of North America and quality-control machineries, and ticellular organisms and they give the 12:1037—1049. some of this knowledge has begun to be example of proteins that can take on Brown, C. 1999. The principle of symmetric translated to industry and to the clinic. more than one conformation, but this variation as it relates to silent mutations. Yet, many questions remain” (Sitia and causes systemic amyloidosis (runaway Creation Research Society Quarterly Braakman, 2003, p. 894). misfolding, which causes clumping), 36:100. Further elucidation of these de- and can undergo uncontrolled aggre- Brown, C. 2000. The production of form, tailed, coordinated systems will allow gation outside of the cells (Sitia and hox genes, and symmetric variation. drug designers to produce compounds Braakman, 2003). The evidence we have Creation Research Society Quarterly that respond to deal with faulty elements now indicates that very little freedom 37:224—225. that cause degenerative diseases, or even exists, severely limiting evolution by Chin, G. 2000. Editors choice: biochemistry; to induce apoptosis in tumors, causing mutation. For a summary of the quality proteosome activators and regulators. them to self-destruct. Although much is control systems discussed in this paper Science 290:1653. known about the mechanisms already see Table 1. Collet, J.F., and J.C.A. Bardwell. 2002. described, much remains to be learned All living cells are incomprehensibly Oxidative protein folding in bacteria. about this cell quality control system complex. All the activities discussed Molecular Microbiology 44:1—8. (Houry et al., 1999). above are now going on in every single Ellis, R.J. 1996. The Chaperones. Chaphall living cell in your body, and in this review Hall, San Diego, CA. I have only briefly outlined the wonder Ellis, R.J., R.A. Laskey, and G.H. Lorimer Summary and complexity of one quality control (editors). 2000. Molecular Chaperones. Most mutations that cause conforma- system. I ignored many other regulation Chaphall Hall, New York, NY. tional changes in proteins would have a systems such as those regulating develop- Enright, A.J., B. John, U. Gaul, T. Tuschl, difficult time making it past the cellular ment, an important new research area C. Sander, and D.S. Marks. 2003. Mi- quality control system and, even when involving genes such as the hox genes croRNA targets in Drosophila. Genome they do, the consequences could be (see Brown, 2000). No human enterprise Biology 5:R1. catastrophic (Strauss, 1997). Conversely, comes close to the choreography and effi- Goldberg, A. 2003. Protein degradation and some mutations may be silent (not ciency of so many intricately coordinated protection against misfolded or damaged expressed) as a result of the actions of parts. This surely is a clear example of proteins. Nature 426:895—899. some of the quality control mechanisms irreducible complexity (Behe, 1996). If Houry, W.A., D. Frishman, C. Eckerskorn, F. discussed above (for a discussion of silent past experience holds true, the cell’s qual- Lottspeich, and F.U. Hartl. 1999. Identi- mutations, see Brown, 1999). A major ity control factory will prove to be even fication of in vivo substrates of the chap- concern for neo-Darwinism is how a far more detailed than revealed here eronin groEL. Nature 402:147—148. potentially beneficial mutation could (Bergman and You, 1998). This evidence Ibba, M., and D. Söll. 1999. Quality control get past the control system without trig- supports the origin of life by direct and mechanisms during translation. Science gering the cell-death alarm. This topic miraculous creation and works against 286:1893. has been largely ignored by Darwinists. neo-Darwinian speculations. Johnson, J. 1994. First fold your protein. New Sitia and Braakman (2003) mention Scientist 144:26—29. evolution only twice, and then only Lee, C., and M.-H. Yu. 2005. Protein folding in passing. In both cases, they merely Acknowledgements and diseases. Journal of Biochemistry and assume the validity of evolution, rather I wish to thank Clifford Lillo, M.A., Molecular Biology 38:275—280. than trying to support or even explain it. George Howe, Ph.D., Wayne Frair, Lee, S., and F.T.F. Tsai. 2005. Molecular They are actually arguing against evolu- Ph.D., an anonymous reviewer, and chaperones in protein quality control. tion when they admit that the complex Jody Allen for their helpful comments Journal of Biochemistry and Molecular cellular control system described in their on earlier drafts of this manuscript. Biology 38:259—265. paper strongly works against mutational Lorimer, G. 1997. Protein folding: fold- change, and they note that “a certain ing with a two-stroke motor. Nature degree of freedom from quality control References 388:720—723. is essential for the evolution of proteins” Behe, M.J. 1996. Darwin’s Black Box. The Mayr, E. 1967. Evolutionary challenges to (Sitia and Braakman, 2003, p. 892). If it Free Press, New York, NY. the mathematical interpretation of evo- works too well, macroevolution stops. Bergman, J., and M. You. 1998. Models of lution. In Moorehead, P. and M. Kaplan The authors admit that this freedom lung cancer chemoprevention. Hematol- (editors), Mathematical Challenges to 74 Creation Research Society Quarterly

the neo-Darwinian Interpretation of The Journal of Biological Chemistry guardians give a new twist to protein Evolution, pp. 47—53. Wistar Institute, 280:29578—29587. folding. Science News 152:155. Philadelphia, PA. Pennisi, E. 1996. Cell biology: expanding the Wickner, S., M.R. Maurizi, and S.Gottesman. Mayr, E. 2001. What Evolution Is. Basic eukaryote’s cast of chaperones. Science 1999. Posttranslational quality control: Books, New York, NY. 274:1613—1614. folding, refolding, and degrading pro- Morimoto, R. 1996. Review of the chapero- Selkoe, D. 2003. Folding proteins in fatal teins. Science 286:1888—1892. nins. Science 274:1848. ways. Nature 426:900—904. Xu, Z., A.L. Horwich, and P.B. Sigler. 1997. Obeng, E., and L.H. Boise. 2005. Cas- Sitia, R., and I. Braakman. 2003. Quality The crystal structure of the asymmetric pase-12 and caspase-4 are not required control in the endoplasmic reticulum groEL-groES-(ADP)7 chaperonin com- for caspase-dependent endoplasmic protein factory. Nature 426:891—894. plex. Nature 388:741—749. reticulum stress-induced apoptosis. Strauss, E. 1997. How proteins take shape:

Book Review The Planets by Dava Sobel Viking Penguin Group, New York, 2005, 270 pages, $25.00.

Author Sobel is a former New York page 20 quotes Genesis 1:21–24 regard- The author includes many minor Times science reporter. She has a gift ing the creation of whales and beasts of facts which add to the book’s interest. for expressing science concepts in the earth. It should be added that Sobel Hence the element uranium, found clear, refreshing style. Her other best also adds detailed astrology ideas to the in 1789, is named in honor of planet sellers include Longitude (1995) and book without negative comment. Uranus, discovered eight years earlier by Galileo’s Daughter (2005). Sobel shows The book surveys historical and William Herschel (p. 184). William had a familiarity with scripture. She refers to modern discoveries within the solar the habit of rubbing onion on his skin the Bible in a positive, non-disparaging system, and there is poetry in Sobel’s to ward off disease while he observed way, even though she mixes in secular writing style. As one example she de- the heavens in the damp night air (p. science ideas such as the big bang. I was scribes the moon as waxing, waning, and 204). The book has many further ideas surprised to see the following quotes in whining for our attention (p. 104). The to offer, both trivial and fundamental. this popular book. The earth will even- 15 mile (24 km) height of the Olympus A comprehensive glossary and index tually become a “charred cinder where Mons volcano on Mars is pictured as the are included. God once walked among men. This Alps positioned atop the Rockies, in turn dim future, however, lies far ahead as sitting atop the Himalayas (p. 125). The Don B. DeYoung to allow the descendents of Adam and writing is current and includes the 2003 [email protected] Noah ample time to find another home” discovery of the planetoid Sedna, slightly (p. 19). Solar eclipses are suggested to be larger than Pluto and the most distant “part of a divine design” (p. 27). Also, known solar system object. Volume 43, September 2006 75

A Subaqueous Tectonic and Hydrothermal Origin for Colossal Cave, Arizona

Carl R. Froede, Jr.*

Abstract olossal Cave is a feature of both archeological and geological interest. COnly recently has the cave system been systematically explored, and much work still remains to thoroughly document this extensive feature. The formation and development of the cave has not been adequately addressed in uniformitarian geological literature. Apparently, the naturalist interpreta- tion cannot easily explain the problems that “uniformitarian time” creates in understanding the geologic history of the area and the formation of Colossal Cave. In contrast, Colossal Cave is easily addressed by the Creation-Flood framework. The uplift of the adjacent Rincon Mountains during the late stages of the Flood caused the recently deposited and semi-lithified sedimentary over- burden to slide off and pile up around the base of the uplifted metamorphic core complex. During this event, the strata were subjected to the expulsion of both interstitial and hydrothermal fluids, which created preferential pathways through the carbonate strata and resulted in the formation of numerous cave systems. Following Floodwater withdrawal, speleothem development occurred in the open passageways where overlying carbonate source rocks were present. The eventual drying of the climate has resulted in dust accumulation rather than further carbonate mineral deposition.

Introduction Colossal Cave is the only commercially rather unique set of metamorphic core of the cave system challenge several developed cave system located in the complex (MCC) mountains adjacent uniformitarian assumptions regarding 2,400 acres of Colossal Cave Mountain to the city of Tucson (see Froede et al., time and are best understood in the Park. While several other caves are 2003). The geological history of the Co- Creation-Flood framework. known to exist within the property, they lossal Cave area has presented an unwit- are not open to the public (see appen- ting puzzle to uniformitarian scientists dix). The park is located in a beautiful because the tectonism that uplifted the Area Stratigraphy setting adjacent to the Rincon Moun- Rincon Mountains occurred much The geology around Colossal Cave has tains, approximately twenty-two miles later than the original deposition of the been used by the local university as a southeast of Tucson, Arizona (Figure 1). carbonates that contain Colossal Cave. teaching tool in the training of gradu- The Rincon Mountains are part of the The contorted strata and development ate students in earth science (Figure 2). Mapping of the sedimentary strata has provided hands-on experience in under- * Carl R. Froede, Jr., B.S., P.G., 2895 Emerson Lake Drive, Snellville, GA 30078-6644 standing the complex structural geology Accepted for publication: October 1, 2005 in the area around the caverns (Davis, 76 Creation Research Society Quarterly

et al., 1974). Regarding the sedimentary pile around Colossal Cave, Davis (1975) has written: Sedimentary rocks studied within the Colossal Cave domain are Paleozoic in age and form a sheet approximately 150 m thick that rests on the southeast limb of the Rincon Peak antiform. The rocks consist of limestone with interbedded shale and include formations of Cambrian through Permian age. In general, the strata strike east and dip 20N. However, Arnold (1971) noted that the strike of the rocks in the northern part of the Colossal Cave domain defines a convex-southwestward arc. (p. 981.) Regarding the presence of folds in the Paleozoic strata, Davis (1975) stated: Spectacular macroscopic recumbent and overturned folds pervade the sedimentary rocks in the Colossal Cave domain. The folds are best exposed in Posta Quemada Canyon in the northern part of the area ... the Figure 1. Topographic map showing location of Colossal Cavern in relation to the folds in the Colossal Cave domain city of Tucson, Arizona, and the adjacent metamorphic core complex mountains. have unbroken hinge zones. Profile Detailed inset shows elevation contours at 164-foot intervals around the Colossal analysis of the folds in the Colossal Cave area. The Paleozoic strata in which the cave system is developed were derived Cave domain was difficult because from the adjacent Rincon Mountains by gravity sliding. Modified United States of the large size of the structures. Geological Survey Quadrangle (Tucson, Arizona [1994]—1:100,000 scale) using Orientation relations of folds in the Maptech ©2001 software at 1X elevation. Colossal Cave domain indicate that the folds are overturned to recum- bent with gently plunging axes and gently inclined axial surfaces. The exposed portions of the limbs of the asymmetric macroscopic folds are parts of Z-shaped asymmetric folds. (p. 982.) A summary of the fold attributes for Colossal Cave as described by Davis (1975) is presented in Table I. Later Davis (1977) added to the un- derstanding of the area around Colossal Cave when he stated: The low-angle juxtaposition of Figure 2. General diagram showing the Santa Catalina Fault surface over which relatively unmetamorphosed...up- the Paleozoic sedimentary strata have moved, creating gravity-induced folding. The per Paleozoic strata directly on location of Colossal Cave is approximated based on topography and stratigraphy. cataclastically deformed augen Modified from Davis et al., 1974. gneiss represents one of the puz- Volume 43, September 2006 77

Table I. A summary of fold attributes noted by Davis (1975; Table 1) for the smaller limestone layers overlie this sedimentary pile around the Colossal Cave area. unit, separated by siliciclastic sedi- ments (i.e., sands, silts, and clays). The Attribute Colossal Cave limestone has been described by Bryant (1968): Dominant rock type Limestone The Escabrosa ranges in thickness from about 600 to 750 feet. The Sheet thickness 150 meters (164 yards) unit is typically coarse-grained, light gray to white limestone, commonly Structural position South limb of Rincon Peak antiform containing a very high percentage of crinoidal debris. Bedding is thick Surface profile Tight with sub-angular-to-chevron to massive, and clastic content is hinge zones very low. Fossils in the Escabrosa are not very abundant except for the Layer form Class 1C – (see Ramsey, 1967) prevalent crinoidal debris, but in general the unit is less fossiliferous Attitude of underlying gneiss N. 70 W., 30SW. than most of the younger formations. Throughout most of southeastern Orientation of folds Recumbent to overturned. Axes: 15 E. Arizona it is overlain disconformably by the Horquilla Limestone (Penn- Axial surfaces: N. 15 W., 20 NE. sylvanian). (p. 36.) According to Beus (1989), the Asymmetry Overturned basinward limestone varies in composition with the addition of chert in some locations and in others as a crinoidal grainstone. Regarding the paleontology of the forma- zling characteristics of metamorphic early cleavage or fold set. These are tion, he added: core complexes. During the arch- not seen. The thermal event in the The Escabrosa contains a variable ing, some of the lower Paleozoic Rincon Mountains area weakened invertebrate fauna including abun- strata were rendered ductile through the units and caused them to yield dant brachiopods and corals and metamorphism and flowed down the by folding, not along pre-existing less common mollusks and trilobites. structural gradient. The effect of this secondary structural weaknesses, Conodonts and foraminifera indi- deformation is inferred to have been but along primary layering. (p. 1214, cate an age of late Kinderhookian a thinning of the strata by flow and italics added) through late Meramecian for this a diminishing of the stratigraphic In summarizing the history of the unit. (p. 304.) interval separating the upper sur- sediment pile in which Colossal Cave A uniformitarian framework define face of the crystalline rocks and the developed, Davis (1977) stated: the Escabrosa Limestone as lower/ relatively unmetamorphosed upper I see no reason to depart from my middle Mississippian and corresponds Paleozoic and Cretaceous units. No chief conclusions regarding timing to an age ranging between 363 to 333 special preparation was necessary to that (1) “most of the gravity-induced Ma (Harland et al., 1990). prepare the units for gravity-induced folding accompanied the 28 to 24 folding. Layering, not faults, joints, m.y. uplift” and (2) “it is probable or cleavage, is the obvious control for that some low-angle displacement Formation of the the fold deformations ... the folds, are or gravity-induced folding accompa- Rincon Mountains flexural slip and flexural flow, types nied emplacement and (or) incipient The Rincon Mountains lie to the north in which layer control is dominant uplift of the gneiss. (p. 1215.) of the unmetamorphosed but highly (Donath and Parker, 1964). If dy- deformed Paleozoic strata from which namic metamorphism had preceded Colossal Cave is formed. The mountains the gravity-induced folding, one Escabrosa Limestone are part of the Santa Catalina-Rincon- would expect that such an event Colossal Cave is formed in the Pa- Tortolita crystalline complex (Keith et would be disclosed by some form of leozoic Escabrosa Limestone. Several al., 1980) and are interpreted as having 78 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Figure 3. Conduits exposed in the side of the limestone block present clear evi- Figure 4. A vertical complex of indi- dence of water development. These features would have formed initially under vidual conduits (perpendicular to the subaqueous conditions and further developed once groundwater dropped below cave floor) that originated underwater the level of the cave. and converged to form the larger pas- sage through the limestone. Features like this one require subaqueous for- mation and development—a situation initiated during the Laramide orogeny Colossal Cave Formation that uniformitarian scientists have not (late Cretaceous—70 Ma) with uplift and Development yet addressed in their historical model continuing at discrete intervals into the According to Cockrum and Maierhauser at Colossal Cave. late Oligocene (22 Ma; Coney, 1980). (1996), following the creation of the The formation of the Rincon Moun- Rincon Mountains, “hot, mineral-bear- tains predates late Tertiary basin-range ing solutions caused part of the silica and faulting. hematite from some layers (especially In describing the present state of The Rincon Mountains formed by the Bolsa quartzite) to be dissolved and knowledge regarding Colossal Cave, the injection of Tertiary granitic melts redeposited in the cracks and crevices of they further stated (p. 7): into preexisting Precambrian granite. some of the fractured layers” (p. 5). the Cave (sic) was formed sometime This created uplift and resulted in However, they do not credit this during the Pliocene Epoch of the large-scale block faulting and rotation. hydrothermally-charged water with late Tertiary, about one to two mil- The upper few thousand feet of the forming the cave system, rather they lion years ago. In any case, as it exists crystalline rocks became sheared as stated that: today, Colossal Cave is thought to they moved laterally under gravitational Colossal Cave was formed by the be about 600 feet in length and 380 force. This created a broad mylonitic slow action of water seeping into feet at the widest part. Earlier, the zone of deformed metamorphic rocks. the rocks and dissolving away part of Cave was probably longer, for both Above this area of tectonic stress, a décol- the limestone. Although the general the northwest and the southeast ends lement surface formed whereby overly- pattern of passages in the limestone of the caverns and chambers appear ing Paleozoic sedimentary strata moved appears to be in a northwest to to be filled with plugging material laterally across the uplifting mountain southeast direction, no one level of from the eroding hillsides. The total toward the basin floor. Water is viewed water flow occurred throughout the length of all the known passages as an important component for all of this cave. In fact, the various chambers is about two miles. (Cockrum and tectonic activity in both uniformitarian and tunnels have been described as Maierhauser, 1996, p. 7.) position (Coney, 1980) and young-earth an irregular maze. (Cockrum and During my cave tour, I observed creation (Froede et al., 2003). Maierhauser, 1996, p. 6–7.) several locations within the cave where Volume 43, September 2006 79

water played a dominant role in its cre- and karst studies and he noted that concept of “time” within the philosophy ation (Figures 3 and 4). An examination many Americans were ignorant of of uniformitarian earth history is not of just the commercial portion of the French and Romanian karstology typically given much thought. However, cave by scientists knowledgeable of cave references! (See Silvestru, E. 1990. I believe that Colossal Cave presents a formation and development would rede- Propositions pour une classification rather striking example of too much time fine the origin of this cave from subaerial litho-génétique des formes karstiques in the constraints of the uniformitarian to subaqueous. et apparentées. Karstologia, La Riv- paradigm. Perhaps the best information in oire, France. Nr.15, pp. 55–57).] The Escabrosa Limestone is one of support of a subaqueous hydrothermal It should be noted that the dominant several stratigraphic layers that repose origin for Colossal Cave comes from uniformitarian model for cave develop- deformed at the base of the Rincon the analysis of dogtooth spar calcite crys- ment remains the carbonic acid dissolu- Mountains (Figures 5a and 5b). The tals collected from within the cavern. tion of carbonate rock typically above the contorted limestone strata reflect semi- Peachey (1999) stated that: groundwater table (e.g., Jennings, 1985; lithified folding, not brittle faulting. We The initiation of speleogenesis James and Choquette, 1988; White, should expect that tectonism occurring appears to have occurred in the 1988; Ford and Williams, 1989; Palmer, hundreds of millions of years following interval following mid-Tertiary (late 1991; Gillieson, 1996). the deposition of the Escabrosa Lime- Eocene-early Miocene) movements The concept of cave formation and stone would break rather than bend and due to the local MCC but before late development by sulfuric acid speleo- deform the strata. We would not expect Tertiary (mid-Miocene-early Plio- genesis was first proposed by Egemeier the strata to remain semi-lithified over cene) interruption by the Basin and (1981). In 1990, Hill proposed that the course of hundreds of millions of Range orogeny block-faulting—lo- Carlsbad Caverns (and other caves years and then behave plastically as a cally between 20–18 mya and 15–12 within the Guadalupe Mountains) were result of tectonism. The concept of ap- mya. It is hypothesized that hot brines formed by sulfuric-acid dissolution. She plying deep-seated metamorphism to

carrying H2S encountered the buried linked the migration and upward leak- create movement, thinning, and plastic

limestones. Oxidation of the H2S age of underlying oil and gas deposits deformation to overlying well-lithified

then created H2SO4 which dissolved to the formation of sulfuric acid in sedimentary strata has not been dem- the carbonate in a manner largely groundwater that moved along joints onstrated scientifically. The folded and seen at Carlsbad Caverns. (p. 23, and sedimentary structures forming contorted limestones provide no evi- italics added) the caverns (Hill, 1990). An excellent dence of the effects of metamorphism. He further speculated that: summary of the sulfuric acid theory of The excessive time between deposition If ongoing work demonstrates the speleogenesis is found in Jagnow et al. and uplift creates serious problems and validity of this explanation, Colos- (2000). More recently, Naturalists have questionable concepts for the uniformi- sal Cave as well as several other added microbial catalysis as a possible tarian philosophy. southern Arizona caves will become source of sulfuric acid for cave formation The theory of plate tectonics (PT) known as the first representatives of a (Engel et al., 2004). asserts that mountain building on the previously undescribed subcategory continents occurs primarily as a func- of hypogenic (deep) cave develop- tion of plate collision or subduction. ment. (Peachey, 1999, p. 23.) [Edi- Problems with Lithification Tectonism is understood to take many tor’s Note: This is not the first time and Tectonism millions of years with the typical rate that this dissolution process has been Uniformitarian stratigraphy defines the of uplift measured in inches per year proposed. In 1988, Mârza and Sil- Escabrosa Limestone as having formed or even inches per century. However, vestru first mentioned hydrothermal during the Mississippian Period (363 this concept of mountain building karst phenomenon associated with to 333 Ma). The timing of the uplift of does not appear to apply to the MCC Neogene metasomatic sulphide ore the Rincon metamorphic core complex mountains adjacent to Colossal Cave. deposits from Rodna Veche (Mârza, mountains initiated during the Laramide These mountains are viewed as having Ioan and Silvestru, Emil. 1988. orogeny (70 Ma) and continued in sev- formed due to the injection of a Tertiary- Studia Universitatis “Babes-Bolyai,” eral pulses into the late Oligocene (22 age granitic melt over the course of at Geologica-Geographica,Cluj-Nap- Ma). The amount of time separating least three (possibly more) episodes of oca, XXXIII, pp. 77–81). In 1990, the end of carbonate deposition from tectonism, spanning up to 50 Ma. This Silvestru introduced the category the beginning of tectonic uplift ranges period of MCC tectonism is bracketed “hypogenic karst” based on his cave from 263 to 311 million years (Ma). The by the Laramide orogeny and basin and 80 Creation Research Society Quarterly

A Figure 5. (A, left) Looking northeast up Posta Quemada Canyon, which is just to the southeast of Colossal Cave. The canyon sidewalls exhibit strata in both near-horizontal and contorted orientation. (B, below) A close-up of the far end of the canyon. The physical form of the layered sediments clearly supports Davis’s contention that these strata moved under gravitational force. Young-earth creationists contend that all of this (i.e., sediments and tectonics) can be attributed to the global flood of Genesis.

B

range extensional tectonics and yet di- rectly unrelated to either. This is another example where existing PT theory pro- vides no credible support to the under- standing of the orogenic history of the area (see Reed, 2000). Uniformitarian scientists assert that much of the sedimentary overburden above the uplifted MCC mountains simply slipped off the side of the moun- tains during uplift (e.g., Davis et al, 1974; Davis, 1975; 1977; 1980; 1987). This would imply a steady, rapid rate of uplift in order to maintain the integrity of the strata and prevent its erosion over deposited semi-lithified strata would cive for speleothem development at a the subsequent hundreds of millions of have moved from off the top and/or side rapid rate. The further lithification of years (see Froede et al., 2003). of the rising MCC mountains during the limestones coupled with a drying subaqueous tectonism. The subsequent climate would see a decrease in calcium formation and development of the cave carbonate deposition within the cave. Creation-Flood Framework system would coincide with conduit de- The weather experienced by this por- As previously noted, the physical condi- velopment due to the expulsion of both tion of Arizona today has terminated any tion of the deformed and contorted strata connate and hydrothermal waters asso- further development of calcite deposits that form Colossal Cave suggests that ciated with subaqueous orogenesis in a in Colossal Cave, and dust deposition sediments moved off the rising Rincon manner consistent with the karstification and accumulation now predominate Mountains as semi-lithified strata. Uni- and cave formation processes discussed (Figure 6). formitarian scientists have stated that by young-earth creationists (Silvestru, the formation of the metamorphic core 2001; 2003; Woodmorappe, 2001). complex mountains strongly supports Eventual Floodwater withdrawal Conclusion a setting with abundant water and it coupled with a wet weather post-Flood It is incumbent for creationists to define is reasonable to expect that the Flood- climate (Oard, 1990) would be condu- the rock record within the context of Volume 43, September 2006 81

explorers. The following is a summary of the information provided on the web page (Kimble, 2004): In January 1996, a Colossal Cave employee observed a geyser of steam shooting at least six feet into the air. The steam was reported to be coming from a 3.5 inch-diameter opening in the ground. Over the course of sever- al years the opening widened and six years following its discovery the first cave explorers entered and lowered themselves to the sandy floor of the cave. The interior is reported to be hot with humidity near 100 percent; however, there was no flowstone or dripstone in the immediate area. A number of prehistoric animal bones (e.g., horse, camel, tortoise, frogs, snakes, and rodents) were found around the floor area and how this Figure 6. The flowstone presents clear evidence that it was created in subaerial material got there remains a mystery. conditions in a manner typical to speleothem development. The drying of Over the course of many months, the climate since the end of the Ice Age has transformed the cave from active five initial rooms were mapped. Ad- calcite deposition during wet periods to experiencing only present-day dust ditional rooms were subsequently accumulation. identified following the discovery of moving air coming from a small cave wall opening. The heat and humidity biblical history. The purported pas- being uplifted subaqueously during the provide for continued cave dripstone sage of millions of years between the Flood. The strata slumped adjacent to and flowstone formation where watery deposition of the Paleozoic the uplifted mountain and were further it has developed. Crystals cover a strata and onset of considerable tectonic altered as interstitial and hydrothermal large room in a newly discovered uplift is not supported by the empirical fluids moved through them. Speleothem area and progress in cave mapping evidence found in this area of study. development occurred following Flood- has stopped until a means can be That uniformitarian scientists readily water withdrawal but has terminated in determined to further explore the acknowledge the abundance of water today’s dry weather setting. Dust covers cave system without destroying the in the formation of metamorphic core much of the flowstone today. delicate cave crystals. While explora- complex mountains and invoke hydro- tion of the cave has only proceeded thermal fluids to erode and redeposit down to around 100 feet below the silica within the adjacent contorted and Appendix ground surface, spelunkers believe deformed strata should be applauded. An interesting story was recently posted that it continues much deeper. The more important question for the on the Tucson Citizen web page regard- They hope to continue exploration uniformitarian interpretation begs for ing the discovery of a new cave on park once they determine how to proceed an answer defining the source of all property. The cave has been named La and not destroy the delicate cave this water. Tetera—Spanish for tea kettle. Many of formations. It is estimated that La The Creation/Flood framework the explored rooms are reported as being Tetera is approximately 10 million provides an interpretation consistent barren of speleothems and containing years in age. with the physical evidence. Simply sand on the cave floor. However, several The presence of a deep-seated heat stated, the semi-lithified Flood-depos- newly discovered rooms contain drip- source supports the idea that hydro- ited sediments slipped from the top or stone, flowstone, and rare cave crystals thermal processes probably created side of the Rincon Mountains while described as “Disneyesque” by the cave’s this cave system. It is interesting that 82 Creation Research Society Quarterly

sufficient heat still exists today allowing 1996. Colossal Cave Visitors’ Guide. Ford, D., and P. Williams. 1989. Karst Geo- for continued dripstone and flowstone High-Lonesome Books, Silver City, morphology and Hydrology. Chapman development despite its alleged old age. NM. and Hall, New York, NY. The reference to high humidity without Coney, P. J. 1980. Cordilleran metamorphic Froede, C.R., Jr., G.F. Howe, and J.R. Meyer. extensive speleothem development in core complexes: an overview. In Crit- 2003. The Saguaro National Park (east) various cave passages is curious in that tenden, M.D., Jr., P.J. Coney, and G.H. mylonites, ultramylonites, and cataclas- the system yet remains in its present state Davis (editors), Cordilleran Metamorphic ites: evidence in support of the Genesis even after “10 million years.” Core Complexes, pp. 7–31. Geological Flood. CRSQ 40:8–15. Again, the concept of deep time Society of America Memoir 153, Boul- Gillieson, D. 1996, Caves: Processes, De- does not appear to match the physical der, CO. velopment and Management. Blackwell evidence described in this newly dis- Davis, G.H. 1975. Gravity-induced folding Publishers, Malden, MA. covered cave. off a gneiss dome complex, Rincon Harland, W.B., R.L. Armstrong, A.V. Cox, Mountains, Arizona. Geological Society L. Craig, A.G. Smith, and D.G. Smith. of America Bulletin 86:979–990. 1990. A Geologic Time Scale 1989. Cam- Acknowledgments Davis, G.H. 1977. Gravity-induced folding bridge University Press, New York, NY. I thank George F. Howe for his excellent off a gneiss dome complex, Rincon Hill, C.A. 1990. Sulfuric acid speleogenesis and capable field assistance and com- Mountains, Arizona: Discussion and of Carlsbad Cavern and its relationship panionship in guiding me around Ari- reply. Geological Society of America Bul- to hydrocarbons, Delaware Basin, New zona over the years and for igniting my letin 88:1211–1216. Mexico and Texas. American Asso- interest in metamorphic core complex Davis, G.H. 1980. Structural characteristics ciation of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin mountains. This effort has benefited of metamorphic core complexes, south- 74:1685–1694. greatly from the constructive reviews ern Arizona. In Crittenden, M.D., Jr., P.J. Jagnow, D.H., C.A. Hill, D.G. Davis, H.R. provided to me by A. Jerry Akridge, John Coney, and G.H. Davis (editors), Cordil- DuChene, K.I. Cunningham, D.E. Reed, and Emmett Williams. However, leran Metamorphic Core Complexes, pp. Northup, and J.M. Queen. 2000. History any mistakes that may remain are my 35–77. Geological Society of America of the sulfuric acid theory of speleogen- own. I thank my wife Susan for allowing Memoir 153, Boulder, CO. esis in the Guadalupe Mountains, New me the time and opportunity to conduct Davis, G.H. 1987. A shear-zone model for Mexico. Journal of Cave and Karst Stud- and report my work. Glory to God in the the structural evolution of metamor- ies 62(2):54–59. highest (Prov. 3:5–6)! phic core complexes in southeastern James, N.P., and P.W. Choquette (editors). Arizona. In Coward, M.P., J.F. Dewey, 1988. Paleokarst. Springer-Verlag, New and P.L. Hancock (editors), Continen- York, NY. References tal Extensional Tectonics, Geological Jennings, J.N. 1985. Karst geomorphology. CRSQ: Creation Research Society Quar- Society Special Publication No. 28, pp. Basil Blackwell, New York, NY. terly 247–266. Blackwell Scientific Publish- Keith, S.B., S.J. Reynolds, P.E. Damon, M. Arnold, L.C. 1971. Structural Geology Along ers, Boston, MA. Shafiqullah, D.E. Livingston, and P.D. the Southeastern Margin of the Tucson Davis, G.H., G.J. Eliopulos, E.G. Frost, R.C. Pushkar. 1980. Evidence for multiple Basin. Ph.D. dissertation; University of Goodmundson, R.B. Knapp, R.B. Lim- intrusion and deformation within the Arizona, Tucson, AZ. ing, M.M. Swan, and J.C. Wynn. 1974. Santa Catalina–Rincon–Tortolita crys- Beus, S.S. 1989. Devonian and Mississip- Recumbent folds–focus of an investiga- talline complex, southeastern Arizona. pian geology of Arizona. In Jenney, J.P., tive workshop in tectonics. Journal of In Crittenden, M.D., Jr., P.J. Coney, and and S.J. Reynolds (editors), Geologic Geological Education 22:204–208. G.H. Davis (editors), Cordilleran Meta- evolution of Arizona, Arizona Geological Donath, F.A., and R.B. Parker. 1964. Folds morphic Core Complexes, pp. 217–267. Society Digest 17, pp. 287–311. Arizona and folding. Geological Society of Amer- Geological Society of America Memoir Geological Society, Tucson, AZ. ica Bulletin 75:45–62. 153, Boulder, CO. Bryant, D.L. 1968. Diagnostic character- Egemeier, S.J. 1981. Cavern development by Kimble, M. 2004. Beyond colossal: cave has istics of the Paleozoic formations of thermal waters. National Speleological more-colorful formations than Kartchner southeastern Arizona. In Titley, S.R. Society Bulletin 43:31–51. Caverns. www.tucsoncitizen.com (as of (editor), Southern Arizona Guidebook III, Engel, A.S., L.A. Stern, and P.C. Bennett. June 25, 2004). pp. 33–47. Arizona Geological Society, 2004. Microbial contributions to cave Oard, M.J. 1990. An Ice Age Caused by the Tucson, AZ. formation: new insights into sulfuric acid Genesis Flood. Institute for Creation Cockrum, E.L., and M.K. Maierhauser. speleogenesis. Geology 32:369–372. Research, El Cajon, CA. Volume 43, September 2006 83

Palmer, A.N. 1991. Origin and morphology Reed, J.K. (Editor). 2000. Plate Tectonics: the life of a cave? Technical Journal of limestone caves. Geological Society of A Different View. Creation Research 17(2):9–11. America Bulletin 103:1–21. Society Books. St. Joseph, MO. White, W. 1988. Geomorphology and Hydrol- Peachey, W.O. 1999. Colossal fossil! Nation- Silvestru, E. 2001. The riddle of paleokarst ogy of Karst Terrains. Oxford University al Speleological Society News 57(1):23. solved. Technical Journal 15(3):105– Press, New York, NY. Ramsey, J.G. 1967. Folding and Fracturing of 114. Woodmorappe, J. 2001. More evidence Rocks. McGraw-Hill, New York, NY. Silvestru, E. 2003. How mysterious is against so-called paleokarst. Technical Journal 15(3):100–104.

Book Review

Missionaries and Monsters (second edition) by WilliamWilliam JJ.. Gibbons Coachwhip Publications, Landisville, PA, 2006, 103 pages, $9.95.

the reader aware of the reports of these The book’s main shortcoming is creatures to understand that the search minor but pronounced. While a short for them is more than a fool’s errand. bibliography is included, there are few “There are more things in heaven and Some reports may turn out to be fi c- citations throughout the entire text. This earth, Horatio, than are dreamt of in tional, and others may be real, but the makes verifi cation and further research your philosophy.” Such were the words search is an informed one. Whether you very diffi cult. This book appears to be a of Hamlet in Shakespeare’s play. All too consider these stories plausible or not, primary source for many accounts, but often people are trapped by the limits the book is fi lled with story after story of it is diffi cult to tell because of the lack of their experience. William Gibbons’ page-turning excitement for any age or of footnoting. exploration of cryptozoology, Missionar- background. What is obvious, however, is that ies and Monsters, invites readers to go Gibbons writes from a young earth much lurks in the earth’s remote places, outside the limits of what they think and perspective, and even includes Behe- and whoever is willing to seek out the believe, and take a look at the reports of moth from the book of Job in his list inhabitants of such areas is likely to others which are almost beyond belief. of accounts. For creationists, this book be rewarded. The author is part of a Gibbons takes the reader on a provides a good but incomplete guide team that is exploring the Cameroon in journey through descriptions of several to the variety of reports of animals, both search of Mokele-Mbembe, a sauropod different types of reported monsters in- amazing and presumed extinct, and can dinosaur, recent eyewitness reports of cluding the Loch Ness monster and provide those who wish to be “living fos- which are recorded in the book. similar creatures, sea serpents, dragons, sil hunters” with an idea of where and large snakes, strange apes, and other what to look for. For others, the book Jonathan Bartlett interesting creatures. Gibbons does not serves as a reminder that there is more [email protected] try to convince the reader that all of to God’s creation than what lives in the 4208 W San Antonio these creatures exist. Instead, he makes backyard and in the local zoo. Broken Arrow, OK 74012 84 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Pioneering 14C Dating of Wyoming Amber and Its Implications for a Young Earth and Global Catastrophism

Hugh R. Miller,* J.R. Michaels, and Matt M. Miller

Abstract he geologic column not only has a problem with coal containing anoma- Tlously large amounts of 14C, but also with 14C in dinosaur bones, carbon- ized wood and amber as well. The purpose of this paper is to 1) review radiocar- bon dating of carbonized wood and dinosaur bones, 2) introduce radiocarbon and infrared studies of amber, and 3) correlate radiocarbon dates of ambers and other natural resins with real time. This is the first known instance of “true amber” being directly dated. 14C dates for amber were at the upper limit of the AMS dating method. The Hanson Ranch amber buried with a triceratops is slightly younger than Baltic amber used as controls, but all true ambers are about the same radiocarbon age as the coals used as blanks. Dinosaur bones and carbonized wood were all within the range of both the conventional and AMS methods. The primary chemical in the Hanson Ranch amber is succinic acid and its salts, succinates and succinites the same as Baltic amber, based on infrared studies. The dinosaurs and amber on the Hanson ranch appear to have been deposited catastrophically.

Introduction Radiocarbon (RC) dates have been (Fields et al. 1990; Dahmer et al., 1990). contradictory observations, create a measured for many kinds of specimens Diamond is at <58,000 RC years (Baum- serious challenge for the standard geo- that were previously thought to be too gardner et al., 2003). Fossilized wood in logic model. ancient to contain detectable levels of ancient sandstone (allegedly 225-230 M Contemporary geological thought Carbon-14 (14C). Coal specimens are years) gave an RC date of 33,720 (± 430) faces a period of crisis not unlike that in typically 40,000 RC years before the RC years BP (Snelling, 1999). physics around the turn of the twentieth present (BP) (Rotta, 2004), as is carbon- These anomalous 14C readings ob- century. At that time, anomalies in the ized wood (Fields et al., 1990). Dinosaur viously contradict currently accepted measurements of the advance of the bone apatite for five different dinosaurs geologic thinking concerning the age perihelion of the planet Mercury caused from the western United States were in of the specimens tested. These mea- astronomers to predict the existence the range of 9,890 to >36,500 RC years surements, coupled with additional of an undiscovered planet somewhere between Mercury and Venus, tugging on Mercury. The predicted planet was named Vulcan. In addition, a very fa- * Corresponding author: Hugh R. Miller, 1215 Bryson Rd., Columbus OH 43224-2009, mous set of experiments by Michaelson 614-263-8613 (phone), 614-263-9199 (fax), [email protected] and Morley using light beams failed to Accepted for publication: December 19, 2005 measure the Earth’s speed through a Volume 43, September 2006 85 hypothetical ether that was thought to for “a burnt branch” imbedded in the (CEM) after permission was granted by fill empty space. And the final anoma- Cretaceous rock strata at the bottom of the McFall Ranch family to excavate on lous set of observations from this time the Paluxy River, Texas (Beierle, 1979). their Paluxy River ledges (Baugh and also concerned the nature of light, This suggested that the specimen ap- Wilson, 1991) rather than continuing definitely contradicting the accepted peared to be 10,000 times younger than research on the river bottom (Morris, wave theory of light. All three of these its date in the accepted geologic col- 1980). insurmountable problems were solved umn of 108 million years BP. Therefore, The first task we undertook was to by a single brilliant scientist—Albert we determined to test the validity of the evaluate a human handprint impression Einstein. Einstein demonstrated that controversial theory of the coexistence imbedded in the cretaceous limestone the old theories of light, gravity, space, of humans and dinosaurs by RC dating. excavated in 1982 (Baugh and Wilson, and time were inadequate and had to Measuring a relatively young date for 1991). Its features were identical to the be replaced by new theories that could amber would support the possibility modern human hand, and were associ- naturally explain the anomalous observa- of correspondingly younger dates for ated with a trail of four, 16-inch-long tions. These new theories are quantum dinosaurs and accepted geologic ages human-like footprints. The project mechanics, and the special and general in general. If these younger ages were director of this independent study, a theories of relativity. indeed accurate, then confirming hu- Ph.D. in geophysics, wrote a paper that A similar crisis exists in the standard man and dinosaur footprints together was presented at the First International geologic model today, where anomalous in the fossil record would be a monu- Conference on Creationism (ICC) dates and other geologic observations mental scientific breakthrough (Mor- (DeVilbiss, 1986). A group of eight cry out for a new model to accurately ris, 1980), offering still more evidence independent researchers (Fields et al., explain them. True science seeks an of our young-earth hypothesis. This 1990) presented a follow-up paper at the understanding of all the facts gleaned controversy was thus at the forefront Second ICC. Since the publication of from observation, and not just those most of the origins debate in the late 1970s these two Proceedings papers, two more compatible with a specific theory. It also and 1980s. human-like footprint trails have been accepts proven anomalies as a sign that Confirming that fossils containing discovered. One trail has an impressive the current theory is inadequate. The carbon, including amber, also contain nine-inch-long human-like footprint in discovery of anomalies is an integral part measurable 14C would be consistent the bottom of an eroded 17-inch-long of the nature of knowledge, and there- with the claim that dinosaurs and man dinosaur print. The human-like print fore the replacement of older theories by did indeed coexist (even without find- was the missing fourth print in a trail of newer and more encompassing theories ing their footprints together in the same five that was part of an original shallow is what makes science function, and strata). It would also show that the Glen series excavated in 1982. The clay at denying the existence of valid anoma- Rose Cretaceous strata (also called the the bottom of the dinosaur print had lous measurements and observations is “Austin Chalk”) were deposited only not been completely removed in 1982, simply impeding science. thousands of years ago. The implications as discovered in 1997 by a CEM team The authors were privileged to would present a serious challenge to the member. Finally, the footprint combina- have worked with the July 5–14, 1996, viewpoint of long ages for Earth’s history. tion was extracted from the rock with dinosaur excavation team in Wyoming It would mean that the alleged 65 mil- the landowner’s permission and can be during and after the excavations. We lion years of evolution since the time seen at CEM. evaluated and photographed many of the dinosaur never existed, and the Prior to the above research, the of the amber specimens, and assisted long-age geologic column would indeed famous Taylor trail of human-like and di- scientists associated with the Polish collapse. Thus, a straightforward way to nosaur-like prints together in the Paluxy Academy of Sciences with our reports, settle the controversy was to accelerate River bottom had been observed (Mor- photo-macrographs of amber, references all the relevant research. This would ris, 1980). The different interpretations and selected Hanson Ranch samples of include the fields of paleoarchaeology by various parties were the primary cause amber for RC dating. and radiometric dating. of the controversy, not the existence of Regarding paleoarchaeology, begin- pristine ones found in subsequent years ning in 1982, some of us participated in on the McFall ledge (~90 human-like Why Radiocarbon Date excavations on the ledges of the famous and 300 dinosaur prints). The latter Amber? Paluxy River in Glen Rose Texas. These were excavated under tons of Creta- An unexpected RC date of 12,800 years excavations were initiated by Carl Baugh ceous limestone and several inches of before the present (BP) was obtained of the Creation Evidences Museum clay, five strata above the river bottom 86 Creation Research Society Quarterly

(Baugh and Wilson, 1991; Helfinstine Radiocarbon Dating humans with dinosaurs, dinosaur bone and Roth, 1994). of Fossils fragments from Texas to Alaska have In addition, another major discovery Since 1978 there have been successful also been radiocarbon dated with RC in the Paluxy River was a trail of 136 efforts by several teams to RC date fossil ages ranging from 9,980 to >36,500 RC dinosaur footprints thought to be that materials such as a burnt tree limb imbed- years BP (Fields et al. 1990). If these of the Acrocanthosaurus (Patton, 2000). ded in the cretaceous sedimentary strata of dates are valid the conclusions become This should be of great interest to all the Paluxy River bottom (Beierle, 1979). obvious: Man and dinosaurs did indeed ichnologists (scientists who study track Dating of carbonized fossil wood from live together and the evolutionary geo- or footprint remains of extinct plants or Paluxy River between the top two strata logic column must be a factor of 1000 animals), and those hungry for dinosaur gave RC ages of 38,000; 39,000 (Morris, to 10,000 times younger than currently lore. These prints were rediscovered 1980); 37,480 (+2950/-2140); and 37,420 geological thinking assumes. Indeed, the during a draught in 2000 by a geologist (+6120/-3430) for carbonized wood in principles of sedimentology supporting directing the research at that time. This clay layers, and 45,000 (+5550/-3250) for the geologic column have already been trail was named the Turnage Patton coalified wood and reeds (Fields et al. strongly challenged by lab and flume Trail. Patton (2000) describes the trail 1990) using the conventional method. studies as Berthault (1994) suggests and on his web site, and the CRSQ reader AMS was used on carbonized wood which this research seems to confirm. is encouraged to examine the footprint embedded in the rock itself and only Notably, when AMS was employed to trail photos of both species. exposed to the atmosphere for one-half date other Acrocanthosaurus bones, The prints are deep and incredibly hour during break-up of rock. The burn- much younger RC dates of 23, 760 detailed. The work of uncovering ing condition of the wood (from lightning, (±270) and 25,750 (± 280) years were and cleaning the trails began Sep- manmade fire, volcanic eruptions or as- obtained (Dahmer et al. 1990). tember 9th and continued through teroid impaction) found imbedded in the Fortunately, our consulting geophysi- October 14. It was conducted under river (Beierle, 1979) could have “fixed” cist in the 1980s (DeVilbiss, 1986) could the auspices of the Metroplex In- the 14C in the wood while it was still not find volcanic material to K/Ar date stitute Of Origin Science and the hot and smoldering in limestone and/or in the clay between rock strata. The exis- Creation Evidence Museum. The clay watery mixture, thus preventing old tence of such material might have caused leading dinosaur track authorities humic acids and carbonates from the some confusion in dating, based on what have acknowledged that they know limestone watery mix and Bentonite/Illite is now known about problems with long of no other single consecutive clays from “diluting” the 14C content by age radiometric dating systems (Miller, dinosaur trails in North America absorbing into the cellulose structure of 2005). However, according to Dr. John that are this long. Both the length the wood. The date for this wood was only DeVilbiss (private communication, and the beautifully preserved detail 12,800. AMS was also used on carbonized Spring of 1986) an examination of the certainly make this one of the finest wood embedded in the rock itself and only clay between rock strata by a soil lab gave displays of dinosaur tracks in the exposed to the atmosphere for one-half an estimated age of >5,000 to < 50,000 world. The primary trail is finally hour while the rock was disrupted, and an years BP, as noted earlier. Nonetheless, obscured at the upper end by ero- age of >49,900 RC years BP was obtained are these RC dates any more reliable sion for a distance of about thirty in 2005 from a licensed analytical lab in than the long age radiometric dating feet and then the trail appears again the United States of America. According systems? The diversity of anomalous RC for another twenty-one consecutive to a private communication with Dr. John dates found for the fossil wood and dino- tracks, making a total of 157 (Pat- DeVilbiss (Spring of 1986), examina- saur bones suggests a lack of accuracy ton, 2000). tion of the clay between the rock strata in RC dating, and further points to the Ripple marks in sedimentary rock indicated an estimated age of >5,000 to possibility that no radiometric dating can can be found in the river bottom with the < 50,000 years BP. provide absolute ages (Brown, 1992; Van dinosaur and human footprints also (Pat- Carl Baugh dated his Acrocanthosau- Oosterwych-Gastuche, 1999). ton, 2000). All the above information is rus bone discovery and he obtained an Because of the challenges put forth documented and is presented here to age of >36,600 RC years. At that time no by old-earth scientists of differing philoso- demonstrate the necessity to radiocarbon one had any idea the significance of that phies on origins, the thought remained date as many different fossils as possible, data. Thus, to determine the time line that maybe the bone and carbonized including amber, to determine a more when these footprints were impressed wood samples could have been contami- accurate time period when the above in the original limy mud and to per- nated with modern carbon 14 from the species left their “ichnites.” haps further confirm the coexistence of environment. It is logical that contamina- Volume 43, September 2006 87 tion could give rise to a variety of RC dates ing to the AMS lab, the carbon content which is why for centuries amber has if the weight of carbon absorbed onto was 82–88% based on the observed CO2 been found along the Baltic Sea shores bone surfaces or into bone matrices were pressure (Ceranowicz et al., 2001). De- as undersea currents or other distur- 1% or greater (Stafford, 1992). Therefore, tails of amber chemistry can be found bances release them from their under- our goal was to demonstrate that RC in Rice (1980) such as that the material water burial sites. Other major sources of dating of amber from the Cretaceous burns with a readily-bright yellow flame; amber include: Colombia, Dominican period might help in grappling with the contains 79% carbon, 10.5% hydrogen, Republic, Mexico, South Carolina, New contamination question. Amber contains and 10.5% oxygen, sometimes traces of Jersey, and even above the Arctic Circle about 80% carbon (Rice, 1980). sulphur; it decomposes at 250° C, and such as Axel Heiberg Island as well as In our estimation there appeared gives off white fumes and pine odor. (Ad- other lesser sites in the United States to be several potential outcomes to this ditional background on amber chemistry and worldwide (Rice, 1980). study: 1) Because of amber’s high carbon and history can be found on various Ceranowicz et al (2001) gives more content (80%) there would be far more Internet web sites.) On the other hand, locations. Also, as was found out later of a chance of contamination than with ten dinosaur bone fragments from the in Poland, the triceratops site amber dinosaur bones containing 2–5% carbon Carnegie Museum of Natural History in contained succinites based on infrared (Andre Ivanov, 1995, personal commu- Pittsburgh contained only 2 to 7% carbon absorption spectra (Figure 1), which nication). If amber specimens were con- based on scrapings of their brown to black confirmed it was true amber. These taminated it would give very young RC surfaces as determined by analysis in a are cross-linked carbon bonds and are dates. 2) On the other hand, there could Leco furnace analyzer (Fields et al. 1990; salts of succinic acid called succinites be less risk of absorption of atmospheric Dahmer et al., 1990). Similar percentages or succinates. 14C in the amber due to the composition are found in the cross sections of dinosaur The smoke of amber is said to be a and nature of amber itself. 3) It could bones that were seemingly partially or potent therapeutic agent used through also be that contamination is just a “straw completely petrified (Andre Ivanov, 1996, the ages. The basic formula for succinic man” argument and not a significant personal communication). acid is that of dicarboxylic acid (four problem; evolutionists may simply offer Rice’s book entitled, Amber, The carbon atoms). Amber contains 3–8% contamination as a simplistic answer to Golden Gem of the Ages (1980) is an ex- succinic acid (Rice, 1980). why fossils allegedly 70 million or more cellent source of information regarding years old contain detectable levels of the history and/or physical properties of 14C. 4) The anomalous dating problem amber. Baltic amber comes from depos- Amber in a Global and could actually be that RC dating is based its in the coastal regions of the Baltic Sea Local Perspective on false assumptions and does not give around Denmark, Sweden, northern The Hanson Ranch, Roxson Wyoming absolute ages (Brown, 1992; Whitelaw, Germany, Poland and the Soviet Union. is located in eastern Wyoming some 80 1993; Van Oosterwyck-Gaustuche, Elsewhere, small quantities of amber or miles west of Mount Rushmore, South 1999; Humphreys, 2004). fossil resins have been found in Sicily, Dakota, and 15 miles west of Route 85 Thus, amber was thought to be the Romania, China, Burma, Thailand, on Cheyenne River Road. We eventually fossil material best suited to test the con- Japan, the Soviet Union, Canada, and collected a number of samples under the tamination theory. The fortuitous finding the United States. Currently, large quan- direction of Joe Taylor of the Mt. Blanco of amber in Wyoming in 1996 (Cerano- tities are being mined in the Dominican Fossil Museum, Crosbyton Texas, who wicz et al. 2001) expedited the research, Republic (Rice, 1980). knew where to find the actual 30-cm- avoiding several of the complications A simple description of amber in its thick “gumbo clay layer” in which associated with finding, expense, and col- raw state, as we found it in Wyoming, “Vinny” the triceratops was uncovered. lecting of useful samples of amber. follows: Joe also helped us gain permission of It sometimes has a dusty, friable the Hanson family to pursue this quest, reddish-brown, light brown or grey as well as showing us the exact strata Physical and Chemical crust, due to alteration. It is found in in which “Vinny” had been excavated Characterization of Amber; variously shaped nodules—. When (Derstler, 1994). A photo essay of the Locations Worldwide and present in alluvial sand or gravel, am- Hanson Ranch excavations can also be Geology of the Wyoming ber no longer has the opaque coating found in this CRSQ issue. In addition, a and Baltic Sites and is often rounded into pebbles or paper by Holroyd et al. (1996) provides Amber is known to have a much higher grain. (Lyman, 1986, p. 308.) a more complete description of the percentage of carbon than wood. Accord- Amber also floats in salty seawater, Hanson Ranch and potential research 88 Creation Research Society Quarterly

thault, 1988, 2002a, 2002b, 2004; Clark and Voss, 1994; Fineberg, 1997; Flood, 1981; Julien et al., 1993; Lalomov, 2001; Makse et al., 1997; McKee et al., 1967; Snelling, 1997; Walthur, 1894) minute laminations could suggest deposition in a fast moving current. Mt. St. Helens (WA) is a prime example of rapid depo- sition of fine laminations. Flat woody material could have been deposited along with the clay and dinosaur bones in a prone position due to the mechanics of rapid deposition. A flume experiment might help settle this minor dispute by adding differently shaped wood chips to a rapid moving clay/water mixture at dif- ferent hydraulic speeds and studying the alignment of the flat wood chips. The largest amber museum and amber research center in the world is located in Warsaw, Poland at the “Museum of the Earth.” Therefore, we sought the help of Polish scientists who initially used a 14C conventional lab in Poland. However, because of the small size of the Wyoming amber the conventional lab analysis could not date it. Instead, they took samples from Figure 1. Infrared absorption spectra (IRS) for cedarite samples. the museum in Warsaw and RC dated 1 – IRS 369, cedarite, Cedar Lake, Cretaceous (MZ, inv. No. 2148, from coll. them with Wyoming amber at an Ac- Of University of Toronto; 2 – IRS 474, cedarite, Grassy Lake, coal mine near celerated Mass Spectrometer (AMS) lab, the village of Bassano, S. Alberta, Cretaceous (MZ, coll. A. Zobel); 3 – IRS and wrote an excellent article, which is 508, cedarite, collected on July 11th 1996 by Hugh Miller and his team (Paul available from Hugh Miller. This proved McDorman, Bryce Gaudian, Matt Miller, Andy Greybeal, and others) at Han- to be a difficult analysis as they stated in son Ranch, 2360 South Cheyenne River Rd., New Castle, Wyoming, from Up- the monograph, “true amber, succinate, per Cretaceous (upper Maastrichtian) clay (Lance formation). MZ – Museum has never been RC dated because it is of the Earth, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw. considered too old for that” (Ceranowicz et al., 2001, p. 77). They also pointed out in the intro- ideas. Southwestern Adventist University The loam contains muscovite flakes duction of the amber paper: is now involved in collecting dinosaur and coalified plant detritus, espe- In order to contrast any possible specimens from the Hanson Ranch. cially small wood fragments. The dating made on the material from Both the hadrosaur and triceratops minute laminations visible in the Wyoming it was considered neces- (three miles away) fossils were buried loams are underlined by the flatly sary to date simultaneously some true not in stone but in the dark grey clay deposited fragments of coalified amber (succinate) samples from ex- (gumbo) of the Lance formation. The remains. This positioning suggests cavations in known geologic depos- clay is called “loam” (Ceranowicz et al., peaceful sedimentation.” (p. 77) its, which could perhaps constitute 2001). The paleontologist who originally However, minute laminations and a better blank than the traditional uncovered “Vinny” in the 1990s, Kraig flatly deposited wood detritus do not coal samples used in 14C analysis. For A. Derstler, is quoted by Ceranowicz necessarily suggest a “peaceful sedimen- this purpose the resins already dated (2001) as saying: tation.” Based on paleohydraulics (Ber- (Table I for “young amber, copal Volume 43, September 2006 89

Table I. Tabulated Radiocarbon Dates for the Three Amber Samples and Previ- and colophony) were considered too ously Dated “Young Ambers,” Colophony and Copal,* young for comparison and also not referable to any deposit since found on the beach (along the Baltic Sea Specimen Location, RC Years BP, Evolution Creation coast). Thus two excavated samples Year dated Collector Equipment age, years age, years were obtained from the Museum of Saxony, ~5,350 the Earth in Warsaw for comparison. #2961 >49,210 Germany(b), ~40,000,000 (± 100) The actual results of amber did not 2001 AMS Ceranowicz pre-flood help much with the dating of the Sambian Pen. formation in Wyoming, but since it #2962 >51,900 Russia(c) ~ same ditto is the first time amber was tested for 2001 AMS Ceranowicz RC content it is considered useful to publish the results obtained. (Cer- Wyoming(d) #2963 >46,450 anowicz et al., 2001, p. 77.) USA, ~100,000,000 ditto 2001 AMS AMS generally requires samples that Miller Team contain a minimum of 3 mg of carbon. 14 Previously C dated amber type resins from Introduction to the paper*, 1996 However, it is interesting that when we 7 Kg“Young amber or dated mammoth tusk (to be reported in Post-flood Collophony” from 620 (± 30) Modern a future paper), an AMS lab found only modern Bay of Gdansk, Poland 0.2 mg of collagen, yet came up with an ~5,350 RC date of ~ 4,980 RC years BP. This Three “young ambers” > 60,000 ? (± 100) knowledge should be helpful in dating Pre-flood ancient fossil bones. ~5,350 Copal from Angola 37,700 ? (± 100) Pre-flood Peaceful vs. Rapid Deposition of Amber 620–4725 in the Wyoming Four colophony samples 620–7120 Recent (± 100) Dinosaur Graveyards Post flood The last two statements of the pale- Post-flood Scots pine colophony 525 Recent ontologist who originally excavated modern the Vinny site in 1994 (see previous * Ref. Ceranowicz, B.K., Maciej Giertych, and Hugh Miller 2001. Cedarite from Wyo- section) were best challenged by Gary ming: infrared and radiocarbon data, Prace Muxeum Ziemi 46: 77–80, PL ISSN 0032- Gordon, formerly of ICR, when he was 6275” (a) examining the many small carbonized wood fragments (see Photo Essay, p. (a) Barbara Kosmowska-Ceranowicz, Museum of the Earth, Polish Academy of Sciences, 104, Figure 15). During an interview Amber Division, Al. Na Skarpie 20/26, 00-488 62-035, Warsaw, Poland Maciej Giertych, Institute of Dendrology, Polish Academy of Sciences, 62-035 Kornik, with our videographer, Andy Graybeal, Poland. Giertych coauthored the paper with other primary author Ceranowicz and with Gary Gordon remarked, “the finely Hugh Miller, The Paleo Group, Box 2613, Columbus, OH 43216, USA supplying the divided chopped-up slivers of coalified sample from Wyoming and the major USA references; both English and Polish. wood in the GUMBO matrix speaks of a 1000-mi/hr swirling tidal wave moving (b) Succinate amber from the Museum of the Earth from upper Oligocene/lower Mio- across the earth as might have happened cene sediments in Goitsche (near Bitterfeld) Germany; collected in 1986. during the flood of Noah as the moon’s (c) Succinate amber from Museum of the Earth, Warsaw, Poland in Primorskoe Mine, gravity sent these tidal waves moving Kalingrad region of Russia in Upper Eocene blue earth sediment (Prussian formation); around the earth for 150 days, twice a collected in 1996. day.” Fine laminations can form dur- (d) A brittle amber-like deposit of fossilized resin embedded in clay from the Hanson ing rapid hydraulic depositions, such Ranch, 2360 South Cheyenne River Rd., New Castle, Wyoming, USA, from Upper Cre- as at Mt. St. Helens “miniature Grand taceous (upper Maasstrichtian) clay (Lance formation) July 11th, 1996. Canyon.” These laminations deposited rapidly in hours rather than during some 90 Creation Research Society Quarterly assumed “peaceful sedimentation.” Most depth (RC age obtained from a licensed al.,1990). Bone fragments containing geologic estimates suggest deposition USA 14C lab in 2004). Vasil’chuk et al. little or no collagen were therefore RC rates throughout the geologic column at (1997) conducted extensive studies of dated. Paleo observed and concluded a “rate of one centimeter/1000 years is these bones (Permafrost region) but col- that: typical” (Officer, 1996) or as at Sideling lagen content was not discussed. They • Even without bone collagen, di- Hill Mountain MD Museum Display also dated plant material found with the nosaur bones contained residual the estimated rate for the 380 foot road bones. They concluded; 1) there was no 2–5% carbon throughout the cut is ~ one centimeter/1600 years. (See statistical RC difference between the bone structure (Andre Ivanov, Internet sites for details of this “Syncline”: bones and that of the organic material 1996, personal communica- http://www.dnr.state.md.us/publiclands/ and 2) dating of mammoth bones is tion) similar to that obtained by western/sidelinghill.html, and http:// reliable. In addition, Wrangel Island surface scrapings (Dahmer et al., www.mgs.md.gov/esic/brochures/side- in the Arctic Ocean above Siberia gave 1990). That is sufficient reason ling.html.) Lab and flume studies (Julien eight mammoth bones, tusks, and teeth to suggest that dinosaur bone et al. 1993; Snelling, 1997) support the whose purified collagen was used to apatite is as reliable as dating proposed catastrophic hydraulic deposi- obtain RC ages of less than 5,000 years mammoth bones with or with- tion activities that laid down the dinosaur (Vartanyan 1995). out dating extracted collagen. graveyards of Wyoming. • It is well known that carbon can The chopped-up woody material and absorb organics, but there is only tiny broken pieces of amber (rarely more Possible Contamination a limited amount by weight of than pea-size) are further evidence of with Modern RC organic contaminants (gas or rapid hydraulic deposition. Most of the The Paleo Group (~1990) RC dated liquid) that can be absorbed amber particles were much less than ½ five different collagen-poor dinosaur on the surface of carbon. The cm in diameter and almost always jagged, bone fragments in a similar range of time period for this absorption giving the appearance of having been ages (9,890 (± - 50) to 25,750 (± 250) is days, months, or at most a few broken off much larger pieces. Baltic RC years) as RC ages of various mam- years depending on the amount amber did not contain jagged portions moths. One licensed AMS lab RC dated of organic contaminants to be and were much larger than Wyoming the humic and alkaline fractions for a removed. However, the time amber. If Baltic amber did participate in a sixth dinosaur bone that was found 20 period is not 70 megayears; oth- hydraulic situation, it could be speculated miles from the Arctic Ocean in Alaska, erwise there would be little need that the event was much less violent than and obtained 36,140 (±560) and 31,050 for activated carbon producing that occurring in Wyoming. (± 230) RC dates respectively (contract manufacturers. For example, with licensed overseas lab in 1998). nickel electroplating solutions Even though amber has a large surface must be kept pure of organic Radiocarbon Dating of area containing high concentrations of contamination by continual fil- Mammoths vs. Dinosaurs carbon (80% carbon), the 14C ages for tering through filter pumps con- One of Paleo’s major projects for 2005 amber were in the same range as other taining activated carbon. The was to collect and study a large number fossils, including coal. Thus, if carbon carbon pack must be changed of important RC dates. One such article compounds had a tendency to pick up weekly during high production dealt with the RC ages of Mammoths modern CO2 from the air or from organic (Safranek, et al. 1960). It would (Vasil’chuk et al., 1997). Three hundred chemical absorption, the high carbon appear that the bones were not and sixty RC dates are tabulated based content of amber would likely make it completely petrified and some, upon 14C dating of bones [~130], tusks & the best candidate for such absorption. like the famous Acrocantho- molars [~190], and soft tissue [~40]. On But, there was no indication of such saurus along the Paluxy River, the Eurasian continent the dates ranged contamination based on the results of 14C contained kerogenous mate- from 9,670 (± 60) to >53,170 RC years dating of amber. Challenges by Stafford rial in the Haversian canals as BP. Except for 21 dates, all were less (1992) for relatively young dinosaur bone observed when sectioned and than 40,000 RC years. Of the dates older 14C ages therefore seem to be inappropri- mounted (Hugh Miller, 1990. than 40,000 RC years, most were in the ate arguments for anomalous RC ages for Unpublished photomicrograph range of the 43,380 (± 380) years for Cretaceous/Jurassic dinosaurs. of cross section of an Acrocan- Prudhoe Bay unfossilized wood buried These dinosaur bones did not contain thosaurus bone fragment from in permanent permafrost at a 120-foot collagen, only bone apatite (Dahmer et Creation Evidence Museum, Volume 43, September 2006 91

Glen Rose, Texas). Because hypothetically become “fixed.” different from zero is of the order of of the antibacterial nature of Thus, the true ages of many fos- 94% (P = 0.0608) suggesting that the succinates (succinites) in sils could be much younger than the dating of the Lance Formation amber, it is unlikely that 14C RC dating suggests. Research should be almost within the range atoms would displace carbon is planned to evaluate possible of 14C dating. However, the infrared atoms from the tightly linked contamination of modern or- spectrum similarity with other Cre- bonds of the succinic acid type ganic materials with old carbon taceous sediments agrees with the molecules anymore than that containing materials. placement of Lance Formation in for diamond (Baumgardner et • In the case of textiles, a hydro- that stratigraphic position. Also since al., 2003). Since the RC dates thermal condition has caused the succinite samples gave a positive were at the upper limit of AMS old textiles to appear much FMC reading, had either of them dating system it is obvious there younger (Van Oosterwych-Gas- been used as the blank rather than was no contamination. tuche, 1999). coal (which had 0.0031 FMC) the • Evolutionists have occasionally • We attribute the lack of colla- Wyoming sample would be even less suggested that certain microbes gen and soft tissue in dinosaur suspect of young age. (p. 80.) may have contaminated the bones to the hot environment amber (and dinosaur bones) of the western United States. with modern 14C atoms, thereby The more northerly the latitude, Observations giving an inappropriately young the more collagen would be and Conclusions RC age. However, there is no expected to be found in bones • Amber specimens from the Wyo- evidence to suggest that solidi- due to preservation by colder ming triceratops site are tiny, fied amber can absorb modern weather or permafrost, as may bubbly, and of differing colors of 14C in any form, so microbial have been discovered with some yellow to red, as if they had expe- activity is likely irrelevant to the mammoths. This concept of rienced very high heat and pres- RC dates obtained. Further- organic material preservation sure. Some amber particles are more, the analytical procedures in colder climates is consistent macro-cracked with numerous for testing 14C content in amber with a creation paradigm of fractures like brittle chromium involve acid and base treatments flood and ice age and meltdown deposits on nickel-plated steel or that would remove any cellu- over only thousands of years zinc die castings (Safranek, et al. lar tissue and microbial waste (Oard, 2004a,b). The recent 1960). This indicates that the in- products observed by the lab discovery of soft tissue in a T-Rex herent brittleness of amber was (Snelling, 1999). It may also be bone is a major age problem responding to a significant out- safe to assume that RC dating of for evolutionary biologists and side force such as temperature dinosaur bones would not be af- paleontologists (Schweitzer et and pressure, and fragmented fected by microbial activity, but al., 2005), and 14C dating of this as did the carbonized woody some questions still remain. RC and other fossils may further material. dating of collagen from dinosaur contradict accepted geologic • Much of the amber was red with bones may be necessary to help dates. some ranging from yellow to address these questions. orange to red across only a few • Hydrothermal activity, such mm on some specimens. This as associated with volcanism, Radiocarbon Date for indicates a high rate of oxidation is known to cause older RC Wyoming Amber within due to a high temperature over dates based on absorbing of old Range of the AMS a short time period. Description carbon containing gases (Van Detection System? of some amber specimens is Oosterwych-Gastuche, 1999). The article from Poland (Ceranowicz et consistent with Lyman’s (1986) Water under high temperature al., 2001) concluded: description, “amber sometimes and pressure could cause con- Sample 3, from Wyoming, is almost has a dusty, friable reddish- tamination of plant and animal significantly different from zero and brown, light brown or grey crust, materials with old carbon in the therefore its upper limit appears to due to alteration” (p. 308). formative period of burial and be not very far from the minimal • Very small sheets of clear or fossilization, which then could age given. The probability that it is white mica (muscovite) next 92 Creation Research Society Quarterly

to amber, and in the matrix (Fields et al., 1990; Dahmer et Acknowledgements clay of the “Vinny” horizon al, 1990) as supporting a young We wish to thank the Hanson Ranch indicate that mica sheets could earth and catastrophism. owners and those who arranged for the have been forcibly separated • This study, along with hundreds hadrosaur excavations during the sum- from their original matrix by of other individual studies by mer of 1996. We also wish to acknowl- tumbling effect with pebbles different researchers (many edge the efforts of Dennis Peterson, Joe and rocks in high speed currents of which have appeared in the Taylor, Otis Kline, and Doris Bowers of water over long periods of CRSQ), continue to support a for their on-site camping, paleontology, time. needed revision of the standard and archaeology efforts. We also thank • The original wood, now brittle, evolutionary geologic column CRSEF and contributors who made it cracked, and carbonized could based on Paleohydraulics, as possible for the Columbus Ohio team have been subjected to high Berthault (2004b) and oth- to participate in the excavations and temperatures and pressures after ers have done with the Tonto perform the expensive AMS radiocarbon burial. The small specimens Group of the Grand Canyon, dating; and, of course for our inspired (less than 1 square inch) along Lalomov (2001) in the Crimea, colleagues in Poland for their choice with parts of cones were carbon- and Morris (1980), Fields et al. of Baltic amber for comparison, their ized similar to what can be seen (1990), and Baugh and Wilson infrared absorption studies and excel- in the clay and rock of the Paluxy (1991) along the Paluxy River, lent paper. In retrospect, we must not River, Texas and in Colorado Texas. forget the pioneering efforts of Robert with dinosaur age fossils. For Whitelaw (1970) who has made the amber particles to be buried study of RC dating so fascinating and with the triceratops in a saltwater Proposed Future Research helpful. And most of all, we can’t forget solution they would have to have on Amber the inspiration of the Intelligent De- been buried quickly otherwise, We plan to continue RC and infrared signer who helps us keep the faith of our they would have been easily car- studies of resins from various strata fathers in the “Six Days of Creation” by ried away. This strongly suggests worldwide in cooperation with other using His science. a powerful saltwater hydraulic scientific organizations when funds are event. available. We hope to organize results • Even though many RC ages based on location in the geologic col- References are near the upper detection umn. We also plan to perform flume CRSQ—Creation Research Society Quar- limit of the AMS system, the studies using different sizes and shapes terly fact that there is some 14C in of wood chips in a clay media to see Amber web sites. 2005. History of amber, all carbon-containing fossils, how they line up in the subsequent succinic acid, rosin, succinite, medi- but less than that contained sediments; the results of such studies cine, medicinal, therapy, therapeutic, in diamond (Baumgardner, could guide field workers in the study treatments, health, healing, artifact, 2003), supports the paradigm of of paleohydraulics. It is very important homeopathy. www.amberjewelry.com/ a recent worldwide cataclysmic to design proper experiments that will Amber_in_Therapeutics_2.htm - 25k. event depositing these fossils. determine if old carbon will indeed age Baumgardner, J.R., A.A. Snelling, D.R. • Correlation of amber RC dates modern biotic matter in hydrothermal Humphreys, and S.A. Austin, 2003. with real time seems to fit well conditions. An intensive 14C study of Measurable 14C in fossilized organic for real time calculations for deep core samples of organic materials materials: Confirming the young earth other fossils using Brown’s from Prudhoe Bay etc. also needs to be Creation-Flood model. In Ivey, R.L. (1992) correlation equation initiated. Hopefully such studies will (editor), Proceedings of the Fifth Inter- and support the contention that help science understand the reason for national Conference on Creationism radiocarbon dating assumptions similarities in 14C ages for dinosaurs (technical symposium sessions), pp. are erroneous. and mammoths, as well as other fossils 127–142. Creation Science Fellowship, • RC dating is truly “our friend” like amber and unfossilized wood and Pittsburgh, PA. (Humphreys, 2004) as new data when they were deposited. Such inten- Baugh, C., and C. Wilson. 1991. Dinosaur, (Snelling, 1999; Wieland, 2003; sive research programs will be done in Scientific Evidence that Dinosaurs Baumgardner, 2003) is consis- due course only when funds become and Men Walked Together. Creation tent with RC dates of the 1980’s available. Evidence Museum, Box 307, Glen Rose Volume 43, September 2006 93

TX 76043. Promise Publishing Co., Dahmer, L.H., D. Kouznestsov, A. Ivanov, der from R.F. Helfinstine, 1136 5th Ave., Orange CA. J. Whitmore, J. Detwiler, and H. Miller. South Anoka MN 55303) Beierle, F. P. 1979. A new kind of evidence 1990. Report on chemical analysis and Holroyd, E.W. III, M.J. Oard, and D. Pe- from the Paluxy. CRSQ 16:87–88, 131. further dating of dinosaur bones and tersen. 1996. Opportunities for creation- Berthault, G. 1988. Sedimentation of a dinosaur petroglypths. In Walsh, R.E. ist studies of the Hanson Ranch, Roxson, heterogranular mixture, experimental and C.L. Brooks (editors), Proceedings Wyoming. CRSQ 33:136–140. lamination in still and running water. of the Second International Conference Humphreys, R.D. 2004. 14C -The creation- Comptes Rendus de l’Academie des Sci- on Creationism, volume 2 (technical ists’ friend. Creation Matters 9(6):5. ences, Serie II 306:717–724. symposium sessions), pp. 371–374. Julien, P.Y., Y. Lan, and G. Berthault. Berthault, G. 1994. Experiments on strati- Creation Science Fellowship, Pittsburgh 1993. Experiments on stratification of fication. In Walsh, Robert E. (editor), PA. (RC laboratory reports available from heterogeneous sand mixtures. Bulletin Proceedings of the Third International Hugh Miller). de la Société Géologique de France Conference on Creationism (technical Derstler, K. 1994. Dinosaurs of the Lance 164(5):649–660. symposium sessions), pp. 103–110. Formation in eastern Wyoming. In Nel- Lalomov, A.V. 2001. Flood geology of the Creation Science Fellowship, Pittsburgh, son, C.F. (editor), Wyoming Geological Crimean Peninsula, Part I: Tavrick For- PA. Association, 44th Annual Field Confer- mation. CRSQ 38(3):118–124. Berthault, G. 2002a. Geological dating ence Guidebook, pp. 127–146. Wyoming Lyman, Kennie (editor). 1986. Simon and principles questioned. Paleohydraulics: Geological Association, Casper. WY. Schusters Guide to Gems and Precious a new approach. Journal of Geodesy and DeVilbiss, J.W. 1986, The discovery of Stones. Simon & Schuster Inc, New Geodynamics (China) 22(3):19–26. quasi-human ichnofossils in the Glen York, NY. Berthault, G. 2002b. Analysis of main prin- Rose dolomite, Paluxy River, TX. In Makse, H.A., S. Havlin, P.R. King, and ciples of stratigraphy on the basis of ex- Walsh, R.E., C.L. Brooks, and R.S. H.E. Stanley. 1997. Spontaneous strati- perimental data. Lithology and Mineral Crowell (editors), Proceedings of the First fication in granular mixtures. Nature Resources 37:442–445. International Conference on Creation- 386:379–382. Berthault, G. 2004. Sedimentological ism, volume 2 (technical sessions), pp. McKee E.D., E.J. Crosby, and H.L. Berry- interpretation of the Tonto Group 227–232. Creation Science Fellowship, hill. 1967. Flood deposits, Bijou Creek, stratigraphy (Grand Canyon Colorado Pittsburgh, PA. Colorado, June 1965. Journal Sedimen- River). Lithology and Mineral Resources Dorf, E. 1942. Upper Cretaceous floras of the tary Petrology 37:829–851. 39:480–484. Rocky Mountain region. II Flora of the Miller, H.R., 2005. More failures for long age Brown, R. H. 1986. Radiometric dating from Lance Formation at its type locality, Nio- potassium argon K/Ar dating (Letter to the perspective of biblical chronology. brara Co., Wyoming. Carnegie Institute the Editor). CRSQ 42:207–210. In Walsh, R.E., C.L. Brooks, and R.S. of Washington Publication 508:79–159. Morris, J.D. 1980. Tracking Those Incredible Crowell (editors), Proceedings of the First Fields, W. and H.R. Miller, J. Whitmore, Dinosaurs & the People Who Knew Them. International Conference on Creation- D. Davis, G. Detwiler, J. Ditmars, R. Master Books, San Diego, CA. ism, volume 2 (technical sessions), pp. Whitelaw, and G. Novaez. 1990. The Oard, M. 2004a. Frozen in Time. Master 31–36. Creation Science Fellowship, Paluxy footprints revisited. In Walsh, Books, Green Forest, AR. Pittsburgh, PA. R.E. and C.L. 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Moody Monthly dinosaur and human coexistence. www. Walsh, Robert E. (editor), Proceedings of 81(5):96–98. bible.ca/tracks/buy.htm. the Third International Conference on Helfinstine, R.F., 1994. Texas Tracks and Rice, P.C. 1980. Amber, The Golden Gem Creationism (technical symposium ses- Artifacts: Do Texas Fossils Indicate Co- of the Ages. Van Nostrand Rheinhold sions), pp. 151–167. Creation Science existence of Men and Dinosaurs? Presto Company, New York, NY. Fellowship, Pittsburgh, PA. Graphics Inc., South Anoka, MN. (Or- Rotta, R.B. 2004. Evolutionary explanations 94 Creation Research Society Quarterly

for anomalous radiocarbon in coal. Stafford, T.W. Jr., 1992. Radiocarbon dating cations for population development and CRSQ 41:104–112. dinosaur bone: More pseudoscience late quaternary environment. Radiocar- Safranek, W.H., H.R. Miller, R.W. Hardy, from creationists. Creation/Evolution bon 39(1):1–18. and C.L. Faust. 1960. New data on the 12(1):10–17. Walthur, J. 1894. Eintleitung in die Geologie performance of nickel and chromium Van Oosterwyck-Gastuche, M.C. 1999. und Historische Wissenschaft. Gustav plated zinc die castings, 47th Annual Le Radiocarbone Face au Linceul de Fisher Verlag, Jena , DEU. Proceedings, American Electroplaters Turin—Journal d’une Richerche (Trans: Whitelaw, R.L. 1970. Time, life and history Society. American Electroplaters Society Radiocarbon dating as applied to the in the light of 15,000 radiocarbon dates. Inc. Newark, NJ and Westbrook Publish- shroud of Turin—A Journal of Research). CRSQ 7:56–70. ing Co. Philadelphia, PA. Francois ‘Xavier de Guivert, Paris, FR. Whitelaw, R.L. 1993. Radiocarbon dating Schweitzer, M.H., J. L. Wittmeyer, J.R. Vartanyan, S.L. 1995. Radiocarbon dating after forty years: Do creationists see it Horner, and J. K. Toporski. 2005. Soft- evidence for mammoths on Wrangle as supporting the Biblical Creation and tissue and cellular preservation in Tyran- Island, Arctic ocean, until 2000 BC. Flood? - A review and critique of pertinent nosaurus Rex. Science 307:1952–1955. Radiocarbon 37(1):1–6. http://packrat. creationist writing, 1950–1990. CRSQ Snelling, A. 1997. Nature finally catches up! aml.arizona.edu/Journal/v37n1/vartan- 29:170–183. Creation Ex Nihilo Technical Journal yan.html [x] Wieland, C. 2003. Rate group reveals excit- 11(2):125–126. Vasil’Chuk, Yurij, J. M. Punning, and A. ing breakthrough (more great news on Snelling, A. 1999. Dating Dilemma: Fossil Vasil’Chuk. 1997. Radiocarbon ages of radiocarbon dating), www.answersinge- wood in ‘ancient’ sandstone. Creation Ex mammoths in Northern Eurasia: Impli- nisis.org (As of August 21, 2003). Nihilo 21(3):39–41. Volume 43, September 2006 95

Hanson Ranch Wyoming Dinosaur and Amber Excavation of 1996

Hugh R. Miller,* J.R. Michaels, and Matt M. Miller

Abstract he Hanson Ranch in Roxson, Wyoming is located in the eastern Tpart of the state some 80 miles west of Mt. Rushmore, South Dako- ta, and 15 miles west of Route 85 on Cheyenne River Road. Research was first conducted on this ranch by Dr. Kraig L. Dertsler of New Orleans University, whose team excavated a triceratops. Tiny amber particles were also discovered with the dinosaur. A few years later, our team excavated

Photographicsimilar amber particles Essay adjacent to this site, but in the same stratum with the triceratops. This work is published elsewhere in this issue of the Creation Research Society Quarterly. The purposes of this photo essay are to show some of the interesting formations, including hoodos, that exist on this ranch; some of the fossil material, like amber, that was C-14 dated; and a few of the many dinosaur bone fragments and carbonized wood that await C-14 dating if funding sources can be identified. C. W. Holroyd and co-workers discussed other research potentials at this site in a previous issue of CRSQ (33:136).

* Corresponding author: Hugh R. Miller, 1215 Bryson Rd., Columbus OH 43224-2009, 614-263-8613 (phone), 614-263-9199 (fax), [email protected] Accepted for publication: December 12, 2005 96 Creation Research Society Quarterly

This essay is dedicated to the many individuals too numerous to mention for their pioneering vision and perseverance that made these excavations possible in the 1995–1996 dig seasons. It’s a shame that (through no fault of their own) their project was discontinued on this ranch. Fortunately Joe Taylor and Otis Kline (and others) were able to continue with their coop- erative joint fi eld research projects with active fi eld museums like Mount Blanco Fossil Museum, Cros- byton, Texas, and F.A.C.T. Museum and Research Station in Glendive, Montana, respectively.

Figure 1. Screening for bone fragments at a hadrosaur burial site (burial site in background with canvas protection from the weather).

Figure 2. Thirty team members, including eight from Columbus Ohio’s Cre- ation Research Science Education Foundation. Joe Taylor of Mt. Blanco Fossil Museum (Crosbyton, TX) and Buddy Davis of Answers in Genesis participated the week of July 7–17, 1996. Volume 43, September 2006 97

Figure 3. On the way to the Vinny Triceratops site we stopped to take photos of some geological “fl ood” features. The large butte formation in the foreground was photographed from the top of the unique hoodo-type structures shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4. A top and bottom view of these unique formations. Their rounded surfaces suggest they lith- ifi ed quickly after water transport, perhaps during a quiet time between transgression and regression. The stra- tum upon which the sandstone rests appears to have eroded preferentially to the top portion. Co-author Matt Miller is in the foreground (bottom picture), and Andy Greabel is video- taping the scene. 98 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Figure 5. This view is from the Vinny Triceratops site. Tiny amber particles, pea-size or less, were discovered in the same adjacent stratum with the dinosaur, but not in the stratum above. We spent half a day looking in the wrong top stratum until Joe Taylor arrived and provided as- sistance (www.mtblanco.org and www.omniology.com). Small amounts of amber are also found in other areas of Wyoming and at the F.A.C.T. Research Station in the Montana Badlands near Glendive, MT (www.creationtruth.org).

Figure 6. This view is from the hadrosaur excavation site, looking into what has been called the “Dragon’s Graveyard.” This is indeed a hadrosaur burial ground, but other dinosaurs, including a triceratops and T-Rex (fi rst one ever) are just a few miles away. The late John A. Watson, geology consultant and friend to all, is in the foreground. More about him can be found at www.cre- ationevidence.org. Volume 43, September 2006 99

Figure 7A. Hoodo formations eroded into conical shapes as viewed looking toward the Hanson family home.

Figure 7B. The same hoodo formations near the Hanson Home. 100 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Figure 8A. Photo-macrograph of the largest amber piece with dimensions of 1x2 cm. Note the macro-cracks. One section (circled) eventually exfoliated from the main structure as shown above in the insert.

Figure 8B. In the center of the photo-macrograph is a pea-size amber specimen with white fl akes of mica (sodium chloride crystals?). A nearby sliver of carbonized vegetable matter is imbedded in the same clay matrix. Initially, the joke among our discoverers was that the white fl akes must certainly be dinosaur dandruff. Volume 43, September 2006 101

Figure 9A. The Hanson Ranch amber specimen is encircled in the macro-photograph on the right. In the photo on the left are the two Baltic samples obtained from the Mu- seum of the Earth, Warsaw, Poland along with the forms containing the author’s name, signature, and the weights of the specimens (Ceranowicz, 2001).

Figure 9B. Photos taken in Poland of the three specimens that were C-14 dated (Ceranowicz, 2001). The specimen on the right is the sample of pea-sized amber still imbedded in the clay matrix from the Hanson Ranch triceratops horizon before it was extracted for AMS-C-14 dating. 102 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Figure 10. This is the fi rst amber-containing cone discovered by our team looking for amber. Both amber and coalifi ed or carbonized wood were found in the specimen. We learned from Joe Taylor that Dr. Kraig Derstler (1994) had also found amber actually bur- ied with the triceratops, so there may still be a suffi cient amount available for study.

Figure 11. Jeremy Auldaney (1996, private communication) sent a copy of photos in Figures 10 and 11 to a professor of geological and biological sciences at the University of Califor- nia, who responded as follows: “The two specimens conform quite closely to cone scales of ovulate (seed-bear- ing) cone of a conifer described by E. Dorf (1942) as Araucarites longifolia (Lesquereux) Dorf, although neither appears to exhibit the elongate apex of the scales illustrated by E. Dorf (1942).” Paul McDorman of Cincinnati found this specimen as we excavated the ad- jacent strata but in the same horizon as the triceratops. Volume 43, September 2006 103

Figure 12. Photo-macrograph of several sizes of deep red amber with and without “friable gray or brown crust due to alteration” (Lyman, 1986).

Figure 13. Photo-macrograph of tiny amber particles floating in concentrated table salt having a specifi c gravity of 1.18, like seawater. To be buried with the ponder- ous triceratops bones the burial must have been rapid, otherwise the amber would have fl oated away regardless of the specifi c gravity of the water. Figure 14. Photo-macrograph of carbonized dinosaur “car- tilage” from the hadrosaur site with broken and unbroken sections. Because of the carbonized inter-surfaces of these specimens, they could be carbon dated (as were bone sur- face scrapings of the Acrocanthosaurus from the Paluxy River, TX). These small cartilages were often observed on surfaces of cow trails as one walked the Hanson Ranch. 104 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Figure 15. Photo-macrograph of small chips of coalifi ed or carbonized wood with distinct and sometimes thick brown woody-colored surfaces still visible. These should be C-14 datable as were carbonized material from Colorado and the Paluxy River, TX.

References Ceranowicz, B. K., Maciej Giertych, and H. Miller. 2001. Cedarite from Wyoming: Infrared and radiocarbon data. Prace Muzeum Ziemi 46:77–80. Derstler, K. 1994. Dinosaurs of the Lance Formation in eastern Wyoming. In C.F. Nelson (editor), Wyoming Geological Association Guidebook, 44th Annual Field Conference, pp. 27–146. Wyoming Geological Assoc., Casper, WY. Dorf, E. 1942. Upper Cretaceous fl oras of the Rocky Mountain region. II Flora of the Lance Formation at its type locality, Niobrara Co., Wyoming. Carnegie Institute of Washington Publication 508, pp. 79–159. Holroyd, E. W. III, M. J. Oard and D. Petersen, 1996, Opportunities for creationist studies of the Hanson Ranch, Roxson, Wyoming. CRSQ 33:136–140. Lyman, K. 1986. Simon and Schuster’s Guide to Gems and Precious Stones. Simon and Schuster Inc. New York, NY. Volume 43, September 2006 105

Isotopic Analysis of Fruitland Formation Coal Bed Carbon Dioxide and Methane

John R. Doughty*

Abstract adiocarbon is found throughout the geological record, and the confirma- Rtion of this hypothesis in the cases investigated in this paper strengthens the young earth creationist paradigm. This research builds upon the work done with coal and carbon dioxide and extends it to the analysis of coal bed methane gas wells. The resulting data indicate that the carbon dioxide and methane gases trapped in the Fruitland Formation are thousands, not mil- lions of years old.

Introduction Background mean uncorrected value of 0.12 (+0.01) This paper provides another piece of A review of radiocarbon literature re- pMC for six diamonds that were com- evidence in support of the young earth. vealed that some accelerator mass spec- busted in pure oxygen and converted 14 Those taking an evolutionary position trometer (AMS) labs use CO2 gas as C to CO2 for preparation for the standard of Earth’s history often assume that free baseline (also called a procedural analytical technique used by Isotrace natural gas, which is presumed to be blank) because it is presumed to be 14C AMS Lab at the University of Toronto. an old, fossil gas, is carbon-14 “dead.” “dead,” being derived from fossil gas. Still earlier, Baumgardner et al. (2003) One purpose of this paper is to show However, in all the cases reported, there showed 14C to be present in coal. They that such an assumption is quite false. was 14C present in significant amounts reported a mean corrected value of 0.247 This work experimentally verifies that (0.049 to 0.25 percent modern carbon; pMC for coal derived from ten different significant, detectable carbon-14 (14C) is pMC). Such amounts were presumed mines in the USA. The Isotrace Lab found in both the CO2 and CH4 found in to be due to system contamination and subtracted 0.077 pMC from the uncor- Cretaceous formation coal bed methane were subtracted from samples contain- rected values. The data set included (CBM), that is, methane from gas wells ing 14C to obtain a “corrected” value. coals from the Eocene, Cretaceous, and drilled into coal beds. A subsequent work In the search for 14C free procedural Pennsylvanian eras, and the close group- will investigate the presence of 14C in blank, Taylor and Southon (2005) used ing of these 14C concentrations indicates deep Ordovician strata natural gas wells diamonds as targets in the University a single depositional event, the Flood. in the Permian Basin of Texas. Once of California-Irvine AMS device. They Therefore, I expected to find significant again, the presence of the radiocarbon obtained mean values over the range of 14C in both carbon dioxide and methane is reasonably explained by the flood 0.012 to 0.016 pMC, which they then extracted from the Fruitland Formation deposition of organic material and its attributed to “ion source crosstalk” rather coal bed in northwest New Mexico. subsequent degradation over thousands than being intrinsic to the samples. This work presents the 14C and other (not millions) of years. Earlier, Baumgardner (2005) reported a isotopic data obtained from samples tak- en from three wells in the central portion of the formation area known as the Fruit- * John R. Doughty, Ph.D., 532 Calle de Los Hijos NW, Albuquerque, NM 87114-2039, land Fairway, a region known for high Tel: 505-890-5358, Email: [email protected] initial well pressures. The wells had an Accepted for publication: May 8, 2006 average production depth of 2700 feet. 106 Creation Research Society Quarterly

The formation is from the Cretaceous homogeneous formation. If there was to eliminate any residual atmospheric period, and is conventionally dated as 73 indeed recent penetration of meteoric CO2 gas from the system, including to 78 million years (Ma) (Fassett, 2000). water, then it should be evidenced by all the sample cylinders. The system The trapping mechanism, confinement both stable oxygen isotope and the is then filled with 30 psi of high purity caused by hydrostatic pressure, is totally radiocarbon data. The stable isotope helium before it is taken to the field. different from conventional natural gas data of Riese et al. (2005) followed the However, in this work, more than one wells. The methane is maintained in an global meteoric water line (GMWL) well was sampled during the field visit. adsorbed state in micropores (<0.5 nm rather well, but that data doesn’t of Consequently, after the first sample set diameter) within the coal matrix. The itself provide an age estimate. They was taken, the first set of two sample reservoir permeability is provided by presented minimum ages derived from cylinders were removed from the system. fracture-like networks known as cleats. 129I and 36Cl that commonly differed by After verifying that all valves were closed, The cleat porosity is on the order of an order of magnitude with an average the two 10cc cylinders were removed 0.5% to 2%. The low porosity restricts radioiodine age of 32 Ma and average from the system, the valve ends capped subsurface water transport (Snyder et al., radiochlorine age of 1.5 Ma. I expected and placed in a box for transport to the 14 2003). When the coal bed is penetrated to see C values for both CO2 and CH4 University of Arizona AMS lab. The and water is pumped out, the hydrostatic obtained from Fruitland formation next set of sample cylinders were then pressure is reduced and the methane coal bed methane gas wells close to the attached to the system. Since a portion desorbs and flows out with the water. uncorrected mean value of 0.286 pMC of the system had been opened to the Schoell et al. (2001) made a case (0.21 pMC corrected) based on 12 data atmosphere (and thus to possible con- based on an analysis of the stable isotope, points obtained by Baumgardner et tamination due to atmospheric CO2), it carbon-13 (δ13C), for the subsurface con- al. (2003) for somewhat similar Creta- had to be purged. However, only 17cc version of CO2 to methane simultane- ceous coals. Note that a pMC value of of the sampling system was exposed to ously with a bacterial oxidative removal 0.21 translates to a maximum age of 50 the air. It was an easy matter to run a of C2+ hydrocarbons (alkanes). Seewald thousand years. minimum of 15 purge-and-fill cycles at et al. (1998) have shown experimentally the low gas well pressures found in the that CO2 is produced when hydrocarbons Fruitland Formation wells. Additionally, are in the presence of water and mineral Methods and Materials the vent valve is opened for approxi- catalysts. Some analysts have expressed mately one minute prior to opening the concern about the validity of 14C based Gas Sample Preparation sample cylinder valves and is left open analyses due to possible contamination The sampling apparatus is identical to while the gas is also flowing through of the source material by recent mete- that described in my previous article the sample cylinder. Thus, a more than oric groundwater containing dissolved (Doughty, 2005) with the exception that ample volume exchange is provided to

CO2. However, Snyder et al. (2003) and the 10cc. closed-end sample cylinders assure a pure sample. An example of Riese et al. (2005) performed analyses have been replaced by double-ended one of the well sites where samples were of Fruitland formation coal bed brines 10cc. cylinders. This allowed the sample taken is shown in Figure 1. using both the stable water-derived gas to flow through the system and vent isotopes, oxygen (δ18O) and deuterium it to the atmosphere. The exit valves (δD), and the accompanying radioactive attached to the sample cylinders are isotopes of iodine and chlorine (129I and closed while the system vent valve is still 36Cl). They concluded that the waters open, thus providing a higher assurance are predominantly connate, that is, water for an uncontaminated sample. When trapped at the time of formation, and the source pressure was greater than 10 have not undergone extensive migration psi, all valves were closed and then the since deposition because the formation system vent valve was carefully opened is heterogeneous. to reduce the internal pressure to 10 This conclusion was based in part psi or below, since the AMS lab prefers by the analysis of formation waters that samples to be less than 10 psi. indicated recent water flows only at the The same preparation procedure was edges of the formation. Other models for used as in the previous work (Doughty, Figure 1. Sampling Fruitland Forma- the Fruitland basin assumed a significant 2005) where 18 fill and purge cycles tion CBM Gas Well Vanderslice 101, subsurface flow through a presumed using high purity helium were used August 5, 2005. Volume 43, September 2006 107

Table I. Fruitland Formation Well Gas Characteristics mately three months to process three well sample sets (six sample cylinders). One sample set, the Page 101R well gas, Pressure Temp. CO2, CH4 N2 Well sampled psi °F % % % was rerun because of an anomaly (a lab procedural error) yielding an abnormal Scott Com 291 9 50 7.4 92.2 0.065 result (much too high) for the meth- Page 101R 4 50 25.2 73.3 0.271 ane 14C value. Fortunately, there was Vanderslice 101 30 50 14.3 85.1 0.062 ample gas available for the rerun and the “AM” result compared closely with the second companion “BM” sample, as it should. AMS Analysis of Gas extracted and run through a cold trap At the University of Arizona AMS lab, to remove any traces of water. Then, all gas samples were attached to an anal- downstream of the water trap, the CO2 Results ysis system line, and pumped down the was trapped by a mild cryogenic cold The physical characteristics of the well line before opening the sample cylinder finger. The remaining methane was gases sampled at the wellhead of the valve. A small portion of the sample was collected and later passed over CuO in three Fruitland Fairway wells are shown taken for stable isotope analyses using a furnace to convert it to CO2 for sub- in Table I. All wells had a water separa- a conventional mass spectrometer. Ap- sequent processing into graphite targets tor located upstream of the sampling proximately one milligram of CO2 was for the AMS device. It took approxi- port. Any residual traces of water were

Table II. Fruitland Formation CBM Gas Well Sample Isotope Values

Well & Sample # Date Mass δ13 C, δ13 C, α, δ18 O, 14C/C, pMC 14C/C,pMC

Suffix: C=CO2, M=CH4 analyzed mg CO2 CH4 CO2↔CH4 CO2 uncorrected corrected Scott Com 291, #1AC 11/02/05 0.1 14.94 7.99 10.51+0.2 7.56+0.92 Scott Com 291, #1AM 11/02/05 1.16 -44.52 1.06223 1.18+0.03 0.90+0.1 Scott Com 291, #1BC 11/02/05 0.11 15.52 17.04 5.86+0.08 3.18+0.86 Scott Com 291, #1BM 11/02/05 1.15 -44.52 1.06284 1.05+0.03 0.77+0.14 Page 101R, #2AC 12/08/05 0.21 18.64 12.75 1.21+0.05 0.96 Page 101R, #2AM 01/24/06 0.58 -43.33 1.06478 0.62+0.03 0.46 Page 101R, #2BC 01/12/06 0.37 17.79 12.225 1.33+0.05 1.09 Page 101R, #2BM 01/24/06 0.99 -43.84 1.06446 0.79+0.03 0.59 Vanderslice 101, #3AC 11/03/05 0.2 17.13 16.72 2.69+0.16 1.18+0.51 Vanderslice 101, #3AM 11/03/05 1.15 -43.73 1.06364 0.37+0.02 0.27 Vanderslice 101, #3BC 11/03/05 0.2 17.15 16.685 2.23+0.1 0.99 Vanderslice 101, #3BM 11/08/05 1.21 -43.83 1.06378 0.28+0.03 0.21

Notes: 1. Scott Com 291 #1AC values (in bold italics) were not included in mean value calculations. Sample contaminated in lab processing.

13 13 18 2. Stable isotope mean values: δ C(CO2) = 16.86‰ pdb, δ C(CH4) = -43.96‰ pdb, δ O = 15.1‰ smow, Fractionation

factor: α(CO2↔CH4) = 1.06362. 14 14 14 14 3. C/C corrected mean values: C/C(CO2) = 1.48 pMC, C/C(CH4) = 0.53 pMC. Δ C/C = 0.95 pMC. 4. All wells were sampled on 8/05/05. 108 Creation Research Society Quarterly

which is essentially the same as that of this work, 1.0632. Using the equation of Bottinga given in Faure and Mensing (2005, p. 775), this value of 1.0625 results in a calculated temperature of 332°K (59°C) for the formation at a time when fractionation took place. Such a temperature is conducive to microbial action. Therefore, the view of Schoell

et al. (2001) that the CH4 was produced

by methanogenesis and the CO2 was produced by bacterial oxidation of hy- drocarbons is reasonable. The δ18O and 14C data for the Fruit- land Fairway coal bed methane gas samples did produce some unexpected results. First, the Scott Com well sample #1AC is deemed spurious because both δ18O and 14C/C values (shown in bold print in Table II) were abnormally high when compared to the other data, espe- Figure 2. Distribution of 14C values for the three CBM gas wells cially considering the fact that the Scott Com #1BC values were obtained from the same sample gas. In other words, the Scott Com #1AC δ18O value should removed at the University of Arizona Discussion have been 17 (+1.0) and the pMC value AMS lab as noted above. All samples First, I note that my initial hypothesis 3.2 (+1.0). Consequently, the δ18O and were taken from producing (flowing) was not substantiated. The 14C/C ratios 14C/C values for the Scott Com sample wells. Two identical samples were taken for the carbon dioxide are a factor of #1AC are not included in the mean at each well site. The samples were ana- three to four greater than those for the value calculations for δ18O and 14C/C. lyzed for their isotopic content of δ13C, methane. They are also substantially Note that the remaining 14C/C values for 18 14 14 δ O, and C. The results are shown greater than the C/C mean value, 0.361 CO2 are higher than the corresponding 14 in Table II. The stable isotope mean pMC, obtained from carbon dioxide gas C/C values for CH4 from the same well 13 values are δ C(CO2) = 16.86‰ pdb, wells (Doughty, 2005). It is assumed as shown in Table II. Note that the mean 13 18 18 δ C(CH4) = -43.96‰ pdb, δ O(CO2) = that the CO2 and CH4 were produced value for δ O (CO2) is 15.1‰ SMOW, 15.1‰ smow where “pdb” and “smow” at essentially the same time via reactions which places it well within the usual are the reference standards to which between the coal, water, minerals, and data range for sedimentary rocks, yet the data are compared. The “pdb” stan- microbes under pressure and slightly el- the data thus far suggests an additional dard , PeeDee Formation Belemnite, evated temperature. The results suggest source of 14C in the carbon dioxide. for carbon-13 is defined as 0‰, and that there was some contamination of A good cross-check on the data is to 18 the “smow” reference for oxygen-18 the original carbon dioxide by dissolved calculate the δ O(H2O) values based on 18 is standard mean ocean water, where CO2 brought into the coal by meteoric the δ O(CO2) results. The issue in do- δ18O = 0‰. The mean values for the groundwater sometime after the deposi- ing such a calculation is the availability 14 radiocarbon results for the CO2 are C/ tion of the Fruitland Formation. of a fractionation factor, α, for CO2 gas 14 13 C(uncorrected) = 2.76 pMC and C/ The isotopic mean values for δ C to liquid H20. Faure & Mensing (2005) 13 C(corrected) = 1.48 pMC and for the (CO2) and δ C (CH4) agree closely give one for atmospheric CO2 at 19°C 14 CH4 C/C(uncorrected) = 0.77 pMC as expected with those of Schoell et as 1.04247. However, as noted above, 14 13 and C/C(corrected) = 0.53 pMC. The al. (2001) who found δ C (CO2) = the fractionation temperature for CO2 14 13 corrected values for C/C (CO2) and 16.0‰ and δ C (CH4) = -43.8‰. Their and CH4 gas is calculated to be 59°C. 14 18 C/C (CH4) are shown in histogram mean value of the fractionation factor, Consequently, I have taken the δ O 13 format in Figure 2. α (CO2↔CH4), for the δ C is 1.0625, values for three wells where the resident Volume 43, September 2006 109

18 14 Table III. Calculated δ O(H2O) values compared with C/C(CO2) namic models of the San Juan Basin, then the 14C/C values for CO would 18 18 14 2 δ O(CO2) ‰ δ O(H2O)‰ C/C (CO2) have been substantially higher than Sample # SMOW SMOW pMC corrected those realized in this work. FF#1B 17.04 -8.94 3.18 (+0.86) Another primary finding is that there 14 FF#2A 12.75 -13.13 0.96 is indeed significant, detectable C in both the CO and CH ; i.e., the fossil gas FF#2B 12.225 -13.64 1.09 2 4 is not carbon-14 “dead.” One could ar- FF#3A 16.72 -9.26 1.18 (+0.51) gue that the CH4 was manufactured via FF#3B 16.685 -9.29 0.99 methanogenesis from waterborne “con- taminated” CO . However, the CO is Note: δ18O(H O) mean value = -10.85‰ SMOW. 2 2 2 thought to be produced by the bacterial 14C/C (CO ) mean value = 1.48 pMC. 2 oxidative removal of C2+ hydrocarbons (alkanes), whose origin is contempora- neous with the coal. The fact that the 14 C/C values for CO2 are consistently 18 CO2 was in contact with water as given δ O(H2O) SMOW for meteoric water greater than those for CH4 by only 0.95 in my previous paper (Doughty, 2005). is 0‰ to -25‰. pMC as shown in Figure 2 suggests that 18 The mean value for the δ O(CO2) is any such “contamination” is restricted to

26.222‰ SMOW. The CO2 gas to liq- the CO2 and is indeed slight. uid H20 fractionation factor, α(CO2g↔ Conclusions The isotopic analysis presented in 14 18 14 H2O l), for CO2 in contact with water is It is noteworthy that C/C values for this paper, using δ O(H2O) and C/ given by the following equation: the Vanderslice 101 #3AM and #3BM C(CO2) values contained in the CBM methane results (0.21 and 0.27 pMC) gas, can be applied to other CBM fields are in very close agreement with the to verify whether or not they do have 18 corrected mean value of 0.21 pMC for a continuous flow of recent meteoric α (CO2g↔H2O l) = δ O (CO2) g + 1000 Cretaceous coals. Thus, the maximum subsurface water throughout the forma- δ18O(H O) + 1000 2 l conventional age for the area of the tion. Such information is important to Fruitland Formation where the sampled petroleum geologists in the prediction 18 By definition δ O(H2O)l equals wells are located is 49,770 years. and modeling of the production poten- zero for the SMOW standard. There- I conclude that the FF#1A sample tial of CBM fields. fore, α(CO2g↔H2Ol) = 1.02622. The was contaminated in the processing at Finally, the evidence presented in 18 δ O(H2O) can then be computed from the AMS lab. That is shown by both this paper strongly suggests that both 18 18 the δ O(CO2) results given in Table II. the high δ O(H2O) value and the high gases had a common source (coal) thou- The working equation is as follows: 14C/C value, which are twice that of sands—not millions—of years ago, that the FF#1B sample, which itself is quite was laid down in the aftermath (Creta- high. Again, it is the same gas. Another ceous period) of the Genesis Flood. 18 18 reasonable conclusion is that the em- δ O(H2O) = δ O(CO2) – 26.22 placed derivative CO was subsequently 1.02622 2 slightly contaminated by somewhat Acknowledgements

younger dissolved CO2 that was pres- I thank the Creation Research Society’s The results are shown in Table III ent in meteoric water that penetrated Research Committee for the grant that 18 where, as noted above, the δ O(H2O) the coal bed formation shortly after its financed this work. I also wish to thank value for the Scott Com well sample deposition, probably at the time of the Dr. Russ Humphreys for continual #1AC is not included in calculating Laramide uplift. Otherwise, the 14C/C encouragement in the course of this 18 δ O(H2O) SMOW mean value. The re- values for CO2 and CH4 should be research. Thanks are also in order to sulting mean value is -10.85‰ SMOW, identical, which they are not. On the Mr. John Poore and Mr. Lee Murphy which agrees closely with the mean other hand, if the coal bed had been of Burlington Resources, Inc. of Farm- value of -10.1‰ SMOW for 112 produc- penetrated by significant amounts of ington, New Mexico for their assistance tion wells in the Fruitland field (Riese meteoric water in very recent geologic in obtaining the gas samples. Finally, I et al., 2005). The usual data range of times as presumed in earlier hydrody- thank my wife, Jeanette, for her encour- 110 Creation Research Society Quarterly

agement and accompaniment through- analysis. Creation Research Society A. Martini. 2001. Natural sites of bio- out this work. Quarterly 42:95–103. conversion of CO2 and hydrocarbons “Call to me and I will answer you and Fassett, J.E. 2000. Geology and coal resourc- in the subsurface: San Juan Basin and tell you great and unsearchable things es of the Upper Cretaceous Fruitland Michigan Basin. Americn Association of you do not know.” (Jeremiah 33:3) Formation, San Juan Basin area, New Petroleum Geologists paper 8867, AAPG Mexico and Colorado. In Kirschbaum, Annual Meeting 2001. M.A., L.N.R. Roberts and L.R.H. Bie- Seewald, J., B.C. Benitez-Nelson, and References wick (editors), Geologic assessment of J.K. Whelan. 1998. Laboratory and Baumgardner, J.R., D.R. Humphreys, A.A. coal in the Colorado Plateau: Arizona, theoretical constraints on the generation Snelling, and S.A. Austin. 2003. Measur- Colorado, New Mexico, and Utah. U.S. and composition of natural gas. Geo- able 14C in fossilized organic materials: Geological Survey Professional Paper chimica et Cosmochimica Acta, 62(9): confi rming the young earth creation- 1625-B, Chapter Q. 1599–1617. fl ood model. In Ivey, R.L. Jr. (editor), Faure, G., and T. M. Mensing. 2005. Snyder, G.T., W.C. Riese, S. Franks, U. Proceedings of the Fifth International Isotopes: Principles and Applications Fehn, W.L. Pelzmann, A.W. Gorody, and Conference on Creationism, pp.127–142. (3rd edition). John Wiley & Sons, Inc., J.E. Moran. 2003. Origin and history of Creation Science Fellowship, Pittsburgh, Hoboken, NJ. waters associated with coalbed methane: PA. Riese, W.C.,W.L. Pelzmann, and G.T. 129I, 36Cl, and stable isotope results from Baumgardner, J.R. 2005. 14C Evidence for Snyder. 2005. New Insights on the the Fruitland Formation, CO and NM. a recent global fl ood and a young earth. hydrocarbon system of the Fruitland Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, In, Vardiman, L., A.A. Snelling and E.F. Formation coal beds, northern San Juan 67(23): 4529–4544. Chaffi n (editors), Radioisotopes and the Basin, Colorado and New Mexico, USA. Taylor, R.E., and J.R. Southon. 2005. Use Age of the Earth, Vol. II, pp.587–630. In Warwick, P.D. (editor), Coal Systems of Natural Diamonds to Monitor 14C Institute for Creation Research, Santee, Analysis, pp. 73–111. Geological Society AMS Instrument Backgrounds. Poster CA and Creation Research Society, of America Special Paper 387. Paper presented at The 10th Interna- Chino Valley, AZ. Schoell, M., K. Muehlenbachs, D.D. Cole- tional Conference on Accelerator Mass

Doughty, J.R. 2005. CO2 gas well effl uent man, S. Thibodeaux, L. Walters, and Spectrometry (September 5–10, 2005), Berkeley, CA.

NEW! Many people wonder how the evolutionary/uniformi- tarian geologic column fits into biblical flood geology. At present, there is a remarkable diversity of original The Geologic Column: Perspectives within thought on this subject by various creation geologists. Diluvial Geology Recent articles and letters in the creationist literature show a tendency for various participants to talk past John K. Reed & one another. This book has brought several different Michael J. Oard (editors) perspectives together to better define the real differ- 2006. Creation Research Society, ences within flood geology models, and to identify areas of future research leading to 157 pages. potential resolutions. A comment and response forum is also provided at the end of most

Regular price – $15.00 of the chapters. In addition to the editors, other contributors are: Terry Mortenson, Peter Member price – $11.00 Klevberg, Carl Froede, Jr., David J. Tyler, Harold G. Coffin, and Emil Silvestru. Although it may not be clearly apparent at this stage of history, flood geology represents a major paradigm shift that holds the potential to stimulate a revolution within the earth sciences. Volume 43, September 2006 111

More Precise Calculations of the Cost of Substitution

Walter ReMine*

Abstract his paper extends the applicability and accuracy of the cost of substitution Tbeyond its traditional range, and demonstrates a useful calculation method. Using my previous clarification of the fundamental cost concept, this paper derives a method for computing the cost of substitution under wide genetic circumstances, including haploids; and diploids with varying degrees of dominance, inbreeding, and with a sex-linked locus. Unlike the traditional approaches, this method is accurate even under fluctuations in parameter values (such as population size, selection coefficient, dominance, and inbreeding coefficient). To display gen- eral-purpose results, the parameters are then held constant, and the total cost of substitution is graphed. This includes cases where the selection coefficient is not small and where the traditional equations become highly inaccurate. It is shown that neither environmental change nor soft selection reduces cost problems, at least in single substitutions.

Note added in publication: This paper offers previously unpublished clarifica- tions, derivations and graphs, and refutes widely accepted solutions to a central problem in evolutionary genetics known as Haldane’s Dilemma. It was submitted to the journal Theoretical Population Biology, where all the peer-reviewers found no errors. Nonetheless, they rejected it from publication on the grounds that it is not a “sufficient advance,” and “there is little interest in this subject today among population biologists; it is one of those subjects which has sunk almost beyond trace.” This has all been very unfortunate, as there continues to be widespread misunderstanding within the scientific community regarding these important matters, even among those who have studied the cost literature for years. It is hoped that the clarifications presented in this paper will eventually reach the greater scientific community. Walter J. ReMine

Introduction J.B.S. Haldane (1957) introduced the cost of substitution selective values, and for its reliance on “genetic death” and concept, though its usage became hampered by various “genetic load,” whose physical interpretation is dubious. Such confusions, and it eventually fell into common disuse. It was issues severely limited its deployment. Those difficulties were criticized for requiring constant population size, and constant addressed and eliminated in ReMine (2005), which clarified cost theory and generalized the cost of substitution to have a concrete physical interpretation, without reliance on genetic * Walter ReMine, St. Paul Science, P.O. Box 28006, Saint Paul, death or genetic load, and while allowing fluctuations in any MN 55128, Email: [email protected] parameters. This paper applies that conceptual clarification Accepted for publication: July 20, 2006 to obtain more precise mathematical results. 112 Creation Research Society Quarterly

For any given evolutionary scenario, cost theory calculates The total cost of substitution (the “total cost”) merely the required reproduction rate (referred to as the “cost of evolu- sums Costi over all the generations of the substitution. tion”) and compares it with the species actual reproduction rate (referred to as the “payment”). If the species cannot “pay (3) the cost,” then the scenario is not plausible. That concept is general, and can apply to any model of any evolutionary scenario, because they all require some level of reproduction The total cost of substitution is later divided by the average rate. For ease of comprehension, calculation, and discussion, number of generations per substitution, to obtain the average cost theory partitions the cost of evolution into a sum of vari- cost per generation (CS)—which is a focus of concern in cost ous costs, with each cost named according to its specific role. arguments. Thus, the cost of substitution is one of many costs that each Next the equations for the cost of substitution are derived add extra reproduction rate to the amount required by the under various genetic circumstances, together with a method scenario (ReMine, 2005). for iteratively calculating the total cost of substitution. In each Evolutionary theory requires that some traits originate case, the method is accurate even when the selection coeffi- as rare beneficial mutations and then, through reproductive cient is large and when the parameters are arbitrarily changed means, these increase in number of copies. This increase each generation (unlike the traditional concept, which is too requires extra reproduction rate. Under the clarified defini- narrowly defined). tion, the cost of substitution (CS) is the extra reproduction In all the following cases, A is the substituting allele, and rate required to increase a trait (or traits) at the rate given by a is the old-type allele, with frequencies p and q, respectively. an evolutionary scenario. This paper uses that clarified cost The substitution’s starting frequency is p0; this is the frequency concept to study single substitutions (non-overlapping in time), at the beginning of the entire substitution. (Note: p0 is different under genetic circumstances of broad interest (the same cases from the “effective starting frequency” of a given generation i.) studied by Haldane, 1957), and derives equations that are Genotype growth is specified by selection coefficients, where more general, more precise, and well-grounded in concrete 0

(1)

Next this equation is restated in terms more traditional to population genetics. For generation i, define the following variables. Let Ne be the effective breeding population size. Let the population growth factor be G=Ne´/Ne, (which is 1.0 when the population size remains constant). For calculating the cost of a given genotype, let g be its effective starting frequency at the start of generation i, and let g´ be its ending frequency at (4) the end of generation i. These are given by: g=P/Ne , and g´

=P´/Ne´. Restating equation 1:

(2) That gives the new allele frequencies: Volume 43, September 2006 113

(5) (8)

By equation 2: Each genotype has its own cost, given by equation 2 as:

(6)

(9) Equations 3, 5, and 6 allow iterative calculation of the total cost of substitution, while allowing changes in any parameters at the start of each generation. With parameters held constant, results are shown in Graph 1.

Diploids (10) In diploids, Mendelian segregation (in combination with some mating scheme, such as random mating or inbreeding) can affect the genotype frequencies, while tending to leave allele frequencies unaffected. Such change is due solely to the pas- sive remixing of alleles at the gene level, and does not require extra reproduction rate from whole-bodies; therefore we do not (11) tally it into the reproduction rate that whole-bodies are required to produce. So, we disallow it from our cost computation, that is, we calculate the cost after the effects of the mating scheme I am merely applying equation 2 to each genotype after and Mendelian segregation have been allotted. discounting the passive redistribution effects of mating and The adult population has a reproductive capacity, which Mendelian segregation. In this way, I calculate only the re- is redistributed toward progeny of each given genotype at a quirements on the reproduction rate of individuals (whole-bod- predictable rate. That distribution is given by the “effective ies)—the cost. The producers of a given genotype are required starting frequencies” of the genotypes, as follows: to pay the cost of that genotype. It is usually sufficient to focus solely on the greatest cost, as this almost always forms the most (7) stringent test of the scenario, thus:

That is, a fraction (gAA) of the population’s reproductive capac- ity goes toward producing the AA genotype. Another fraction

(gAa) goes towards producing the Aa genotype. And so forth. As the cycle of one generation completes, let the genotypes’ (12) actual “ending frequencies” be labeled as follows:

For a well-behaved substitution, the Cost_AA i always dominates. Therefore, 80 Graph 1: Haploids

70

-12 -2 Decade increments of p0 from 10 to 10 60 (13)

-12 p0=10 50

40 The following case studies demonstrate this method. 30

20 Total cost of substitution 10 An Autosomal Locus in a Diploid

-2 p0=10 The diploid cases allow dominant and recessive substitutions, 0 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 specified by recessivity h, where 0 ≤ h ≤ 1. When h=0 this Selection coefficient s represents a fully dominant substitution. 114 Creation Research Society Quarterly

-2 1000 Graph 2: Diploids with p0 = 10

Recessivity h

h= 1.0 100 h= .98 h= .93 (14) h= .80 10 h= .50 h= .00 Total cost of substitution

1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 Selection coefficient s That gives the new genotype frequencies. The new allele frequencies are: -3 10000 Graph 3: Diploids with p0 = 10

Recessivity h

(15) h= 1.0 1000

h= .98 100 By equation 9 and the above boxed quantities: h= .93 h= .80

h= .50

10 h= .00 Total cost of substitution of cost Total

(16) 1 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 The total cost of substitution can be iteratively calculated Selection coefficient s by equations 13, 15, 16, while allowing changes in any pa- Graph 4: Diploids with p = 10-4 rameters at the start of each generation. With parameters held 100000 0 constant, results are shown in Graphs 2 through 5. Recessivity h 10000 h= 1.0

An Autosomal Locus in a Diploid 1000 with Inbreeding h= .98 ≤ ≤ 100 h= .93 Assume an inbreeding coefficient f, (0 f 1), where a fraction, h= .80 f, of the population mates only with its own genotype, and the h= .50 10 remainder of the population mates randomly. Total cost of substitution h= .00

1 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 Selection coefficient s

-5 1000000 Graph 5: Diploids with p0 = 10

Recessivity h

100000 h= 1.0

10000 h= .999

1000 Combining the effects of random mating and inbreeding, h= .98 the effective frequency of reproducers for each genotype is h= .93 100 obtained: h= .80

Total cost of substitution 10 h= .50 h= 0.0

1 0.00 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.80 0.90 1.00 Selection coefficient s Volume 43, September 2006 115 where the right-hand side is: Graph 6: Diploids with inbreeding, 100000 s=.01, h=1 -5 p0= 10 (17) -6 p0= 10

10000 -7 p0= 10 -4 Normalize to obtain new genotype frequencies: p0= 10 -8 p0= 10

1000 -3 p0= 10

100 -2 p0= 10 Total cost of substitution (18) 10 0.0001 0.0010 0.0100 0.1000 Inbreeding fraction f Apply equation 9.

Graph 7: Diploids with inbreeding,

300 s=.01, h=.95 -8 p0= 10 -9 p0= 10 250 -7 p = 10 -10 p0= 10 0 (19) -11 p0= 10 -6 p = 10 -12 200 p0= 10 0

-5 Equations 13, 17, 18, 19 allow iterative calculation of the 150 p0= 10

-4 p0= 10 total cost of substitution, while allowing changes in any pa- 100 rameters at the start of each generation. With parameters held -3 p0= 10 constant, results are shown in Graphs 6 through 9. Total cost of substitution 50 -2 p0= 10 For additional insight, examine a fully dominant substitu- 0 tion, while allowing any inbreeding fraction f, (0 ≤ f ≤ 1). 0.001 0.010 0.100 1.000 Inbreeding fraction f Define PA as the number of copies of allele A at the start of generation i. So, PA = p·2Ne, and at the end of the generation Graph 8: Diploids with inbreeding, PA´ = p´·2Ne·G, for an increase of ∆PA = p´·2Ne·G - p·2Ne. (By s=.01, h=0.9 equation 12, Cost = Cost_AA . Using h=0 with equations 17, -8 i i 140 p0= 10 2 -7 -9 18, and 19, and the identity p +pq=p, it is easily shown that p0= 10 p0= 10 -10 120 p0= 10 Cost / P = 1/P .) Therefore: -6 -11 i ∆ A A p0= 10 p0= 10 100 -12 p0= 10 p = 10 -5 80 0

-4 (20) 60 p0= 10 -3 40 p0= 10

-2 Total cost of substitution 20 p0= 10 Thus, in any given generation, the cost of substitution 0 0.001 0.010 0.100 1.000 (Costi) is given by the percent increase in the number of copies Inbreeding fraction f of the substituting allele (regardless of the number of copies of the old allele). This happens to be the same equation as Graph 9: Diploids with inbreeding, in haploids, and because of that equality, a proof previously s=.01, h=0.8 -7 p = 10 -8 70 p0= 10 0 established for haploids (ReMine, 2005, appendix) applies to -9 p0= 10 -10 -6 p0= 10 60 p0= 10 this case in diploids, and the following result is proven. For a -11 p0= 10 p = 10 -12 fully dominant substitution (with or without any amount of 50 -5 0 p0= 10 inbreeding fraction f, and allowing a non-constant population 40 -4 size), for a substitution of any given duration, the minimum p0= 10 30 -3 total cost of substitution is achieved only when the cost each p0= 10 20 generation (Cost ) is constant throughout the substitution. -2 i Total cost of substitution p0= 10 In cases of haploids, or diploids with full dominance, cost 10 constancy provides the minimum total cost for a substitution 0 0.001 0.010 0.100 1.000 of any given duration. This proof opposes the notion that the Inbreeding fraction f 116 Creation Research Society Quarterly total cost can be lowered by arbitrary fluctuations in selection Applying equation 9 gives the cost for genotype AA females. coefficients (as in some versions of soft selection), or fluctua- This is the extra reproduction rate necessary to produce enough tions in population size. genotype AA females to satisfy the scenario (including males too, at a progeny sex ratio of 1:1).

A Sex-Linked Locus in a Diploid For a sex-linked locus, males and females have different selection coefficients (sm and sf) and different costs. Assume the males to be the heterogametic sex, but the results are the (25) same (only swapped) if females are so. Define the male and female allele frequencies: (pm+qm=1) and (pf+qf=1). We here assume the A allele is neutral or beneficial in both sexes, and In the case of male progeny, for alleles A and a, the males disallow less fortunate circumstances (such as beneficial in one are effectively haploid. Male progeny inherit this chromosome gender and harmful in the other). Let the female population from their mother; therefore pf is the effective frequency of size have a growth factor of Gf, and for the male population it mating that produces the A genotype in male progeny. is Gm. Assume male and female progeny are produced at the same rate (a sex ratio of 1:1), as is ordinarily the case. For the case of female progeny, random mating produces the generating function, (pm+qm)(pf+qf)=1, which determines the genotype frequencies given in equation 21.

(26)

(21)

(27)

This is normalized to obtain the new genotype frequencies for males:

(22)

(28)

This is normalized to obtain the new genotype frequencies for females: The new allele frequencies for males are:

(29)

(23) Applying equation 2 gives the cost for genotype A males. Physically this is the extra reproduction rate necessary to pro- duce enough genotype A males to satisfy the scenario require- The new allele frequencies for females are: ments (including females too, at a progeny sex ratio of 1:1).

(24) (30) Volume 43, September 2006 117

Graph 10: Diploids with sex-linked locus, s =0 The scenario requires the larger of the two costs, therefore: f 140

-12 -2 120 Decade increments of p0 from 10 to 10

-12 100 p0= 10

(31) 80

60

The total cost of substitution can be iteratively calculated 40 Total cost of substitution 20 (from equations 3, 22, 24, 25, 29, 30, and 31), while allowing -2 p0= 10 changes in any parameters at the start of each generation. 0 With parameters held constant, results are shown in Graphs 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 Male selection coefficient s 10 through 13. m + -4 Haldane (1957) assumed tiny s-values (sm & sf → 0 ), where 100000 Graph 11: Diploids with sex-linked locus, sm =0, p0 =10 the substitution is very slow, with ample time for allele frequen- h= 1.0 cies to equalize between the sexes, so he assumed pm=pf. Unlike 10000 Haldane (1957), my iterative calculation allows the sexes to have unequal allele frequencies, and their appropriate values 1000 are recalculated each generation. h= .98 The sex with the higher selection coefficient tends to h= .93 100 h= .80 dominate the substitution process. When the heterogametic h= .50 h= 0.0 sex (male in this study) has the higher selective value (sm) Total cost of substitution 10 (as in Graph 10), then the total cost tends to be haploid-like and depends little on the recessivity in females. On the other 1 hand, when the female selective value (sf) is the higher (as in 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 Graph 11), then the cost takes on the behavior of diploids—for Female selection coefficient s f example, the cost increases rapidly with recessivity h. (Note: If Graph 12: Diploids with sex-linked locus, s =.01, p = 10-4 the substituting allele is beneficial in one sex, and detrimental 10000 m 0 or heterosis in the other, then the total cost of substitution will h= 1.0 be higher and its behavior will be more complex. However, 1000 the cost interactions between the two sexes are too numerous h= .98 for discussion here.) h= .93 For scenarios with constant male and female population 100 h= .80 h= .50 sizes (i.e., Gf =Gm =1), the sex with the lower cost will have h= 0.0 some reproduction rate leftover. The leftover must be ac- 10 counted through elimination of individuals of that gender; Total cost of substitution otherwise it would cause that gender’s population size to increase (making G >1 or G >1). (Also the elimination 1 f m 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 must be accounted without altering allele frequencies for that Female selection coefficient sf gender, which is reserved for the selection coefficients.) In Graph 13: Diploids with sex-linked locus, s =s , p =10-5 short, the leftover individuals of that gender must be elimi- 70 m f 0 nated, even though some of them possess the substituting 60 allele—their production is wasted. On the other hand, when 50 h= 1.0 the costs for the two sexes are equal (such that Cost_A_males i h= .93 = Cost_AA_females i), then there is no leftover to waste, so 40 the situation is more efficient at converting the reproduction h= .80 30 rate into higher growth for the substituting allele—and this h= .50 h= 0.0 reduces the total cost of substitution. This higher efficiency 20 is seen by the slight dip in total cost at the left end of Graph Total cost of substitution 10 12, which occurs when the costs for the two genders tend to be equal throughout the substitution. When selection 0 0.00 0.20 0.40 0.60 0.80 1.00 coefficients for the two sexes are always equal, as in Graph Selection coefficient sm = sf 118 Creation Research Society Quarterly

13, then the total cost is lower than when one selection coef- entire substitution. He did likewise for females. Apparently to ficient is always zero, as in Graphs 11 or 12, but still higher calculate the average rate of genetic death, he then averaged than cases without the sex-linked locus. those two totals together (instead of taking the larger of the two, as in my equation 31), to obtain his total cost of substitution. The genetic death concept focuses on death (not reproduction Comparison with Haldane’s Cost Concept rate), so it failed to inform Haldane that the costs for males Haldane (1957) defined the cost of substitution in terms of and females are linked together, because male and female “genetic death” (originally called “selective death”), which has progeny are produced at the same rate. This is yet another been a source of much confusion. He did not give an explicit example of how Haldane’s concept of genetic death caused physical definition of genetic death; instead he gave a math- confusion and error. ematical equation for it, a different equation for each specific case. In each case, his genetic death concept is identified as the amount subtracted from 1 on the far right-hand side of my Discussion equations 4, 14, 17, 22, and 27. In effect, that is how Haldane Under the above variety of genetic circumstances, the param- obtained his equations for genetic death. For example, for an eters were held constant, and the graphs display the total cost of autosomal locus in a diploid, his equation is 2hspq+sq2 (see it substitution. Each curve plots 201 data points, (200 intervals), on the right side of my equation 14), which he interpreted as equally spaced visually across the horizontal range. In Graphs the genetic deaths of the heterozygote (2hspq), plus the genetic 1 through 5, there is a high cost impulse at s=1, which goes deaths of the disfavored homozygote (sq2). off-scale vertically. As pointed out in ReMine (2005), Haldane’s genetic death The graphs show that the total cost increases with selec- concept exists only between the mathematical steps of (1) selec- tion coefficient s. (That holds for all cases, except for some tion and (2) normalization. But in nature those happen physi- complicated interactions involving a sex-linked locus in dip- cally in one event, not in separate steps. Therefore, Haldane’s loids, as discussed above.) The traditional total cost formulas genetic death concept is a mathematical phantom that does not assumed infinitesimally small selection coefficients (s → 0+), exist in physical reality. For this and many additional reasons, and therefore underestimate the total cost in realistic situations. genetic death has been a continual source of confusion. However, the underestimate is less than ten percent error as My cost concept uses quantities (enclosed in boxes here) long as s<0.17, which covers the most typical evolutionary that appear immediately before selection is applied and im- substitutions. mediately after normalization is applied. Thus, these values The total costs for “haploids” and “fully dominant substi- straddle the line used by Haldane. Unlike Haldane, I use tutions in diploids” are nearly identical (so only the former is quantities (the genotype frequencies enclosed in boxes) whose graphed here). They diverge from each other only slightly as physical meaning is concrete, and whose use is already ubiq- the selection coefficient increases, with diploids having the uitous in population genetics. I suggest his concept of genetic slightly lower total cost. Using the haploid case as a refer- death is physically unclear and should be abandoned. ence, the diploid case has lower total cost by no more than Haldane’s concept worked correctly only under his two as- 1.4 percent (9.2 percent) for all selection coefficients less sumptions: (1) constant population size, and (2) small selection than 0.2 (0.8). coefficients (s → 0+). His 1957 paper studied the same cases Traditionally the total cost of semi-dominant substitutions examined here. For each case, and for each generation, after (h=0.5) is given as double that of dominants (h=0). That is applying Haldane’s two assumptions, my cost of substitution is accurate to within ten percent for selection coefficients s<0.35, identical to his. (That is, under his two assumptions, my cost according to these results. equations 6, 16, 19, 25, and 30 reduce to his cost equations 1, It is known that almost all beneficial mutations fail to 5, 10, and the second equation on his page 518.) Under his substitute; instead they are eliminated by genetic drift without two assumptions, my cost each generation is identical to his, ever reaching fixation. In such instances, they only partially therefore the total cost of substitution is also identical. How- substitute within a population, and they incur a portion of the ever, my cost equations for any given generation are accurate total cost of substitution. Even though such substitutions are for all selection coefficients (even large selection coefficients), unsuccessful, they are nonetheless part of the scenario, and and for fluctuations in any parameters (such as population they incur a cost that the species must pay if the scenario is to size)—whereas Haldane’s equations are not. be plausible. Haldane did not account this cost of unsuccess-

In the case of a sex-linked locus, Haldane’s focus on ge- ful substitution (CU). When a single beneficial mutation is netic death led to error. In each generation, he calculated the lost, this cost may be small, but it becomes significant when genetic deaths of disfavored males, and totaled that over the multiplied by its overwhelming prevalence in nature. Kimura Volume 43, September 2006 119 and Maruyama (1969) estimated that this adds 2 to the cost Haldane (1957) estimated that the average value for the of each successful substitution. Their calculation should be total cost of substitution is 30. To rationalize that low figure, revisited, especially in light of: (a) recent clarifications of the he employed an environmental-change scenario to bypass cost concept, and (b) modern measurements concerning the the earliest stages of substitution, where most of the total cost mutation rate and the frequency of nondominant mutations would ordinarily be incurred. The scenario (given in Haldane, (which have a high cost of unsuccessful substitution). 1957 and 1961) assumes that neutral mutations and slightly Of special concern is the high cost of recessive substitu- deleterious mutations occasionally drift upward to maintain a tion. Their total cost is quite high, (easily in the thousands), pool of these at elevated frequencies—call these “pool muta- and substantially constant over any selective value s. Graphs 6 tions”—and when the environment changes, some of these are through 9 show the effects of inbreeding, which may dramati- converted to beneficial, which then begin their substitution at cally lower the cost of recessive substitutions. For example, at an elevated starting frequency, thereby dramatically lowering -5 a starting frequency of p0=10 and no inbreeding (f=0), the their total cost of substitution. This scenario is awkward to total cost is 100,000, but is reduced to 7,000 by an inbreeding justify for most substitutions (much less for all substitutions, as fraction, f=0.001. However, for a high starting frequency of assumed by Haldane), and especially during multiple-concur- -2 p0=10 , that same inbreeding fraction has virtually no effect. rent substitutions, because the same environmental change In other words, a given level of inbreeding may produce dra- alleged to start one substitution would likely disrupt or reverse matic cost reductions when starting frequencies are low, but the ongoing substitutions. at high starting frequencies there is scarcely any reduction. As discussed in ReMine (1993), the environmental- This is shown in Graph 6. change scenario tries to obtain a “free lunch” from nature. For the same reason, however, inbreeding simultaneously Environmental-change, like mutation, is random concern- increases costs. Inbreeding causes an increased production of ing the organism, and therefore is far more harmful than homozygotes that express the beneficial recessive mutation and beneficial. For every “neutral or slightly deleterious” muta- aid its substitution. Thus, some beneficial recessive mutations tion that converts to “beneficial,” there will be vastly more (that would be lost at lower cost under no inbreeding) will suc- converted to become more harmful, with these also tending cessfully substitute under inbreeding—thus incurring a high to have a larger effect—for a net effect that is overwhelm- cost of substitution. Also, some beneficial recessive mutations ingly harmful. If one pool mutation converts from neutral (that would substitute only slightly under no inbreeding) will to beneficial, this would be overwhelmed by thousands that substitute further under inbreeding—thus increasing the cost become detrimental and must be eliminated—and precisely of unsuccessful substitution. In other words, it is not imme- because these eliminations start at elevated frequencies, this diately obvious whether inbreeding will increase or decrease increases the cost of mutation (which is the extra reproduc- the costs associated with substitution, or by how much. The tion rate required for coping with the elimination of harmful role of inbreeding is a double-edged sword that cuts in both mutations). That makes cost problems worse. In a similar directions, and needs further research. way, for every pool mutation that converts to beneficial, there The costs derived in this paper are mechanical and un- would be many beneficial alleles at fixation that convert avoidable. In realistic situations the actual cost of substitution to harmful, and must be substituted just to break even. To can be higher, but cannot be lower. The equations give a avoid a theoretical Ponzi scheme, almost all of these must be lower bound, regardless of the type of selection (such as “soft substituted by a directly new mutation (not a pool mutation), selection” versus “hard selection”), and regardless of environ- thereby incurring a full (non-discounted) cost of substitu- mental change. This lower bound in any single generation (as tion, and usually resulting in a net fitness loss. When fully shown in equations 6, 16, 19, 25, 30, and 31) is independent accounted, the environmental-change scenario makes cost of those factors, and therefore so is the total, summed over all problems worse. There is no free lunch. generations. This means that, contrary to common assumption, In other words, Haldane gave poor justification for his environmental change (such as employed in Felsenstein, 1971 figure of 30, and we must seek a more realistic figure, which and 1972), and soft selection (such as employed in Grant and will surely be higher. Even after removing the environmen- Flake, 1974, and Wallace, 1991) cannot even slightly reduce tal-change scenario, the value of 30 implicitly assumes: (1) cost problems for single substitutions. Those errors were caused a nearly nonexistent role for recessive substitutions, (2) no by confusion factors identified in ReMine (2005), such as cost for unsuccessful substitutions, and (3) a high reliance on genetic death, genetic load, extinction, and the environment. small population sizes (which receive beneficial mutations at Those factors are largely irrelevant to the central issue, which a much lower rate and slows down beneficial evolution). It is the growth (in number of copies) of the substituting allele, is doubtful those assumptions are realistic or consistent with and the extra reproduction rate necessary to achieve it. other considerations from evolutionary theory. 120 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Conclusions Haldane’s subsequent paper (Haldane, 1961) attempts to Compared to the traditional cost derivations, the equations derive “more precise” cost equations when selection coeffi- described in this paper are general-purpose, simpler, and easier cients are not small. I regard that paper as a decrease in clarity to understand. The total cost of substitution is then calculated and accuracy from his previous attempt (1957), and largely iteratively, generation by generation, for improved accuracy. irrelevant to understanding cost theory today. Absent is his This method allows arbitrary changes to any parameters at the previous emphasis on “reproductive capacity,” which should start of each generation, which can be conveniently handled be the central issue. Instead the 1961 paper focuses exclusively by computers. In addition, this method is transparently clear, on genetic death, which should now be abandoned as unnec- whereas Haldane’s derivations are opaque. essary confusion. In effect, his 1961 paper takes each of his Though the environmental-change scenario was tradi- previous equations for genetic death (only this time allowing tionally used, it was never given a proper cost analysis. When a large selection coefficient) and pursues the task of deriving fully tallied it actually makes the cost problems worse. The a closed-form equation for its sum over all generations of the same applies to the concept of soft selection (at least for single substitution (to obtain the total cost of substitution). The substitutions). paper’s lengthy mathematical contrivances are opaque and The following areas are suggested for further research in conceptually ill founded. For example in haploids, in a given cost theory: the frequency and role of nondominant or recessive generation, his cost of substitution, sq, is accurate only for a mutation, the overall effect of inbreeding, the cost of unsuc- small selection coefficient. When his 1961 paper imposes a cessful substitutions, and the effect of unequal sex ratios at large selection coefficient into that same equation, the result is conception or in the breeding population. useless or erroneous for its intended purpose (that of establish- Most importantly, this paper calls for the average total cost ing a limit on the substitution rate). His 1961 paper thereby of substitution (such as Haldane’s figure of 30) to be given an arrives at erroneous cost equations, and mistaken conclusions, explicit justification within some widely accepted evolutionary such as the notion of “negative cost.” model. The graphs and methods presented in this paper can help estimate it across a blend of circumstances anticipated in nature. Acknowledgements This research was supported in part by a grant from Discovery Institute. Appendix: Notes on Haldane’s Derivations Haldane’s equations for the cost each generation are typo- graphically correct (Haldane, 1957). However, I detect the References following typographical errors in his derivations for the total Felsenstein, J. 1971. On the biological significance of the cost of gene cost of substitution. Most of these are clearly typographical substitution. Am. Nat. 105:1–11. errors, because they disappear in his subsequent equations. Felsenstein, J. 1972. The substitutional load in a finite population. Some of them, however, are in his final equations for the total Heredity 28:57–69. cost of substitution, so researchers should be wary of that. (A) Grant, V., and R.H. Flake. 1974. Solutions to the cost-of-selection In the calculation prior to his equation 7, there should be a dilemma. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, U.S.A. factor (1–2h) multiplying the second p0. (B) In his equation 71:10:3863–3865. 9, the first K in the denominator should be k. (C) In the cal- Haldane, J. B. S. 1957. The cost of natural selection. Journal of culation following his equation 9, there should be an opening Genetics 55:511–524. bracket immediately between the µ and the second natural Haldane, J. B. S. 1961. More precise expressions for the cost of natural logarithm, mated with a closing bracket immediately after the selection. Journal of Genetics 57:2–3:351–360. last parenthesis of that equation. (D) In his equation 11, it may Kimura, M., and T. Maruyama. 1969. The substitutional load in a be that the K should be 2K, because the missing “2” shows finite population. Heredity 24:101–114. up again in his next equation. (E) In the equation before his ReMine, W.J. 1993. The Biotic Message. Saint Paul Science publish- equation 12, the sign before the ½ should be negative. (F) In ers, Saint Paul, MN. his equation 12, the sign before his second natural logarithm ReMine, W.J. 2005. Cost theory and the cost of substitution—a should be negative. (G) In his equation 13 (in his equation clarification. TJ 19:1:113–125. for female, and in his separate equation for male), the first p0 Wallace, B. 1991. Fifty Years of Genetic Load—An Odyssey. Cornell should be a factor in the denominator, not the numerator. University Press, Cornell, NY. For the reader’s convenience, my paper uses modern notation rather than Haldane’s. Volume 43, September 2006 121

Author and Title Index for Volume 42, 2005–2006

Lazella M. Lawson*

his title/author index covers articles, panorama notes and other features. TFor items with two or more pages, the reference is to the first page only. After the page number, a letter indicates which type of entry is involved: article (A), panorama note (P), letter to the editor (L), book or video review (R), cover photo (CP), or other departments (such as laboratory director’s comments, president’s remarks, photo essays, etc.) (D).

Aufdemberge, Ted Bible, Epidemiology and Edenomics/ A Darwin’s Proof: The Triumph of The, Jeffrey G. Schragin, 115 (A) Religion over Science, 125 (R) The Advancement, Don DeYoung, 103 Biola Genetics Workshop, John Sanford (R) Australopithecines and Homo habilis/ and Kevin Anderson, 126 (D) Body Mass Estimates and Encepha- The Age of the Universe: What are the lization Quotients: A Fresh Look at Board of Directors Meeting Minutes, Biblical Limits?, Clifford L. Lillo, the, Patrick H. Young, 217 (A) David A. Kaufmann, 211 (D) 227 (R) Author and Title Index for Volume 41, Bones of Contention: A Creationist As- Akridge, A. Jerry Lazella Lawson, 145 (D) sessment of Human Fossils, Michael Ashfall Fossil Beds State Park, Oard, 79 (R) Nebraska: A Post-Flood/Ice Age Paleoenvironment, 183 (A) Brown, Colin Cataclysm Recorded in a Recent Devonian Fish and Tetrapods Sup- Geomorphic Event: The Gros B port Creation—Not Evolution, Ventre Slide, Wyoming, 131 Bacteria?/Are There Organelles in, 272 (P) (P) Colin Brown, 129 (P) A Look at Sheldrake’s Strange Hypothesis of Formative Causa- Anderson, Kevin Baraminology of Snakes: Order-Squa- tion, 76 (P) Biola Genetics Workshop, 126 (D) mata, Suborder Serpentes/An Initial Are There Organelles in Bacteria? Investigation into the, Tom Henni- 129 (P) Ashfall Fossil Beds State Park, Nebraska: gan, 153 (A) A Vegetarian Crocodile, 205 (P) A Post-Flood/Ice Age Paleoenviron- A View of Fossil Homo sapiens ment, A. Jerry Akridge and Carl R. Bergman, Jerry from “Far Back” in Africa, 206 Froede Jr., 183 (A) Darwinism and the Deterioration (P) of the Genome, 104 (A) Armitage, Mark H. The Evolution of Teeth: A Major Lichens in Cross-Section: Evi- Problem for NeoDarwinism, dence for Design and Against 20 (A) Macroevolution, 252 (D) C “Beyond Scientific Creationism”/Objec- The Camellia Lover’s Guide to the Gal- tions to, David Stone, 77 (L) axy, Don DeYoung, 72 (R)

*Lazella M. Lawson, Newhall, CA 122 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Cataclysm Recorded in a Recent Geo- Dobberpuhl, Del For Time and Forever, Don DeYoung, morphic Event: The Gros Ventre Origins of Existence, 80 (R) 162 (R) Slide, Wyoming, A. Jerry Akridge and Emmett L. Williams, 131 (P) Doughty, John R. Fossil Homo sapiens from “Far Back” in

CO2 Gas Well Effluent Analysis, Africa/A View of, Colin Brown, 206

CO2 Gas Well Effluent Analysis, John R. 93 (A) (P) Doughty, 93 (A) Dragons: A Natural History, John Goert- Frair, Wayne zen, 36 (R) Darwin and Design: Does Evolu- tion Have Purpose? 202 (R) D Dragons of the Deep, Don DeYoung, Issues in Creation Number 1: A 264 (R) Creationist Review and Prelimi- Darwin and Design: Does Evolution nary Analysis of History, Geol- Have Purpose? Wayne Frair, 202 (R) ogy, Climate and Biology of the Galapagos Islands, 193 (R) Darwin’s Proof: The Triumph of Religion E over Science, Ted Aufdemberge, 125 Froede, Carl R. Jr. (R) Ensign, Don Neogene Sand-to-Pebble Size The Man Who Found the Missing Siliciclastic Sediments on the Darwinism and the Deterioration of the Link: Eugene Dubois and His Florida Peninsula: Sedimentary Genome, Jerry Bergman, 104 (A) Lifelong Quest to Prove Darwin Evidence in Support of the Right, 17 (R) Genesis Flood, 229 (A) Daskalakis, Christos The Great Turning Point: The Spur and Groove Coral Reef Mor- Of Cosmic Proportions, 194 (A) Church’s Catastrophic Mistake phology, 268 (P) on Geology, 68 (R) The Tertiary Stratigraphy Sur- Degrees Kelvin, Don DeYoung, 251 (R) rounding Americus, Georgia: “Epidemiology and the Creation Health Evidence in Support of the Deposits Remaining from the Genesis Model”/Comments on, Dean Zim- Young-Earth Flood Framework, Flood: Rim Gravels in Arizona, merman, 139 (L) 85 (A) Michael J. Oard and Peter Klevberg, Ashfall Fossil Beds State Park, 1 (A) “Epidemiology and the Creation Health Nebraska: A Post-Flood/Ice Age Model”/Comments on, Douglas G. Paleoenvironment, 183 (A) Debating Design from Darwin to DNA, Schneider, 139 (L) Michael Oard, 90 (R) Erkel, Michael G Devonian Fish and Tetrapods Support Cover Designs by Michael Erkel Creation—Not Evolution, Colin and Associates, (CP) The Genesis Trilogy, Beverly Oard, 182 Brown, 272 (P) (R) Eugenie Scott’s Address to the American DeWitt, David A. Astronomical Society Winter 2005/ Geology Beyond Plate Tectonics, David Refuting Compromise, 19 (R) On, Ron Samec, 70 (D) J. Tyler, 73 (P)

DeYoung, Don Evolution of Teeth: A Major Problem for Geology of the Timbered Hills Group The Advancement, 103 (R) NeoDarwinism/The, Jerry Bergman, in Oklahoma/The, John K. Reed, The Camellia Lover’s Guide to the 20 (A) 39 (A) Galaxy, 72 (R) Degrees Kelvin, 251 (R) God, Faith & The New Millennium, Paul Dragons of the Deep, 264 (R) F Feifert, 37 (R) For Time and Forever, 162 (R) Johannes Kepler and the New Feifert, Paul Goertzen, John Astronomy, 162 (R) God, Faith & The New Millen- Dragons: A Natural History, 36 (R) More than Meets the Eye, 103 (R) nium, 37 (R) Newton’s Tyranny, 192 (R) The Great Turning Point: The Church’s The Secret of Ararat, 69 (R) Fiery Flying Serpent/The, David Woet- Catastrophic Mistake on Geology, Unintelligent Design, 114 (R) zel, 241 (A) Don Ensign, 68 (R) Volume 43, September 2006 123

The Great Turning Point: The Church’s Newton’s Tyranny, Don DeYoung, 192 Catastrophic Mistake on Geology, L (R) Michael Oard, 67 (R) Lawson, Lazella Author and Title Index for Volume 41, 145 (D) O H Lichens in Cross-Section: Evidence for Design and Against Macroevolution, Oard, Beverly Hennigan, Tom Mark H. Armitage and George F. The Genesis Trilogy, 182 (R) An Initial Investigation into the Ba- Howe, 252 (D) raminology of Snakes: Order- Oard, Michael J. Squamata, Suborder Serpentes, Lillo, Clifford L. Bones of Contention: A Creationist 153 (A) The Age of the Universe: What are Assessment of Human Fossils, the Biblical Limits? 227 (R) 79 (R) Henry, Jonathan Debating Design from Darwin to Universe by Design,181 (R) Lubenow, Marvin DNA, 90 (R) Was Lucy Bipedal? 204 (P) Deposits Remaining from the Howe, George F. Genesis Flood: Rim Gravels in Lichens in Cross-Section: Evi- Lucy Bipedal?/Was, Marvin Lubenow, Arizona, 1 (A) dence for Design and Against 204 (P) The Great Turning Point: The Macroevolution, 252 (D) Church’s Catastrophic Mistake on Geology, 67 (R)

M Of Cosmic Proportions, Christos Daska- lakis, 194 (A) I The Man Who Found the Missing Link: Eugene Dubois and His Lifelong Origin and Significance of Sand-filled Issues in Creation Number 1: A Creation- Quest to Prove Darwin Right, Don Cracks and Other Features near the ist Review and Preliminary Analysis of Ensign, 17 (R) Base of the Coconino Sandstone, History, Geology, Climate and Biol- Grand Canyon, Arizona, USA., John ogy of the Galapagos Islands, Wayne Miller, Hugh H. Whitmore, 163 (A) Frair, 193 (R) More Failures for Long Age Potas- sium/Argon (K/Ar) Dating, 207 Origins of Existence, Del Dobberpuhl, (L) 80 (R)

The Missoula Flood Controversy and the J Genesis Flood, Emmett L. Williams, 240 (R) Johannes Kepler and the New Astronomy, P Don DeYoung, 162 (R) More Failures for Long Age Potassium/ Argon (K/Ar) Dating, Hugh Miller, Precambrian Geology/Revisiting, David 207 (L) J. Tyler, 127 (P)

More than Meets the Eye, Don DeY- K oung, 103 (R)

Kaufmann, David A. R Board of Directors Meeting Min- utes, 211 (D) N Red Earth, White Lies, Doug Sharp, 101 (R) Klevberg, Peter Neogene Sand-to-Pebble Size Si- Deposits Remaining from the liciclastic Sediments on the Florida Red Rock Canyon and the Valley of Genesis Flood: Rim Gravels in Peninsula: Sedimentary Evidence in Fire, Douglas B. Sharp, 31 (D) Arizona, 1 (A) Support of the Genesis Flood, Carl R. Froede Jr., 229 (A) 124 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Reed, John K. Stewart, Mark The Geology of the Timbered The Truth About Human Origins, W Hills Group in Oklahoma, 39 160 (R) Williams, Emmett L. (A) Cataclysm Recorded in a Recent Reply to Dr. Stone, 78 (L) Stone, David Geomorphic Event: The Gros Objections to “Beyond Scientific Ventre Slide, Wyoming, 131 Refuting Compromise, David A. DeWitt, Creationism,” 77 (L) (P) 19 (R) The Missoula Flood Controversy Stone/Reply to Dr., John Reed, 78 (L) and the Genesis Flood, 240 (R) Road Guide to the John Day Area of Road Guide to the John Day Area Central Oregon: As Viewed from a of Central Oregon: As Viewed Creationist Perspective, Emmett L. from a Creationist Perspective, Williams, 130 (R) T 130 (R) Tertiary Stratigraphy Surrounding Americus, Georgia: Evidence in Whitmore, John H. Support of the Young-Earth Flood Origin and Significance of S Framework/The, Carl R. Froede Jr., Sand-filled Cracks and Other 85 (A) Features near the Base of the Samec, Ron Coconino Sandstone, Grand On Eugenie Scott’s Address to the The Truth About Human Origins, Mark Canyon, Arizona, USA, 163 (A) American Astronomical Society Stewart, 160 (R) Winter 2005, 70 (D) Woetzel, David Tyler, David J. The Fiery Flying Serpent, 241 (A) Sanford, John Geology Beyond Plate Tectonics, Understanding the Pattern of Life, Biola Genetics Workshop, 126 (D) 73 (P) 28 (R) Revisiting Precambrian Geology, Schneider, Douglas G. 127 (P) Comments on “Epidemiology and Uniformity and Uniformitarian the Creation Health Model,” Concepts in Sedimentology, 139 (L) 265 (P) Y

Schragin, Jeffrey G. Young, Patrick H. The Bible, Epidemiology and Body Mass Estimates and En- Edenomics, 115 (A) U cephalization Quotients: A Schragin responds to both letters, Fresh Look at the Australopith- 141 (L) Understanding the Pattern of Life, David ecines and Homo habilis, 217 Woetzel, 28 (R) (A) Schragin responds to both letters, Jeffrey G. Schragin, 141 (L) Uniformity and Uniformitarian Con- cepts in Sedimentology, David J. The Secret of Ararat, Don DeYoung, 69 Tyler, 265 (P) (R) Z Unintelligent Design, Don DeYoung, Sharp, Douglas B. 114 (R) Zimmerman, Dean Red Earth, White Lies, 101 (R) Comments on “Epidemiology and Red Rock Canyon and the Valley Universe by Design, Jonathan Henry, the Creation Health Model,” of Fire, 31 (D) 181 (R) 139 (L)

Sheldrake’s Strange Hypothesis of For- mative Causation/A Look at, Colin Brown, 76 (P) V

Coral Reef Morphology/Spur and A Vegetarian Crocodile, Colin Brown, Groove, Carl R. Froede Jr., 268 (P) 205 (P) Volume 43, September 2006 125

Book Review Saints and Scholars: A Unique Introduction to the History of Cambridge (DVD) £10 from http://www.christianheritageuk.org.uk

In the Round Church in Cambridge these are Spencer, Milton, Wordsworth, Latin edition of the New Testament. Sev- is a fascinating exhibit which depicts Tennyson, Keynes, and Darwin. Much eral students, including Hugh Latimer, the infl uence of Christianity on the de- of what shaped Western thought, good Nicholas Ridley, and Thomas Bilney velopment of the English culture, and and bad, originated here. found that Latin obscured the meaning how events that occurred at Cambridge The Romans built a road to Cam- of many essential Christian doctrines. shaped much of the history of the world. bridge around 400 AD. The name Martin Luther in Germany also was The bookshop offers books by Michael comes from a bridge over the river Cam. infl uenced by this work and ended up Behe and openly promotes intelligent The Round Church was built in 1130 challenging the Catholic practices of design materials. The DVD reviewed before the founding of the university selling of indulgences, showing that here is being shown continuously to and its design shows the infl uence of the the scriptures clearly mark salvation as visitors at the Round Church. I believe Normans. In 1209, teachers and students a free gift of God. Erasmus’s work gave it is a valuable account of how Christian left Oxford and founded the university at birth to William Tyndale’s translation thought and the infl uence of scholars Cambridge, which became a monastery. into English and a translation into Ger- at Cambridge changed the world and Ely Cathedral was founded in 1284 and man. Because of this, it is often said launched the development of science. its foundations can be seen at St. John’s that Erasmus “laid the egg that Luther It explains that Cambridge is not only college. The fi rst college at Cambridge hatched.” one of the oldest and most beautiful was St. Peter’s Outside Trumpington The fi rst Protestant teachings were university cities in the world but also is Gate. At Peterhouse, the students wore preached from St. Edward’s Church one of the most important. Yet its history clerical robes, and these were the pre- in Cambridge. In 1521, Luther’s works can only be understood through an ap- decessor of the traditional gowns worn were denounced and burned in front preciation of the defi ning infl uence of at graduation. King Henry VI founded of St. Peter’s Church. From that point Christianity. King’s College and Lady Margaret Bur- on, Latimer, Ridley, Bilney and their The DVD begins by describing ford founded Christ College and St. group met in secret at a pub called the many of the prominent scholars at Cam- John’s. A statue of Lady Burford depicts Whitehorse Inn. bridge who impacted the culture of the her as stamping out ignorance as part At the same time, the political arena world. Isaac Newton attended Trinity of her faith. was creating a stir. King Henry VIII had College at Cambridge, and it was there The High Renaissance marked a a daughter Mary by his wife Catherine, he developed his Principia Mathematica time where the church was under attack but lacked a son for an heir. He sought where he defi ned the principles of cal- because of abuses. Consequently many reason to divorce her and appointed culus. His achievements have caused at Cambridge began to examine the clas- Thomas Cramer as Archbishop of many to give him the title of Man of sical Greek and Roman literature and Canterbury, who provided him with the Millennium. The colleges at Cam- sought to emphasize the importance of a theological justifi cation. The pope bridge have produced over 30 Nobel the here and now. These were the fi rst refused to grant the king a divorce, so Prize winners, not only in science, but to be called humanists, and Erasmus he split from the Catholic church and also in literature and the arts. Among in 1511 published the fi rst Greek and founded his own church, still Catholic, 126 Creation Research Society Quarterly but under his direction. Under Henry For the most part, scientists of this years expounded the Christian faith. One VIII, the monasteries were dissolved time did not have any problems recon- of his students was Henry Martyn who and the colleges of Sydney Sussex, ciling science to faith. Over the door of became a missionary to India. Simeon’s Emmanuel, and Trinity were founded. the Cavendish laboratory, Psalm 111:2 teaching is still influential today, and the Thomas Cramer went on to write the is inscribed in Latin: “Great are the Cambridge Christian Union and many Book of Common Prayer. works of the Lord, studied by those who of the large Cambridge churches have Henry VIII was succeeded by Mary, delight in Him.” Scientific scholars and thriving congregations. who ordered the Protestants killed, men of faith there included James Clerk Christianity at Cambridge was also including Latimer, Ridley, and Bilney. Maxwell, J. J. Thompson, John Fleming, a strong voice for social reform. Wil- Elizabeth, who was Protestant, succeed- and William Henry Bragg, all pioneers liam Wilberforce, after his conversion, ed Mary, but didn’t like the Puritans and in their respective disciplines. Like New- teamed with William Clarkson as a persecuted them. Puritans were Protes- ton before him, William Paley opposed voice to abolish the slave trade. Just tants who were concerned with keep- those who would explain the universe in before his death in 1833, the slaves were ing their doctrine pure. Cambridge’s pure mechanistic terms. emancipated, bringing his dream into Sydney Sussex and Emmanuel colleges Eventually the mechanistic view of realization. were centers for Puritan training. John the universe won out. Charles Darwin, Christian Heritage at the Round Harvard was a Puritan trained in Cam- a theological student at Christ College, Church proclaims that Christianity bridge, and because of persecution developed the theory of evolution after still has the power to change lives. It is from Elizabeth, ended up establishing his voyage on the Beagle and many a dynamic force that shapes spiritual, Harvard University in America. found this view disturbing because it moral, intellectual, and cultural life. It At Cambridge, Protestant Christi- robbed people of their dignity and mean- is intellectually viable, bringing signifi- anity had a profound effect upon the ing. Consequently, there was a divide cance to the individual. Their motto is development of science. Francis Bacon between that which was considered sci- “Remember your former leaders and of Trinity College assembled the meth- entific, and those who sought to preserve imitate their faith.” odology of hypothesis and observation. human experience that cannot be mea- This DVD helps us realize how He was quoted as saying, “No man can sured in the laboratory. Romantic poets much science was advanced by our search too far or be too well studied in such as Wordsworth, Byron, Coleridge, Christian heritage. But it is apparent the word of God and the works of God’s and Tennyson, emphasized human feel- that those who dwell on the benefits of hand, nature.” William Harvey of St. ings. The divide between scientific fact science fail to realize the foundation John’s college pioneered the study of and meaning continued to widen, and that Christianity laid for their thought. the circulatory system. Isaac Newton later Ludwig Lichtenstein proclaimed The belief that the universe is orderly believed that his scientific understand- that “meaning and significance is com- and can be studied gave rise to scien- ing was a gift of God, and believed there pletely irrational.” tific investigation, but ironically the was no conflict between Christianity and Others disagreed, and continued to scientific investigation in its own right science. According to Newton, “The uni- maintain their Christian faith. Charles caused some to doubt that the universe verse was made by God and is reasonable Simeon of King’s College was appointed is orderly, with its origin in chaos. and understandable. God is the God of vicar of Holy Trinity Church, and for 54 order and not of confusion.” Doug Sharp Volume 43, September 2006 127

The Rationality of Hypothesized Immaterial Mental Processes

The article “The Origin of Conscious- I need to do to establish a particular Some materialists have argued that this ness” (Thompson and Harrub, 2004) mathematical result. To the material- suggested construction is obtained by discusses the notion of what may be ist, this audio-styled end product must random chance and mere choice on my immaterial processes or aspects of the result from physical brain activity. I part. Although a rather absurd materi- “mind.” The notion that these pro- concede that this is probably the case. alistic statement, this might have some cesses have immaterial components is, I asked myself, “How can I take such infi nitesimal validity if this process had of course, a hypothesis. While reading an assumed material outcome and con- occurred to me just once. But, since this this article and the book by Eccles and struct a model that implies the need for same process has occurred to me hun- Robinson (1994), it occurred to me an additional immaterial object or an dreds and hundreds of times throughout that establishing the scientifi c consis- immaterial ‘process’?” After at most one my life, then statistically a mere choice tency and rationality of some of the second, my mental voice said what to made in but one second from a vast array hypothesized immaterial mind concepts many would be mostly nonsense words: of random possibilities becomes highly might aid in their acceptance as bona “At the fi rst level they appear, consider unlikely. fi de entities worthy of further scientifi c a fi nite ternary relation where informally Albeit my mental voice claimed investigations. Under these conditions, the fi rst and third coordinates are words otherwise, I was not sure that this con- all the evidence for these traits would taken from a standard language that struction does “do the job.” However, be scientifi c in character. In this note, you can speak or write down, and that after some effort (Herrmann, 2004), research is presented that verifi es such correspond to empirical observations. it has been formally shown that this consistency and rationality. Many You could also use images. The second ternary “logic-system” mathematically scientists are predisposed to accept hy- coordinates are represented by λ, δ, φ, generates an “ultralogic” (Herrmann pothesized entities that are not directly . . . , which denote a fi nite list of non- 1984, 1987, 1993). Physically, ultralog- observable, if such entities are presented standard ‘words’ that are not members ics are often interpreted as infl uencing rationally and their assumed existence of the standard language or a standard material behavior where their infl uence explains physical behavior. What con- image but rather are members of the originates from a region exterior to our stitutes the material world and, hence, hyperlanguage extension. This should standard material universe. This exterior the “immaterial” varies historically. An do the job.” region is called the pure nonstandard 1850s list of terms that signify material Assuming I know what my mental physical world (NSP-world). Ultralogics entities or describable processes would voice is talking about, I asked, “What can be interpreted as being intelligently be vastly different from the same type does this model?” “It models what you designed with an intelligent agent signa- of list published today. If a notion or have just done. It models a pure creative ture. Further, they have various theologi- process does not appear in such a list, process,” are the very words I heard. cal interpretations (Herrmann, 2002). then it might be considered as “immate- But is this truly a creative leap? The The depicted mental voice process rial.” Thus, for the purposes of this note, absolute facts are that I have never be- is an example of an entity in the Karl consider the immaterial notions listed fore constructed such an object for any Popper list. It comes under the heading under Karl Popper’s “World 2—States purpose. I have never read or heard of of “creative imagination.” This ultralogic of Conscious” (Eccles and Robinson, anyone else constructing such an object models this form of creative thought, 1984, p. 30). for any purpose. I know what the terms where the nonstandard words, repre- As a mathematician, I spend vast mean, but I never before considered sented by the fi nite list λ, δ, φ, . . ., are the amounts of time “talking to myself” combining them in this rather simple immaterial part of the process. Owing (mentally). I also mentally visualize fashion. Indeed, this is a basic construc- to the presence of this immaterial part, mathematical symbols or geometric tion and how I arrived at this mental the entire modeled process is classifi ed imagery, when necessary. Usually, this voice conclusion is not based upon any as immaterial. Further, it might appear mental “voice” tells me in words what form of logical deduction I can perform. that the original instructions I followed 128 Creation Research Society Quarterly lead to a self-reference trap where they creative acts in a similar fashion. Some thoughts. One searches for the right develop a useless infinite regression. might conclude that there does appear words and syntactic arrangement so that This is defi nitely not the case, due to the to be an immaterial “something” that one can have hope that one’s thoughts phrase “At the fi rst level they appear.” has infl uenced their creative conclu- may achieve a clear expression to listen- The nonstandard objects represented by sions. As this occurs, the evidence would ers or readers” (Eccles and Robinson, λ, δ, φ, . . . have formal defi nitions that continue to mount, evidence that would 1984, p. 117). I won’t present. strongly suggest that one can rationally The idea that such thoughts are Under established behavior of a suppose the existence of such an im- essentially immaterial has many com- logic-system, this ultralogic takes the material infl uence. plementary models. Constructing question I asked, combines it with one Although “thoughts” are listed as an scientifi c or mathematical theories via of the immaterial components λ, δ, φ, immaterial World 2 item, is it a fact that deductive logic is a major occupation . . . and “logically” yields the answer I some “thoughts” can truly be classifi ed for many individuals, and especially for mentally heard. This fi rst ultralogic gives as immaterial? My experience indicates me. Indeed, almost all of humankind no further indication as to how I receive that if the notion of “thoughts” means performs similar deductions thousands such information. There are other NSP- some mental concept that cannot be of times a day. Many ultralogics model world mechanisms that might aid in the truly expressed in terms of any material the immaterial aspects of this form of actual production of the end products, language or imaginary, then the answer thought (Herrmann, 1993, 2002). You the conclusions (Herrmann, 1999a, is yes. When the modeling processes that can apply such ultralogics to a fully 1999b). However, the new results pre- generate the General Grand Unifi cation expressible set of behavioral hypotheses. sented in this note are only intended to model were introduced in 1978 (Her- Some of their conclusions can be fully show that the behavior being described rmann, 1982, 1993, 2002), I became expressed as a set of sentences from a is scientifi cally consistent and rational. keenly aware of one basic fact: I could standard language. However, you can- This will establish my basic premise not describe, in a non-mathematical not express, in any comprehensible way, that, in their most basic form, certain manner, the ideas—the “thoughts”—the other “deductive” conclusions. Under assumed immaterial processes that cross symbolism was attempting to convey. the general immaterial requirements, the mind-brain frontier are also scientifi - There were no words yet devised that this ultralogic process is an immaterial cally consistent and rational. would even yield an approximate process. Further, similar to the previous Other than the empirical results and description for the information being discussion, you have direct knowledge instructions that produce this partially communicated to me through the math- that subtle deductive conclusions ration- empirically obtained logic-system, I ematical expressions. Even though, after ally exist, and also know certain general cannot give any other information as to 27 years, modern illustrations and new properties for how they are generated. how I am able to perform such creative terminology have been discovered that Such ultralogics form an immaterial acts. I cannot write a computer program tend to describe the basic behavior of the fundamental aspect for the mental that instructs a machine to follow a NSP-world, I still cannot convey its more search for expressible conclusions that certain procedure that will, in general, subtle aspects to others. This includes supply additional behavioral characteris- duplicate such specifi c creative events. subtle aspects of the ultralogics discussed tics. These ultralogics supply additional I have described one event as it actually in this research note. Then there is the rational knowledge that, in many cases, occurred within me, not what occurs great frustration I felt as a child when I a set of expressible conclusions is not within others. How does this yield a was not able to express my thoughts in completely satisfactory in that there direct form of evidence? Referring to any manner, using the limited language remain characteristics that cannot be their notion of the immaterial mind, I possessed. communicated. However, they allow Eccles and Robinson (1984) state, “The I am not the only individual who for a continual immaterial search that only unarguable claim regarding the ex- recognizes such communication in- discriminates between expressible istence of a thought or feeling is the one abilities as fact. “We can all recognize characteristics that do yield a more made by the person having the thought that when we are attempting to express satisfactory behavioral description and or feeling. He has direct evidence. But as subtle thoughts, particularly those that inexpressible ones. Such an immaterial an observer of others he can only make are novel and as yet unclear, we may search process can be partially described inferences and identifi cations” (p. 53). tentatively try now this, now that, verbal by employing informational NSP-world Using various forms of “language” or expression. . . . In attempting to convey mechanisms (Herrmann, 1999a, 1999b). “imaginary,” it seems reasonable that some experience it is diffi cult to give A discussion of this process is beyond the many others would describe their truly satisfactory verbal expression to one’s scope of this note. Volume 43, September 2006 129

Eccles and Robinson (1984) discuss cepted, then it needs to be interpreted. www.arxiv.org/abs/math.LO/9911204] experiments that seem to imply that It is rather a matter of choice. Many Herrmann, R.A. 1993. The theory of ultr- “mental intentions,” considered as members of the parapsychology move- alogics. http://www.arxiv.org/abs/math. immaterial and World 2 in character, ment might accept that an immaterial GM/9903081 and http://www.arxiv. infl uence only the physical SMA (sup- infl uence is an entity that is physical-like org/abs/math.GM/9903082 plementary motor area of the brain) in a in character. However, distinct from the Herrmann, R.A. 1999a. The NSP-world very discriminating fashion prior to a vol- usual parapsychology assumptions, an and action-at-a-distance. In Chubykalo, untary movement. A modifi cation of the ultralogic-produced infl uence is usu- A., N.V. original answer conveyed to me models ally interpreted as emanating from (or Pope and R. Smirnov-Rueda (editors), this behavior. The logic-system is a fi nite is transmitted through) an omnipresent Instantaneous Action at a Distance in binary relation having the representa- external universe in which our compre- Modern Physics: “pro” and “contra” tions λ, δ, φ . . . for pure nonstandard hensible material universe is embedded. (Series: Contemporary Fundamental objects as fi rst coordinates, where each Intelligent design or intelligent agent Physics—V. V. Dvoeglazov, editor), is interpreted as an appropriate mental terminology can also be used to describe pp. 223–235. Nova Science Books and intention, and the corresponding second all of these models. For me, however, Journals, New York, NY. coordinate is a description or image for I choose to accept these investigated Herrmann, R.A. 1999b. Encoding quan- the SMA-induced voluntary movement. infl uences as having immaterial aspects tum state information within subpar- Again this is not a standard object and and that they are manifestations of an ticles. http://www.arxiv.org/abs/quant- can be considered as immaterial in event that, remarkably, was described ph/9909078 character. thousands of years ago. That is, “God Herrmann, R.A. 2001. Hyperfi nite and stan- The scientifi c consistency and ration- formed man of the dust of the ground, dard unifi cations for physical theories. ality for immaterial aspects of creative and breathed into his nostrils the breath International Journal of Mathematics and imagination, certain thought processes of life; and man became a living soul.” Mathematical Sciences 28:93–102. [Also and mental intentions has been demon- on-line at http://www.arxiv.org/abs/phys- strated via the science of mathematical References ics/0105012] modeling. This does not give direct Eccles, J., and D.N. Robinson. 1984. The Herrmann, R.A. 2002. Science Declares Our evidence for their existence. If there are Wonder of Being Human: Our Brain Universe is Intelligently Designed. Xulon no reasonable materialistic explana- and Our Mind. The Free Press, New Press, Fairfax, VA. tions for these notions, then these new York, NY. Herrmann, R.A. 2004. Nonstandard conse- research conclusions will aid individuals Herrmann, R.A. 1982. The reasonable- quence operators generated by mixed in accepting the indirect evidence for ness of metaphysical evidence. Journal logic-systems. http://www.arxiv.org/abs/ the immaterial hypothesis. Although of the American Scientific Affiliation math.LO/0412562 these models verify my original premise, 34:12–23. Thompson, B., and B. Harrub. 2004. The ori- they are rather weak empirically-styled Herrmann, R.A. 1984. Nonstandard conse- gin of consciousness. Creation Research models. Consequently, further research quence operators I. Abstracts of Papers Society Quarterly 41:131–155. based upon combinations of standard Presented before the American Mathematical and nonstandard items may yield math- Society 5(1):129. Robert A. Herrmann, Ph.D. ematical models that correctly predict Herrmann, R.A. 1987. Nonstandard conse- 44890 Rivermont Terr #100 measurable mind-brain behavior. quence operators. Kobe Journal of Math- Ashburn VA 20147 If an immaterial influence is ac- ematics 4:1–14. [Also on-line at http:// [email protected] 130 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Another Perspective on the Fiery Flying Serpent

I was delighted with David Woetzel’s of these were later again interviewed by large glowing object was moving almost article, The Fiery Flying Serpent (CRSQ Mr. Guessman and Mr. Woetzel (Wil- horizontally at a low altitude, with no March, 2006, p. 241). The analysis of liam Gima and Jonah Jim), but most of meteor tail. biblical and other ancient records were, our exploring and interviewing was non- Jacob Kepas himself saw a simi- in themselves, worthy, and a perfect overlapping (my colleagues were mostly lar creature when he was a boy. Mr. introduction to present-day expeditions, in the north, where no investigator had Guessman interviewed Kepas (before but the recent living-pterosaur sightings yet been; I was only in the south, where the three fl ew to Umboi Island) and I were thereby given less attention (prob- earlier explorers had already established later reviewed the videotaped record of ably of necessity). As another investigator friendships with villagers). the session. One night, the boy heard a of the living-pterosaur phenomenon, The Woetzel-Guessman-Kepas noise and ran outside in time to see the I’d like to summarize some of the de- investigation did more than simply add wings and glow of the creature they call tails that were missed and give another to the volume of credible eyewitness Seklo-bali. This was on the mainland. perspective. testimony evidence from previous ex- (Perhaps this childhood encounter in- Woetzel’s expedition (with Garth peditions. Mr. Woetzel’s own sighting fl uenced him to help in the late-2004 Guessman and Jacob Kepas) was, for is more signifi cant, I suspect, than even investigation.) the year 2004, the third of three light he realizes. One skeptic (a standard- I suspect that Mr. Woetzel either expeditions to Umboi Island. It seems model evolutionist) has emphasized does not fully appreciate some of the the fi rst was a brief one-man effort: An that Woetzel saw only a brief light at a eyewitness testimonies from his own Australian spent two nights on a southern distance (no pterosaur-form), but the expedition, or, more likely, had insuf- beach as he unsuccessfully searched the circumstantial evidence is signifi cant. fi cient space for them in an article that night sky for ropens (apparently without The mountain behind which the mov- included a number of related subjects. interviewing any eyewitness). Later, ing light disappeared (Mt. Tolo or Tolou) The original apparent discrepancies in in September, I arrived and spent two houses three crater lakes, including Lake the testimony evidence of Jonah Jim weeks on Umboi (south-central villages), Pung. A few weeks before Woetzel’s and Gideon Koro (Koro was one of the returning to the U.S. just days before sighting, I interviewed three young men three Lake Pung boys) have now been Guessman and Woetzel started for the who, as boys ten years earlier, had been reasonably explained by communica- Southwest Pacifi c. terrifi ed at the sight of a giant ropen as tion problems (details are soon to be In earlier light expeditions, from it fl ew over Lake Pung in the middle of published). The length of the ropen’s 1994 through 2002, three pioneer ropen the day. In addition, Jonah Jim (inter- tail is striking. Apparently, two separate investigators stand out: missionary Jim viewed by me and later by Guessman) ropens have been described (1994 and Blume; Carl Baugh; and Baugh’s co- saw a giant ropen fl ying toward Mt. Tolo 2001, at and near Lake Pung) with tails worker, Paul Nation. The three more- [Tolou] a few years later. His sighting, of about three meters and seven meters recent American explorers (Woetzel, by contrast, was at night. Jonah Jim saw in length. The ratio between wingspan Guessman, and me) owe much to the not only the long tail and wings of the and total length is, apparently, similar three earlier pioneers who, in countless creature, but also the glow. Since both to Sordes Pilosus fossils. These eyewit- ways, helped us prepare for our own of these sightings by local villagers were nesses I found to be highly credible, expeditions. of a giant fl ying creature with a long tail, with no hint of dishonesty and with no My initial fi rst priority on Umboi and one sighting confi rmed that this reasonable motive for deceit. Island was videotaping and photograph- Rhamphorhynchoid-like creature glows Woetzel and Guessman had pre- ing a ropen. After one week, realizing at night, Woetzel’s sighting was probably pared a detailed questionnaire before the creature was too elusive, I started that same kind of creature. His sighting their expedition. The questionnaire videotaping eyewitnesses instead. Two was literally un-meteoric as well, for the itself and the data obtained with it are Volume 43, September 2006 131 worthy of note. (My own interviews were To those of us who have been deeply mail; Mr. Guessman had a long video- open-ended, but there are positive and involved in these investigations, the taped interview with him in person, and negative aspects to both interview ap- relevance to creationism is obvious. I be- I reviewed this video as well). Hodgkin- proaches.) Afterwards, Mr. Guessman lieve that the universal-pterosaur-extinc- son made comments and corrections to gave me copies of the fi lled-in forms of tion axiom was constructed to support the sketches Mr. Guessman and I gave to eight in-depth interviews that he had standard-model evolution philosophy. him. In the fi nal sketch, the head was far conducted. Of the four who chose from Some day, when these cryptozoologi- smaller than Mr. Woetzel’s sketch. In ad- among the many silhouettes of birds, cal investigations evolve into detailed, dition, the beak/mouth was sharper and bats, and pterosaurs, only two were reli- direct research and the ropen graduates the head appendage narrower and close able. (The other two did not get a good from cryptozoology to zoology (with to parallel to a longer neck. Also, the feet view of the wings.) Of the two reliable residence in a zoo, we hope), the artifi - of the “pterodactyl” that Hodgkinson saw eyewitnesses, however, both chose cial credibility that universal extinction were tucked up to the body, not large and the silhouette of the Sordes Pilosus, a seemed to bestow on the general theory extended as shown in Figure 10 of the Rhamphorhynchoid pterosaur. This is of evolution should evaporate. And how article. I suspect that Mr. Woetzel had signifi cant. many “living fossils” can be discovered no eyewitness feedback that could have I suspect that Mr. Woetzel and Mr. before the theory that requires massive improved his sketch. Guessman may have used separate in- extinctions (or major transformations) But all sketches and interviews point terview sheets and that Guessman never itself becomes extinct? to one thing: The old standard-model received copies of Woetzel’s fi lled-in Although I am delighted in the ar- explanation for living “pterodactyls” in forms, for by the time I received cop- ticle as a whole, I question the accuracy Papua New Guinea—the Flying Fox ies, there were eight, with no reliable of the “composite drawing” (fi gure 10). fruit bat—has been shot down. It is the silhouette choice of a Dimorphodon. Be Of all the eyewitnesses interviewed by ropen that glows at night, has a long tail, that as it may, I agree with Mr. Woetzel me, Mr. Guessman, and Mr. Woetzel, eats fi sh and/or clams, robs graves, and, regarding resemblances to pterosaur fos- I believe the one who had the best day- seen up close, resembles a Rhampho- sils: Why should we expect the ropen to light sighting was Duane Hodgkinson, rhynchoid pterosaur—not a fruit bat. greatly resemble one type of pterosaur the World War II veteran. Over a period fossil much more than any other? The of eighteen months, I had many short Jonathan Whitcomb creation model allows for much superfi - interview sessions with him (by email, Forensic Videographer cial variation, even if the ancestors of the telephone, and survey forms sent by 4503 Walnut Ave. ropen are represented by fossils. Long Beach, CA 90807 132 Creation Research Society Quarterly

Response to ‘Another Perspective’

Let me express my appreciation for saurs consistently picked out the me towards the Dimorphodon Jonathan Whitcomb’s kind comments Dimorphodon, but were quick features. about the historical and biblical analysis to add that Ropen had a head The silhouette sheets our expedi- in my article. I certainly did not mean to crest and bumps down its back. tion used in interviewing were primar- minimize the interviews and eyewitness In my article I wrote, “Indeed ily a means of checking the native’s portions. However, I am optimistic that the natives to whom we showed credibility and distinguishing general a major breakthrough will soon make color pterosaur pictures identi- morphology, like wing confi guration. the interviews less signifi cant. A good fi ed Dimorphodon as the closest Guessman reminded me that actually photograph or captured creature will fi t to the Ropen.” there was more than one national that hopefully be available to compare with 2. Stories told to us emphasized chose the Dimorphodon head from the historical records. the human-like face and bipedal the color booklet over the various head Whitcomb writes, “I question the locomotion of the Ropen. Those shapes on the silhouette page because accuracy of the ‘composite drawing’ interviewed in the earlier trips by it was rounder and less elongated than (fi gure 10).” The decision to pattern the Carl Baugh also made a strong most other pterosaurs. composite after Dimorphodon was made case for the human-like face of Nonetheless, there is nothing like for three reasons: the cryptid. In fact, many of the getting a good close-up photo of the 1. There were many brief inter- older islanders proudly claim Ropen to trump all these speculations! views that we conducted along the Ropen as their forbearer. A My prayer is that we can soon accom- the trail, oftentimes without the squat face fi ts this characteriza- plish that so that this wondrous creature time to do a detailed question- tion better than a slender head can be used to lift up the name of our naire with our prepared sheets with a prominent beak. great Creator. or the video camera rolling. 3. Lastly, the carved Ropen statue Villagers who looked at our played a role. Its shallow face Dave Woetzel picture book of various ptero- and short, curved beak leaned Bow, NH

Quartz Gravels in the Carolinas

In the article concerning sand-to-pebble els tend to be less rounded the further have originally covered much of the sillciclastic sediments on the Florida west they are found. southeastern US and provided gravels peninsula (CRSQ March, 2006, p. However, I would suggest that there found in many areas. It may be that, as 229), rounded gravels are described that may be a different source for these the Flood waters receded from the con- are very similar to quartz gravels that I gravels (and possibly the Florida gravels tinent, the force of the cascade, which have found in piedmont soils in North as well) than quartz veins in basement would have dwarfed Niagara Falls, and South Carolina. The gravels are rocks of the Appalachian Mountains. would have broken up the quartzite sometimes somewhat evenly distributed In north central North Carolina, east as the escarpment moved to the west, throughout the soil, or they may be of the Appalachian escarpment (north ultimately pounding the rock into gravel- limited to the topsoil horizons. In some of Winston-Salem), there is a 200-foot- to-sand-sized fragments that would have locations they occur in distinct beds, thick layer of quartzite that sits exposed been more rounded the further east (or ranging from a few inches to a few feet on top of two monadnocks about 1,400 southeast) they were transported before in thickness, at the base of the soil, lying feet above the surrounding land surface. deposition. unconformably above weathered igne- One is Pilot Mountain, and the other is ous or metamorphic bedrock. Unlike the Hanging Rock. Everett L. Coates, B.S. Geology Florida gravels, those in North Carolina Since there are erosional remnants NC Licensed Soil Scientist piedmont soils usually include angular capped by a rock layer of unknown 1011 Mulberry Road fragments, which tend to be apparently horizontal extent, the quartzite may Clayton, NC 27520 vein quartz. The rounded quartzite grav- Volume 43, September 2006 133

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Add 20% for postage (for U.S. orders: min. $4, max. $25; for Canadian orders: min. $5, no max.; for other foreign orders: min. $9, no max.) Total enclosed: $______Make check or money order payable to Creation Research Society. Please do not send cash. For foreign orders, including Canadian, please use a check in U.S. funds drawn on a U.S. bank, an international money order, or a credit card. (Please type or print legibly) Name ______Address ______City ______State ______Zip ______Country ______❏ Visa ❏ MasterCard ❏ Discover ❏ American Express Card number ______Expiration date (mo/yr) ______Signature ______Mail to: Creation Research Society, 6801 N. Highway 89, Chino Valley, AZ 86323, USA Creation Research Society History—The Creation Research Society was organized fund for these purposes are tax deductible. As part of its 1. The Bible is the written Word of God, and because it in 1963, with Dr. Walter E. Lammerts as fi rst president vigorous research and fi eld study programs, the Society is inspired throughout, all its assertions are historically and editor of a quarterly publication. Initially started operates The Van Andel Creation Research Center in and scientifi cally true in all the original autographs. To as an informal committee of 10 scientists, it has grown Chino Valley, Arizona. the student of nature this means that the account of rapidly, evidently fi lling a need for an association devoted Membership—Voting membership is limited to origins in Genesis is a factual presentation of simple to research and publication in the fi eld of scientifi c scientists who have at least an earned graduate degree historical truths. creation, with a current membership of over 600 voting in a natural or applied science and subscribe to the 2. All basic types of living things, including humans, members (graduate degrees in science) and about 1000 Statement of Belief. Sustaining membership is available were made by direct creative acts of God during non-voting members. The Creation Research Society for those who do not meet the academic criterion for the Creation Week described in Genesis. Whatever Quarterly has been gradually enlarged and improved and voting membership, but do subscribe to the Statement biological changes have occurred since Creation Week now is recognized as the outstanding publication in the of Belief. have accomplished only changes within the original fi eld. In 1996 the CRSQ was joined by the newsletter Statement of Belief—Members of the Creation created kinds. Creation Matters as a source of information of interest Research Society, which include research scientists 3. The Great Flood described in Genesis, commonly to creationists. representing various fi elds of scientifi c inquiry, are com- referred to as the Noachian Flood, was a historical event Activities—The Society is a research and publication mitted to full belief in the Biblical record of creation and worldwide in its extent and effect. society, and also engages in various meetings and early history, and thus to a concept of dynamic special 4. We are an organization of Christian men and women promotional activities. There is no affi liation with any creation (as opposed to evolution) both of the universe of science who accept Jesus Christ as our Lord and Sav- other scientifi c or religious organizations. Its members and the earth with its complexity of living forms. We ior. The act of the special creation of Adam and Eve as conduct research on problems related to its purposes, propose to re-evaluate science from this viewpoint, and one man and woman and their subsequent fall into sin and a research fund and research center are maintained since 1964 have published a quarterly of research articles is the basis for our belief in the necessity of a Savior for to assist in such projects. Contributions to the research in this fi eld. All members of the Society subscribe to the all people. Therefore, salvation can come only through following statement of belief: accepting Jesus Christ as our Savior.