N2 Wild Coast Toll Road between East London and Durban: Environmental Impact Assessment Report

3. FLORA AND VEGETATION

3.1 General Introduction

This chapter examines impacts on the plants and vegetation of the proposed route of the N2 Wild Coast Toll Road. The study of plants concerns both the flora and the vegetation, and these terms need to be defined.

3.1.1 The flora of the region

Flora refers to the particular plants that occur in an area, with reference to species which it contains, but also the genera or families. Plants are not evenly distributed, as they are confined to defined geographical ranges, and botanists classify the different ranges of species into regions, referred to as phytogeographic regions, where phyto means plants. These are very often associated with other features such as geology, climate, etc. In this way the world has been divided into phytogeographical regions, each with its own distinct compliment of species (Good, 1974). Thus, the Cape Flora is referred to, due to the species (or more specifically the taxa, i.e. families, genera, species etc.) that are typically found in that region of the Cape.

Plants endemic1 to the Cape region are thus those that form the natural characteristics of the Cape flora and are confined to this region. Endemism is relative to scale, and it usually refers to the distributional range of these species, with the distribution being affected by historical, ecological or physiological reasons. Consequently, plants are referred to as being endemic to a particular region, e.g. the Cape, Transkei, Pondoland, etc. Plants occurring within that region are the endemics, and those which occur in the region and perhaps in a few isolated cases outside the region, are referred to as “near-endemics” (van Wyk and Smith, 2001).

White, (1983) defined regional centres of endemism as geographical regions with a particular combination of endemic plant species. He divided Africa into different phytogeographical regions (called phytochoria), and in this way identified regional centres of endemism, where each phytogeographical region (or phytochorion) had more than 50% of its species confined to that centre, and a total of more than 1 000 endemic species. He also identified regional transitional zones and regional moziacs, and floristically assigned the whole of Africa into phytogeographical regions or phytochoria. Centres of Endemism are, therefore, determined

1 Endemic means restricted to a particular geographic region.

Vegetation Specialist Report 1 Sep-02 N2 Wild Coast Toll Road between East London and Durban: Environmental Impact Assessment Report by the high concentration of plant species with a very restricted distribution (endemics). The regions of White (1983) of particular concern in this study are the Cape region, which extends from south-western Cape up the Cape coast, the Karoo-Namib, extending from the dry interior towards the coast, the Maputuland-Pondoland region stretching down the coast of south-east Africa and the Afromontane region which extends down the mountainous areas of Africa into Southern Africa.

In addition to this regional classification of floras, a focus on the main centres of endemism has been introduced by Myers, (1988, 1990) who identified 18 major endemic centres on a global scale. Each of these is referred to as a “biodiversity hot spot”, but they must have at least 1 500 endemic plant species and have lost 75% or more of their original vegetation. In other words, these diverse areas are under threat of destruction. Cowling and Hilton-Taylor (1994) carried this approach further for southern Africa, and identified various hot spots throughout our region. The Pondoland hot spot was one such area, and is therefore of particular concern for this EIA.

Although this alternative way of examining floras is noteworthy, in this case the approach of van Wyk and Smith (2001) is followed, and the Cape floristic region and the Maputuland- Pondoland region are referred to, and within the latter the Pondoland Centre of Endemism (PC). The Pondoland Centre is sharply defined by the geological features and the derived soils, as explained below (see section 3.2).

3.1.2 The vegetation of the region

Vegetation can also be discussed on a global scale, as it can be divided into various formations (e.g. forests, savanna, etc.) or more locally into plant communities or associations. These are defined by their dominant and diagnostic species. In this study, the recent classification by Low and Rebelo (1996), who with the help of experts throughout southern African defined various vegetation types in a distinct hierarchy, is followed. Many of these studies drew on other works, such as that of Acocks (1988), or Lubke et al. (1988) for the eastern Cape region. In the earlier biophysical scoping report for the N2 toll road (CES, 2001), broad vegetation types were defined according to Low and Rebelo (1996) for the different sectors of the route (Table 3.1).

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Table 3.1: Vegetation types of Low and Rebelo (1996) along sectors of the route, their conservation status and equivalent vegetation types of other authors. SECTORS OF ROUTE Proportion Conserved % East Kei Umtata Lusikisiki London River Tombo to Mtamvuna Vegetation Types to to Alternative Names to Kei to Lusikisiki to Isipingo Tombo Mtamvuna E. Cape KZN River Umtata

FOREST 1. Coastal Forest + - + ++ ++ + 8.7 27.4 Coastal Belt Forest or Dune Forest (Acocks, 1975 - A1) 2. Afromontane Highland and Dohne Sourveld (Acocks, 1995 - A44) Scarp + - + + + - 7.1 16.4 Forest forest (Scott-Shaw 1999) THICKET 4. Dune Thicket + - - - - ++ 7.5 - Dune Forest (Acocks,1975 - A1) 5. Valley Thicket ++ + ++ + + + 2.5 1.5 Valley Bushveld (Acocks, 1975 – A23) SAVANNA Eastern Province Thornveld (A7), False Thornveld of E. 16. Eastern Thorn +++ + ++ - - - 0.5 - Cape (Acocks, 1975 – A21, Acacia savanna (Lubke et al. Bushveld 1988); Savanna (Scott-Shaw, 1999). 23. Coastal Bushveld - - ++ + - +++ 0.0 14.7 Coastal Forest & Thornveld (Acocks, 1975 - A1) Grassland GRASSLAND Highland Sourveld or Dohne Sourveld (Acocks, 1975 - 42. Moist Upland - +++ + - ++ + 0.2 7.5 A44), Montane Grassland (Scott-Shaw 1999), Dohne Grassland Sourveld (Lubke et al. 1988). Eastern Province Thornveld (Acocks, 1975 - A7), Coastal 48. Coastal + - - + +++ + 1.1 56.2 Sour Grassveld or Coastal Mixed Grassveld (Lubke et al. Grassland 1988). Pondoland Coastal Grassland (Scott-Shaw 1999). Number of 6 3 6 5 5 6 vegetation types Code: - absent; + present; ++ abundant; +++ very abundant.

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3.1.3 The specific aims of studying flora and vegetation

The flora and the different vegetation types need to be examined in detail in order to examine the impact of the proposed road. The different components of the flora (the species and various families which are found in the area) may occur in very specific sites and be in danger of extinction, and thus are of special concern. Likewise, vegetation types may be specific to particular sites within the road corridor and also be of conservation value, both for the specific species, which they contain as well as other important factors such as habitats for animals, the presence of plants of economic importance to local people, or, simply by being structurally unique to the area. Thus, in addition to the general aims stated above, the plants and the vegetation types in which they occur were specifically investigated.

In the context of this EIA, the specific deliverables from this specialist study include:

• An assessment of the potential impact on vegetation (i.e. plant species, plant communities and associated habitats/systems) associated with the proposed project. As far as possible, the status of key species or families were quantified to assist in interpretation. • The identification of the conservation status of Red Data and endemic plant species. • The identification of potentially sensitive areas along the proposed route in terms of vegetation which would be required to be avoided where possible, or would require stringent mitigation. • Production of a vegetation sensitivity map. • Recommendations regarding appropriate mitigation measures for each phase of the project, where required.

3.1.4 Conservation and tourism of the region

The most important site for conservation along the route is the Pondoland Centre of Endemism - PC (Frey, 1988). For the past five years, the Wildlife and Environmental Society of South Africa has been lobbying for the establishment of a large conservation area along the Pondoland coast (WESSA, Cooper, pers com). The proposed Park extends from the north banks of the Mzimvubu River at Port St Johns to the south bank of the Mtamvuna River adjacent to the Wild Coast Sun near Port Edward. This is a distance of about 80 km. Within the proposed area are a provincial nature reserve, numerous state forests, extensive grazing areas and agricultural lands and villages. The total area of the proposed Pondoland Park is

Vegetation Specialist Report 4 Sep-02 N2 Wild Coast Toll Road between East London and Durban: Environmental Impact Assessment Report approximately 50 000ha. The proposed Park is a unique situation, since it incorporates formally protected areas as well as traditional communal land which is mostly still in a natural state but used by the local people.

The proposed N2 Toll Road passes through extremely attractive natural areas and in many cases undeveloped rural landscapes. It would also bisect a major part of the Pondoland Centre of Endemism (see Section 3.4) and would pass through sections of the proposed Pondoland Park. However, the road largely forms the boundary of the Park, and only crosses the areas proposed for schedule 2 (contract conservation areas). The road therefore stays outside the core conservation area. Through discussions with the relevant role-players in developing the Pondoland Park it is believed that the two projects can at the very least accommodate one another and are in likelihood complimentary. This area has been considered in terms of its conservation and tourism potential in addition to the present land use of urban and agricultural development, similar to the strategic assessment of CES (2000) on the resource use options in the Centane District of the Eastern Cape. The conservation and tourism potential can be divided into different categories:

• “Pristine” wilderness regions where there is no development or harvesting of natural resources, e.g. Mkambati and Mnyameni Gorge region. • Sections along the route which could be regarded as gateways to the tourist areas along the coast or other tourist attractions such as the waterfalls, agricultural centres, etc. • Intensive and subsistence agriculture that occurs in various parts of the region. • Urban and rural village-type development with small homestead gardens, or small scale livestock farming.

Where the route traverses an area of great conservation or tourist potential cognisance should be taken of this fact and road developed in sympathy with the natural environment, in such as way as to make it attractive and inviting to the traveller to explore these areas (Lubke, 1988). One of the major aims of this road development should therefore be to enhance the area’s attractiveness to tourists, and to develop it in such a way so that it is in harmony with the principles of sustainable development. Therefore, in addition to identifying areas sensitive to development further aims of the report in the greenfields section are to identify:

• Conservation areas of great potential that can be utilised for eco-tourism, conservation or further scientific study.

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• Ways in which the toll road can mitigate against impacting upon these conservation areas, and in fact enhance the area for future sustainable use. • Synthesise the information and identify advantages of the toll road in opening up this area to further sustainable development.

3.2 Geology and land form

The route just north of East London, across the Kei River to Port Edward is particularly diverse and varied, mainly due to the range of geological formations and complex topography it traverses. It is this complex landform that gives it the characteristic name of “the Wild Coast”. The flora of the route is closely related to the geology and landform, and therefore these aspects need to be considered in detail in order to explain the distribution of the flora of the Pondoland region in particular.

A general account of the landform (Geomorphology) is given by King (1951), and the geology by du Toit (1939). South of Lusikisiki and Waterfall Bluff on the coast, the terrain is extremely broken in the coastal region, and made up of Karoo supergroup rocks. The route of the road, therefore, passes inland from East London along this more gently undulating plateau to Umtata. The route then traverses the dissected landform from Umtata to Ndwalane (approximately 15 km north of Port St Johns on the coast), and then again inland to Lusikisiki. The route from East London to Umtata (N2) and to Ndwalane (R61) follows existing routes and is not of particular concern. However, the section from Ndwalane northward along the Pondoland coast, where the greenfields route is under consideration, received more attention in this EIA.

Along the Pondoland coast a regional uplift from Waterfall Bluff, south of the Msikaba River to the Mtamvuna River in the north influenced the landform. A number of coastal terraces descend in steps towards the sea. Thus, there is a plateau that shows not quite uniform uplift, with terraces with slight undulations down to the sea level. This whole region is dominated by a smooth coastal-plain surface, and most of the rivers run straight in their lower courses through land that emerged from the sea (King, 1951). Rivers in this region have cut impressive gorges straight through the sandstone region to the sea, for example the Msikaba and Mtentu Rivers.

The coastal terrace of the Pondoland is about 150-160 m above sea-level in tough sandstone. The rivers that cross it have eroded narrow ravines or gorges, and the whole platform is said to be in a youthful stage of dissection (King ,1951). In this regard ,the Pondoland coast

Vegetation Specialist Report 6 Sep-02 N2 Wild Coast Toll Road between East London and Durban: Environmental Impact Assessment Report differs from that further south in the former-Transkei, and the more maturely dissected coastal plain of KwaZulu-Natal. The general smoothness of the outline of the coast is typical where the coast has been uplifted. There was subsequent drowning of the coast of up to 50 m above sea-level, and the rivers during this time dissected the young canyons or gorges, but did not open up valleys to an appreciable extent, hence the absence of tributaries along this area (King, 1951). Consequently, the steep walls of the gorges rise from the drowned river gorges, e.g. Msikaba River (Plate 3.1).

Plate 3.1: Msikaba Gorge, showing the steep walls of the gorge, the forest below and the rocky outcrops on the margin of the gorge.

A distinctive change in the Pondoland coast occurs at Waterfall Bluff, where the Egosa Fault results in weak Karroo beds on its southern side, and resistant sandstones meeting the sea to the north. The contrast on the coastal plain on either side of this fault is striking, where the rivers to the north have cut trenches directly into the sea, whereas those to the south dissect a belt of rugged country (King, 1951). The interesting Port St Johns scenery is dominated by the two heads or ‘horst’ that stand on either side of the valley of the Mzimvubu River, and rise to a height of 380 m (Plate 3.2). The sandstones of the ‘horst’ are similar to those of the beds on the northern side of Waterfall Bluff, the ‘horst’ remaining steadfast while the adjacent

Vegetation Specialist Report 7 Sep-02 N2 Wild Coast Toll Road between East London and Durban: Environmental Impact Assessment Report region have subsided. This provides the interesting “Gates of Port St Johns” (King, 1951). The section between the Egosa fault and the Msikaba Formation north of Waterfall Bluff is an important phytogeographical discontinuity referred to by van Wyk (1990a) as the Egosa gap (see Section 3.4.3).

Plate 3.2: Port St Johns region, showing the two heads (horst) and the Mzimvubu River with forest on either side.

The geology of the Pondoland region is characterised by the Cape Super Group rocks that consist of sandstones, shales and quartzite’s of Paleozoic age. These rest unconformable upon older formations and are followed by the Karoo Super Group rocks (du Toit, 1939). Within the Cape rocks, the oldest recognised fossils have been discovered (Anderson and Anderson, 1985). The succession of the Cape Super Group rocks (originally determined by Bain in 1845) allows the identification of three groups (du Toit, 1939):

• The Witterberg series (Group) – quartzites and subordinate shales with plants of the Devonian and carboniferous eras. • The Bokkeveld series (Group) – shales, flagstones and sandstones with marine fossils of the Devonian era.

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• Table Mountain series (Group) - thick unfossilised grits and sandstones with scattered pebbles.

The sandstones of the Pondoland region (Plate 3.3) were originally considered to be allied to those of the eastern region of KwaZulu-Natal, being defined as generally white but sometimes reddish sandstones stretching north-east from Port St Johns though Natal into Zululand and correlated with the Table Mountain Sandstone of the Cape (du Toit 1939). These sandstones appear first at Port St Johns in a ‘horst’ or fault block some 18 km in length with an east-west axis. Further north, a wide terrace belt occurs along the Pondoland coast, stretching into KwaZulu Natal. The inland section of beds form a plateau lying nearly flat, while in the coastal section the sandstones dip seawards beneath the Karoo beds and sometimes form the actual shore.

Du Toit (1931) points out that the formation in Pondoland is identical in detail with the formations of the Cape, i.e., the sandstones are white, quartzitic, moderately coarse, poor in felspar and are often false-bedded with scattered small pebbles. More recent studies have been undertaken on the marine origin of these sandstones, identifying more fossils, the patterns of the sediments and characterising three lithogenetic units (Hobday and Mathew, 1974).

In an historical review of the Natal Group sandstone, Loock et al. (1980) noted that the sandstones of Natal and Pondoland were originally thought to be correlated with the Table Mountain succession in the south-western Cape. As more evidence unfolded on the marine origin and age of these sandstones (e.g. Hobday and Mathew, 1974; Visser, 1974) it was thought that these Natal Sandstones consisted of a number of Formations, the Msikaba Formation being the most southerly, stretching from Port St Johns to just north of Port Shepstone (Figure 3.1). The discovery of fossil lycopsid stems in sediments near Port St Johns (Loock, 1973) shows that this formation may be correlated with the Witteberg Group. Thus, the Natal group rocks are all likely to be the lateral equivalents of the Witteberg Group of the Cape (Loock, et a. 1980). However, Thomas et al. (1992a) feel that the Msikaba Formation should be equated with the Witteberg Group of the Cape supergroup and the “Natal Group” restricted to these formations further north. Thomas et al. (1992b) made detailed studies on the dating of these formations, which substantiate this view.

The significance of the geology is the distribution of plants in this region, as the endemic plants characteristic of the Pondoland Centre are confined to the Msikaba Formation. They grow in soils, which are sandy, highly leached, acidic and relatively shallow. Rocky outcrops are common and the soils are mostly of low agricultural potential (see Chapter 2).

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Ulundi

Melmoth

Eshowe

Stanger

Pietermaritzburg

Durban

Umzinto

Hibberdene Eshowe Fm. Port Shepstone Inanda Fm.

Margate Mkunya Fm. Mlazi Fm. N Msikaba Fm. Ulundi Fm. 40km Stratotype

Approximate southern and northern limits of area within which Eshowe, Inanda, Mkunya and Mlazi Formations can be Port St Johns recognised

Figure 3.1: Distribution of the Natal Group Sandstone, note the Msikaba Formation(s) (from Loock et al., 1980).

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3.3 Studies undertaken in the region

3.3.1 Past studies

Studies on the vegetation of the eastern part of the Eastern Cape have been confined to specific vegetation types or regions. For example, the forests were studies in the 19th century by Sim (1900) and have been reviewed by von Breitenbach and von Breitenbach (1983) and Cooper and Swart (1992). More specific studies have been carried out by Cawe et al. (1994) and Johnson and Cawe (1987) on the forests. Johnson and Hutchings (1989) studied the pteridophyte flora in detail and McKenzie (1984) examined the grasslands of the former- Transkei.

Studies on specific regions within the PC include work by Shackleton (1989a & b) Shackleton & Shackleton (1994) and Shackleton et al. (1991) on the grasslands of the Mkambati Game Reserve, Abbott (no date) and Abbott et al. (2000) on the flora of the Mtamvuna Nature Reserve. Comparative studies on the regions of the PC were carried out by Meter (1998) on the Oribi and Mtamvuna Nature Reserves, and are in progress by Cloete (pers. comm.) on Mkambati Nature Reserve and the Port St Johns flora.

More recently, the PC has received much attention with respect to the description of new species and taxa (e.g. Dahlgren & van Wyk (1988), Hartmann (1991) van Wyk (1990b)). Van Wyk (1990a, 1994) and van Wyk and Smith (2001) provide fuller reviews of the Pondoland region and its relationship with the broader southern African flora, and studies of the moss flora have also revealed endemic taxa to the region (Van Rooy, 2000).

3.3.2 Present studies

During the course of this EIA, a number of field trips and botanical research within the road corridor have been carried out (Table 3.2). Studies commenced in the middle of the growing season (January) and through into the winter. In the latter period it was only possible to sample the forested sites and a few localities where there had been regrowth after fires. The vegetation and environmental data collected (Plate 3.4) at each sites of 20x20m relevés (plots) were:

• Exact locality (GPS reference point). • Environmental and landscape features such as aspects, slope, rocks and soils evidence of fire, grazing etc.

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• Record of all plant species and the cover-abundance (Braun Blanquet scale). • Unknown species were collected and pressed for identification in the Selmar Schonland Herbarium, Grahamstown (GRA).

Living material of some species of special concern was obtained to grow plants out to flower.

Data on plant communities and plants in the area thus includes: • 102 relevés sampled. • site data – environmental features recorded at 120 sites. • 4298 records of plants with cover abundance itemised. • over 500 specimens collected for identification.

Table 3.2: Collection trips, field surveys and site inspections carried out by the ecological team.

Dates Locality and sites visited Personnel involved in study 4 to 8 January (4 Port St Johns region Professor R.A. Lubke – Plant ecologist days) Ndwalane to Ntafufu Students River Canisius Kayombo; Tarryn Martin; Leigh Ann de Wet Lusikisiki to Msikaba 20-29 January Msikaba, Mtentu, Professor R.A. Lubke – Plant ecologist (10 days) Mnyameni to Port Edward Tony Dold – Botanist Students Canisius Kayombo; Tarryn Martin; Leigh Ann de Wet; Damian Newmarch; Kathryn Bunney; Alon Gordon 28 February Port St Johns region Professor R.A. Lubke – Plant ecologist (1day) 7 March (1 day) Mnyameni region Professor R.A. Lubke – Plant ecologist 31 March to 5 Msikaba Region Professor R.A. Lubke – Plant ecologist April (6 days) Mr Peter Phillipson – Systematist Students Jakob Raath; Kathryn Bunney; Gene Guthrie; Leigh Ann de Wet 7 July to 13 July Port St Johns to Port Professor R.A. Lubke – Plant ecologist (7 days) Edward Dr A.M. Avis – (CES) Project Leader Dr W.R. Branch – Faunal Consultant Miss Karen Kück – Project Leader, (Bohlweki) Mr. F. Merryweather – Soils Consultant 15 to 18 July (8 Port Edward to Port St Professor R.A. Lubke – Plant ecologist days) Johns Dr Tony Dold – Botanist Dr Johan Binneman – Archaeologist Mr Des Weeks – Aquatic consultant Students Tarryn Martin; Leigh Ann de Wet

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(a)

(b)

Plate 3.4: a – Studying the flora on a rocky shelf above the Mzamba gorge b – Sampling a rocky outcrop near the Mateku falls and Msikaba gorge

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3.3.3 Data Analysis

It has not been possible to identify all the plants and analyse the data quantitatively. Clear indications on the vegetation types were obtained and information on species richness and species of special concern in various sites along the road corridor is available. Additional point data on the distribution of plant species in some areas of the road corridor has been obtained from the Mtamvuna River Trust for analysis.

All available data from the literature, the studies carried out in 2002 along with records obtained from the Mtamvuna River Trust were used to synthesise available information and make an assessment on the impacts on the flora and vegetation.

3.4 Analysis of the flora

3.4.1 Nature of the flora

Studies have been carried out in some major reserves and other areas, including Oribi Gorge and Mtamvuna Nature Reserves (Meter, 1998) the Mkambati Nature and the Port St Johns region (Cloete, pers. comm.). Lists of species are available in the Rhodes University/Selmar Schonland database and these data have been analysed by family (Table 3.3), and include the data presently available on the road corridor.

This data reveals that the three most abundant families (e.g. Asteraceae, Fabaceae and Poaceae) are the same in all areas, and have a similar number of species per family within the road corridor. In general, the rest of the flora within the road reserve is representative of the floras of the PC. However, the larger proportion of families with less than 10 species is indicative of the smaller sample size. A total of 554 species have been recorded in the road corridor, whereas 1 328 species are found in the Mtamvuna area.

3.4.2 Endemic species

Using the information on the flora of the Pondoland Centre of Endemism, a list of endemic species and near-endemics has been compiled. These have been divided into the woody and non-woody endemics (Table 3.4 and 3.5).

These data are continually changing as more information is obtained on the distribution of the taxa and new species are being described. Thus the information included here as not

Vegetation Specialist Report 14 Sep-02 N2 Wild Coast Toll Road between East London and Durban: Environmental Impact Assessment Report definitive for the region, but gives an indication of the wide range of endemic species of the PC and their distribution throughout a number of families and many different vegetation types. A full listing of taxa, which are rare or endangered or endemic in the PC, is included in Annexure 1.

3.4.3 Phytogeographical relationships of the flora of the Pondoland Centre of Endemism.

Within this region there is a rich mixture of various floral elements, many of which are endemic forest and grassland species (Tables 3.4 and 3.5 and Annexure 1). In this section, some of the phytogeographical relationships of the flora and its bearing on the proposed toll road are examined (van Wyk 1990a). a) Endemic element The PC contains at least 1 monotypic2 family, 6 monotypic genera, more than 30 woody species and at least 100 herbaceous species that are endemic (van Wyk, 1990a, van Wyk & Smith 2001). The PC is also noted for moss endemism (van Rooy 2000). Many of the endemic species (Plate 3.5) are associated with forest vegetation, found along the protected gorges that have been isolated for millions of years. Several of the endemics are approaching natural extinction because of their limited distribution and the fact that they are taxonomically isolated from other species. It is thus important that these sites are protected from the proposed road development. Most populations of endemics are small, widely scattered, and confined to forest margins or stream banks. These sites are particularly vulnerable to development, as the road could easily impact upon them. Depending on the final bridge designs, additional surveys of forest patches that may be impacted upon will need to be carried out to avoid these sites during the final design stage.

The grasslands are also rich in endemics, with a conservative estimate of about 80 species, two of which have an extremely restricted distribution, namely Podranea ricasoliana and Impatiens flanaganiae, found only in the Egossa interval and thought by van Wyk (1990a) to have been trapped when the Msikaba sandstone formed a major barrier to plant migration up the east coast. A major road could form a similar barrier and influence plant migration patterns (Saunders and Hobbs, 1991).

2 Monotypic: Characterised by only one species.

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Table 3.3: Analysis of the flora of the Pondoland Centre at 4 localities. MTAMVUNA ORIBI GORGE MKAMBATI PORT ST JOHNS ROAD CORRIDOR Family Spp. % Family Spp. % Family Spp. % Family Spp. % Family Spp. % Asteraceae 139 10.5 Asteraceae 108 9.7 Poaceae 86 9.5 Asteraceae 99 9.4 Poaceae 52 9.4 Fabaceae 101 7.6 Fabaceae 82 7.4 Fabaceae 76 8.4 Fabaceae 71 6.8 Asteraceae 51 9.2 Poaceae 66 5.0 Poaceae 65 5.8 Asteraceae 57 6.3 Poaceae 58 5.5 Fabaceae 28 5.1 Liliaceae 58 4.4 Liliaceae 41 3.7 Rubiaceae 50 5.5 Orchidaceae 44 4.2 Rubiaceae 22 4.0 Rubiaceae 54 4.1 Rubiaceae 41 3.7 Cyperaceae 43 4.7 Euphorbiaceae 39 3.7 Cyperaceae 21 3.8 Euphorbiaceae 47 3.5 Cyperaceae 39 3.5 Orchidaceae 38 4.2 Cyperaceae 38 3.6 Iridaceae 17 3.1 Orchidaceae 43 3.2 Euphorbiaceae 38 3.4 Euphorbiaceae 31 3.4 Lamiaceae 34 3.2 Asclepiadaceae 15 2.7 Cyperaceae 41 3.1 Acanthaceae 35 3.1 Celastraceae 25 2.8 Acanthaceae 32 3.1 Lobeliaceae 14 2.5 Scrophulariaceae 36 2.7 Lamiaceae 28 2.5 Iridaceae 19 2.1 Rubiaceae 30 2.9 Lamiaceae 13 2.3 Acanthaceae 35 2.6 Scrophulariaceae 22 2.0 Lamiaceae 19 2.1 Asclepiadaceae 24 2.3 Euphorbiaceae 12 2.2 Iridaceae 34 2.6 Asclepiadaceae 22 2.0 Asclepiadaceae 18 2.0 Iridaceae 22 2.1 Orchidaceae 12 2.2 Celastraceae 33 2.5 Celastraceae 22 2.0 Acanthaceae 16 1.8 Malvaceae 17 1.6 Asclepiadaceae 30 2.3 Crassulaceae 22 2.0 Flacourtiaceae 15 1.7 Solanaceae 17 1.6 Lamiaceae 30 2.3 Anacardiaceae 20 1.8 Apiaceae 14 1.5 Anacardiaceae 16 1.5 Anacardiaceae 16 1.2 Orchidaceae 19 1.7 Anacardiaceae 12 1.3 Asphodelaceae 14 1.3 Crassulaceae 16 1.2 Myrtaceae 14 1.3 Apocynaceae 11 1.2 Adiantaceae 13 1.2 Thymelaeaceae 14 1.1 Iridaceae 14 1.3 Loganiaceae 11 1.2 Apocynaceae 13 1.2

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MTAMVUNA ORIBI GORGE MKAMBATI PORT ST JOHNS ROAD CORRIDOR Family Spp. % Family Spp. % Family Spp. % Family Spp. % Family Spp. % Polygalaceae 14 1.1 Malvaceae 12 1.1 Myrtaceae 11 1.2 Asparagaceae 13 1.2 Malvaceae 12 0.9 Ebenaceae 13 1.2 Thymelaeaceae 11 1.2 Amaryllidaceae 12 1.1 Amaryllidaceae 12 0.9 Lobeliaceae 11 1.0 Asphodelaceae 11 1.2 Aspleniaceae 12 1.1 Flacourtiaceae 12 0.9 Convolvulaceae 11 1.0 Lobeliaceae 10 1.1 Hyacinthaceae 12 1.1 Myrtaceae 12 0.9 Flacourtiaceae 11 1.0 Celastraceae 11 1.0 Apiaceae 12 0.9 Apiaceae 10 0.9 Flacourtiaceae 11 1.0 Apocynaceae 11 0.8 Solanaceae 10 0.9 Myrtaceae 11 1.0 Hypoxidaceae 11 0.8 Rutaceae 10 0.9 Vitaceae 10 0.8 Loganiaceae 10 0.8 Convolvulaceae 10 0.8 Solanaceae 10 0.8 Verbenaceae 10 0.8 124 Families 121 Families 116 Families 125 Families 123 Families with less than 10 389 29.3 with < 10 395 35.4 with < 10 324 35.6 with < 10 386 36.8 with < 10 297 53.6 species species species species species 1328 100 1115 100 908 100 1049 100 554 100

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Table 3.4: Woody endemics or near-endemics of the Pondoland Centre of Endemism, mostly found in forest, thicket or scrub. FAMILY PONDOLAND ENDEMICS NEAR ENDEMICS Arecaceae Jubaeopsis caffra Moraceae Ficus bizanae Proteaceae Leucadendron pondoense, L. spissifolium subsp. oribinum, L. Protea subvestita, P. welwitschii, spissifolium subsp. natalense, Leucospermum innovans Lauraceae Dahlgrenodendron natalense, Cryptocarya wyliei Ocotea kenyensis, Cryptocarya latifolia, C. myrtifolia, Bruniaceae Raspalia trigyna Fabaceae Tephrosia pondoensis Euphorbiaceae Euphorbia ericoides, E. franksiae, E. woodii Phyllanthus cedrelifolius, Excoecaria simii, Euphorbia bupleurifolia Anacardiaceae Rhus pondoensis, Rhus acocksii, R. rudatisii Smodingium argutum, Rhus grandidens Celastraceae Pseudosalacia streyi, Maytenus oleosa, M. abbottii, M. vanwykii (= Maytenus cordata, M. filiformis Gymnosporia vanwykii), Gymnosporia bachmannii, Putterlickia retrospinosa, Catha abbottii Icacinaceae Apodytes abbottii Sapindaceae Atalaya natalensis Rhamnaceae Colubrina nicholsonii, Phylica natalensis Tiliaceae Grewia pondoensis Sterculiaceae Cola natalensis Violaceae Rinorea domatiosa

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FAMILY PONDOLAND ENDEMICS NEAR ENDEMICS Flacourtiaceae Pseudoscolopia polyantha Rhynchocalycaceae Rhynchocalyx lawsonioides Myrtaceae Eugenia umtamvunensis, E.verdoorniae, E.erythrophylla, E. sp. nov. Eugenia simii A, B & C, Syzygium pondoense Melastomataceae Memecylon bachmannii Araliaceae Cussonia nicholsonii Seemannaralia gerrardii Sapotaceae Manilkara nicholsonii Rubiaceae Eriosemopsis subanisophylla, Tricalysia africana, Alberta magna, Pavetta kotzei Canthium vanwykii, Pavetta bowkeri Asteraceae Tarchonanthus trilobus var. trilobus

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Table 3.5: Non- Woody endemics or near endemics of the Pondoland Centre of Endemism, found mostly in non-woody plant communities. FAMILY PONDOLAND ENDEMICS NEAR-ENDEMICS Zamiaceae Encephalartos caffer, E. laevifolius Restionaceae Calopsis paniculata Juncaceae Prionium serrata Asphodelaceae Kniphofia coddiana, K. rooperi, K. drepanophylla Aloaceae Gasteria croucheri, Bulbine sp. nov. Amaryllidaceae Cyrtanthus mackenii var. mackenii, C. epiphyticus Crinum moorei Lomariopsidaceae Iridaceae Aristea platycaulis, Watsonia mtamvunae, W. pondoensis, W. Moraea sp., Dietes iridioides, Dierama, Tritonia, Crocosmia, inclinata, W. bachmannii Anomatheca, Hesperantha, Schizostylis, Gladiolus Zingiberaceae Siphonochilus aethiopicus Orchidaceae Liparis remota, Disa similes, D. caffra, D. versicolor, D. sagittalis, D. stachyoides, D. nervosa, Polystachya tessellata, Tridactyle bicaudata, Stenoglottis woodii, Rangaeris muscicola, Ypsilopus erectus Piperaceae Peperomia rotundifolia Mesembryanthemaceae Lampranthus stipulaceus Lauraceae Cassytha pondoensis Brassicaceae Heliophila subulata Crassulaceae Crassula streyi, C. multicava subsp. floribunda, C. obovata var. Crassula inandensis,

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FAMILY PONDOLAND ENDEMICS NEAR-ENDEMICS dregeana, C. sarmentosa var. integrifolia Fabaceae Podalyria velutina, P. burchelli, P. reticulata, P. orbicularis, Caesalpinia bonduc, Indigofera rubroglandulosa, I. hilaris, Eriosema umtamvunense, E. luteopetalum, E. latifolium, E. Otholobium stachyerum dregei, Tephrosia bachmannii, Bauhinia natalensis, Lotononis viminea, Aspalathus gerrardii, Psoralea abbottii Geraniaceae Monsonia natalensis Geranium subglabrum, G. sparsiflorum Meliaceae Turraea streyi Turraea pulchella, Polygalaceae Polygala esterae (= P. gazensis) Balsaminaceae Impatiens flanaganae Vitaceae Cyphostemma rubroglandulosa Begoniaceae Begonia homonyma, B. geranioides, B. rudatisii, B. dregei Oliniaceae Olinia radiata Thymelaeaceae Struthiola pondoensis, Englerodaphne ovalifolia Gnidia triplinervis Apiaceae Centella graminifolia, Peucedanum natalense Ericaceae Erica abbottii Gentianaceae Chironia albiflora Apocynaceae Carissa wyliei, Gonioma kamassi Periplocaceae Raphionacme palustris Asclepiadaceae Schizoglossum atropurpureum, Pachycarpus coronarius, Miraglossum anomalum, Huernia hystrix var. parvula Asclepias peltigera, A. patens, A. praemorsa, Brachystelma

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FAMILY PONDOLAND ENDEMICS NEAR-ENDEMICS australe, B. kerzneri, B. tenellum, Orbea speciosa Lamiaceae Plectranthus oertendahlii, P. ernstii, P. praetermissus, P. P. saccatus var. longitubus, P. malvinus, Tinnea galpinii, purpuratus, P. oribiensis, P. hilliardiae, P. saccatus var. Stachys rudatisii, pondoensis, P. aliciae, P. reflexus, Syncolostemon rotundifolius, S. ramulosum, Stachys comosa, Scrophulariaceae Zaluzianskya angustifolia, Dermatobotrys saundersii, Craterostigma nanum var. nanum, Selago peduncularis Bignoniaceae Podranea ricasoliana Gesneriaceae Streptocarpus porphyrostachys, S. modestus, S. formosus, S. Streptocarpus haygarthii, S. johannis, S. primulifolius, S. rexii, trabeculatus, S. prolixus Lentibulariaceae Utricularia sandersonii Rubiaceae Anthospermum streyi Asteraceae Helichrysum pannosum, H. populifolium, Senecio medley- Cineraria albicans, Relhania pungens woodii, S. glanduloso-lanosus, S. rhyncholaenus, S. erubescens var. incisus, Euryops leiocarpus

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Plate 3.5: Lampranthus sp endemic to the Pondoland Centre of Endemism is found on rocky outcrops. b) Afromontane element This element is well represented in the forests of the gorges and sandstone slopes, and consists of local and widespread species (van Wyk 1990a). The local species are probably descendants of a temperate Cape forest element present at the time of the break-up of Gondwanaland some 150 to 160 million years ago. Local specific endemism is low in the Afromontane region. Few large woody species of Afromontane origin are endemic to the Msikaba sandstone regions (van Wyk 1990a). Relict distributions of several taxa indicate a path of previous plant migrations, mainly northwards into the KwaZulu-Natal sandstone formations to the Afromontane areas of Mpumalunga. The Pondoland Centre marks the southern limit of the distribution of many of these species and links with the Maputoland- Pondoland Region. Grassland species have a path of migration between the PC and the Drakensberg. The road could be seen as a barrier to these paths of migration. c) Cape element Strong links exist between the Cape flora and the Pondoland Centre, identified as early as 1907 by Sim, and by Acocks in 1984. The PC is the only region outside the Cape Floral Kingdom that contains representatives of the family Bruniaceae (1 endemic species) and the genus Leucadendron (3 endemic taxa – Plate 3.6). There are also some remarkable specific disjunctions between these two regions e.g. Helichrysum diffusum and Pseudoscolopia polyantha occur in two regions more than 1 000 km apart (van Wyk, 1990a). The presence of some of the Cape elements in the Msikaba sandstone regions can be explained in terms of floral migrations associated with climate change, as well as long distance dispersal. During the last glacial maximum drops in sea level may have exposed Sandstone outcrops allowing migration of Cape elements into the PC in the last 18 000 years. The affinity of the two

Vegetation Specialist Report 23 Sep-02 N2 Wild Coast Toll Road between East London and Durban: Environmental Impact Assessment Report sandstone floras is thus reflected by the presence of palaeoendemic and tropical groups of taxa in both regions (van Wyk 1990a, van Wyk & Smith 2001).

Plate 3.6: Leucadendron spissifolium in Protea savanna with Watsonia sp overlooking the Mpahlane gorge. Note the forest in the background. d) Mixed tropical element The remainder of the woody species in the Natal/Pondoland sandstone forests comprises non- sandstone endemics. The mixture of species is heterogeneous possibly because of the shared attributes of not being of Afromontane or Cape elements, or sandstone endemics. They may be a conspicuous component of coastal dune forests and many of the taxa usually have extensive geographical and ecological ranges (van Wyk, 1990a). e) Analysis of the relationships in time and space Some of the palaeoendemics are seen as relicts from an extinct Cretaceous/Tertiary tropical/sub-tropical forest flora that was present in this part of Gondwanaland. Affinities often seem to be with Madagascar, Australia, South America and the Guineo-Congolian region in Africa (van Wyk, 1990a).

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Some of the commonly occurring distribution patterns are best explained by vicariance3 of widespread floras, rather than by independent, random dispersal events such as long-distance migration. Similar geographical patterns of recent and relict tropical floral elements exist in both the Cape and Msikaba sandstone regions. Some of the sandstone endemics are strictly adapted to the edaphic islands, and they are unable to follow further migrations of the flora associated with climatic changes and fluctuations. This trapping effect is considered basic to the development of the Cape Floral Kingdom (van Wyk, 1990a). Van Wyk (1999a) put forward the following hypothesis to explain the present phytogeographical relationship of the flora:

“Sub-tropical rainforests prevailed in the regions of the present-day KwaZulu Natal/Cape region during the late Cretaceous/Palaeocene. The climate was wet and warm with weak latitudinal zonation. The Cape Fold Mountains harboured temperate forests, interspersed with temperate fynbos- like vegetation. Many species occurring on Cape Supergroup and Msikaba and possibly Natal Group sandstones displayed an endemic character. A link between the two regions was probably provided by the Falkland Plateau, which abutted onto the African plate. After the disruption of Western Gondwanaland, drastic climatic changes affected the present-day Cape Floristic region. These changes led to the extinction of many lowland forest taxa, specifically those trapped on sandstone. Few of the ancient sandstone endemics survived in isolated refugia e.g. along the KwaZulu Natal/Pondoland coastal belt where the climate was moderated by the oceanic effects. It is suggested that the endemic flora of the Msikaba sandstone region contains relic elements of the more tropical Cretaceous/Tertiary sandstone flora. It is possible that some of the floristic disjunctions between the Cape and Pondoland regions were established when the sandstone link was severed.”

Many of these ideas and hypothesis need to be investigated with more studies on the distribution of the plants in the field, and on the systematics of the PC taxa required to substantiate these findings. The direction this research should follow has been expounded by Meter (1998), van Wyk (1990a) and van Wyk and Smith (2001). It is important that sites

3 The separate occurrence of corresponding species in corresponding but separate environments, divided by a natural barrier.

Vegetation Specialist Report 25 Sep-02 N2 Wild Coast Toll Road between East London and Durban: Environmental Impact Assessment Report within the PC are not lost to science as a result of the construction of the proposed N2 Wild Coast Toll Road. If the road could provide a vehicle for expanding upon these studies, advancing the conservation of this diverse and interesting area, promoting it in the way of education and ecotourism, then it could be seen as highly beneficial.

3.5 Vegetation

3.5.1 Vegetation from East London to Ndwalane

This section of the N2 Wild Coast Toll Road follows the existing alignment of the N2 up to Umtata, and thereafter follows the existing R61. It passes through the following vegetation types, based on the classification of Louw & Robelo (1996):

• Coastal grasslands • Valley thicket • Moist upland grasslands • Eastern thorn bushveld • Coastal bushveld grassland complex

The road initially passes through a coastal forest mosaic, with patches of coastal grassland and sub-tropical thicket. The landscape generally consists of rolling hills with grassland, agricultural development and patches of thicket or forest associated with the steep valley slopes. The natural river cuttings are characterised by rocky outcrops, and the Kei cuttings by valley thicket vegetation. Valley thicket vegetation is not conserved, and 51% has been transformed. The thicket vegetation is species-rich and presently under threat due to bad land use practices

From the Kei cuttings, the route passes through moist upland grassland, except for a small amount of sub-tropical thicket in the valley of the Mbashe River. Within this region, the vegetation is influenced by the transitional nature of the climate, with rainfall being more summer-dominated, as well as the land use practices of grazing and frequent burning. This has considerably reduced species richness in the area, and consequently the conservation value. Moist upland grassland is widespread in the Eastern Cape, although 60% has been transformed and only 2.5% is conserved (Low & Robelo, 1996). However, the high altitude areas of the Eastern Cape are well maintained outside of forestry plantations (Low & Robelo, 1996).

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